-*?  TJ-RT-NrriTnTmsr     tj     J.  '^'' 


PRINCETON,    N.    J. 


Division. 

Section    . 

Shelf Number.. 


/ 


OLlVE-lKKb,  IN  Tilt:  l.ARDLN  UK  GLlUSliMANE.  lioiii  a  I'liutograijli. 


Dictionary 


OF 


THE  HOLY  BIBLE, 


FOR    GENERAL    USE 


IN   THE 


S^UDY    OF    THEl    ©GRIPTURRS; 


WITH 


ENGRAVINGS,  MAPS,  AND  TABLES. 


REVISED   AND    ENLARGED    EDITION. 


W.  w  "R 


cs"y-,  o.... 


AMERICAN    TRACT    SOCIETY, 

ISO  NASSAU  STREET,   NEW  YORK. 


COPYRIGHT,  188C5, 
BY   THE    AMERICAN    TRACT   SOCIETY. 


PREFACE. 


One  of  the  most  cheering  tokens  of  the  progress  of  the  gospel  in  our 
country  and  the  world  is  the  growing  interest  in  the  study  of  God's  Word, 
which,  as  experience  continually  demonstrates  more  clearly,  is  the  foun- 
tain of  all  the  truth  and  the  channel  of  the  only  spiritual  power  that  can 
regenerate  man  and  reform  the  world.  To  promote  and  aid  in  its  study 
the  Tract  Society  has  published  many  most  valuable  Bible  Helps:  among 
them  Dr.  Barrows'  "  Companion  to  the  Bible,"  and  his  "  Sacred  Geogra- 
phy and  Antiquities;"  "The  Bible  Text- Book,"  the  "Bible  Atlas,"  two 
Concordances,  Locke's  "  Commonplace-book  of  the  Bible,"  the  "  Family 
Bible  with  Notes,"  Hanna's  "  Life  of  Christ,"  and  "  The  Dictionary  of  the 
Holy  Bible."  Of  this  latter  volume  over  two  hundred  thousand  copies 
have  been  circulated,  and  it  has  been  the  basis  of  translations  into  several 
foreign  languages.  But  since  its  first  publication  great  progress  has  been 
made  in  Biblical  researches :  the  lands  of  the  Bible  have  been  more  thor- 
oughly explored — by  the  "  Palestine  Exploration"  Companies,  the  "Brit- 
ish Ordnance  Survey,"  and  recent  travellers;  the  admirable  Bible  Diction- 
ary of  Dr.  William  Smith,  with  those  of  Fairbairn,  Fausset,  and  others, 
have  made  a  new  era  in  Bible  study ;  and  the  Revised  Version  of  Scrip- 
ture has  appeared. 

All  these  recent  works  have  been  used  in  preparing  this  revised  Bible 
Dictionary,  with  the  purpose  to  present  clearly  and  briefly  the  best  attain- 
able results  of  Biblical  research,  new  and  old— gathering  from  many  large 
and  costly  works  all  the  important  information  which  the  pastor,  the  Sun- 
day-school teacher,  or  any  earnest  student  of  the  Bible  would  require. 

A  great  proportion  of  the  articles  have  been  rewritten,  many  new 
illustrations  have  been  added,  and  improved  maps ;  and  in  this  revised 
and  enlarged  form  the  Dictionary  is  almost  a  new  work.  It  is  sent  forth 
with  the  earnest  recommendation  that  the  student  will  use  it  only  as  an 
aid  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  itself,  turning  to  all  the  passages  referred  to, 
and  inspecting  them,  with  the  purpose  above  all  so  to  search  the  Scrip- 
tures as  to  find  Him  of  whom  chiefly  they  testify,  and  who  alone  is  "  the 
Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life." 

W.  W.  RAND. 


EXPLANATORY. 


In  this  work  the  received  chronology,  in  general  that  of  Ussher,  is 
adopted.  While  no  little  uncertainty  exists  as  to  some  ancient  epochs, 
the  scientific  speculations  which  would  add  many  thousands  of  years  to 
the  early  ages  of  mankind  upon  the  earth  are  not  confirmed  by  later  re- 
searches. 

The  meaning  of  Biblical  names  of  persons  and  places  is  given  in  ital- 
ics where  it  can  be  determined;  but  in  many  cases  it  is  conjectured  from  a 
somewhat  uncertain  derivation. 

In  proper' names  of  Greek  origin  »- before  e  or  i  is  pronounced  soft, 
as  in  Genesis.  But  in  almost  all  Scripture  names  it  should  be  pronounced 
hard,  as  in  Gethsemane,  Gihon. 

Ch,  in  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  is  pronounced  like  k,  as  in 
Chloe,  Chios,  Charran.  The  exceptions  are  Rachel,  cherub,  and  cheru- 
bim. 

In  referring  to  a  passage  of  Scripture,  the  book  is  first  named  by  the 
customary  abridged  form,  then  the  chapter  followed  by  a  colon  :  the  verses 
are  separated  from  one  another  by  commas,  and  from  a  following  reference 
by  a  semicolon.  When  a  dash  is  used,  all  the  verses  between  the  one  pre- 
ceding and  that  following  the  dash  are  referred  to. 

A.  V.  stands  for  the  Authorized,  or  King  James,  Version  of  the  Bible. 
R.  V.  for  the  Revised  Version. 

ARABIC    WORDS    OF    FREQUENT   OCCURRENCE. 

Khu,  father.  Khan,  inn. 

Km,  fountain.  Kh.  for  KInirbet,  ruins. 

Bab,  gate.  Kubbet,  dome. 

Bahr,  sea.  Kul'ah,  castle. 

Beit,  house.  Kuryet,  village. 

Benat,  daughters.  Merj,  meadow. 

Beni,  sons.  Nahr,  river. 

B\r,  well.  Nehy,  prophet. 

Deir,  convent.  Ras,  head. 

Ghor,  a  long  valley.  Tell,  mound  or  hill. 

Hummam,  bath.  Tfir,  mountain. 

J.  for  Jebel,  mountain.  Um,  mother. 

Jisr,  bridge.  Wady,  bed  of  a  stream. 

Kefr,  village.  Wely,  saint. 

The  Arabic  definite  article,  el,  often  changes  its  final  consonant  ac- 
cording to  the  word  to  which  it  is  attached,  as  ed-Deir,  the  castle ;  er-Ram, 
Ramah;  esh-Sheikh,  the  old  man. 


A 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


THE    HOLY    BIBLE. 


A,  the  first  letter  in  almost  all  alpha- 
bets. In  Hebrew,  it  is  called  alcpli ;  in 
Greek,  alpha,  the  last  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet  being  omega.  Both  the  Hebrews 
and  Greeks  used  their  letters  as  numerals ; 
and  hence  A  {aleph  or  alpha)  denoted  one, 
or  the  first.  So  our  Lord  says,  "  I  am  Alpha 
and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end,  the 
first  and  the  last;''  thus  declaring  his  eter- 
nity, and  that  he  is  the  cause  and  end  of  all 
things,  and  that  what  he  has  been  and  has 
•done  is  a  surety  of  what  he  ever  will  be  and 
do,  Rev.  I. -8,  II ;  21:6;  22:13.  Compare 
Isa.  44:6;  48:12;  Col.  1:15-18. 

AAR'ON,  (ar'oii),  a  teacher,  or  lofty,  the 
son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  both  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  and  brother  of  Moses  and 
Miriam,  Exod.  6:20;  born  about  the  year 
A.  M.  2430;  B.  C.  1574.  He  was  younger 
than  Miriam  and  3  years  older  than  Moses, 
Exod.  7:7;  and  was  the  spokesman  and 
assistant  of  the  latter  in  bringing  Israel 
out  of  Egypt,  Exod.  4:16,  30;  7:19.  His 
wife  was  Elisheba,  daughter  of  Ammina- 
dab  ;  and  his  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar, 
and  Ithamar.  He  was  83  years  old  when 
God  summoned  him  to  join  Moses  in  the 
desert  near  Horeb.  Cooperating  with  his 
brother  in  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  Exod. 
4-16,  he  held  up  one  of  his  hands  in  the 
battle  with  Amalek,  Exod.  17:9;  and  ap- 
proached Mount  Sinai  with  him  to  see  the 
glory  of  God,  Exod.  24:1,  2,  9-11,  though 
Moses  alone  ascended  to  the  summit. 


Aaron's  chief  distinction  consisted  in  the 
choice  of  him  and  his  male  posterity  for 
the  priesthood.  He  was  consecrated  the 
first  high-priest  by  God's  directions,  Exod. 
28,  29;  Lev.  8;  Psa.  106: 16;  and  was  after- 
wards confirmed  in  his  office  by  the  de- 
struction of  Korah  and  his  company,  by 
the  staying  of  the  plague  at  his  interces- 
sion, and  by  the  budding  of  his  rod.  Num. 
16,  17.  He  was  faithful  and  self-sacrificing 
in  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  meekly  "  held 
his  peace  "  when  his  sons  Nadab  and  Abi- 
hu were  slain,  Lev.  10:1-3.  ^^^  he  fell 
sometimes  into  grievous  sins  :  he  made  the 
golden  calf  at  Sinai,  as  an  image  of  Jeho- 
vah for  the  people  to  worship,  Exod.  32 ; 
he  joined  Miriam  in  sedition  against  Mo- 
ses, they  presuming,  the  one  as  high-priest 
and  the  other  as  a  prophetess,  to  claim  like 
authority  to  his,  Num.  12;  and  with  Moses 
disobeyed  God  at  Kadesh,  Num.  20:8-12. 
God,  therefore,  did  not  permit  him  to  enter 
the  promised  land ;  but  he  died  on  Mount 
Hor,  in  Edom,  near  Mosera,  Deut.  10:6,  in 
the  40th  year  after  leaving  Egypt,  at  the 
age  of  about  123  years,  and  was  buried  by 
Moses  and  Eleazar,  the  latter  succeeding 
him  as  high-priest,  Num.  20:22-29;  33  :  ,^9. 
The  Arabs  pretend  to  show  his  tomb  on  the 
mount  still  bearing  his  name,  and  highly 
venerate  it.  In  his  office  as  high-priest, 
Aaron  was  an  eminent  type  of  Christ :  be- 
ing "called  of  God,"  and  anointed;  offer- 
ing sacrifices ;   bearing  the  names  of  the 

5 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABA 


tribes  on  his  breast ;  communicating  God's 
will  by  Urim  and  Thummim  ;  entering  the 
Most  Holy  place  on  tiie  Day  of  Atonement, 
"not  without  blood;"  and  interceding  for 
and  blessing  the  people  of  God,  Heb.  6 :  20. 
See  Abiathar,  Eleazak,  Hok,  Priest. 

AAR'ONITES,  descendants  of  Aaron  the 
high-priest,  so  called,  i  Chr.  12:27;  27:17. 
13  cities  were  assigned  to  them,  in  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  Josh.  21:13-19;  i  Chr.  6; 
57-60. 

AB,  father,  found  in  many  compound 
Hebrew  proper  names:  as  Abner,  father, 
or  possessor,  of  light;  Absalom,  father  of 
peace. 

AB.  The  5th  month  of  the  sacred,  and 
the  nth  of  the  civil,  year  among  the  Jews. 
It  began,  according  to  the  latest  authorities, 
with  the  new  moon  of  late  July  or  early 
August.     It  was  a  sad  month  in  the  Jewish 


calendar.  On  its  ist  day  a  fast  was  ob- 
served for  the  death  of  Aaron,  Num.  33 :  38 ; 
and  on  its  9th  another  was  held  in  mem- 
ory of  the  divine  edicts  which  excluded  so 
many  that  came  out  of  Egypt  from  enter- 
ing the  promised  land ;  and  also  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  ist  and  2d  temple.     See 

MO.NTH. 

ABAD'DON,  or  Apol'lvo.n.  The  former 
name  is  Hebrew  and  the  latter  Greek,  and 
both  signify  ilie  dcslroyer,  Job  31:12;  Rev. 
9:11.  He  is  called  the  ''angel  of  the 
abyss,"  that  is,  the  angel  of  death,  or  the 
destroying  angel,  Psa.  78  :  49.  Abaddon 
frequently  occurs  in  the  Hebrew,  and  is 
translated  "destruction,"  meaning  oftea 
the  world  of  the  dead.  Job  26:6;  28:22; 
Psa.  88: II ;   Prov.  15: 11. 

Pi'B\G"VHfi.,  forliine-giver,  a  court-officer 
of  Ahasuerus,  Esth.  1 :  10. 


RIVER   ABANA,    NOW   BARADA,    AND   DAMASCUS. 


ABA'NA,  perennial,  and  Phar'par,  swift, 
rivers  of  Damascus,  2  Kings  5:12.  The 
Abana  (or,  as  in  the  margin,  Amana)  was 
undoubtedly  the  present  Barada,  the  Chry- 
sorrhoas  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  a  clear,  cold, 
and  swift  mountain  stream,  rising  in  Anti- 
Lebanon,  northeast  of  Hermon,  flowing 
southeast  into  the  plain  23  miles,  bursting 
through  a  gorge  2  miles  northwest  of  Da- 
mascus, turning  eastward,  skirting  the 
northern  wall  of  the  city,  and  terminating 
20  miles  east  in  2  of  3  large  lakes.  It  is  a 
perennial  river,  and  so  copious,  that  though 
no  less  than  9  or  10  branches  or  canals  are 
drawn  off  from  it  to  irrigate  the  plain  and 


supply  the  city  and  the  numerous  villages 
around  it,  the  stream  is  a  large  one  to  the 
end. 

The  only  other  independent  river  of  any 
size  in  the  territory  of  Damascus  is  the 
Awaj,  which  rises  on  the  southeast  slopes 
of  Hermon,  crosses  the  j)lain  8  miles  or 
more  south  of  Damascus,  and  enters  the 
southernmost  of  the  3  lakes  above  referred 
to.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  Pharpar  of 
the  Bible.  As  these  rivers  of  Damascus 
were  never  dry,  but  made  the  region  they 
watered  like  the  garden  of  Eden  for  fertil- 
ity and  beauty,  Naaman  might  well  con- 
trast them  with  the  Jordan  whose  waters. 


ABA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABE 


are  often  turbid,  and  with  most  of  "  the 
waters  of  Israel,"  which  dry  up  under  the 
summer  sun.     See  Amana. 

ABA'RIM,  mountains  beyond,  or  of  the 
fords,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Lower 
Jordan,  "  over  against  Jericho,"  within  the 
territory  of  Moab  and  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 
It  is  impossible  to  define  exactly  their  ex- 
tent. The  mountains  Nebo,  Pisgah,  and 
Peor  were  in  the  Abarim,  Num.  27:12; 
33 :  47,  48 ;  Deut.  32  :  49 ;  34 :  i.  Ije-abarim, 
Num.  21:11;  33:44,  seems  to  denote  the 
southern  part  of  the  same  chain.  It  is 
probably  referred  to  in  Jer.  22:20,  where  it 
is  rendered  "  passages."  A  Hebrew  word, 
apparently  of  the  same  derivation,  desig- 
nates the  whole  country  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan. 

AB'BA,  a  Syriac  word  s\%\\\^y\x\%  father, 
easily  pronounced  by  infant  children,  and 
expressing  the  peculiar  tenderness,  famili- 
arity, and  confidence  of  the  love  between 
parent  and  child,  Mark  14 :  36 ;  Rom.  8:15; 
Gal.  4:6.  Luther  translated  Abba,  Pater, 
"Abba,  dear  Father."  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment God  sought  for  the.filial  love  and  trust 
of  his  people,  Jer.  3:4;  but  it  is  through 
Christ  alone  that  we  receive  the  true  spirit 
of  adoption,  and  learn  to  call  God  "  Our 
Father,"  Luke  11:2;  John  17:  i,  21 ;  20: 17. 

ABED'NEGO,  servant  of  Nego ;  a  Chal- 
dee  name  given  to  Azariah,  one  of  the  three 
captive  young  princes  of  Judah,  B.  C.  604, 
who  were  Daniel's  companions  at  the  court 
of  the  king  of  Babylon,  Dan.  i :  7.  Their 
virtue,  wisdom,  and  piety  secured  their 
promotion  at  court,  Dan.  i  '.3-19;  2:  17,  49; 
and  their  steadfastness  in  witnessing  for 
God  among  idolators,  with  their  deliver- 
ance from  the  fiery  furnace  by  the  Angel- 
Jehovah,  led  many  to  acknowledge  the  true 
God,  and  rendered  these  pious  youth  for 
ever  illustrious  as  monuments  of  the  excel- 
lence and  safety  of  faith  in  Him,  Dan.  3 ; 
Meb.  11:34.    See  Daniel,  Furnace. 

A'BEL,  in  Hebrew  Hebel,  vapor ;  the 
2d  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  His  name  was 
a  recognition  at  the  outset  of  the  short- 
ness of  human  life,  Jas.  4: 14.  He  became 
a  shepherd,  and  offered  to  God  a  sacrifice 
from  his  flocks,  at  the  same  time  that  Cain 
his  brother  offered  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
God  received  Abel's  sacrifice  and  not 
Cain's ;  hence  Cain  in  anger  killed  Abel, 
Gen.  4,  who  was  the  first  martyr.  Matt. 
23:35-  See  Sacrifice.  It  was  "  by  faith  " 
that  Abel  offered  a  more  acceptable  sacri- 
fice than  Cain ;  that  is,  his  heart  was  right 
towards  God,  and  he  worshipped  Him  in 


trustful  obedience  to  the  divine  directions. 
His  offering,  made  by  the  shedding  of 
blood,  was  that  of  a  penitent  sinner  con- 
fiding in  the  atonement  ordained  of  God; 
and  it  was  accepted,  "  God  testifying  of  his 
gifts,"  probably  by  fire  from  heaven;  "by 
which  he  obtained  witness  that  he  was  right- 
eous," that  is,  justified,  Heb.  11:4.  His  life 
was  short,  but  not  therefore  fruitless :  for 
his  bright  and  early  example  of  faith  in  a 
divine  atonement  for  sinners  has  been  a 
beacon-light  for  all  ages  since,  guiding  men 
to  Christ.  The  first  of  the  human  race  to 
die,  he  was  also  the  first  to  enter  heaven, 
and  a  pledge  and  firstfruits  of  a  harvest 
none  can  number.  "The  blood  of  Abel" 
called  from  the  ground  for  vengeance.  Gen. 
4:10;  but  the  blood  of  Christ  claims  for- 
giveness and  salvation  for  his  people,  Heb. 
12:24;  I  John  1:7.     See  Sin. 

Abel  is  also  a  prefix  in  the  names  of 
several  towns.  In  such  cases  it  signifies  a 
grassy  place  or  meadow. 

ABEL-BETH-MA'ACHAH,  meadow  of  the 
house  of  Maachah  ;  a  town  in  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali,  north  of  Lake  Merom,  now  prob- 
ably Abil-el-Karub,  in  the  upper  region  of 
the  Jordan,  in  the  latitude  of  Tyre.  It  was 
a  place  of  some  value,  and  was  besieged  in 
the  rebellion  of  Sheba,  2  Sam.  20:13-22. 
80  years  afterwards  it  was  taken  by  Ben- 
hadad,  i  Kin.  15:20,  and  again,  after  200 
years,  by  Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29.  It 
is  called  Abel-maim  in  2  Chr.  16:4.  Com- 
pare I  Kin.  15 :  20.  Also  simply  Abel,  2  Sam. 
20:18. 

ABEL-CARMA'IM,  or  Kera'mim,  meadow 
of  vineyards ;  a  village  of  the  Ammonites, 
6  miles  from  Rabbath-Ammon;  in  the  his- 
tory of  Jephthah  it  is  called  "the  plain  of 
the  vineyards,"  Judg.  11 :  33. 

ABEL-MEHO'LAH,  meadow  of  the  dance, 
or  Abel-mea,  a  town  of  Issachar,  near  the 
Jordan,  10  miles  south  of  Beth-shean.  Near 
this  place  Gideon  defeated  the  Midianites, 
Judg.  7:22;  and  here  Elisha  was  born, 
I  Kin.  19: 16. 

ABEL-MIZ'RAM,  meadow  (or,  otherwise 
pointed,  mourning)  of  the  Egyptians ;  so 
called  from  the  7  days'  lamentation  of  Jo- 
seph and  his  company  on  bringing  up  the 
body  of  Jacob  from  Egypt  for  burial,  Gen. 
50:10,  II.  It  lay  in  the  plain  of  Jericho, 
between  that  city  and  the  Jordan.  Jerome 
locates  it  at  Beth-hoglah. 

ABEL-SHIT'TIM,  plain  of  the  acacias,  in 
the  plains  of  Moab,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and 
near  Mount  Peor.  It  was  one  of  the  last 
encampments  of  Israel  before  the  death  of 

7 


ABI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABI 


Moses,  Num.  33:49;  called  also  Shittim, 
Josh.  2 : 1.  Here  the  Israelites  were  enticed 
by  the  women  of  Moab  and  Midian  into 
uncleanness  and  the  idolatry  of  Baal-peor, 
and  24,000  died  of  the  plague,  Num.  25. 

ABI'A,    See  Abijah. 

ABI' AH,  the  Lord  is  my  falher,  2d  son 
of  Samuel,  who  appointed  his  brother  and 
him  judges  in  Israel.  Their  corruption  and 
injustice  were  the  pretext  upon  which  the 
people  demanded  a  king,  i  Sam.  8 : 1-5. 

ABI'ATHAR,  falher  of  abundance,  son 
of  Ahimelech,  and  4th  high-priest  of  the 
Jews  after  EH.  When  Saul  sent  his  emis- 
saries to  Nob,  Psa.  52,  to  destroy  all  the 
priests  there,  Abiathar,  who  was  young, 
fled  to  David  in  the  wilderness,  i  Sam. 
22:11-23,  with  whom  he  continued  in  the 
character  of  priest,  i  Sam.  23 : 9 ;  30 : 7. 
Being  confirmed  in  the  high-priesthood  on 
David's  accession  to  the  throne,  he  aided 
in  bringing  up  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  i  Chr. 
15:  II,  12,  and  adhered  to  David  during  the 
rebellion  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:35;  i  Chr. 
27:34;  but  afterwards  was  led  to  follow 
Adonijah,  thus  strangely  betraying  his  royal 
friend  in  his  old  age.  Solomon  succeeding 
to  the  throne,  degraded  him  from  the  priest- 
hood, and  sent  him  to  Anathoth,  i  Kin. 
2:26,  27;  thus  fulfilling  the  prediction  made 
to  Eli  150  years  before,  i  Sam.  2:27-36; 
3 :  11-14.  Saul,  it  would  appear,  had  trans- 
ferred the  dignity  of  the  high-priesthood 
from  the  line  of  Ithamar,  to  which  Eli  be- 
longed, to  that  of  Eleazar,  by  conferring  the 
office  upon  Zadok.  Thus  there  were,  at 
the  same  time,  2  high-priests  in  Israel — 
Abiathar  with  David,  and  Zadok  with  Saul. 
This  double  high -priesthood  continued 
from  the  death  of  Ahimelech  till  the  reign 
of  Solomon,  after  which  the  office  was  held 
by  Zadok  and  his  race  alone.  See  Elea- 
zar. 

A  difficulty  arises  from  the  circumstance 
that,  in  i  Kin.  2 :  27,  Abiathar  is  said  to  be 
deprived  of  the  priest's  office  by  Solomon, 
while  in  2  Sam.  8:17;  i  Chr.  18:16;  24:3, 
6,  31,  Ahimelech  the  son  of  Abiathar  is  said 
to  be  high-priest  along  with  Zadok.  The 
most  probable  solution  is,  that  both  father 
and  son  each  bore  the  2  names  Ahime- 
lech and  Abiathar,  as  was  not  at  all  unu- 
sual among  the  Jews.  See  under  Abigail. 
In  this  way  also  we  may  remove  the  diffi- 
culty arising  from  Mark  2  :  26,  where  Abia- 
thar is  said  to  have  given  David  the  show- 
bread,  in  allusion  to  i  Sam.  21 : 1-6,  where 
it  is  Ahimelech. 

A'BIB,  the  ist  month  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
8 


cal  year  of  the  Hebrews ;  afterwards  called 
Nisan.  It  answered  nearly  to  our  April. 
Abib  signifies  ^r^i?w  ears  of  grain,  or  fresh 
fruits.  It  was  so  named,  because  grain, 
particularly  barlej',  was  in  ear  at  that  time. 
The  firstfruits  of  barley  were  to  be  offered 
on  the  15th  of  Abib ;  and  the  barky  harvest 
now  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  April.  See 
Month.  On  the  loth  of  this  month  the 
passover  was  set  apart;  it  was  killed  on 
the  14th  towards  sunset,  and  eaten  the 
same  evening  after  the  15th  had  begun. 
The  7  days  from  the  15th  to  the  21st  inclu- 
sive were  "  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread," 
closing  with  a  solemn  convocation,  Exod. 
12,  13. 

PJB'XE.'L,,  falher  of  slrenglh,  I.  the  father 
of  Kish  and  Ncr,  and  grandfather  of  Saul 
and  Abner,  i  Sam.  9:1;  14 : 51. 

II.  One  of  David's  30  mighty  men,  i  Chr. 
11:32;  Abi-albon,  2  Sam.  23:31. 

ABIE'ZER,  falher  of  help,  great-grand- 
son of  Manasseh,  Num.  26:29,  3°-  ^  Chr. 
7 :  14-18 ;  and  founder  of  the  family  to  which 
Gideon  belonged.  Josh.  17:2;  Judg.  6:34; 
8:2.  In  this  last  ,verse,  "  the  vintage  of 
Abiezer  "  means  the  ist  rout  of  the  Mid- 
ianites  by  the  300,  mostly  Abiezrites ;  and 
"the  gleaning  of  the  grapes  of  Ephraim  " 
means  the  capture  of  Oreb  and  Zeeb,  and 
other  fruits  of  the  victory,  gathered  by  the 
Ephraimites. 

AB'IGAIL,ya/'/!<?r  of  joy,  I.,  formerly  the 
wife  of  Nabal  of  Carmel,  and  afterwards  of 
David.  Tlie  issue  of  this  marriage  was,  as 
some  critics  suppose,  two  sons,  Chileab  and 
Daniel,  2  Sam.  2>'-2>\  i  Chr.  3:1;  but  prob- 
ably these  names  were  borne  by  one  per- 
son. 

II.  A  sister  of  David,  and  mother  of  Ama- 
sa,  2  Sam.  17 :  25 ;  i  Chr.  2 :  16,  \'j. 

AB'IHAIL,  father  of  might,  the  wife  of 
Rehoboam,  king  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  11:18; 
the  "daughter" — that  is  here, the  descend- 
ant— of  Eliab,  David's  brother. 

ABI'HU,  he  (God)  is  my  father,  the  2d 
son  of  Aaron  and  Elisheba,  Exod.  6 :  23  ; 
Num.  3:2;  honored  with  his  brother  Na- 
dab,  Ex.  24:1;  consecrated  to  the  priest- 
hood with  his  3  brethren,  Exod.  28:41; 
but  shortly  after  killed  by  lightning  from 
the  Lord,  with  Nadab,  for  burning  incense 
with  common  fire  instead  of  the  holy  fire 
that  was  kept  burning  perpetually  on  the 
altar  of  burnt-offerings.  Lev.  6:9,12;  10: 
1,2;  16:12;  Num.  16:46.  As  this  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  prohibition  of  wine 
to  the  priests  when  ministering  in  the  tab- 
ernacle, it  is  not  improbable  that  Nadab 


ABI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABI 


and  Abihu  were  intoxicated  when  thus 
transgressing.  Their  death  is  a  solemn 
warning  not  to  presume  to  worship  God 
except  with  incense  kindled  at  the  one  al- 
tar which  Christ  hath  sanctified  and  made 
acceptable  with  his  blood,  Heb.  10:10-14. 
It  is  a  dangerous  thing,  in  the  service  of 
God,  to  decline  from  his  own  institutions. 
We  have  to  do  with  a  God  who  is  wise  to 
prescribe  his  own  worship,  just  to  require 
what  he  has  prescribed,  and  powerful  to 
punish  what  he  has  not  prescribed,  Col. 
2 :  20-23. 

ABI'JAH,  the  Lord  is  my  father,  I.,  called, 
in  Luke  i :  5,  Abia ;  founder  of  a  family 
among  the  posterity  of  Aaron  and  Eleazar. 
When  David  divided  the  priests  into  24 
courses,  to  perform  the  temple  service  in 
turn,  the  8th  class  was  called  after  him, 
I  Chr.  24:10.  To  this  class  Zacharias  be- 
longed. 

II.  Son  of  Jeroboam  the  ist  king  of  Isra- 
el. He  died  young,  and  much  beloved  and 
lamented,  i  Kin.  14:1-18. 

III.  Son  of  Rehoboam  the  ist  king  of  Ju- 
dah.  Mat.  1:7;  called,  in  i  Kin.  15:  i,  Abi- 
jam.  He  came  to  the  throne  B.  C.  958,  in 
the  iSth  year  of  Jeroboam  I.,  and  reigned 
only  3  years.  In  war  with  Jeroboam  he 
gained  a  signal  victory,  2  Chr.  13;  yet  he 
followed  the  evil  example  of  his  father, 
I  Kin.  14:23,  24.  There  is  some  reason 
for  believing  that  the  numbers  in  2  Chr. 
13:3,  17  should  be,  as  Josephus  and  some 
editions  of  the  Vulgate  have  them — 40,000, 
80,000,  and  50,000.  His  mother  Maachah, 
or  Michaiah,  was  probably  the  g^rand- 
daughter  of  Absalom  and  daughter  of  Uri- 
el, I  Kin.  15:2;  2  Chr.  1 1 :  20 ;   13  :  2. 

IV.  The  mother  of  king  Hezekiah,  2  Chr. 
29 : 1  ;  called  Abi  in  2  Kin.  18 :  2. 

ABILE'NE,  a  district  on  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  Anti-Lebanon,  from  12  to  20  miles 
northwest  of  Damascus ;  so  called  from  the 
city  Abila,  in  a  gorge,  on  the  river  Abana 
or  Barada,  and  also  called  Abilene  of  Ly- 
sanias,  to  distinguish  it  from  others.  In 
the  15th  year  of  Tiberius,  Abilene  was  a 
tetrarchate  under  Lysanias,  Luke  3:1. 

ABIM'ELECH,  father-king,  I.,  king  of 
Gerar  of  the  Philistines,  who  took  Sarah 
into  his  harem,  compare  Gen.  12:15;  Esth. 
2:3;  but  being  restrained  by  God  in  a 
dream,  he  restored  her  to  Abraham,  and 
gave  him  1,000  pieces  of  silver  as  a  "  cov- 
ering of  the  eyes  "  for  Sarah,  that  is,  as  an 
atoning  present,  and  to  be  a  testimony  of 
her  innocence  in  the  eyes  of  all ;  or  as  some 
think,  for  a  veil  to  hide  her  beauty,  and 


"thus  was  she  reproved"  for  not  wearing 
one.  He  afterwards  made  a  league  with 
Abraham,  Gen.  20,  21. 

II.  Another  king  of  Gerar,  probably  son 
of  the  former,  and  contemporary  with  Isaac. 
He  rebuked  Isaac  for  dissimulation  in  re- 
gard to  Rebekah,  and  afterwards  made  a 
new  league  with  him  at  Beersheba,  Gen. 
26. 

III.  A  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine- 
wife,  Judg.  8:31,  made  himself  king  of 
Shechem  after  his  father's  death,  and  slew 
his  father's  70  sons,  only  Jotham  the 
youngest  being  left,  B.  C.  1235.  Jotham 
reproached  the  Shechemites  in  his  celebra- 
ted fable  of  the  trees.  Three  years  after- 
wards they  rose  against  Abimelech ;  he  de- 
feated them,  but  perished  ignominiously  in 
attacking  Thebez,  Judg.  9;  2  Sam.  11 :  21. 

ABIN'ADAB,  father  of  nobleness,  the 
same  as  Aminadab,  b  and  m  being  often 
interchanged  in  Hebrew.  I.  A  Levite  of 
Kirjath-jearim,  in  whose  house  the  ark  of 
God,  when  restored  by  the  Philistines,  re- 
mained 70  years,  i  Sam.  7 :  i ;  i  Chr.  13 : 7. 

II.  The  2d  son  of  Jesse,  one  of  the  3  who 
followed  Saul  ni  the  war  with  the  Philis- 
tines, I  Sam.  16:8;  17  :  13. 

III.  A  son  of  Saul,  slain  in  the  battle  at 
Gilboa,  I  Sam.  31:2;  i  Chr.  8  :  33 ;  10 : 2. 

ABI'RAM,  a  high  father,  I.,  a  prince  of 
Reuben,  who  with  Korah,  Dathan,  etc., 
conspired  to  overthrow  the  authority  of 
Moses  and  Aaron  in  the  wilderness,  Num. 
16.     See  KoR.-VH. 

II.  I  Kin.  16  :  34,  a  son  of  Hiel,  who  per- 
ished early  because  of  his  father's  presump- 
tion in  rebuilding  Jericho.     See  Hiel. 

AB'ISHAG,  fattier  of  error,  a  beautiful 
virgin  of  Shunem,  in  Issachar,  chosen  to  be 
a  member  of  the  household  of  David  in  his 
old  age  and  cherish  him.  After  his  death, 
Adonijah  sought  her  hand  to  promote  his 
treasonable  aspirations,  and  was  punished 
by  death,  i  Kin.  i,  2. 

ABISH'AI,/a//z<?r  of  a  gift,  eldest  son  of 
Zeruiah,  David's  sister,  brother  of  Joab  and 
Asahel,  one  of  the  bravest  of  David's  chiv- 
alric  order  of  "  mighty  men,"  i  Chr.  2  :  16, 
always  faithful  to  his  royal  uncle,  and  usu- 
ally a  personal  attendant.  He  went  with 
him  alone  to  the  tent  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  26: 
5-12  ;  and  was  a  leader  in  the  war  with  Ish- 
bosheth,  2  Sam.  2 :  18,  24,  in  the  war  with 
the  Edomites,  i  Chr.  18  :  12,  13,  and  with  the 
Syrians  and  Ammonites,  2  Sam.  10 :  10,  14. 
In  a  battle  with  the  Philistines,  he  rescued 
David,  and  slew  Ishbi-benob  the  giant, 
2  Sam.  21 :  i6,  17.  .  He  broke  through  their 

9 


ABI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABR 


host  around  Bethlehem,  and  lifted  up  his 
spear  against  300,  and  slew  them,  2  Sam. 
23  :  14-ifi ;  and  was  with  David  in  the  affairs 
of  Shimei,  Absalom,  and  Sheba,  2  Sam. 
16:9;  18:2;  19:21;  20:6,7. 

KBlSli'\J\,/aUier  o/zvel/are,  son  of  Phin- 
ehas,  and  4th  high-priest,  i  Chr.  6:4,  5,  50. 
He  was  probably  a  contemporary  of  Eglon 
and  Eluid,  Judg.  3. 

AB'NER,/a///<";-  of  light,  the  son  of  Ner  ; 
Saul's  cousin,  and  the  general  of  his  armies, 
I  Sam.  14:50.  He  knew  David,  and  aided 
Saul  in  persecuting  him,  i  Sam.  17:57; 
26:3-14.  For  7  years  after  Saul's  death 
he  supported  Ishbosheth ;  but  being  re- 
proved by  him  for  his  conduct  towards 
Rizpah,  he  undertook  to  unite  the  whole 
kingdom  under  David.  He  was,  however, 
treacherously  slain  by  Joab,  either  to  re- 
venge the  death  of  Asahel,  Joab's  brother, 
whom  Abner  had  formerly  killed,  or  more 
probably  from  jealousy.  David  abhorred 
this  perfidious  act,  and  composed  an  elegy 
on  his  death,  2  Sam.  2:8;  2)'-3Z-  He  also 
charged  Solomon  to  punish  the  crime  of 
Joab  with  death,  i  Kin.  2  : 5,  6.     See  Joab. 

ABOMINA'TION,  a  term  applied  in  Scrip- 
ture to  objects  of  great  detestation.  Idols 
and  their  worshi])  were  so  named,  because 
they  robbed  God  of  his  honor,  while  the 
rites  themselves  were  impure  and  cruel, 
Deut.  7  :  25,  26  ;  12:31.  The  term  was  used 
respecting  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  Gen. 
43  :  32,  E.xod.  8 :  26,  either  because  they  ate 
and  sacrificed  animals  held  sacred  by  the 
Egyptians,  or  because  they  did  not  observe 
those  ceremonies  in  eating  which  made  a 
part  of  the  religion  of  Egypt;  and  in  Gen. 
46 :  34,  because  they  were  "  wandering  shep- 
herds," a  race  of  whom  had  for  a  time  grie- 
vously oppressed  Egypt. 

The  Abomination  of  Desolation  fore- 
told by  Daniel,  9:27;  11:31;  12:11,  de- 
notes, probably,  the  image  of  Jupiter,  erect- 
ed in  the  templeof  Jerusalem  by  command 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  170  B.  C,  2  Mac. 
6:  2;  I  Mac.  6:7.  But  by  the  Abomination 
of  Desolation  spoken  of  by  our  Lord,  Matt. 
24:  15;  Mark  13:  14,  and  foretold  as  about 
to  be  seen  at  Jerusalem  during  the  last 
siege  of  that  city  by  the  Romans  under  Ti- 
tus, is  commonly  understood  the  Roman 
army,  whose  standards  had  the  images  of 
their  gods  and  emperors  upon  them,  and 
were  worshipped  in  the  precincts  of  the 
temple  when  that  and  the  city  were  taken. 
Perhaps,  however,  it  refers  to  some  iniquity 
of  the  Jewish  zealots  near  the  beginning  of 
the  siege,  Luke  21 :  20.  See  Armor.  The 
10 


initials  S  P  Q  R  are  for  Senalus  Popiilusque 
Romanus,  the  Senate  and  the  People  of 
Rome. 


A'BRAM,  high  father,  afterwards  named 
A'BRAHAM,  father  of  a  tnitltitiide,  Gen. 
17:4,  5;  see  Namks;  the  great  founder  of 
the  Jewish  nation,  as  well  as  of  the  Ish- 
maelites  and  other  Arabian  tribes.  Gen. 
25.  He  was  a  son  of  Terah,  a  descend- 
ant of  Shem,  and  brother  of  Nahor  and 
Haran,  and  w,."-  born  in  Ur,  a  city  of  Chal- 
dea,  A.  M.  2008,  B.  C.  1996,  Gen.  11  :27,  28. 
Here  he  lived  70  years,  when  at  the  call  of 
God  he  left  his  idolatrous  kindred,  Josh. 
24:2,  14,  and  removed  to  Haran,  in  Meso- 
potamia, Acts  7 :  2-4,  accompanied  by  his 
father,  his  wife  Sarai,  his  brother  Nahor, 
and  his  nephew  Lot.  A  few  years  after, 
having  buried  his  father,  he  again  removed 
at  the  call  of  God,  with  his  wife  and  neph- 
ew, and  entered  the  land  of  promise  as  a 
nomade  or  wandering  shepherd,  Heb.  11:8. 
Sojourning  for  a  time  at  Shechem,  he  built 
here,  as  was  his  custom,  an  altar  to  the 
Lord,  who  appeared  to  him,  and  promised 
that  land  to  his  seed.  Removing  from  place 
to  place  for  convenience  of  water  and  pas- 
turage, he  was  at  length  driven  by  a  famine 
into  Egypt,  where  he  dissembled  in  calling 
his  wife  his  sister,  Gen.  12.  Returning  to 
Canaan  rich  in  flocks  and  herds,  he  gener- 
ously left  Lot  to  dwell  in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Lower  Jordan,  and  pitched  his  own 
tents  in  Mamre,  Gen.  13.  A  few  years  after, 
he  rescued  Lot  and  his  friends  from  cap- 
tivity, and  received  the  blessing  of  Mel- 
chizedek.  Gen.  14. 

Again  God  appeared  to  him,  promised 
that  his  seed  should  be  like  the  stars  for 
number,  and  foretold  their  oppression  in 


ABR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABS 


Egypt  400  years,  and  their  return  to  pos- 
sess the  promised  land,  Gen.  15.  But  the 
promise  of  a  son  being  yet  unfulfilled,  Sa- 
rai  gave  him  Hagar  her  maid  for  a  second- 
ary wife,  of  whom  Ishmael  was  born.  Gen. 
16;  and  it  is  noteworthy,  that  though  Abra- 
ham took  Hagar  at  the  request  of  his  wife, 
as  Adam  did  the  fruit,  Gen.  3:17,  great 
domestic  troubles  ensued.  After  13  years, 
God  again  appeared  to  him,  and  assured 
him  that  the  heir  of  the  promise  should  yet 
be  born  of  his  wife,  whose  name  was  then 
changed  to  Sarah.  He  established  also  the 
covenant  of  circumcision,  Gen.  17.  Here, 
too,  occurred  the  visit  of  the  3  angels,  and 
the  memorable  intercession  with  the  Angel- 
Jehovah  for  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  Gen. 
18.  After  this,  Abraham  journeyed  south 
to  Gerar,  where  he  again  called  Sarah  his 
sister.  In  this  region  Isaac  was  born,  when 
Abraham  was  about  100  years  old,  Rom. 
4 :  19-22,  and  soon  after,  Hagar  and  Ish- 
mael were  driven  out  to  seek  a  new  home. 
Gen.  21. 

About  25  years  after,  God  put  to  trial  the 
faith  of  Abraham,  by  commanding  him  to 
sacrifice  Isaac,  his  sjn  and  the  heir  of  the 
promise,  upon  Mount  Moriah,  Gen.  22. 
After  12  years,  Sarah  died,  and  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  was  bought  for  a  burial-place. 
Gen.  23.  Abraham  sent  his  steward,  and 
obtained  a  wife  for  Isaac  from  his  pious 
kindred  in  Mesopotamia,  Gen.  24.  He  him- 
self also  married  Keturah,  and  had  6  sons, 
each  one  the  founder  of  a  distinct  people  in 
Arabia.  At  the  age  of  175,  full  of  years 
and  honors,  he  died,  and  was  buried  by  his 
sons  Isaac  and  Ishmael  in  the  same  tomb 
with  Sarah,  Gen.  25.     See  Machpelah. 

The  character  of  Abraham  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  in  Scripture.  He  was  a 
genuine  Oriental  patriarch,  of  free  and 
simple  manners,  a  prince  in  the  land ;  his 
property  was  large,  his  retinue  very  nu- 
merous, and  he  commanded  the  respect  of 
the  neighboring  people ;  and  yet  he  was 
truly  a  stranger  and  a  pilgrim,  the  only 
land  he  possessed  being  the  burial-place 
he  had  purchased.  Distinguished  by  his 
integrity,  generosity,  and  hospitality,  he 
was  most  of  all  remarkable  for  his  simple 
and  unwavering  faith,  a  faith  that  obeyed 
without  hesitation  or  delay,  and  recoiled 
not  from  the  most  fearful  trial  ever  im- 
posed upon  man,  so  that  he  is  justly  styled 
"the  father  of  the  faithful,"  that  is,  of  be- 
lievers. He  is  repeatedly  distinguished  by 
the  honorable  title,  "the  friend  of  God," 
2  Chr.  20 :  7 ;  Isa.  41 : 8 ;  Jas.  2  :  23 ;  and  the 


name  El-Khulil,  the  friend,  is  still  given  by 
the  Arabs  both  to  him  and  to  Hebron  his 
home.  No  name  in  history  is  venerated  by 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  human  race,  Mo- 
hammedans as  well  as  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians. He  understood  and  rejoiced  in  the 
promise  that  in  his  divine  descendant  the 
Messiah  all  nations  should  be  blessed, 
John  8  :  56 ;  and  as  the  ancestor  of  Christ 
and  the  father  of  all  believers,  the  cove- 
nant is  abundantly  fulfilled  to  him  :  his 
seed  are  as  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  with 
them  he  shall  inherit  the  heavenly  Canaan. 
Abraham's  Bosom,  in  Luke  16:22,  the 
state  of  bliss  in  paradise  which  the  father 
of  the  faithful  was  enjoying.  This  is  often 
represented  as  a  feast  or  banquet.  Matt. 
8:11;  Luke  13  :  29.  To  lean  011  one's  bosom 
refers  to  the  Oriental  mode  of  reclining  at 
table,  John  13  :  23.     See  Eating. 

AB'SALOM, /a//<<?r  of  peace,  only  son  of 
David  by  Maacah,  2  Sam.  3 : 3,  born  about 
1033  B.  C.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
beauty  and  for  his  fine  head  of  hair,  2  Sam. 
14 :  25,  which  being  cut  when  it  incommo- 
ded him,  used  to  weigh  200  shekels,  an  ex- 
traordinary weight,  suggesting  a  copyist's 
error,  or  that  a  heavy  coronet  or  other  head 
ornament  was  included.  Amnon,  another 
of  the  king's  sons,  having  violated  his  sis- 
ter Tamar,  Absalom  caused  him  to  be  slain, 
and  then  fled  to  Geshur,  where  Talmai  his 
grandfather  was  king.  After  3  years,  at 
the  intercession  of  Joab,  David  permitted 
him  to  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  at  length 
received  him  again  into  favor,  2  Sam.  14. 
Absalom,  however,  grossly  abused  his  fa- 
ther's kindness ;  by  many  artful  devices 
"  stole  the  hearts  of  the  people,"  and  got 
himself  proclaimed  king  in  Hebron.  Da- 
vid retired  from  Jerusalem ;  Absalom  fol- 
lowed him  after  a  fatal  providential  delay, 
and  in  the  battle  which  ensued  he  was  de- 
feated, and  being  caught  by  his  head  in  a 
tree,  was  found  and  slain  by  Joab,  and  bur- 
ied with  dishonor,  2  Sam.  18:  17,  18;  Josh. 
7 :  26.  David  was  much  affected  by  his 
death,  and  uttered  bitter  lamentations  over 
him,  2  Sam.  18  :  2,3-     See  also  Psa.  3. 

His  history  affords  instructive  lessons  to 
the  young  against  the  sins  to  which  they 
are  prone,  particularly  vanity,  ambition, 
lawless  passions,  and  filial  disobedience. 

The  "  Tomb  of  Absalom,"  as  it  is  called, 
in  the  valley  east  of  Jerusalem,  is  of  com- 
paratively modern  date,  and  of  unknown 
origin  and  purpose.  It  may  possibly  mark 
the  site  of  the  monument  mentioned  in 
2  Sam.  18 :  18. 

II 


ABS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ACH 


TOMB  OF   ABSALOM. 


ABSTINENCE.     See  Fasting. 

AC'CAD,  hand  or  fortress,  one  of  the  4 
cities  built  in  the  plain  of  Shinar  by  Nini- 
rod,  founder  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  Gen. 
10: 10.  Its  site  is  identified  by  some  trav- 
ellers with  Nisibis,  in  northern  Mesopota- 
mia. By  others,  with  ruins  called  Akker- 
kfif,  which  lie  from  6  to  9  miles  west  of 
Bagdad.  There  is  here  a  ruinous  struc- 
ture called  Tell-nimrud,  Hill  of  Nimrod, 
consisting  of  a  mass  of  brickwork  400  feet 
in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  125  feet 
high,  standing  on  a  mound  of  rubbish. 

ACCEPT',  to  receive  with  favor,  Luke 
4 :  24.  So  the  penitent  and  believing  sinner 
is  welcomed  by  God  for  Christ's  sake — 
"accepted  in  the  Beloved,"  Eph.  i  :6. 

AC'CHO,  sitn-heated,  a  seaport  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher,  Judg.  1:31.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Accho  is  called  Ptolemais,  Acts  21  \~, 
from  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  enlarged 
and  beautified  it.  The  Crusaders  gave  it 
the  name  of  Acre,  or  St.  John  of  Acre.  It 
is  still  called  Akka  by  the  Turks. 

Accho,  witii  all  the  sea-coast  beyond  it 
northwards,  was  considered  a  half-heathen 
laud  by  the  Jews. 

ACCURSED',  devoted  to  destruction, 
Deut.  21  :  23;  Josh.  6: 17,  18.  See  Anath- 
ema. 

ACCUSA'TION  WRITTEN,  a  Statement  of 
the  crime  for  which  one  was  executed. 

ACCU'SER,  an  enemy  or  adversary,  es- 
pecially in  a  court  of  law,  Matt.  5  :  25 ;  Luke 
18 : 3.     So  Satan  is  the  public  accuser  of 
12 


God's  people,  Job  1:6;  Zech.  3:1;  Rev. 
12 :  10. 

ACEL'DAMA,/<?/rfq/"A/oorf,  a  small  field 
south  of  Jerusalem,  which  the  priests  pur- 
chased with  the  30  pieces  of  silver  that 
Judas  had  received  as  the  price  of  our  Sa- 
viour's blood.  Matt.  27  :  8  ;  Acts  i  :  19,  the 
"potter's  field,"  to  be  a  burying-place  for 
strangers.  Judas  is  said,  Acts  i :  8,  to  have 
purchased  the  field,  because  it  was  bought 
with  his  money.  See  Judas.  Tradition 
points  out  this  field  on  the  steep  hill  of 
Evil  Counsel  overhanging  the  valley  of 
Hinnom  on  the  south.  It  appears  to  have 
been  used,  after  the  time  of  the  Crusaders, 
as  a  sepulchre  for  pilgrims,  and  great 
quantities  of  its  soil  were  carried  away  by 
Crusaders  for  burial-places  at  Rome,  Pisa, 
and  elsewhere. 

ACHA'IA,  trouble,  used  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament for  the  whole  region  of  (ireece 
south  of  Macedonia,  including  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, or  Morea,  and  some  territory  north 
of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  Acts  18: 12;  19:21 ; 
2  Cor.  II  :  10.  It  was  a  Roman  province  in 
Paul's  time,  and  was  governed  by  a  pro- 
consul, in  our  version  "deputy,"  Acts  18: 
12.  Achaia  proper,  however,  embraced 
only  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Pelopon- 
nessus.     See  Greecf;. 

ACHA'ICUS.     See  Fortunatus. 

A'CHAN,  troubler,  the  son  of  Carmi,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah ;  he  violated  the  divine 
anatlievia  and  disobeyed  the  strict  charge 
of  the   Lord,  by  purloining  some  of  the 


ACH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ACH 


spoils  of  Jericho  which  were  doomed  to 
destruction.  This  brought  a  curse  and  de- 
feat upon  the  people.  He  was  discovered 
by  lot,  and  stoned  with  all  his  family,  prob- 
ably accessories,  in  the  valley  of  Achor, 
north  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6  :  i8 ;  7  : 1-26.  He 
is  called  Achar  in  i  Chr.  2  : 7.     See  Achor. 

A'CHIM,  Heb.  Jachin,  an  abridgment  of 
Jehoiachin,  the  name  of  an  ancestor  of  our 
Lord,  in  the  genealogical  register  five  de- 
grees back  from  Joseph,  Matt,  i  :  14. 

A'CHISH,  angry,  king  of  Gath,  a  city  of 
the  Philistines,  to  whom  David  twice  fled 
for  protection  from  Saul.  On  the  first  oc- 
casion, being  recognized  and  thinking  his 
life  in  danger,  he  feigned  madness,  and  so 
escaped,  i  Sam.  21 :  10.  Several  years  after, 
he  returned  with  a  band  of  600  men,  and 


was  welcomed  by  Achish  as  an  enemy  of 
Saul  and  of  Israel.  Achish  gave  him  Zik- 
lag  for  a  residence;  and  being  deceived  as 
to  the  views  and  operations  of  David,  ex- 
pected his  assistance  in  a  war  with  Israel, 
but  was  persuaded  by  his  officers  to  send 
him  home  to  Ziklag,  i  Sam.  26-29. 

ACH'METHA,  Ezra  6:2,  supposed  to 
mean  Ecbatana,  the  chief  city  of  Media, 
inferior  to  none  in  the  East  but  Babylon 
and  Nineveh.  There  were  two  cities  of  this 
name  :  the  northern  city,  the  capital  of  Cy- 
rus, now  Takht-i-SuIeiman,  was  surround- 
ed by  7  walls  of  different  heights  and  colors. 
The  southern  and  larger  city  was  a  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Persian  kings  after 
Darius.  Travellers  identify  it  with  the 
modern   Hamadan,  in  which   many  Jews 


still  reside,  and  where  they  profess  to  point 
out  the  tomb  of  Mordecai  and  Esther. 

A'CHOR,  trouble,  a  valley  north  of  Jeri- 
cho, according  to  Jerome;  so  called,  per- 
haps, from  the  troubles  occasioned  by  the 
sin  of  Achan,  who  was  here  put  to  death, 
Josh.  7  :  26.  The  prophets  allude  to  it  with 
promises  of  hope  and  jov  in  the  gospel  era, 
Isa.  65  :  10 ;  Hos.  2:15.  The  northern  boun- 
dary of  Judah  reached  it,  Josh.  15  :  7;  from 
which  it  would  seem  to  have  lain  south  of 
Jericho,  which  was  in  Benjamin. 

ACH'SAH,  anklet,  the  daughter  of  Caleb, 
given  in  marriage  with  a  large  dowry  to 
his  nephew  Othniel,  as  a  prize  for  taking 
the  city  Debir,  Josh.  15:  15-19;  Judg.  i  :  13. 

ACH'SHAPH,_/a.fcma/!io»,  a  royal  city  of 


the  Canaanites,  Josh.  11 :  i,  conquered  by 
Joshua,  and  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
Josh.  12:20;  19:25.  Dr.  Robinson  finds 
its  ruins,  now  called  Kesaf,  a  little  south- 
west of  the  curve  of  the  Orontes,  more  than 
half  way  from  Tyre  to  the  Upper  Jordan. 

ACH'ZIB,  lying,  I.,  a  city  of  Asher,  from 
which,  however,  the  Jews  were  unable  to 
expel  the  Canaanites,  Judg.  1:31.  It  was 
afterwards  called  by  the  Greeks  Ecdippa, 
and  is  now  named  Zib ;  it  lay  on  the  sea- 
coast,  10  miles  north  of  Acre. 

II.  Probably  called  Chezib  in  Gen.  38:5, 
a  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah,  towards  La- 
chish  and  Gath,  Josh.  15  :44.  See  also  Mic. 
1 :  14,  where  the  word  rendered  a  lie  is  also 
achzib. 

13 


ACR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ADA 


A'CRE,  I  Sam.  14: 14;  Isa.  5: 10,  literally 
a  yoke,  as  much  land  as  a  yoke  of  oxen 
would  plough  in  a  day. 

ACTS  OK  THE  APOSTLES,  the  5th  canon- 
ical book  of  the  New  Testament,  written 
by  Luke  as  a  sequel  to  his  (iospel,  and  a 
history  in  part  of  the  early  church  from 
A.  D.  30  to  63,  Luke  i :  1-4;  Acts  1:1.  It  is 
not,  however,  a  record  of  the  acts  of  all  the 
apostles,  but  chiefly  of  those  of  Peter  and 
Paul.  In  his  Gospel,  Luke  described  the 
yb^^wrfi«^  of  Christianity  in  what  Christ  did, 
taught,  and  suffered :  in  the  Acts  he  illus- 
trates its  diffusion,  selecting  what  was  best 
fitted  to  show  how  the  Holy  Spirit  guided 
and  blessed  the  first  followers  of  Christ  in 
building  up  his  church.  Beginning  where 
his  Gospel  ended,  he  narrates  the  ascension 
of  the  Saviour  and  the  conduct  of  the  dis- 
ciples thereupon;  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  according  to  Christ's  promise; 
the  miraculous  preaching  of  the  apostles, 
their  amazing  success,  and  the  persecutions 
raised  against  them,  with  other  events  of 
moment  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  till  tltey 
were  scattered  abroad.  He  then  shows  how 
Judaism  was  superseded,  and  how  Peter 
was  led  to  receive  to  Christian  fellowship 
converts  from  the  Gentiles.  The  2d  divis- 
ion of  the  narrative  is  devoted  to  the  con- 
version and  calling  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
his  missionary  zeal,  labors,  and  sufferings 
chiefly  among  the  Gentiles,  and  ends  with 
his  2  years'  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

Luke  himself  witnessed,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  events  he  narrates.  See  Acts  16 : 
II  ;  20:6  to  28  :  31.  His  Greek  is  the  most 
classical  in  the  New  Testament;  and  the 
view  he  gives  of  the  spirit  of  the  early 
church,  so  many  of  whose  members  had 
"been  with  the  Lord,"  is  invaluable.  The 
book  was  probably  written  about  A.  D.  63 
or  64,  that  is,  soon  after  the  time  at  which 
the  narration  terminates.  The  place  where 
it  was  written  is  not  known,  but  may  have 
been  Rome.  Its  genuineness  was  univer- 
sally recognized  by  the  early  church,  and 
is  confirmed  by  the  searching  criticism  of 
modern  times. 

In  order  to  read  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
with  intelligence  and  |)ro(U,  it  is  necessarj* 
to  have  a  sufficient  acquaintance  with  geog- 
raphy, with  the  manners  of  the  times  and 
jjeople  referred  to,  and  with  the  leading 
historical  events.  The  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans, with  the  nature  and  names  of  the 
public  ofl^ices  they  established,  and  the  dis- 
tinctions among  them,  must  be  understood, 
as  well  as  the  disposition  and  political 
14 


opinions  of  the  unconverted  Jewish  nation, 
which  were  too  prevalent  among  the  Chris- 
tianized Hebrews. 

AD'AM,  the  progenitor  and  representa- 
tive head  of  our  race;  formed  of  the  dust 
of  the  ground,  to  which  (its  rfci>icss)  his 
name  refers,  and  made  a  living  soul  by  the 
Creator's  breath.  The  account  of  the  crea- 
tion, etc.,  in  Genesis,  seems  to  be  in  3  parts  : 
the  ist,  ch.  1:1  to  2:3,  being  general  and 
preliminary  ;  the  2d,  ch.  2 : 4  to  4 :  26,  rela- 
ting to  Paradise  and  the  fall,  and  the  fam- 
ily of  Adam;  and  the  3d,  ch.  5:1  to  9 :  29, 
giving  the  history  of  the  patriarchs,  down 
to  Noah.     See  Creation. 

Adam  alone,  of  all  beings  on  earth,  was 
made  "in  the  image  and  likeness  of  (iod  " — 
with  reason,  conscience,  the  faculty  of 
knowing,  loving,  and  communing  with 
God,  etc.,  and  was  the  greatest  and  last 
work  of  the  creation,  and  received  domin- 
ion over  all  that  the  earth  contained.  That 
he  might  not  be  alone,  (iod  provided  Kve 
as  a  helpmeet  for  him,  and  she  became  his 
wife.  Marriage  is  thus  a  divine  institu- 
tion, first  in  order  of  time,  as  well  as  of 
importance  and  blessedness  to  mankind. 
Adam  was  made  a  perfect  man — complete 
in  every  physical,  mental,  and  spiritual 
endowment;  and  placed  in  the  garden  of 
Eden  on  probation,  holy  and  happy,  but 
liable  to  sin.  From  this  estate  he  fell  bj' 
breaking  the  express  command  of  Ciod, 
through  the  temptations  of  Satan  and  the 
compliance  of  Eve  ;  and  thus  brought  the 
curse  upon  himself  and  all  his  posterity. 
Sovereign  grace  interposed;  a  Saviour  was 
revealed,  and  the  full  execution  of  the 
curse  stayed  ;  but  Adam  was  banished  from 
Eden  and  its  tree  of  life,  and  reduced  to  a 
life  of  painful  toil.  His  happiness  was  fur- 
ther imbittered  by  witnessing  the  fruits  of 
his  fall  in  his  posterity.  Cain  his  firstl)i)rn 
son,  and  Abel  the  second,  born  in  the  like- 
ness of  their  fallen  parents,  were  erelong 
lost  to  them— the  one  slain,  and  the  other 
a  fugitive.  They  had  many  other  sons  and 
daughters,  but  the  name  of  Seth  alone  is 
given.  Adam  lived  to  the  age  of  930  years, 
and  saw  the  earth  rapidly  peopled  by  his 
descendants;  but  "the  wickedness  of  man 
was  great  upon  the  earth."  At  the  time  of 
his  death,  Lamech,  the  father  of  Noah,  was 
56  j'ears  of  age;  and  being  in  the  line  of 
those  who  "  walked  with  (iod,"  had  ])roba- 
bly  heard  the  early  history  of  the  race  from 
the  lips  of  the  penitent  Adam. 

The  curse  pronounced  on  man  includes 
not  only  physical  labor  and  toil  on  a  bar- 


ADA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


ADO 


ren  and  thorny  earth,  and  the  physical 
dissolution  of  the  body,  but  also  the  ex- 
posure of  the  soul,  the  nobler  part,  to  ever- 
lasting death.  In  that  very  day  Adam  lost 
the  moral  image  of  his  Maker,  and  became 
subject  not  only  to  physical  death,  but  also 
to  God's  eternal  wrath  and  curse,  which  is 
death  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  and 
is  the  doom  which  has  fallen  upon  all  his 
race.  Such  is  the  view  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
who  everywhere  contrasts  the  death  intro- 
duced into  the  world  through  Adam  with 
the  life  which  is  procured  for  the  redeemed 
through  Jesus  Christ,  Rom.  5.  This  life  is 
spiritual ;  and  the  death,  in  its  highest 
sense,  is  also  spiritual.  So  far  as  the  pen- 
alty is  temporal  and  physical,  no  man  is  or 
can  be  exempt  from  it ;  but  to  remove  the 
spiritual  and  eternal  punishment,  Christ 
has  died ;  and  he  who  comes  to  Him  in 
penitence  and  faith  will  avoid  the  threat- 
ened death,  and  enter  into  life  eternal,  both 
of  the  body  and  the  soul. 

The  Redeemer  is  called  "  the  2d  Adam,'' 
I  Cor.  15  :  45,  as  being  the  head  of  his  spir- 
itual seed,  and  the  source  of  righteousness 
and  life  to  all  believers,  as  the  ist  Adam 
was  the  source  of  sin  and  death  to  all  his 
seed. 

II.  A  city  near  the  Jordan,  towards  the 
Sea  of  Tiberias,  near  which  the  waters  of 
the  Jordan  began  to  be  heaped  up  to  open 
a  dry  passage  for  the  Jews,  Josh.  3  :  16. 

AD'AMANT,  an  old  English  name  for  the 
diamond,  the  hardest  of  all  minerals.  It 
is  used  for  cutting  or  writing  on  glass  and 
other  hard  substances,  Jer.  17:1.  It  is  also 
employed  figuratively,  Ezek.  3:9;  Zech. 
7 :  12.  The  diamond  as  a  precious  stone 
seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, and  some  other  hard  and  sharp 
mineral  is  meant,  probably  the  smiris  or 
emery-stone. 

A'DAR,  the  i2th  month  of  the  Hebrew 
ecclesiastical  year,  and  the  6th  of  the  civil 
year.  On  the  14th  and  15th  of  this  month, 
occurred  the  celebrated  feast  of  Purim, 
Esth.  3  : 7  ;  8  :  12  ;  9  :  21.  It  nearly  answered 
to  our  March.  As  the  lunar  year,  which 
the  Jews  follow,  is  shorter  than  the  solar 
year  by  11  days,  which,  after  3  years,  make 
about  a  month,  they  then  insert  a  13th 
month,  which  they  call  Ve-Adar,  or  a  2d 
Adar.    See  Month. 

AD'DER,  a  species  of  serpent,  more  com- 
monly called  viper.  The  word  adder  is 
used  5  times  in  the  Bible,  as  a  translation 
of  4  different  Hebrew  words,  denoting  dif- 
ferent serpents  of  the  venomous  sort.     In 


Gen.  49 :  17,  it  seems  to  mean  the  cerastes, 
or  horned  viper,  of  the  color  of  sand,  and 
very  deadly  bite  ;  accustomed  to  lie  hidden 
in  the  tracks  in  the  sand,  and  dart  up  on 
the  unwary  traveller.  In  Psa.  58  : 4  ;  91  :  13, 
it  is  probably  the  asp.  In  Psa.  140  : 3  per- 
haps the  tarantula,  or  some  serpent  that 
strikes  backward.     See  Serpent,  Viper. 

ADJURE',  to  put  one  under  oath,  so  bind- 
ing him  to  speak  or  act  as  in  the  presence 
of  God,  Josh.  6:26;  I  Sam.  14:24;  Matt. 
26 :  63  ;  Mark  5 : 7.     See  Oath. 

AD'MAH,  earthy,  one  of  the  4  cities  in 
the  plain  of  Siddim  destroyed  by  fire  from 
heaven,  generally  believed  to  be  covered 
by  the  Dead  Sea,  Gen.  10 :  19 ;  14  :  2  ;  19  :  24, 
25;  Deut.  29:23;  Hos.  11:8. 

ADONIBE'ZEK,  lord  of  Bezek,  the  title 
of  a  Canaanite  tyrant  of  Bezek,  east  of 
Shechem.  Having  taken  70  of  the  neigh- 
boring petty  chiefs,  he  disabled  them  for 
war  by  cutting  off  their  thumbs  and  great 
toes,  and  fed  them  like  dogs.  The  same 
barbarous  treatment  was  deservedly  me- 
ted out  to  him,  when  defeated  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  Canaanites  and  Perizzites,  by 
Judah  and  Simeon,  Judg.  i  :4-7. 

ADONI'JAH,  fehovah  is  my  Lord,  the  4th 
son  of  David,  by  Haggith,  2  Sam.  3  : 4.  After 
the  death  of  Amnon  and  Absalom,  and  prob- 
ably Chileab,  he  aspired  to  the  throne,  al- 
though it  was  divinely  promised  to  Solo- 
mon, his  younger  brother.  Having  gained 
over  Joab  and  Abiathar  and  other  adhe- 
rents, he  at  length  openly  revolted  and 
claimed  the  crown  while  David  was  yet  liv- 
ing. The  news  of  this  revolt  being  brought 
to  the  king,  he  caused  Solomon  to  be 
crowned  king  at  once ;  upon  which  the 
friends  of  Adonijah  dispersed,  and  he  took 
refuge  at  the  horns  of  the  altar.  Solomon 
dismissed  him  with  only  an  admonition— a 
magnanimous  course,  very  different  from 
the  prevalent  custom  in  the  East.  But  soon 
after  the  death  of  David  he  applied  for  the 

15 


ADO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ADR 


hand  of  Abishag,  thus  renewing  his  preten- 
sions to  the  throne,  for  which  he  was  put 
to  deatii,  I  Kin.  i,  2. 

ADONI'RAM,  lord  of  height,  a  receiver  of 
tributes  under  David  and  Solomon,  and 
director  of  the  30,000  men  sent  to  Lebanon 
to  cut  timber,  i  Kin.  4:6;  5:14.  The  same 
person  is  also  called  Adoram,  by  contrac- 
tion, 2  Sam.  20 :  24  ;  i  Kin.  12  :  18 ;  and  also 
Hadoram,  2  Chr.  10 :  18.  He  was  stoned  to 
death  by  the  revolted  10  tribes,  having  been 
sent  to  them  by  Rehoboam,  either  to  in- 
duce them  to  return,  or  to  test  them  by 
gathering  the  taxes. 

ADONI-ZE'DEK,  lord  of  justice,  the  offi- 
cial title  of  an  Amorite  king  of  Jerusalem, 
who  made  an  alliance  with  4  other  kings 
against  Joshua.  A  great  battle  was  fought 
at  Gibeon,  where  the  Lord  aided  Israel  b\' 
a  terrific  hailstorm,  and  by  miraculously 
prolonging  the  day.  The  5  kings  were  ut- 
terly routed,  and  hid  themselves  in  a  cave 
at  Makkedah ;  but  were  taken  by  Joshua, 
and  put  to  death.  Josh.  10. 

ADOP'TION  is  an  act  by  which  a  person 
takes  a  stranger  into  his  family,  acknowl- 
edges him  as  his  child,  and  constitutes  him 
heir  of  his  estate.  As  a  national  custom,  it 
was  more  common  among  the  Romans  than 
with  the  Jews,  the  Mosaic  laws  as  to  tribes, 
families,  and  inheritances  standing  in  its 
way.  Jacob's  adoption  of  his  2  grandsons, 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  Gen.  48:5,  was  a 
kind  of  substitution  whereby  he  intended 
that  these  his  grandsons  should  have  each 
his  lot  in  Israel,  as  if  they  had  been  his 
own  sons.  As  he  gives  no  inheritance  to 
their  father  Joseph,  the  effect  of  this  adop- 
tion was  simply  the  doubling  of  their  inher- 
itance. 

But  Scripture  affords  instances  of  anoth- 
er kind  of  adoption — that  of  a  father  hav- 
ing a  daughter  only,  and  adopting  her  chil- 
dren. Thus,  1  Chr.  2:2i,Machir,  grandson 
of  Joseph,  and  father  of  Gilead,  Num.  26 : 
29,  gave  his  daughter  to  Hezron,  and  their 
posterity  are  reckoned  as  sons  of  Machir, 
the  father  of  Gilead.  Nay,  more,  it  ap- 
pears. Num.  32:41,  that  Jair,  who  was  in 
fact  the  son  of  Segub,  the  son  of  Hezron, 
the  son  of  Judah,  is  expressly  called  "  Jair, 
the  son  of  Manasseh,"  because  his  mater- 
nal great-grandfather  was  Machir  the  son 
of  Manasseh.  In  like  manner  we  read  that 
Mordecai  adopted  Esther,  his  cousin;  he 
took  her  to  himself  to  be  a  daughter,  Esth. 
2:7.  So  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  adopted 
Moses,  and  he  became  her  son,  Exod.  2  :  10. 
So  we  read,  Ruth  4: 17,  that  Naomi  had  a 
16 


son — a  son  is  born  to  Naomi ;  when  indeed 
it  was  the  son  of  Ruth. 

At  the  present  day,  adoption  is  not  un- 
common in  the  East,  where  it  is  made 
before  a  public  officer  with  legal  forms. 

In  the  New  Testament,  adoption  denotes 
that  act  of  God's  free  grace  by  which,  on 
being  justified  through  faith,  we  are  re- 
ceived into  the  family  of  God,  and  made 
heirs  of  the  inheritance  of  heaven.  It  is 
"  in  Christ,"  and  through  his  atoning  mer- 
its, that  believers  "  receive  the  adoption  of 
sons,"  Gal.  4  : 4,  5.  Some  of  the  privileges 
of  this  state  are,  deliverance  from  a  fearful 
and  servile  spirit ;  the  special  love  and  care 
of  our  Heavenly  Father  ;  conformity  to  his 
image;  a  filial  confidence  in  him;  free  ac- 
cess to  him  at  all  times  ;  the  witness  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we  cry,  "  Abba,  Fa- 
ther;" and  a  title  to  our  heavenly  home, 
Rom.  8  :  14-17  ;  9  : 4 ;  Eph.  i  :  4,  5. 

ADORA'IM,  2  mounds,  a  town  in  the  south 
of  Judah,  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr. 
11:9.  Now  Dura,  a  large  village  5  miles 
west  by  south  from  Hebron. 
ADO'RAM,  see  Adonik.\m. 
ADORA'TION,  see  WORSHIP. 
ADRAM'MELECH,  Splendor  of  the  king^, 
I.,  son  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  Isa. 
37:38;  2  Kin.  19:37;  2  Chr.  32:21,  who, 
upon  returning  to  Nineveh  after  his  fatal 
expedition  against  Hezekiah,  was  killed  by 
his  2  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
through  fear,  according  to  a  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, of  being  sacrificed  to  his  idol  Nisroch. 
They  then  fled  to  the  mountains  of  Arme- 
nia, B.  C.  711. 

II.  One  of  the  gods  adored  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Sepharvaim,  who  settled  in  Sama- 
ria, in  the  stead  of  those  Israelites  who 
were  carried  beyond  the  Euphrates.  They 
made  their  children  pass  through  fire,  in 
honor  of  this  false  deity,  and  of  another 
called  Anammelech,  2  Kin.  17:31.  Some 
think  that  Adrammelech  represented  the 
sun,  and  Anammelech  the  moon. 

ADRAM"yT'TIUM,  a  large  maritime  town 
of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  Acts  27  :  2.  Paul  no  doubt 
visited  it  during  his  tours  in  Asia  Minor, 
Acts  16:8;  27:2.  It  is  now  called  Adra- 
myti. 

A'DRIA,  in  Acts  27 :  27,  is  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  lying  between  Italy  and  Greece,  and 
extending  on  the  south  from  Crete  to  Sici- 
ly ;  within  it  the  island  of  Malta  or  Melita 
lies.     So  Ptolemy  and  Strabo. 

A'DRIEL,  fock  of  God,  a  son  of  Barzil- 
lai,  married  Merab,  daughter  of  Saul,  who 


ADU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AGA 


had  been  promised  to  David,  i  Sam.  i8 :  19. 
Adriel  had  5  sons  by  her,  who  were  deliv- 
ered up  to  the  Gibeonites,  to  be  put  to 
•death  before  the  Lord,  to  avenge  the  cruel- 
ty of  Saul  their  grandfather  against  the 
Gibeonites.  From  2  Sam.  21:8  it  would 
seem  that  Michal,  David's  wife,  had  adopt- 
ed the  children  of  her  sister  Merab. 

ADUL'LAM,7«^/iV<?  of  the  people,  an  an- 
cient city  in  the  "plain  of  Judah,"  south- 
west of  Jerusalem,  probably  not  far  from 
Eleutheropolis,  Gen.  38  :  i  ;  Josh.  15  :  35. 
Its  king  was  slain  by  Joshua,  Josh.  12  :  15. 
It  was  one  of  the  cities  rebuilt  and  fortified 
by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11 ;  7 ;  Mic.  i :  15,  and 
was  reoccupied  by  the  Jews  after  the  cap- 
tivity, Neh.  II  130. 

When  David  withdrew  from  Gath,  he  re- 
tired to  the  "  cave  of  Adullam,"  I  Sam.  22:  I. 
The  location  of  this  cave,  however,  is  un- 
•certain.  Tradition  places  it  in  the  hill 
country,  about  6  miles  southeast  of  Bethle- 
hem, the  city  of  David ;  a  large  and  fine 
cave  at  Khureitfln,  visited  by  many  travel- 
lers. It  is  capable  of  holding  thousands.  Its 
vicinity  to  Bethlehem,  whence  the  3  war- 
riors obtained  water  for  David,  agrees  with 
this  location  of  the  cave,  2  Sam.  23 :  13,  14. 
Lieut.  Conder  places  the  cave  13  miles  from 
Bethlehem,  in  the  valley  of  Elah,  near 
Adullam,  where  is  a  row  of  smaller  caves 
still  often  used  for  shelter. 

ADUL'TERY  is  a  criminal  connection  be- 
tween a  married  man  or  woman  and  any 
•other  person  than  the  lawful  spouse;  and 
thus  it  exceeds  the  guilt  of  fornication, 
_  which  is  the  same  intercourse  between  un- 
married persons.  As  the  highest  sin  of  its 
"kind,  and  so  including  all  other  sins  of  the 
iflesh,  it  is  forbidden  in  the  7th  command- 
ment. Where  polygamy  was  allowed,  as 
among  the  ancient  Jews,  illicit  intercourse 
between  a  married  man  and  a  woman  who 
was  not  married,  nor  betrothed,  constituted 
not  adultery,  but  fornication. 

Fornication  may  be,  in  some  sense,  cov-' 
ered  by  a  subsequent  marriage  of  the  par- 
ties ;  but  adultery  cannot  be  so  healed. 
Hence  God  often  compares  himself  to  a 
husband  jealous  of  his  honor,  Jer.  31  :32; 
and  hence  the  forsaking  of  the  true  God  is 
compared  to  fornication  and  adultery  of  the 
vilest  kind,  Jer.  3:9;  Ezek.  23  :  36-49. 

By  the  law  of  Moses,  both  the  man  and 
the  woman  who  had  committed  adultery 
were  punished  with  death  by  stoning.  Lev. 
20 :  10  .  Deut.  22  :  22-24 ;  John  8:5;  or  even 
by  fire.  Lev.  21:9.  See  Gen.  38:24.  A 
wroman  suspected  of  this  crime  might,  in 


order  to  clear  herself,  drink  the  "  water  of 
jealousy,"  as  prescribed  in  Num.  5.  By  our 
Saviour  adultery  only  is  made  a  sufficient 
ground  for  divorce.  Matt.  19:9. 

ADUM'MIM,  a  border  town  of  Benjamin 
and  Judah,  not  far  from  Jericho  on  the  road 
to  Jerusalem.  This  ascent  through  a  des- 
olate and  rocky  region.  Josh.  15:7;  18:17, 
furnished  many  lurking-places  for  robbers, 
and  was  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  para- 
ble. The  Good  Samaritan,  Luke  10. 

AD'VERSARY,  see  ACCUSER. 

AD"VOCATE,  or  Par'aclete,  one  that 
pleads  the  cause  of  another.  In  its  tech- 
nical sense,  the  office  was  unknown  to  the 
Jews  till  they  became  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans. See  Tertullus.  It  is  applied  to 
Christ  as  our  intercessor,  i  John  2:1;  com- 
pare Rom.  8  :  34  ;  Heb.  7  :  25  ;  and  to  the 
Holy  Spirit,  as  our  teacher  and  comforter, 
John  14  :  16;   15  :  26. 

.ffi'NEAS,  a  Greek,  or  Grecian  Jew,  at 
Lydda,  healed  of  palsy  by  Peter,  Acts  9: 

12»  34- 

.^'NON,  see  Enon. 

AFFIN'ITY,  I  Kin.  3:1,  relationship  by 
marriage,  as  consanguinity  is  relationship 
by  blood.  In  early  ages,  good  men  sought 
wives  among  their  kindred  who  worshipped 
the  true  God,  Gen.  11:29;  24:2-4;  28:2. 
The  degrees  within  which  relatives  were 
forbidden  by  the  Levitical  law  to  inter- 
marry may  be  found  in  Lev.  18. 

AG'ABUS,  locust"  a  prophet  "  of  the  early 
church,  perhaps  one  of  "the  70"  disciples 
of  Christ.  He  foretold  the  famine,  of  which 
Suetonius  and  others  speak,  in  the  days  of 
Claudius,  A.  D.  44.  It  was  very  severe  in 
Judaea ;  and  aid  was  sent  to  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  from  Antioch,  Acts  11:27-29. 
Many  years  after,  at  Csesarea,  Agabus  pre- 
dicted the  sufferings  of  Paul  at  the  hands 
of  the  Jews,  Acts  21  :  10. 

A'GAG,  flame,  a  general  name  of  the 
kings  of  the  Amalekites,  apparently  like 
Pharaoh  for  Egyptian  kings.  Num.  24 :  7 ; 
I  Sam.  15 : 8.  The  last  one  mentioned  in 
Scripture  was  "  hewed  in  pieces  "  by  Sam- 
uel, before  the  Lord.  He  seems  to  have 
incurred  an  uncommon  punishment  by  in- 
famous cruelties,  i  Sam.  15  :  33. 

Agagite,  in  Esther  3 :  i,  10 ;  8  : 3,  5,  is  used 
to  mark  the  nation  whence  Haman  sprang, 
and  to  account  for  his  hatred  of  the  Jews. 
Josephus  explains  the  word  by  Amalekite. 

AG' ATE,  a  precious  stone,  said  to  take 
its  name  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily, 
where  it  abounded.  Agates  are  semi-trans- 
parent, and  often  beautifully  veined   and 

17 


AGE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AHA 


clouded,  and  present  in  miniature  the  pic- 
ture of  many  natural  objects.  The  agate 
was  tlie  2d  stone  in  the  3d  row  of  the  higii- 
priest's  breastplate,  Exod.  28:19;  39:12. 
In  Isa.  54  :  12  and  Ezek.  27  :  16,  a  different 
Hebrew  word  is  used,  denoting  perhaps  the 
ruby. 

AGE.  Old  age,  serene  and  wise,  was  re- 
garded as  a  token  of  God's  favor.  Job  5 :  26 ; 
Zech.  S  :  4.  The  aged  were  venerated  for 
their  wisdom.  Job  15:10;  32:4;  and  the 
law  required  the  young  to  honor  them.  Lev. 
19:32.  See  I  Kin.  12:6-16;  Prov.  16:31; 
20 :  29. 

AG'RICULTURE.  In  early  ages  men 
lived  a  pastoral  life,  and  the  change  to  an 
agricultural  life  among  the  Jews  took  place 
on  their  settling  in  the  land  of  promise, 
where  each  family  received  an  inalienable 
inheritance,  Lev.  25:8-16,  23-35.  The  soil 
of  Palestine  amply  repaid  the  labor  and 
care  expended  upon  it — especially  requi- 
ring terraces  and  artificial  irrigation.  See 
Cana.\n.  There  are  frequent  allusions  in 
the  Bible  to  ploughing,  sowing,  watering, 
reaping,  threshing,  garnering,  etc. ;  it  was 
customary  to  watch  over  the  ripening  crop ; 
the  firstfruits  were  devoted  to  the  Lord,  as 
well  as  tithes  of  all ;  and  the  poor  were 
provided  for  by  the  divine  law,  Lev.  19:9; 
23  :  22  ;  Deut.  24  :  19-21  ;  Ruth  2  :  2,  7-9.  See 
Ploughing,  Threshing,  Rain,  Sabbati- 
cal Year. 

AGRIP'PA,  see  Herod  III.,  IV. 

A'GUR,  gatherer,  an  inspired  Hebrew, 
author  of  the  30th  chapter  of  Proverbs,  in- 
cori)orated  with  those  of  Solomon. 

A'HAB,  Kucle,  I.,  the  7th  king  of  Israel, 
succeeded  his  father  Omri  B.  C,  918,  and 
reigned  22  years.  No  king  of  the  Jews  has 
left  a  sadder  record.  His  wife  was  Jezebel, 
daughter  of  Ethbaal  king  of  Tyre ;  an  am- 
bitious and  passionate  idolatress,  through 
whose  influence  the  worship  of  Baal  and 
Ashtoreth  was  introduced  in  Israel.  Ahab 
erected  in  Samaria  a  house  of  Baal,  and  set 
up  images  of  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  ;  idolatry 
and  wickedness  became  fearfully  preva- 
lent, the  prophets  of  God  were  slain,  his 
worship  forbidden,  and  the  king  "  did  more 
to  provoke  the  Lord  to  anger  than  all  the 
kings  that  were  before  him."  In  the  midst 
of  this  great  ajiostasy,  God  visited  the  land 
with  3  years  of  drought  and  famine ;  and 
then,  at  Mount  Carmel,  reproved  idolatrj^ 
by  fire  from  heaven,  and  by  the  destruction 
of  450  prophets  of  Baal  and  400  of  Astarte. 
About  6  years  later,  Ben-hadad,  king  of 
Syria,  invaded  Israel  with  a  great  army, 
18 


but  was  ignominiously  defeated ;  and  still 
more  disastrously  the  year  after,  when  Ahab 
took  him  captive,  but  soon  released  him, 
and  thus  incurred  tiie  displeasure  of  God. 
In  spite  of  the  warnings  and  mercies  of 
Providence,  Ahab  went  on  in  sin ;  and  at 
length,  after  the  murder  of  Naboth,  near 
his  palace  in  Jezreel,  his  crimes  and  idola- 
tries were  such  that  God  sent  Elijah  to  de- 
nounce judgments  upon  him  and  his  seed. 
These  were  in  part  deferred,  however,  by 
his  apparent  humiliation.  Soon  after,  hav- 
ing gone  with  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah, 
to  regain  Ramoth-gilead  from  the  Syrians, 
and  joined  battle  with  them  in  defiance  of 
Jehovah,  he  was  slain,  and  dogs  licked  up 
his  blood  at  the  pool  of  Samaria,  i  Kin. 
16 :  29  to  22  :  40. 

II.  A  false  prophet,  who  seduced  the  Is- 
raelites at  Babylon,  and  was  denounced  by 
Jeremiah  and  burned  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Jer.  29:  21,  22. 

AHASUE'RUS,  litm-king,  a  royal  title, 
common  to  several  Median  and  Persian 
kings  named  in  Scripture.  I.  The  father 
of  Darius  the  Mede,  Dan.  9:1,  B.  C.  634. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  the 
name  here  designates  Astyages,  the  last 
independent  king  of  the  Medes,  father  of 
Darius,  who  is  the  Cyaxares  II.  of  Xeno- 
phon,  and  whose  daughter  Mandane  was 
the  mother  of  the  famous  Cyrus.  See  Cy- 
rus and  D.A.RIUS  I. 

II.  Mentioned  Ezra  4:6,  probably  Cam- 
byses,  the  son  and  successor  of  Cyrus,  who 
reigned  9  or  10  years  from  B.  C.  529.  He 
was  an  unscrupulous  despot,  and  a  mur- 
derer of  his  own  brother  and  sister.  He 
conquered  Egypt,  but  was  unsuccessful  in 
attempts  on  Ethiopia  and  Carthage.  His 
crimes  provoked  the  rebellion  in  which  the 
pseudo-Smerdis  secured  the  throne.  See 
Artaxerxes  I. 

III.  The  husband  of  Esther,  probably 
Xerxes,  the  2d  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis, 
and  father  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 
He  is  famous  for  his  invasion  of  Greece  at 
the  head  of  1,000,000  of  men,  and  his  defeat 
at  Thermopylae  and  Salamis,  whence  he 
returned,  in  the  7th  year  of  his  reign,  to 
seek  comfort  in  his  harem,  and  to  repair 
the  wastes  of  war  by  a  general  taxation, 
Esth.  10: 1.  The  Hebrew  word  for  Ahasu- 
erus  is  formed  from  the  Persian  name  of 
Xerxes ;  and  the  feast  in  his  3d  year,  and 
the  enlargement  of  his  harem,  Esth.  1:3; 
2  : 1-4,  sychronize  with  facts  stated  by  He- 
rodotus respecting  Xerxes.     See  Esther. 

AHA'VA,  water,  a  town  in  Chaldea,  and 


AHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AHI 


a  stream  on  the  banks  of  which  the  exiled 
Jews  assembled  their  2d  caravan  under 
Ezra,  when  returning  to  Jerusalem,  Ezra 
8 :  15,  21,  31.  It  may  be  the  modern  Hit  on 
the  Euphrates,  nearly  in  the  latitude  of 
Damascus  and  Bagdad. 

K"tiPi.Z,  possessor,  son  of  Jotham,  and  nth 
kingof  Judah.  He  ascended  the  throne  at 
20,  or,  as  some  ancient  texts  have  it,  25 
years  of  age,  and  reigned  16  years,  2  Kin. 
16:1,  2,  20,  B.  C.  741-725.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  idolatry  and  contempt  of 
the  true  God;  and  against  him  many  of  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah  are  directed,  Isa.  7, 
8,  9.  He  made  his  own  children  pass 
through  the  fire  to  idols ;  he  introduced  the 
Syrian  gods  into  Jerusalem,  altered  the 
temple  after  the  Syrian  model,  and  even 
closed  it  altogether.  Having  thus  forfeited 
the  aid  of  Jehovah,  he  met  various  repulses 
in  battle  with  Pekah  and  Rezin ;  the  Edom- 
ites  revolted,  and  the  Philistines  harassed 
his  borders.  He  turned  yet  more  away 
from  God  in  his  distress,  and  sought  aid 
from  Pul,  king  of  Assyria.  This  fatal  step 
made  him  tributary  to  Pul,  and  to  Tiglath- 
pileser  his  successor.  Ahaz  was  reduced 
to  great  extremities  in  buying  off  the  As- 
syrians ;  but  became  more  infatuated  still 
in  idolatry,  2  Kin.  23:  11,  12,  and  dying  in 
his  impiety  at  the  age  of  36,  was  refused  a 
burial  with  the  kings  his  ancestors,  2  Chr. 
28. 

AHAZI'AH,  upheld  by  the  Lord,  I.,  son 
and  successor  of  Ahab,  and  8th  king  of 
Israel,  i  Kin.  22:40,  51;  2  Kin.  i.  He 
reigned  2  years,  alone  and  with  his  father, 
who  associated  him  in  the  kingdom  the 
year  before  his  death,  B.  C.  896.  Ahaziah 
imitated  Ahab's  impiety,  and  worshipped 
Baal  and  Astarte,  whose  rites  had  been  in- 
troduced into  Israel  by  Jezebel  his  mother. 
During  his  reign  the  Moabites  revolted. 
Having  joined  king  Jehoshaphat  in  a  com- 
mercial enterprise  on  the  Red  Sea,  his  im- 
piety blasted  the  whole,  2  Chr.  20 :  35-37. 
After  a  fall  from  the  gallery  of  his  house, 
he  sent  to  consult  a  god  of  the  Philistines 
as  to  his  recovery.  Elijah  the  prophet  fore- 
told his  speedy  death — first  to  the  messen- 
gers, and  again  to  Ahaziah  himself,  after  2 
companies  of  50  had  been  consumed  by  fire 
from  heaven. 

II.  Otherwise  Jehoahaz,  or  Azariah,  king 
of  Judah,  son  of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah,  and 
5th  king  of  Judah;  he  succeeded  his  father 
B.  C.  885,  2  Kin.  8:25;  2  Chr.  22:2.  He 
was  22  years  of  age  when  he  ascended  the 
throne,  and  reigned  but  i  year  at  Jerusa- 


lem. He  followed  the  house  of  Ahab,  to 
which  he  was  allied  by  his  mother,  and  did 
evil.  He  met  his  death  at  the  hand  of 
Jehu,  while  visiting  Joram,  son  of  Ahab. 
The  2  accounts  of  his  death  do  not  neces- 
sarily conflict.  He  seems  to  have  escaped 
at  first  from  Jehu  and  concealed  himself  in 
Samaria;  then  to  have  been  seized  and 
brought  before  Jehu,  smitten  in  his  chariot 
at  Gur,  and  to  have  expired  at  Megiddo. 

AHI' AH,  brother  of  the  Lord,  son  of  Ahi- 
tub,  and  high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Saul, 

1  Sam.  14:3,  18.  He  was  probably  the  bro- 
ther of  his  successor  Ahimelech,  slain  by 
Saul,  I  Sam.  22  19. 

Pi.¥ll'}\ii,brotherof  the  Lord,  in  Shiloh, 
a  prophet  and  chronicler  of  the  times  of 
Solomon  and  Jeroboam,  i  Kin.  11:29;  2 
Chr.  9 :  29.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  person 
who  spoke  in  God's  name  to  Solomon  while 
building  the  temple,  i  Kin.  6:11;  and  again 
after  he  fell  into  sin,  i  Kin.  11  :  11.  He  no- 
tified Jeroboam  of  the  separation  of  Israel 
from  Judah,  and  of  the  foundation  of  his 
house — the  ruin  of  which  he  afterwards 
foretold,  i  Kin.  14:1-14.  He  was  fearless 
and  faithful. 

AHI' K AM,  brother  who  stands,  sent  by 
Josiah  to  Huldah  the  prophetess,  when  the 
book  of  the  law  was  found  in  the  temple, 

2  Kin.  22  :  12.  He  and  his  son  Gedaliah, 
afterwards  governor  of  Jerusalem,  nobly 
befriended  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  Jer.  26 : 

24  ;  39  :  14- 

AHIM'AAZ,  brother  0/ anger,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Zadok,  who  probably  became 
high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  David,  he  revealed  to  him 
the  counsels  of  Absalom  and  his  advisers 
in  rebellion,  2  Sam.  17:15-21;  and  con- 
veyed to  him  also  the  tidings  of  Absalom's 
defeat  and  death,  2  Sam.  18. 

AHIM'ELECH,  brother  of  the  king,  I.,  son 
of  Ahitub,  and  brother  of  Ahiah,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  the  high-priesthood.  Some 
think,  however,  that  both  names  belong  to 
the  same  person.  During  his  priesthood 
the  tabernacle  was  at  Nob;  where  Ahime- 
lech dwelt,  with  many  priests.  Here  he 
received  David  when  fleeing  from  Saul, 
and  gave  him  the  show-bread  and  Goliath's 
sword.  This  act,  as  reported  by  Doeg  the 
Edomite,  Saul  viewed  as  treasonous;  and 
by  the  hand  of  this  idolatrous  and  malig- 
nant foreigner  he  put  Ahimelech  and  85 
other  priests  of  Jehovah  to  death,  i  Sam. 
22 — a  crime  sufficient  of  itself  to  forfeit  the 
throne  and  the  favor  of  God. 

II.  Also  called  Ahimelech,  i  Chr.  18 :  16, 

19 


AHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALA 


probably  the  same  as  Abiathar,  which  see, 

1  Chr.  24:3,  6,  31. 

AHIN'OAM,  brother  of  grace,  I.,  daughter 
of  Ahimaaz,  and  wife  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  14:50. 

II.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  wife  of  David 
and  mother  of  Amnon,  i  Sam.  25  :  43  ;  27  : 3. 
She  was  taken  captive  by  the  Amalekites, 
at  Ziklag,  i  Sam.  30:5;  but  was  recovered 
by  David,  and  accompanied  him  to  Hebron, 

2  Sam.  2:2;  3:2. 

AHI'O,  brotherly,  a  son  of  Abinadab,  who 
went  before  the  ark  of  God  on  its  way  to 
Jerusalem  from  his  father's  house ;  thus 
escaping  the  fate  of  Uzzah  his  brother, 
2  Sam.  6:3,7;   I  Chr.  13  :  7. 

AHITH'OPHEL,  brother  of  folly,  a  native 
of  Giloh  in  Judah,  originally  one  of  David's 
most  intimate  and  valued  friends  and  coun- 
sellors, Psa.  41  :9;  2  Sam.  16:23;  ^ut  upon 
the  defection  and  rebellion  of  Absalom,  he 
espoused  the  cause  of  that  prince,  and  be- 
came one  of  David's  bitterest  enemies. 
Being  disappointed  that  Absalom  did  not 
follow  his  sagacious  advice,  and  foreseeing 
the  issue  of  the  rebellion,  he  hanged  him- 
self, 2  Sam.  15:12;  ch.  17;  Psa.  55:12-14. 
Ahithophel  seems  to  have  been  the  grand- 
father of  Bathsheba,  2  Sam.  23 :  34,  com- 
pared with  w.y,  and  the  loss  of  his  friend- 
ship may  have  been  one  of  David's  penal- 
ties for  wronging  Bathsheba. 

AHl'TUB,  brother  of  good?iess,  I.,  grand- 
son of  Kli,  and  son  of  Phinehas,  in  whose 
place  he  succeeded  to  the  high-priesthood 
on  the  death  of  Eli,  Phinehas  having  per- 
ished in  battle,  B.  C.  1141,  i  Sam.  4:  11. 

II.  Son  of  Amariah,  and  father  of  Zadok, 
2  Sam.  8:17;  I  Chr.  6:8. 

AHO'LAH,  her  tent,  and  AHOL'IBAH, 
my  tabernacle  in  her,  2  symbolical  names, 
adopted  by  Ezekiel,  23:4,  to  denote  the  2 
kingdoms  of  Samaria  and  Judah.  They 
are  represented  as  sisters,  and  of  Egyp- 
tian extraction.  The  allegory  is  a  history 
of  the  Jewish  church. 

AHOLIBA'MAH,  my  taberyiacle  is  on 
high,  also  called  Judith,  Gen.  26:34,  a  Hit- 
tite  woman  of  Mount  Hor,  one  of  the  3 
wives  of  Esau.  Her  3  sons  were  heads  of 
families  or  tribes  in  Edom,  Gen.  36  :  18. 

A'l,  ruins,  called  also  Hai,  Gen.  12:8; 
Aija,  Neh.  11  :  31 ;  and  Aiath,  Isa.  10:28.  A 
royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  east  of  Bethel, 
near  which  Abraham  once  sojourned  and 
built  an  altar,  Gen.  12:8;  13:3.  It  is  mem- 
orable for  Joshua's  defeat  on  account  of 
Achan,  and  his  subsequent  victory.  Josh. 
7  :  2-5 ;  8  : 1-29.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Isaiah. 


AI'JELETH-SHAHAR,  hind  of  the  morn- 
ing, in  the  title  of  Psalm  22,  is  conjectured 
to  denote  the  melody  to  which  the  Psalm 
was  sung. 

A'lN,  eye,  fountain,  spelt  En  in  the  Eng- 
lish Bible,  in  compound  words,  as  En-rogel. 
It  is  the  name  of  a  city  of  Judah,  afterwards 
assigned  to  Simeon,  Josh.  15:32;  1  Chr. 
4 :  32.  It  was  given  to  the  priests.  Josh. 
21 :  16 ;  and  called  Ashan  in  i  Chr.  6  :  59. 

Also  a  place  in  the  north  of  Canaan,  west 
of  Riblah,  Num.  34:11. 

AIR.  The  air  or  atmosphere  surround- 
ing the  earth  is  often  denoted  by  the  word 
heaven;  so  "the  fowls  of  heaven"  means 
the  birds  of  the  air. 

To  "beat  the  air,"  and  to  "  speak  in  the 
air,"  I  Cor.  9 :  26 ;  14  :  9,  signify  to  speak  or 
act  without  judgment,  or  to  no  purpose. 
"  The  powers  of  the  air,"  Eph.  2  :  2,  proba- 
bly means  devils — many  Jews,  and  heathen 
also,  regarding  the  lower  part  of  the  atmos- 
phere as  the  home  of  spirits,  especially  evil 
spirits.  Yet  Paul  does  not  say  that  this  is 
his  belief. 

AJ'ALON,  or  Aijalon,  place  of  gazelles. 
I.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  assigned  to 
the  Levites,  sons  of  Kohath,  Josh.  19:42; 
21:24;  Judg.  1:35,  and  a  city  of  refuge. 
It  was  not  far  from  Timnath,  and  was  ta- 
ken by  the  Philistines  from  Ahaz,  2  Chr. 
28 :  18.  It  lay  on  the  south  side  of  a  fine 
valley,  not  far  from  the  valley  of  Gibeon, 
and  is  recognized  fn  the  modern  village  of 
Yalo,  near  the  road  to  Jaffa,  some  14  miles 
from  Jerusalem.  The  valley  is  the  place 
where  Joshua  commanded  the  sun  and 
moon  to  stand  still,  and  they  obeyed  him. 
Josh.  10: 12.     See  also  i  Sam.  14:31. 

II.  A  town  in  Benjamin,  some  3  miles 
east  of  Bethel.  It  was  fortified  by  Rehobo- 
am,  2  Chr.  11 :  10.  Some  regard  this  as  the 
same  place  as  the  above,  in  possession  of 
different  tribes  at  different  times,  i  Chr. 
6 :  66,  69. 

III.  In  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  the  place  of 
Elon's  burial,  Judg.  12  :  12. 

AKRAB'BIM,  scorpions,  a  point  in  the 
south  frontier  line  of  Judah,  Judg.  i :  36,  and 
in  a  region  infested  with  serpents  and  scor- 
pions, Deut.  8  :  15.  Robinson  identifies  it 
with  a  line  of  cliffs  running  across  the  val- 
ley El-Ghor,  some  8  miles  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea:  it  is  from  50  to  150  feet  high,  and  7 
miles  long.  In  Josh.  15:3,  it  is  called  Maa- 
leh-acrabbim,  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim. 

AL'ABASTER,  from  Alabastron  in  Egypt ; 
a  sort  of  stone,  of  fine  texture,  either  the 
white  gypsum,  a  sulphate  of  lime,  or  the 


ALA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALE 


onyx-alabaster,  a  hard  carbonate  of  lime, 
having  the  color  of  the  human  nail,  and 
nearly  allied  to  marble.  This  material 
being  very  generally  used  to  fabricate  ves- 
sels for  holding  unguents  and  perfumed 
liquids,  many  vessels  were  called  alabas- 
ter though  made  of  a  different  substance, 


EGYPTIAN   BOTTLES. 

as  gold,  silver,  glass,  etc.  In  Matt.  26 : 6,  7, 
we  reaci  that  Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus,  John 
12:3,  poured  an  alabaster  box  of  precious 
ointment  on  Christ's  head.  Mark  says 
"  she  brake  the  box,"  or  the  neck  of  the 
flask ;  which  may  indicate  her  eagerness 
in  honoring  Christ,  or  that  the  seal  which 
kept  the  perfume  from  evaporating  had 
never  been  removed — it  was  on  this  occa- 
sion first  opened.  See  Cruse,  Spikenard. 
AL'AMOTH,  virgins,  a  musical  term,  in- 
dicating probably  music  for  female  voices, 
Psa.  46,  title ;  i  Chr.  15  :  20. 


ALEXAN'DER,  helper  of  men,  I.,  the 
Great,  the  famous  son  and  successor  of 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  He  is  alluded 
to  in  Dan.  7:6;  8:4-7,  under  the  figures  of 
a  leopard  with  4  wings,  and  a  one-horned 
he-goat,  representing  the  swiftness  and  ex- 
tent of  his  conquests  and  his  great  strength. 
He  was  appointed  by  God  to  destroy  the 
Persian  Empire  and  substitute  the  Grecian. 
In  the  statue  seen  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
his  dream,  Dan.  2  :  39,  the  belly  of  brass 
was  the  emblem  of  Alexander,  and  the  legs 
of  iron  the  Roman  power.   See  Darius  III. 


He  succeeded  his  father  B.  C.  336,  and 
within  12  years  overran  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt,  founded  Alexandria,  conquered 
the  Persians,  and  penetrated  far  into  the 
Indies.  It  is  related  by  Josephus  that  he 
visited  Jerusalem,  and  was  appeased  by  the 
high-priest  Jaddua,  Neh.  12:11,  22,  whom 
he  had  seen  in  a  vision  ;  and  that  he  offered 
sacrifices  in  the  temple,  heard  the  proph- 
ecies of  Daniel  concerning  him,  and  con- 
ferred favors  on  the  Jews  in  Judaea  and 
Babylonia.  He  died  at  Babylon  at  the  age 
of  32,  from  the  effects  of  intemperance,  and 
left  his  vast  empire  to  be  divided  among 
his  4  generals.  The  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander, by  giving  the  Greek  language  and 
civilization  such  an  ascendancy  in  Pales- 
tine and  the  countries  around  it,  wonder- 
fully prepared  the  way  for  the  diffusion  of 
the  gospel.  The  Septuagint  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  200  years  before  Christ,  was 
in  general  use  among  Hellenistic  Jews  ;  and 
the  New  Testament  writers  found  in  this 
widely-diffused  language  the  best  means  of 
making  this  new  revelation  known  to  the 
world.     See  Alexandria,  Talent. 

II.  Son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian,  Mark 
15:21,  apparently  one  of  the  more  promi- 
nent early  Christians. 

III.  One  of  the  council  which  condemned 
Peter  and  John,  Acts  4 : 6. 

IV.  A  Jew  of  Ephesus,  who  sought  in  vain 
to  quiet  the  popular  commotion  respecting 
Paul,  Acts  19  :  33. 

V.  A  coppersmith,  and  apostate  from 
Christianity,  i  Tim.  i  :  20  ;  2  Tim.  4  :  14. 

ALEXAN'DRIA,  Acts  6:9,  a  celebrated 
city  in  Lower  Egypt,  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  lake  Mareotis,  12  miles 
from  the  most  westerly  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
It  was  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.  C.  332,  and  peopled  by  colonies  of  Greeks 
and  Jews;  it  was  the  early  home  of  Apol- 
los,  Acts  8  :  24.  Alexandria  rose  rapidly  to 
a  state  of  prosperity,  becoming  the  centre 
of  commercial  intercourse  between  the  East 
and  the  West,  Acts  27 : 6 ;  28  :  11 ,  and  in  pro- 
cess of  time  was,  in  point  both  of  magnitude 
and  wealth,  second  only  to  Rome  itself.  The 
ancient  city  was  about  15  miles  in  circuit, 
peopled  by  300,000  free  citizens  and  as 
many  slaves.  From  the  gate  of  the  sea  ran 
one  magnificent  street,  2,000  feet  broad, 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  city,  to  the 
gate  of  Canopus,  affording  a  view  of  the 
shipping  in  the  port,  whether  north  in  the 
Mediterranean,  or  south  in  the  noble  basin 
of  the  Mareotic  lake,  connected  with  the 
Mediterranean  by  2  canals.    Another  street 

21 


ALE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALE 


ANCIENT 

ALEXANDRIA 


/B"°"g-a 


Necropolis 


CD  ■    [=1       Lej  -k 

Faiuiun  ■■Gymnasium  Hall  of  Justire  /^ 
(Dic'ixsterium) 


locJi^'ai'ds 

QUARTER 

®  D  n-nujatre 

*  Stadiam        ^s 


nr 


of  equal  width  intersected  this  at  right  an- 
gles, in  a  square  half  a  league  in  circumfer- 
ence. A  magnificent  lighthouse,  one  of  the 
7  "wonders  of  the  world,"  stood  opposite 
the  citj-,  on  an  island  named  Pharos. 

Upon  the  death  of  Alexander,  whose  body 
was  deposited  in  this  new  city,  Ale.xandria 
became  the  capital  of  Egypt,  under  the  Ptol- 
emies, and  rose  to  its  highest  splendor  in 
the  reign  of  the  first  3  princes  of  this  name. 
The  most  celebrated  philosophers  from  the 
East,  as  well  as  from  Greece  and  Rome, 
resorted  thither  for  itistruction;  and  emi- 
nent men,  in  every  department  of  knowl- 
edge, were  found  within  its  walls.  Ptolemj' 
Soter,  the  ist  of  that  line  of  kings,  formed 
the  museum,  the  library  of  700,000  volumes, 
and  several  other  splendid  works.  Clem- 
ent and  Origen  were  born  there.  At  the 
death  of  Cleopatra,  B.  C.  26,  Alexandria 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  ;  and 
was  taken  in  A.  D.  640  by  the  Saracens 
under  Caliph  Omar,  and  its  library  de- 
stroyed. 

The   present   Alexandria,    called    Skan- 

deria,  occupies  only  about  the  8tli  part  of 

the  site  of  the  ancient  city.     The  splendid 

temples  have  been  exchanged  for  wretched 

22 


mosques  and  miserable  churches,  and  the 
magnificent  palaces  for  mean  and  ill-built 
dwellings.  But  of  late  it  has  become  a 
great  commercial  mart,  and  is  growing 
rapidly.  Manj'  old  streets  are  so  narrow 
that  the  inhabitants  can  la\-  miits  of  reeds 
from  one  roof  to  the  opposite,  to  j^rotect 
them  from  the  scorching  sun.  The  popu- 
lation of  240,000  consists  of  Tuiks,  Arabs, 
Copts,  Jews,  and  Armenians.  Many  Euro- 
peans liave  counting-houses  here,  and  ex- 
change European  for  Oriental  merclian- 
dise.  One  of  the  famous  obelisks  that  for 
many  years  stood  in  its  suburbs  was  re- 
moved to  London  in  1877,  and  the  other  to 
New  York  in  1880. 

The  Greek  or  Alexandrian  version  of  the 
Scriptures  was  made  here  bj'  learned  Jews, 
72  in  number,  according  to  the  doubtful 
story  of  Josephus,  and  hence  it  is  called  the 
Septuagint,  or  version  of  the  70.  The  Jews 
established  themselves  in  great  numbers 
in  this  city  very  soon  after  it  was  founded. 
Josephus  says  that  Alexander  himself  as- 
signed to  them  a  particular  quarter  of  the 
city,  and  allowed  them  equal  rights  with 
the  Greeks.  Philo,  who  himself  lived  there 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  affirms  that,  of  5  parts 


ALG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALM 


of  the  city,  the  Jews  inhabited  2.  Jews 
from  Alexandria  had  a  synagogue  in  Jeru- 
salem, Acts  6 : 9. 

AL'GUM,  see  Almug. 

ALL  is  sometimes  used,  as  the  context 
shows,  in  a  general,  not  a  literally  univer- 
sal sense,  Exod.  9:6;  Matt.  3:5;  10 :  22. 

AL'LEGORY,  a  figurative  mode  of  dis- 
course, which  employs  terms  literally  be- 
longing to  one  thing,  in  order  to  express 
another.  It  is  like  a  prolonged  metaphor. 
Such  are  Nathan's  address  to  David,  2  Sam. 
12: 1-14,  Psalm  So,  and  our  Lord's  parable 
of  the  sower,  Luke  8  : 5-15.  "  Which  things 
are  an  allegory,"  Gal.  4:24,  means  that 
these  events  in  the  life  of  Isaac  and  Ish- 
mael  have  been  allegorically  applied. 

ALLELU'IA,  see  Hallelu'jah. 

ALLI'ANCE  with  the  heathen,  either  by 
family  and  social  intimacy  or  by  entang- 
ling political  ties,  was  strictly  forbidden  to 
God's  peculiar  people,  Ezra  9:2;  Neh.  13: 
23-27 ;  and  in  a  special  degree  as  to  the 
ancient  Canaanites,  Deut.  7:3-6;  Judg.  2: 
2,  3.  Hebrews,  however,  sometimes  mar- 
ried converts  from  heathenism,  as  notably 
Rahab  and  Ruth  ;  and  they  were  enjoined 
to  maintain  peaceful  and  friendly  relations 
with  other  nations.  But  whenever  they 
went  beyond  this,  idolatry,  corruption,  and 
trouble  ensued;  as  from  Solomon's  allian- 
ces with  Egypt,  I  Kin.  10:28,  29;  11:  i-ii. 
See  also  2  Kin.  16:8-10;  17:4-18.  See 
Covenant. 

AL'LON-BACHUTH',  oak  of  weeping ; 
the  spot  where  Rebekah's  nurse  was  bur- 
ied. Gen.  35:8.     See  Rebekah. 

ALL  TO,  an  old  English  expression,  giv- 
ing additional  force  to  a  verb.  "  All  to 
brake  his  skull,"  Judg.  9:53,  thoroughlj' 
broke  or  crushed  it. 

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM,  covering  of  two 
cakes,  one  of  the  latest  encampments  of  the 
Israelites  on  their  way  from  Mount  Hor  to 
the  plains  of  Moab,  next  before  the  mount- 
ains called  Abarim,  Num.  33:46. 

AL'MOND-TREE,  Gen.  43  :  11.  This  tree 
resembles  a  peach-tree,  but  is  larger.  In 
Palestine  it  blossoms  in  January,  and  in 
March  has  fruit.  Its  blossoms  are  pinkish 
white.  Its  Hebrew  name  signifies  to  zvatch 
and  hasten,  and  to  this  there  is  an  allusion 
in  Jer.  i :  11,  12.  Aaron's  rod  was  from  an 
almond,  Num.  17:8.  In  Eccl.  12:5,  the 
hoary  head  is  beautifully  compared  with 
the  almond-tree,  either  on  account  of  its 
whiteness,  beauty,  and  winter  blossoming, 
or  the  hastening  on  of  decay.  The  golden 
bowls  of  the  sacred  candlestick  were  made 


ALMOND-TREE  :    AMVGDALUS    COMMUNIS. 

"  like  ailmonds,  with  their  knops  and  their 
flowers,"  Exod.  25:33,  34. 


LEAF,  FLOWER,  AND  FRUIT  OF  THE  ALMOND. 

ALMS,  see   Poor   and   Tithes.     Alms- 
giving  is    a    Christian    duty,    Acts    10 :  31 ; 

1  John  3 :  17,  not  to  be  practised  ostenta- 
tiously, Matt.  6:1-4,  noi'  indiscriminately, 

2  Thess.   3:10;    but  systematically,  i  Cor. 
16 : 1-4,  and  liberally,  2  Cor.  9:6;  Psa.  41 :  i. 

23 


ALM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALT 


AL'MUG,  or  AL'GUM,  a  kind  of  wood 
which  Hiram  brought  from  Ophir  for  the 
use  of  Solomon  in  making  pillars  for  the 
temple  and  his  own  house,  and  also  musi- 


sandal-wood:  santalum  album. 

cal  instruments,  i  Kin.  lo:  ii ;  2  Chr.  2:8; 
9:  10,  II.  Perhaps  what  is  now  commonly 
called  Brazil  wood,  which  is  also  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  Siam,  the  Molucca  isl- 
ands, and  Japan,  and  has  several  species. 
Its  wood  is  very  durable,  and  is  used  in 
fine  cabinet  work. 

AL'OES,  or  more  properly,  Aloe,  a  tree 
of  tropical  Asia,  yielding  a  rich  perfume. 
Num.  24:6;  Psa.  45:8;  Prov.  7:17;  Song 
4 :  14.  It  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Agallo- 
chon,  and  is  known  to  moderns  by  the 
names  of  lign-aloe,  paradise-wood,  eagle- 
wood,  etc.  Botanists  distinguish  several 
kinds :  one  grows  in  Cochin-China,  Siam, 
and  China;  and  another  in  Northern  In- 
dia. The  tree  is  rejiresented  as  large,  with 
an  erect  trunk  and  lofty  branches.  Aloe- 
wood  is  said  by  Herodotus  to  have  been 
used  by  the  Egyptians  for  embalming  dead 
bodies,  and  Nicodemus  brought  it,  mingled 
with  myrrh,  to  embalm  the  body  of  our 
Lord,  John  19:39.  This  i)erfume  is  not  the 
aloes  of  apothecaries. 

AL'PHA,  see  the  letter  A. 

ALPH.ffi'US,  clians^in^,  I.,  father  of  the 
apostle  James  the  Less,  Matt.  10:3,  Luke 
6:15,  and  husband  of  the  Mary  regarded 
by  many  as  sister  to  the  mother  of  Christ, 
John  19:25.  See  Mary,  I.  and  III.  Com- 
paring John  19:25  with  Luke  24:18  and 
Matt.  10  : 3,  it  seems  probable  that  Alphaeus 
24 


is  the  same  as  Cleophas ;  Alphaeus  being 
his  Greek  name,  and  Cleopiias  or  Clopas 
his  Hebrew  or  Syriac  name. 

II.  Father  of  Matthew,  or  Levi,  the  evan- 
gelist, Mark  2: 14. 

AL'TAR,  a  table -like  structure  on 
which  sacrifices  and  incense  were  of- 
fered, built  of  various  materials,  usually 
of  stone,  but  sometimes  of  brass,  etc. 
Sacrifices  were  offered  long  before  the 
flood,  Gen.  4  :  3,  4  ;  but  the  first  men- 
tion of  an  altar  in  Scripture  is  when 
Noah  left  the  ark,  (len.  8:20.  Altars 
were  reared  by  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Moses.  The  latter  built  an  altar  of 
earth,  Exod.  20:24.  If  stone  was  em- 
ployed, it  must  be  rough  and  unhewn, 
probably  lest  the  practice  of  sculpture 
should  lead  them  to  violate  the  2d  com- 
mandment. It  was  not  to  be  furnished 
with  steps,  Deut.  27 : 2-6.  From  the  first, 
the  altar  seems  to  have  been  the  centre 
around  which  all  religious  services  clus- 
tered, even  before  the  Jewish  ritual  was 
ordained. 

The  altars  in  the  Jewish  tabernacle, 

and  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  were  the 

following:    i.  The  altar  of  burnt-offerings. 

2.  The  altar  of  incense.     3.  The  table  of 

show-bread,  for  which  see  Bread. 


I.  The  Altar  of  Burnt -offeri.ngs 
was  a  kind  of  hollow  coffer  of  shittim-wood 
covered  with  brass  plates,  about  7  feet  6 
inches  square,  and  4  feet  6  inches  in  height, 
and  was  without  steps,  E.xod.  20 :  26.  At 
the  four  corners  were  4  horns  or  elevations, 
Psa.  118:27.  It  ^^'^s  portable,  and  had 
rings  and  staves  for  bearing  it,  E.\.  27,  38. 
It  was  placed  in  the  court  before  the  taber- 
nacle, towards  the  east.  Its  furniture  was 
of  brass,  and  consisted  of  a  pan  for  the 
ashes  that  fell  through  the  grating ;  shov- 
els :   basins  for  the  blood  with  which  the 


ALT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AMA 


altar  was  sprinkled  ;  and  forks,  to  turn  and 
remove  the  pieces  of  flesh  upon  the  coals ; 
also  flesh-hooks  and  censers.  The  fire  was 
a  perpetual  one,  kindled  miraculously,  and 
carefully  cherished.  Lev.  6:12,  13;  9:24. 
Upon  this  altar  the  lamb  of  the  daily  morn- 
ing and  evening  sacrifice  was  offered,  and 
the  other  stated  and  voluntary  blood-sac- 
rifices and  meat  and  drink  offerings.  To 
this  also  certain  fugitives  were  allowed  to 
flee  and  find  protection,  Exod.  21  :  13,  14; 
I  Kin.  1 :  50.  The  altar  in  Solomon's  tem- 
ple was  larger,  being  at  least  30  feet 
square  and  15  feet  high,  2  Chr.  4:1.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  covered  with  thick 
plates  of  brass  and  filled  with  stones,  with 
an  ascent  on  the  east  side.  It  is  often 
called  "the  brazen  altar,"  Exod.  38  :3o. 


2.  The  Altar  of  Incense,  or  Golden 
Altar,  Exod.  39:38,  was  a  small  table  of 
shittim-wood,  covered  with  plates  of  gold ;  it 
was  iS  inches  square  and  3  feet  high,  Exod. 
30;  37:25,  etc.  At  the  4  corners  were  4 
horns,  and  all  around  its  top  was  a  little 
border  or  crown.  On  each  side  were  2 
rings,  into  which  staves  might  be  inserted 
for  carrying  it.  It  stood  in  the  Holy  place  ; 
not  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  but  before  it, 
between  the  golden  candlestick  and  the 
table  of  show-bread,  and  the  priests  burned 
incense  upon  it  every  morning  and  even- 
ing. So  Zacharias,  Luke  i  :9,  11.  No  other 
offering  was  permitted,  Exod.  30:9,  except 
yearly  at  the  Feast  of  Atonement,  Lev.  16: 
18,  19.     See  Temple. 

Altar  at  Athens,  inscribed  "to  the  un- 
known God,"  Acts  17:23.  It  is  certain, 
both  from  Paul's  assertion  and  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Greek  writers  Pausanias  and 
Philostratus,  that  altars  to  an  unknown  god 
or  gods  existed  at  Athens.  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius  states  that  amid  the  terrors  of  a  plague 


sheep  were  let  loose  in  the  streets,  and  sac- 
rificed at  the  shrine  near  which  they  lay 
down.  If  some  of  these  stopped  where  no 
altar  was  nigh,  the  people  would  offer  them 
to  appease  the  "  unknown  God  "  who  abode 
on  that  spot,  and  whose  power  they  hoped 
would  do  what  their  known  gods'  could 
not ;  for  many  things  reveal  the  conscious- 
ness we  know  they  must  have  had  of  the 
need  of  some  God  to  adore  and  trust  of 
vaster  and  nobler  attributes  than  heathen- 
ism could  boast. 

AL-TAS'CHITH,  destroy  not,  supposed  to 
be  the  first  words  of  some  familiar  refrain, 
to  which  the  Psalms  57,  58,  59,  and  75  were 
to  be  sung. 

AM'ALEK,  a  people  that  licks  up,  son  of 
Eliphaz,  grandson  of  Esau,  and  one  of  the 
princes  of  Edom,  Gen.  36  :  12,  16.  It  is  not 
certain  that  any  distinct  mention  is  made 
in  the  Bible  of  his  posterity,  people  called 
Amalekites  being  in  existence  long  be- 
fore. Gen.  14:7;  Num.  24:20.  A  rem- 
nant of  them  may  be  referred  to  in  i  Chr. 

4:43- 

AM'ALEKITES,  a  powerful  people,  who 
dwelt  in  Arabia  Petrsea,  between  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  Red  Sea,  Num.  13 :  29 ;  and  it 
does  not  appear  that  they  possessed  many 
cities,  though  one  is  mentioned  in  i  Sam. 
15 : 5.  They  lived  generally  in  migrating 
parties,  in  caves  or  in  tents,  like  the  Bed- 
ouin Arabs  of  the  present  day,  Judg.  6 :  5. 
The  Israelites  had  scarcely  passed  the  Red 
Sea  when  the  Amalekites  attacked  them  in 
the  desert  of  Rephidim ;  and  for  this  un- 
provoked assault  on  the  people  of  God  the 
doom  of  extermination  was  passed  upon 
them,  Exod.  17  : 8-16.  They  came  again  into 
conflict  with  a  part  of  the  Israelites  on  the 
border  of  the  promised  land.  Num.  14  :  45, 
and  in  the  days  of  Ehud  and  Gideon,  Judg. 
3:13;  6:3;  and  after  400  years  Saul  at- 
tacked and  destroyed  them  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  Lord,  i  Sam.  15.  A  remnant, 
however,  escaped  and  subsisted  after- 
wards ;  David  defeated  them  on  several 
occasions,  i  Sam.  27:8;  30:1;  2  Sam.  8: 
12;  and  they  were  finally  blotted  out  in 
fulfilment  of  the  prediction  of  Balaam, 
Num.  24:20.  Haman,  the  last  of  the  race 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  perished  like  his 
fathers,  in  conflict  with  the  Jews.  See 
Agag  and  the  book  of  Esther. 

AM'ANA,  confirmation,  the  southern  part 
or  summit  of  Anti-Lebanon,  adjacent  to 
and  north  of  Hermon,  from  which  the  river 
Amana  or  Abana  poured  down  towards 
Damascus,  Song  4  :  8. 

25 


AMA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AME 


AMARI'AH,  the  Lord  says,  I.,  son  of  Me- 
raioth,  a  descendant  of  Aaron  in  the  line  of 
Eleazar.  He  was  the  father  of  Ahitub  (II.), 
and  grandfather  of  Zadok,  in  whose  person 
the  high-priesthood  was  restored  to  that 
line,  I  Chr.  6 :  7,  52. 

II.  High-priest  at  a  later  period,  a  son 
of  Azariah,  and  father  of  another  Ahitub, 

1  Chr.  6:11.  In  like  manner,  in  the  same 
list  there  are  3  persons  named  Azariah. 

AM'ASA,  a  burden,  I.,  David's  nephew, 
the  son  of  Abigail,  David's  sister,  and  Je- 
ther,  an  Ishmaelite.  His  parentage  may- 
have  led  David  to  show  him  less  favor  than 
his  other  nephews,  and  this  may  have  dis- 
posed him  to  join  in  the  rebellion  of  Absa- 
lom. He  was  the  general  of  Absalom's 
army,  and  was  defeated  by  his  cousin  Joab, 

2  Sam.  17,  i8.  David  afterwards  offered 
him  a  pardon  and  the  command  of  his 
troops  in  the  place  of  Joab,  whose  over- 
bearing conduct  he  could  no  longer  endure, 
2  Sam.  19 :  13.  But  in  the  confusion  of  She- 
ba's  rebellion,  Amasa  was  treacherously 
murdered  by  his  powerful  rival,  2  Sam. 
20:4-10.     B.  C.  1022. 

II.  A  chief  of  Ephraim,  who  opposed  re- 
taining as  bondsmen  the  men  of  Judah 
taken  captive  in  a  war  with  Pekah  king  of 
Israel,  2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

AMA'SAI,  burdensome,  a  Levite,  father 
of  Mahath  and  ancestor  of  Samuel  and 
Ethan  the  singer,  i  Chr.  6:25,  35,  who 
joined  David  with  30  gallant  men,  while  in 
the  desert  flying  from  Saul,  i  Chr.  12: 
16-18. 

AMAZI'AH,  the  strensrth  of  the  Lord,  I., 
9th  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Joash,  began  to 
reign  B.  C.  837,  at  the  age  of  25,  and  reigned 
29  years  in  Jerusalem.  He  did  good  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not  with  a  perfect 
heart.  Having  established  himself  in  his 
throne  and  slain  the  murderers  of  his  fa- 
ther, he  mustered  a  host  of  300,000  men  of 
Judah,  and  hired  100,000  men  of  Israel,  for 
a  war  upon  Edom.  These  hired  forces  he 
reluctantly  dismissed  at  the  command  of 
God,  who  gave  him  the  victory  without 
their  aid.  But  this'  did  not  prevent  him 
from  carrying  home  with  him  the  idols  of 
Edom,  and  setting  them  up  as  gods.  For 
this  defiance  of  Jehovah  he  was  threatened 
with  destruction  by  a  ])rophet  of  the  Lord  ; 
and  soon  after  went  headlong  into  war 
with  Joash  king  of  Israel,  in  which  he  was 
defeated  and  humbled,  being  taken  to  his 
own  capital  as  a  captive,  and  obliged  to 
ransom  himself  by  treasures  and  hostages. 
Fifteen  vears  after,  he  was  slain  bv  con- 
26 


spirators,  after  flying  to  Lachish  to  escape 
them,  2  Kin.  14: 1-20;  2  Chr.  25. 

II.  A  priest  of  the  golden  calf  at  Bethel, 
who  denounced  the  prophet  Amos  to  Jero- 
boam II.,  and  sought  to  banish  him  into 
Judah  for  his  fidelity,  Amos  7:  10-17. 

AMBASS'ADORS  were  sent  by  the  Jews 
to  foreign  nations,  not  as  permanent  rep- 
resentatives, but  only  as  occasion  required, 
in  peace,  2  Kin.  14 : 8 ;  16:7;  18 :  14,  as  well 
as  in  war,  Num.  20:14;  21:21;  1  Kin.  20: 
2,  6.  They  were  usually  men  of  note,  and 
their  persons  were  held  sacred,  and  indig- 
nities to  them  avenged,  2  Sam.  10:1-5; 
I  13:26-31.  Ministers  are  Christ's  ambassa- 
;  dors,  2  Cor.  5  :  20 ;  Eph.  6  :  20. 

AM'BER.  The  Hebrew  word  chashmal 
is  translated  by  the  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate eleclrum,  amber,  and  may  denote 
either  amber  itself  or  a  very  brilliant  am- 
ber-like metal,  composed  of  i  jiart  silver 
and  4  parts  gold,  which  was  much  prized 
in  antiquity,  Ezek.  1:4,  27;  8:2.  Others, 
as  Bochart,  refer  here  to  a  mixture  of  gold 
and  brass,  which  exhibited  a  high  degree 
of  lustre.  Something  similar  to  this  was 
probably  also  the  "fine  brass  "  in  Ezra  8 : 
27 ;  Rev.  1:15. 

Pi'Ul'Eli' ,  Jirm,  faitlt/nl,  and  true;  used 
as  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  and  a  substan- 
tive. God  is  called  "  the  God  of  Amen'' — • 
truth,  in  Isa.  65 :  16.  So  in  Rev.  3  :  14,  our 
Lord  is  called  "the  Amen,  the  faithful  and 
true  Witness,"  where  the  last  words  ex- 
plain the  preceding  appellation.  See  2  Cor. 
I  :  20.  In  its  adverbial  use  it  means  cer- 
tainly, truly,  surely.  It  is  used  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  sentence  by  way  of  emphasis, 
frequently  by  our  Saviour,  and  is  transla- 
ted Verily.  In  John's  Gospel  alone  it  is 
often  used  in  this  way  double :  Verily,  ver- 
ily. At  the  end  of  a  sentence  it  is  often 
used,  singly  or  repeated,  especially  at  the 
end  of  hymns  and  prayers ;  as,  "  Amen  and 
Amen,"  Psa.  41:13;  72:19:  89:52.  This 
was  the  custom  of  the  Jews,  in  private;  and 
of  the  early  Christians,  Matt.  6:13;  i  Cor. 
14 :  16.  The  proper  signification  of  it  here 
is,  to  confirm  the  words  which  have  prece- 
ded, assert  the  sincerity,  and  invoke  the 
fulfilment  of  them:  So  it  is.  So  be  it,  Let  it 
be  done.  Hence,  in  oaths,  after  the  priest 
has  repeated  the  words  of  the  covenant  or 
imprecation,  all  those  who  pronounce  the 
Amen  bind  themselves  by  the  oath,  Num. 
5:22;  Deut.  27:15,  etc;  Neh.  5:13;  8:6; 
I  Chron.  16:36.     Compare  Psa.  106:48. 

AMERCE',  to  punish  by  a  fine,  Deut.  22: 
19.    Tile  term  implied  that  the  debtor  stood 


AME 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AMO 


"at  the  mercy"  of  the  creditor,  who  could 
pardon  him  if  he  pleased. 

AM'ETHYST,  a  precious  stone  of  a  violet- 
blue  color,  verging  towards  a  purple.  It  is 
seldom  uniform  in  color,  and  is  generally 
cloudy  and  spotted  with  zigzag  stripes.  It 
is  highly  prized,  Exod.  28:  19;   Rev.  21 :2o. 

AM'MI,  my  people,  and  RUHA'MAH,  haz'- 
ing  oblained  mercy,  were  figurative  names 
for  God's  covenant  people;  the  word  Lo, 
not,  prefixed,  gave  these  words  the  oppo- 
site signification,  Hos.  2  :  i. 

AMMIN'ADAB,  my  people  is  liberal,  I.,  a 
son  of  Aram,  a  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  father  of  Nahshon,  He  was  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  Christ;  and  his  daughter  Eli- 
sheba  was  the  wife  of  Aaron,  Exod.  6  :  23  ; 
Ruth  4  :  20 ;  Matt,  i :  4. 

II.  A  son  of  Kohath,  i  Chr.  6:22.  "The 
chariots  of  Amminadib,"  Song  6:12,  were 
very  light  and  swift,  in  allusion  perhaps 
to  some  noted  charioteer  of  that  day. 

AM'MONITES,  the  descendants  of  Am- 
nion, or  Ben-Ammi,  a  son  of  Lot,  Gen.  19: 
38.  Their  history  throughout  is  involved 
with  that  of  their  brethren  the  Moabites. 
They  destroyed  an  ancient  race  of  giants 
called  Zamzummim,  and  seized  their  coun- 
try, which  lay  east  of  Judaea,  Deut.  2  :  19-21. 
Their  territory  extended  from  the  Arnon 
to  the  Jabbok,  and  from  the  Jordan  a  con- 


siderable distance  into  Arabia.  Their  cap- 
ital city  was  Rabbah  (also  called  Rabbath 
Amnion,  and  afterwards  Philadelphia), 
which  stood  on  the  Jabbok.  Yet  in  the 
time  of  Moses  they  had  been  driven  out  of 
this  region,  towards  the  east,  by  the  Am- 
orites.  Num.  21  :  21-35;  32:33.  Moses  was 
forbidden  to  assail  them,  Deut.  2  :  19.  They 
were  gross  idolaters;  their  chief  idol  being 
Moloch,  I  Kin.  1 1 : 5-7  ;  2  Kin.  23 :  13.  They 
were  a  predatory  race,  fierce  and  cruel, 
I  Sam.  11:2;  Amos  1:13;  and  were  early 
enemies  of  the  Israelites,  whom  they  op- 
pressed in  the  time  of  Jephthah,  and  were 
defeated  by  him  with  great  slaughter,  Deut. 
23:3-6;  Judg.  11;  and  afterwards  by  Saul, 

1  Sam.  11: 11;  14:47,  and  by  David,  etc., 

2  Sam.  10-12;  2  Chr.  20:1-25.  The  chil- 
dren of  Ammon  afterwards,  at  various 
times,  troubled  the  Israelites,  for  which  the 
prophets  threatened  them  with  divine  judg- 
ments, Jer.  49:1-6;  Ezek.  25:2-10;  and 
they  were  at  last  totally  subdued  by  Judas 
Maccabeus,  i  Mace.  5:6-44. 

AW HOU,  faithful,  the  eldest  son  of  Da- 
vid, by  Ahinoam  of  Jezreel,  2  Sam.  3:2. 
He  is  known  only  by  his  guilt  in  violating 
his  half-sister  Tamar ;  for  which  Absalom, 
2  years  after,  caused  him  to  be  assassina- 
ted, 2  Sam.  13,  thus  also  getting  an  elder 
brother  out  of  his  way  to  the  throne. 


LUXOR,  A   PART  OF   ANCIENT  THEBES,  FROM   THE   RIVER   NILE. 

A'MON,  or  No-A'mon,  or  No,  a  city  of  I  the  Egyptian  god  Amon,  called  at  Thebes 
ancient    Egypt,    the    seat    or    dwelling   of  I  Amen-Ra,  Nah.  3:8.      Similar  is  its  Greek 

27 


AMO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AMU 


name  Diospolis,  the  city  of  Jupiter- hmon. 
In  Ezek.  30:14,  15,  i6,  it  is  called  simply 
No;  and  in  Nah.  3:8  and  Jer.  46:  25  also, 
the  Enjilish  version  has  only  No.  For 
"po])uloiis  No"  read  No-Amon ;  and  for 
"  multitude  of  No  "  read  Amon  of  No.  The 
name  designates,  beyond  all  reasonable 
doubt,  the  city  of  Thebes,  the  ancient  and 
renowned  capital  of  Upper  Egypt. 

The  vast  ruins  of  the  temples  of  Luxor 
and  Carnac  proclaim  the  grandeur  and 
magnificence  with  which  the  worship  of 
Jupiter-Amon  was  conducted.  The  ruins  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Thebes,  covering  30  or 
40  square  miles— broken  temples  and  pal- 
aces, huge  statues,  avenues  of  sphinxes, 
etc. — are  the  wonder  and  delight  of  modern 
travellers,  for  their  extent,  their  vastness, 
and  their  sad  and  solitary  grandeur.  They 
are  covered  with  ancient  hieroglyphics  and 
historical  sculptures,  among  which  one  in- 
teresting scene  is  thought  to  record  the 
exploits  of  Shishak  against  Jerusalem  in 
the  5th  year  of  Rehoboam,  i  Kin.  14:25. 
See  Wilkinson,  Robinson,  and  Olin.  See 
Egypt  and  Shishak. 

A'MON,  builder,  the  14th  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Manasseh,  began  to  reign  B.  C.  642, 
at  the  age  of  22,  and  reigned  only  2  years 
at  Jerusalem.  He  did  evil  in  the  sight  of 
the  Lord,  as  his  father  Manasseh  had  done, 
by  forsaking  Jehovah  and  worshipping 
idols.  See  Zeph.  1:4;  3:3-11.  His  ser- 
vants conspired  against  him,  and  slew  him 
in  his  own  house  ;  but  the  people  killed  all 
the  conspirators,  and  established  his  son 
Josiah  on  the  throne.  He  was  buried  in 
the  garden  of  Uzzah,  2  Kin.  21:18-26; 
2  Chr.  33:21-25. 

AM'ORITES,  mountaineers,  a  warlike 
Iiet)i)le  descended  from  P'mer,  the  4th  son 
of  Canaan,  Gen.  10: 16.  They  first  peopled 
the  mountains  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Gen. 
14:7;  towards  Hebron,  Gen.  14:13,  and 
farther  south,  Deut.  1:7,  19,  20,  44;  but 
afterwards  extended  their  limits,  and  took 
possession  of  the  finest  provinces  of  Moab 
and  Ammon  on  the  east  between  the  brooks 
Jabbok  and  Arnon,  Num.  13 :  29 ;  21  :  21-31 ; 
Josh.  5:1;  Judg.  11:13.  Moses  took  this 
country  from  their  king,  Sihon,  when  he 
resisted  the  peaceful  passage  of  the  He- 
brews into  the  land  of  jiromise,  Judg.  11  : 
19-22.  The  lands  which  the  Amorites  pos- 
sessed west  of  the  Jordan  were  given  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  those  beyond  the 
Jordan  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 
The  name  Amorite  is  often  taken  in  Scrip- 
ture for  Canaanite  in  general.  Gen.  15: 16; 
28 


Nutri.  14 :  45  with  Deut.  i :  44 ;  Amos  2  : 9. 
See  Canaanite. 

In  Ezek.  16:3,  God  reminds  the  Jews 
that  they  were  naturally  no  more  worthy 
of  his  favor  than  the  heathen  Canaanites. 

A'MOS,  a  burden,  I.,  the  3d  of  the  minor 
prophets,  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoah,  a 
small  town  of  Judah,  about  12  miles  south 
of  Jerusalem.  He  prophesied,  however, 
concerning  Israel,  at  Bethel,  in  the  days  of 
Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Jeroboam  II., 
king  of  Israel,  about  B.  C.  800  to  787,  and 
was  thus  a  contemporary  of  Hosea  and 
Joel.  He  was  a  herdsman,  and  not  a  "son 
of  the  prophets."  The  first  2chai)ters  con- 
tain predictions  against  the  surrounding 
nations,  enemies  of  the  people  of  God. 
But  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  were  the  chief 
subjects  of  his  prophecies.  Their  tempo- 
rary prosperity  under  Jeroboam  led  to 
gross  idolatry,  injustice,  opjiression,  and 
corruption ;  for  which  sins  he  denounces 
the  judgments  of  God  upon  them ;  but  he 
closes  with  cheering  words  of  consolation. 
His  holy  boldness  in  reproving  sin  drew 
on  him  the  wrath  of  the  priests,  who  la- 
bored to  procure  his  banishment,  Amos  7  : 
10-17.  ^"  regard  to  style,  Amos  takes  a 
high  rank  among  the  prophets.  He  is  full 
of  imagery  drawn  from  rural  objects  and 
occupations,  concise,  and  yet  simple  and 
perspicuous.  The  authorship  and  canoni- 
cal authoritj'  of  the  book  are  beyond  ques- 
tion. Two  passages  are  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament :  ch.  5  :  25-27  in  Acts  7  :  42  ;  and 
ch.  9:11  in  Acts  15  :  16. 

II.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord, 
Luke  3 :  25. 

A'MOZ,  robust,  the  father  of  Isaiah,  2  Kin. 
19:  2  ;   Isa.  1:1. 

AMPHIP'OLIS,  on  both  sides  tlie  city,  a 
city  of  Macedonia,  not  far  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Strymon,  which  (lowed  "  around  the 
city."  It  was  visited  by  Paul  and  Silas, 
Acts  17:1.  The  village  now  upon  its  site 
is  called  Neokhorio,  ncw-toioi. 

AM'RAM,  an  exalted  people,  a  son  of 
Kohath,  and  father  of  Aaron,  Miriam,  and 
Moses.  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged  137,  Exod. 
6  :  18,  20 ;  Num.  3  :  27.  His  wife  was  named 
Jochebed,  and  their  faith  is  commended  in 
Heb.  1 1  :  23. 

AM'RAPHEL,  king  of  Shinar  in  the  time 
of  Abraham.  With  3  other  petty  kings,  he 
made  war  ujion  the  tribes  around  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  cities  of  the  i)lain,  Gen.  14 :  i. 

AM'ULETS,  still  so  largely  used  in  Africa 
and  the  East,  were  common  in  ancient 
times,  being  worn  as  ear-rings,  Gen.  35:4; 


ANA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AND 


Judg.  8:34;  Isa.  3:20;  Hos.  2:13;  and  in 
necklaces,    precious    stones    being    often 


clothed  with  superstitious  power.  Sacred 
words  arranged  in  some  cabalistic  manner, 
and  many  other  small  objects,  were  thus 
associated  with  demoniacal  influences  and 
w'orn  as  safeguards. 

A'NAB,  grape-town,  still  found  under  its 
old  name,  in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  south- 
southwest  of  Hebron,  Josh.  11:21;   15  :  50. 

A'NAH,  answerer,  of  Mount  Hor,  the  fa- 
ther of  Aholibamah,  one  of  Esau's  wives. 
While  feeding  his  father's  asses  in  the  des- 
ert, he  is  said  to  have  found  the  "  mules," 
Gen.  36:24,  rather  "warm  springs;"  and 
such  springs  are  still  found  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  called  Callirrhoe. 
Hengstenberg  suggests  that  Anah  took  his 
other  name,  Beeri,  of  /he  wells,  from  the 
springs  he  found.  Gen.  26 :  34. 

A'NAK,  plural  An'akim,  long-tiecked,  fa- 
mous giants  in  Palestine,  descended  from 
Arba,  founder  of  the  city  Hebron,  Josh. 
21:11.  They  spread  themselves- over  the 
south  of  Judah,  the  hill  country,  and  sev- 
eral cities  of  the  Philistines.  The  Hebrew 
spies  were  terrified  at  their  sight.  Num. 
13  •  33  i  but  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan  they 
were  destroyed  or  expelled,  Josh.  11:22; 
15:14;  Judg.  1:20. 

ANAM'MELECH,  see  Adrammelech. 

ANANI'AS,  protected  by  God,  I.,  a  Jew  of 
Jerusalem,  the  husband  of  Sapphira,  who 
attempted  to  join  the  Christians,  and  pre- 
tended to  give  them  the  entire  price  of  his 
lands,  but  died  instantly  on  being  convict- 
ed of  falsehood  by  Peter,  Acts  5 :  i-io,  a 
timely  warning  for  the  early  Christians  and 
for  us. 

II.  A  Christian  of  Damascus,  who  re- 
stored the  sight  of  Paul,  after  his  vision  of 
the  Saviour,  Acts  9  :  10-17 ;  22  :  12. 

III.  A  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  a  son  of 
Nebedaeus,  A.  D.  48.  It  was  he  before 
whom  with  the  Sanhedrin  Paul  was  sum- 
moned, under  Felix,  and  who  ordered  an 
attendant  to  smite  Paul  on  the  mouth.    The 


apostle's  prophetic  denunciation  in  reply 
seems  to  have  been  fulfilled  when,  as  Jose- 
phus  relates,  in  the  commencement  of  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  assassins  burned 
the  house  of  Ananias,  and  afterwards  dis- 
covered his  place  of  retreat  in  an  aqueduct, 
and  slew  him.  Acts  23  :  2  ;  24  :  i. 

ANATH'EMA,  something  set  apart  and 
devoted  irrecoverably  to  God,  sometimes 
in  obedience  to  his  command,  sometimes 
by  a  spontaneous  vow,  Exod.  22  :  20 ;  Nuip. 
21:2;  Judg.  11:31.  It  is  understood  to  de- 
note the  irrevocable  and  entire  separation 
of  a  person  from  the  communion  of  the 
faithful,  or  from  the  number  of  the  living, 
or  from  the  privileges  of  society,  Ezra  10:8; 
or  the  devoting  of  any  man,  animal,  city, 
or  thing,  to  be  extirpated  and  destroyed, 
Lev.  27.  Thus  Jericho,  Josh.  6: 17-21,  and 
Achan  were  accursed.  Josh.  7.  The  word 
anathema  is  several  times  used  in  the  New 
Testament  with  this  idea  of  execration, 
Matt.  26  :  74 ;  Acts  23  :  12,  14,  21 ;  i  Cor.  12  : 
3  ;  Gal.  1 :8,  9.  Paul,  remembering  perhaps 
that  Christ  was  "made  a  curse"  for  us, 
says  he  could  himself  suffer  in  like  manner, 
if  it  were  fitting  and  would  avail  for  the  sal- 
vation of  his  countrymen,  Rom.  9  : 3. 

Another  kind  of  anathema,  very  peculi- 
arly expressed,  occurs  i  Cor.  16  :  22  :  "  If 
any  man  love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
let  him  be  Anathema,  Maranatha."  The 
last  word  seems  made  up  of  two  Syriac 
words,  signifying,  "  Our  Lord  cometh," 
that  is,  the  Lord  will  surely  come,  and  will 
execute  this  curse,  by  condemning  those 
who  love  him  not.  At  the  same  time,  the 
opposite  is  also  implied,  that  is,  the  Lord 
cometh  also  to  reward  those  who  love  him. 
See  Excommunication. 

AN'ATHOTH,  ansivers  {to  prayer),  one  of 
the  cities  given  to  the  priests,  in  Benjamin  ; 
identified  by  Robinson  in  Anata,  a  hamlet 
some  4  miles  north  by  east  of  Jerusalem, 
Josh.  21:18;  I  Chr.  6:60;  Ezra  2:23.  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
Jer.  I  :  I ;  32  :  7.  Its  people,  however,  re- 
jected his  words,  and  sought  his  life,  Jer. 
II  :  21. 

AN'CIENT,  aged.  Before  printing  was 
invented  and  while  books  were  scarce,  aged 
men  were  the  repositories  of  history  and 
all  forms  of  learning  and  wisdom,  Job  12  : 
12.  Ancient  of  Days  is  a  title  of  the 
Eternal  Jehovah,  Dan.  7:9. 

AN'DREW,  manly,  one  of  the  12  apos- 
tles, was  of  Bethsaida,  and  brother  of  Peter, 
John  I  :  40,  44.  Being  a  disciple  of  John  the 
Baptist,  he  understood  the  intimations  of 

29 


AND 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANG 


his  master  as  to  the  Lamb  of  God,  and  was 
the  first  of  the  apostles  to  follow  him,  John 
^  •  35-40,  and  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Messiah.  Compare  Jas.  4  :  8.  His  first  step 
was  to  lead  his  brother  Simon  to  the  Lord — 
an  example  for  all  young  converts.  He 
was  afterwards  called  as  an  apostle,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  Matt.  4:18;  and 
thenceforth  followed  Christ  to  the  end, 
Mark  13:3;  John  6:8;  12:22.  Of  his  later 
history  nothing  is  known  with  certainty. 
There  is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  after 
preaching  the  gospel  in  Greece,  and  perhaps 
Thrace  and  Scythia,  he  suffered  crucifixion 
at  Patroe  in  Achaia,  on  a  cross  of  peculiar 
form  (Xj,  hence  commonly  known  as  "  St. 
Andrew's  cross." 

ANDRONI'CUS,  man-conqueror,  a  Jew- 
ish Christian  at  Rome,  a  relative  and  fel- 
low-prisoner of  Paul,  Rom.  16 : 7. 

A'NER,  a  boy,  L,  of  Hebron,  one  of  Abra- 
ham's allies  in  the  pursuit  of  Chedorlaomer 
and  the  rescue  of  Lot,  Gen.  14  ;  13,  24. 

IL  A  Levitical  city,  in  Manasseh,  i  Chr. 
6:70. 

AN'GEL.  The  original  word,  both  in 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  means  messenger,  and 
is  so  translated  in  Matt.  11 :  10;  Luke  7  :  24, 
etc.  It  is  often  applied  to  an  ordinary  mes- 
senger, Job  1:14;  I  Sam.  11:3;  Luke  9 : 52 ; 
to  prophets,  Isa.  42:19;  Hag.  1:13;  to 
priests,  Eccl.  5:6;  Mai.  2:7;  and  even  to 
inanimate  objects.  Psalm  78:49;  104:4; 
2  Cor.  12:7.  Under  the  general  sense  of 
messenger,  the  term  is  applied  also  to 
Christ,  as  the  great  Angel  or  Messenger  of 
the  covenant,  Mai.  3:  i,  and  to  the  minis- 
ters of  his  gospel,  the  overseers  or  angels 
of  the  churches,  Rev.  2:1,  8,  12,  etc.  In 
I  Cor.  II  :  10,  the  best  interpreters  under- 
stand by  the  term  "angels"  the  holy  an- 
gels, who  were  present  in  an  especial  sense 
in  the  Christian  assemblies;  and  from  rev- 
erence to  them  it  was  proper  that  the  wo- 
men should  have  power  (veils,  as  a  sign 
of  their  being  in  subjection  to  a  higher 
power)  on  their  heads.     See  under  Veil. 

But  generally  in  the  Bible  the  word  is 
applied  to  a  race  of  intelligent  beings,  of  a 
higher  order  than  man,  who  surround  the 
Deity,  and  whom  he  employs  as  his  mes- 
sengers or  agents  in  administering  the 
affairs  of  the  world,  and  in  promoting  the 
welfare  of  individuals,  as  well  as  of  the 
whole  human  race,  Matt.  1:20;  22:30; 
Acts  7:30,  etc.  Whether  pure  spirits,  or 
having  spiritual  bodies,  they  have  no  bod- 
ily organization  like  ours,  and  are  not  dis- 
tinguished in  sex,  Matt.  22:30;  though 
30 


whenever  they  have  appeared  to  men  it 
has  been  in  a  form  like  that  of  a  man,  more 
or  less  glorified  at  times,  Gen.  18,  19;  Luke 
24 : 4.  They  were  doubtless  created  long 
before  our  present  world  was  made,  Job 
38 : 7.  The  Bible  represents  them  as  ex- 
ceedingly numerojis,  Dan.  7:10;  Matt.  26: 
53 ;  Luke  2:13;  Heb.  12 :  22,  23 ;  as  remark- 
able for  strength,  Psa.  103:20;  2  Pet.  2:11  ; 
Rev.  5:2;  18:21;  19:17;  and  for  activity, 
Judg.  13:20;  Isa.  6:2-6;  Dan.  9:21-23; 
Matt.  13  :  49 ;  26 :  53 ;  Acts  27 :  23  ;  Rev.  8 :  13. 
They  appear  to  be  of  divers  orders,  Isa. 
6:2-6;  Ezek.  10:1;  Col.  1:16;  Rev.  12:7. 
See  Cherubim,  Seraphim.  We  have  only 
glimpses  of  them  as  they  are  in  heaven, 
I  Kin.  22  ;  19  ;  Dan.  7:9,  10 ;  Rev.  5  :  1 1-14. 
Their  name  indicates  their  agency  in  the 
dispensations  of  Providence  towards  man, 
and  the  Bible  abounds  in  narratives  of 
events  in  which  they  have  borne  a  visible 
part,  Dan.  4 :  13 ;  10:  10,  13-21  ;  Zech.  1,  4, 
etc.  Yet  in  this  employment  they  act  as  the 
mere  instruments  of  God,  and  in  fulfilment 
of  his  commands,  Psa.  91:11;  103 :  20 ;  Heb. 
I  :  14.  We  are  not  therefore  to  put  trust  in 
them,  pay  them  adoration,  or  pray  in  their 
name.  Rev.  19:10;  22:8,  9.  Though  Scrip- 
ture does  not  warrant  us  to  affirm  that  each 
individual  has  his  particular  guardian  an- 
gel, it  teaches  very  explicitly  that  the  angels 
minister  to  every  Christian,  Matt.  18:10; 
Luke  16  :  22  ;  Acts  12  :  15  ;  Heb.  1  :  14.  They 
are  intensely  concerned  in  the  salvation  of 
men,  Luke  2  :  10-12  ;  15:  7,  10;  1  Pet.  1  :  12; 
and  will  share  with  saints  the  blessedness 
of  heaven  for  ever,  Heb.  12:22. 

Those  angels  "  who  kept  not  their  first 
estate,"  but  fell  and  rebelled  against  God, 
are  called  the  angels  of  Satan  or  the  devil, 
Matt.  25:41  ;  Rev.  12:9.  These  are  repre- 
sented as  being  "  cast  down  to  hell,  and 
reserved  unto  judgment,"  2  Pet.  2:4.  See 
Synagogue,  Archangel,  Satan. 

ANGEL  OF  THE  LORD,  THE  Angel- 
Jehovah,  the  usual  title  of  Christ  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Compare  Gen.  16:7-13; 
22:11-18;  31:11-13;  32 :  24-30,  with  Hos. 
12:3-5;  Gen.  48:15,  16;  Exod.  3:2-6,  14; 
23:20,  21 ;  Judg.  2;  13:16-22;  Acts  7:30-38. 
Often  he  appeared  in  the  form  of  man,  as 
to  Abraham,  Gen.  18  :  2,  22;  Lot,  Gen.  19:  i ; 
and  to  Joshua,  Josh.  5 :  13,  15.  Christ  thus 
appears  in  the  Patriarchal,  the  Mosaic,  and 
the  Christian  dispensation  as  the  same  Je- 
hovah, the  "  Word  "  of  God,  revealing  the 
Father  to  men,  and  carrying  forward  the 
same  great  plan  for  the  redemption  of  his 
people,  Isa.  63  :  9. 


ANG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANO 


AN'GER,  a  violent  emotion  of  a  painful 
nature,  sometimes  arising  spontaneously 
upon  just  occasion,  but  usually  character- 
ized in  the  Bible  as  a  great  sin.  Matt.  5 :  22  ; 
Eph.  4:31;  Col.  3  :  8.  Even  when  just,  our 
anger  should  be  mitigated  by  a  due  consid- 
eration of  the  circumstances  of  the  offence 
and  the  state  of  mind  of  the  offender,  of 
the  folly  and  ill-results  of  this  passion,  of 
the  claims  of  the  gospel,  and  of  our  own 
need  of  forgiveness  from  others,  but  espe- 
cially from  God,  Matt.  6 :  15.  Anger  is  in 
Scripture  frequently  attributed  to  God,  Psa. 
7:11;  90  :  II ;  not  that  he  is  liable  to  those 
violent  emotions  which  this  passion  pro- 
duces, but  because  he  punishes  the  wicked 
with  the  just  severity  of  a  superior  pro- 
voked to  anger. 

AN'GLE,  a  fishing-hook,  Job  41 :  i,  2  ;  Isa. 
19:8  ;  Hab.  i  :  15. 


AN'ISE,  a  well-known  annual  herb,  re- 
sembling carraway,  etc.,  but  more  fragrant. 
The  plant  mentioned  in  Matt.  23  :  23  was  no 
doubt  the  dill,  which  grows  in  Palestine, 
and  was  tithed  by  scrupulous  Jews. 

ANK'LETS,  see  Bracelets,  Rings,  Am- 
ulets. 

AN'NA,  gracious,  a  daughter  of  Phanuel, 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  early  married,  but 
left  a  widow  after  7  years,  and  thenceforth 
devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  She  was 
constant  in  attendance  at  the  morning  and 
evening  sacrifices  at  the  temple  ;  and  there, 
at  the  age  of  84,  was  blessed  with  a  sight 
of  the  infant  Saviour,  and  inspired  to  an- 
nounce the  coming  of  the  promised  Mes- 
siah to  many  who  longed  to  see  him,  Luke 
2:36-38. 

AN'NAS,  one  who  answers,  a  high-priest 
of  the  Jews,  Luke  3:2;  John  18  :  13,  24 ; 
Acts  4  :  6,  along  with  Caiaphas,  his  son-in- 
law.  He  was  first  appointed  to  that  office 
by   Cyrenius,    or    Quirinus,   proconsul    of 


Syria,  about  A.  D.  7  or  8,  but  was  after- 
wards deprived  of  it.  After  various  chan- 
ges, the  office  was  given  to  Joseph,  also 
called  Caiaphas,  the  son-in-law  of  Annas, 
about  A.  D.  25,  who  continued  in  office 
until  A.  D.  36  or  2)7 ■  But  Annas  being  his 
father-in-law,  and  having  great  influence 
and  authority,  could  with  propriety  be  still 
termed  high-priest  along  with  Caiaphas.  It 
was  before  him  that  Christ  was  first  taken 
on  the  night  of  his  seizure.  He  also  assist- 
ed in  presiding  over  the  Sanhedrin  which 
sat  in  judgment  upon  Peter  and  John,  Acts 
4:6. 

ANNIHILA'TION,      see      IMMORTALITY, 
Sadducees. 


ANOINT'ING  was  a  custom  in  general 
use  among  the  Hebrews  and  other  Oriental 
nations,  and  its  omission  was  one  sign  of 
mourning,  Isa.  61 : 3.  They  anointed  with 
oil  or  ointment  the  hair,  head,  and  beard, 
Psa.  104 :  15 ;  133 :  2.  At  their  feasts  and 
rejoicings  they  anointed  the  whole  body; 
but  sometimes  only  the  head  or  the  feet, 
Psa.  23  : 5  ;  Matt.  6:17;  John  12:3.  It  was 
a  customary  mark  of  respect  to  guests, 
Luke  7 :  38,  46 ;  and  a  symbol  of  prosper- 
ity, Psa.  92: 10;  Eccl.  9:8.  The  use  of  oil 
upon  the  skin  was  thought  to  be  conducive 
to  health.  Anointing  was  then  used,  and 
is  still,  medicinally,  Mark  6:13;  Jas.  5  :  14 ; 
but  the  miraculous  cures  thus  wrought  by 
the  apostles  furnish  no  warrant  for  the  cer- 
emony just  before  death  called  "  extreme 
unction,"  and  the  papal  ceremony  so  called 
was  not  heard  of  in  the  church  until  the 
1 2th  century.  The  anointing  of  dead  bod- 
ies was  also  practised,  to  preserve  them 
from  corruption,  Mark  15:8;  16 :  i  ;  Luke 
23  :  56.      Kings  and  high-priests  were  an- 

31 


ANO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANT 


oiiited  at  their  inauguration,  and  some- 
times jjrophets,  Exod.  29  17,  29 ;  Lev.  4:3; 
Judg.  9:8;!  Sam.  9:16;  i  Kin.  19 :  15,  16, 
as  also  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  tabernacle 
and  temple,  E.xod.  30 :  26.  King  Saul  is 
called  "  the  Lord's  anointed,"  also  David 
and  Zedekiah,  i  Sam.  24:6;  2  Sam.  23 :  i  ; 
Lam.  4  :  20,  and  Cyrus,  who  was  raised  up 
for  God's  purposes,  though  not  anointed 
with  oil ;  so  also  the  high-priest  is  called 
"the  anointed  priest."  This  anointing  of 
sacred  persons  and  objects  signified  their 
being  set  apart  and  consecrated  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God  ;  and  the  costly  and  fragrant 
mi.\ture  appointed  for  this  purpose  was 
forbidden  for  all  others,  E.\od.  30:23-33; 
Ezek.  23:41.  See  Christ  and  Messiah. 
Christians  are  spiritually  anointed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  unto  knowledge  and  holiness, 
2  Cor.  I  ;  21 ;   i  John  2  :  20,  27. 

ANON',  Matt.  13:20,  quickly,  soon. 

AN'SWER.  Besides  the  common  use  of 
this  word  in  the  sense  of  to  reply,  it  is  very 
often  used  in  the  Bible,  following  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  idioms,  in  the  sense  of  to 
speak  ;  meaning  simplj-  that  one  begins  or 
resumes  his  discourse,  Zech.  3:4;  6:4; 
Matt.  11:25;  12:38;  Luke  7:40.  It  also 
means  to  sing  in  choruses  or  responses, 
Exod.  15:20,  21;  I  Sam.  18:7;  29:5,  and 
to  give  account  of  one's  self  in  judgment, 
Oen.  30:33;  Job  9: 3. 


and  the  chrysalis  state.     The  termites  or 
white  ants  are  large  and  very  destructive. 


THE   BROWN   ant:   FORMICA   BRUNNEA. 

1.  Worker.     4.  Male.     6.  Female.      3.  Cocoon. 
2,  5,  and  7  natural  size  of  1,4,  and  6. 

ANT,  a  small  insect,  famous  for  its  indus- 
try and  economy,  for  its  social  habits  and 
<;kill  in  building.  Some  species  build 
habitations  truly  immense  compared  with 
themselves,  and  able  to  contain  a  dozen 
men.  Their  roofs  are  impervious  to  rain, 
and  they  contain  numerous  stories,  galler- 
ies, etc.,  the  result  of  skilful  and  incessant 
labor.  Ants  lavish  the  utmost  care  and 
pains  upon  their  young,  both  in  the  egg 
32 


DWELLING   OF   THK   TKRMITKS. 

Most  varieties  of  ants  are  known  to  prefer 
animal  or  saccharine  food ;  and  it  is  often 
said  that  no  species  has  yet  been  found 
laying  up  stores  of  grain  for  winter  use, 
for  while  the  frost  continues  they  all  lie 
torpid.  The  contrary  belief,  however,  was 
current  among  the  ancients,  as  many  pas- 
sages in  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Roman  writers 
prove;  and  two  species  of  harvesting-ants 
have  been  found  in  Palestine.  Solomon, 
Prov.  6:6,  commends  them  for  toiling  as 
soon  and  as  long  as  the  season  permits  their 
labor,  and  bids  us  make  the  same  diligent 
use  of  life  and  opportunities,  Prov.  30:24, 
25.  The  inferior  animals  are  in  many  re- 
spects wiser  than  sinful  man.  Job  12:7,  8. 

AN'TELOPE.  see  under  RoK. 

AN'TICHRIST,  one  opposed  to  Christ. 
John  says  there  were  already  in  his  time 
many  having  the  spirit  of  antichrist :  unbe- 
lievers, heretics,  and  jiersecutors,  i  John 
2:18;  4:3.  They  were  characterized  by 
the  denial  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and 
of  Christ's  coming  in  the  flesh,  i  John  2  :  22 ; 
4:312  John  7.  But  the  apostles  and  earlj' 
Christians  seem  to  have  looked  forward  to 
some  one  great  antichrist,  who  should  pre- 
cede the  second  coming  of  our  Lord,  stand- 
ing in  some  connection  with  the  "  little 
horn  "  of  Daniel  7,  and  the  "  beast "  of  Rev. 
13;  19:11-21,  and  whom  Paul  calls  "the 
man  of  sin,  the  son  of  perdition,"  2  Thess. 
2:3.     To  this  passage  John  alludes,  i  John 


ANT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANT 


2 :  i8.  The  antichrist  was  to  come  after  the 
removing  of  an  obstacle  that  "  withheld  " 
it — generally  believed  to  be  the  old  Roman 
empire — and  after  a  certain  "  falling  away ;" 
was  to  be  marked  by  open  iniquity  and 
opposition  to  God,  claiming  His  attributes, 
doing  pretended  miracles,  and  having  great 


power  to  deceive  men  and  gain  admiration 
and  worship — whose  spirit  was  already  at 
work  in  apostolic  times.  It  seems  to  de- 
note an  organized  body  of  men  and  a  cor- 
rupt polity,  perpetuated  from  age  to  age, 
opposed  to  Christ,  and  which  he  will  de- 
stroy, Rev.  II ;  13;  17. 


ANTAKIA   (ANTIOCH   IN  SYRIA),  ON  THE  ORONTES. 


AN'TIOCH,  ati  opponent,  I.,  a  city  on  the 
river  Orontes,  20,  or  by  the  river  40,  miles 
from  its  mouth,  at  the  meeting  of  the  great 
mountain  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Taurus, 
and  the  metropolis  of  all  Syria.  It  was 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  B.  C.  300,  and 
called  by  him  after  his  father  Antiochus. 
This  city  is  celebrated  by  Cicero  as  being 
opulent  and  abounding  in  men  of  taste  and 
letters.  It  was  at  one  time  a  place  of  great 
wealth  and  refinement,  as  well  as  luxury 
and  vice,  and  ranked  as  the  3d  city  in  the 
Roman  empire,  only  Rome  and  Alexandria 
surpassing  it.  It  was  also  a  place  of  great 
resort  for  the  Jews,  and  afterwards  for 
Christians.  It  came  under  Roman  govern- 
ment B.  C.  64.  Here  the  ist  church  among 
the  Gentiles  was  formed.  Acts  11:20,  21. 
The  distinctive  name  of  "  Christians  "  was 
here  first  applied  to  the  followers  of  Jesus, 
Acts  II  :  19,  26;  13  :  I  ;  Gal.  2:11.  It  is  es- 
pecially famous  as  the  scene  of  Paul's  first 
systematic  labors  in  the  gospel,  Acts  11  : 
22-26 ;  and  the  home  whence  he  started  and 
to  which  he  returned  on  his  missionary 
tours.  Acts  13:1-3;  14:26;  15:36;  18:22, 
23.  Three  general  councils  were  held 
there  in  the  3d  century,  and  in  A.  D.  347 
3 


Chrysostom  was  here  born.  Few  cities 
have  suffered  greater  disasters.  Many 
times  it  has  been  nearly  ruined  by  earth- 
quakes, one  of  which,  in  1822,  destroyed 
one-fourth  of  its  population,  then  about 
20,000.  It  is  to-day  a  considerable  village 
called  Antakia. 

II.  Another  city,  also  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus Nicator,  was  called  Antioch  of  Pisidia, 
because  it  was  attached  to  that  province, 
although  situated  in  Phrygia.  It  is  mem- 
orable for  Paul's  visits  and  sufferings,  in 
his  ist  and  2d  missionary  tours,  Acts  13 : 
14;  14:19,  21;  2  Tim.  3:11.  It  is  now 
called  Yalobatch. 

AN'TIPAS,  I.    See  Herod  Antipas. 

II.  A  martyr  in  Pergamos,  Rev.  2  :  13. 

ANTIP'ATRIS,  city  of  Antipater,  a  city 
of  Palestine,  situated  7  or  8  miles  from  the 
coast,  in  a  fertile  and  well-watered  plain 
between  Ciesarea  and  Jerusalem,  on  the 
site  of  the  former  city  Caphar-Saba.  It 
was  founded  by  Herod  the  Great,  and 
called  Antipatris  in  honor  of  his  father 
Antipater.  It  was  visited  by  Paul,  Acts 
23:31.  The  British  Ordnance  Survey  place 
it  at  R3<;  p1-Ain.  =;  miles  co'ith  of  Kefr  Saba. 

ANTO'NIA,  a  square  fortress  on  the  east 

33 


Apr-: 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AI'O 


side  of  Jerusalem,  north  of  the  temple  area, 
with  vvliich  it  had  a  covered  communica- 
tion. There  was  a  tower  at  each  corner, 
and  it  was  isolated  by  high  walls  and 
trenches.  It  was  rebuilt  b\-  Herod  the 
Great,  and  named  after  Mark  Antony.  Jo- 
seplius  often  speaks  of  it.  It  was  "the 
castle  "  from  which  soldiers  came  down  to 
rescue  Paul  from  the  Jews  in  the  temple; 
and  from  its  stairs  he  addressed  the  mul- 
titude. Acts  21 :  31-40. 


APE,  an  animal  rudely  resembling  the 
human  race.  The  tribe  may  be  familiarly 
distinguished  as  monkeys,  apes,  and  ba- 
boons, apes  proper  being  the  tailless  Quad- 
rumana.  Solomon  imported  them  from 
Ophir,  I  Kin.  10:22;  2  Chr.  9:21.  They 
were  at  one  time  worshipped  in  Egypt ; 
and  still  are  adored  in  some  parts  of  India, 
where  one  traveller  describes  a  magnifi- 
cent temple  dedicated  to  the  monkey. 
There  may  be  an  allusion  to  large  apes  or 
baboons,  literally  "hairy  ones,"  in  Lev. 
17  :  7 ;  Isa.  13  :  21 ;  34  :  14.     See  S.'VTYRs. 

APHAR'SACHIxks,  etc.,  Ezra  4:9;  5:6; 
named  among  the  heathen  subjects  of  the 
king  of  Assyria,  transjilanted  into  Samaria 
after  the  captivity  of  the  10  tribes,  B.  C.  721. 
The  Ajiharsites,  also  named  in  Ezra  4:9, 
are  regarded  by  Gesenius  as  Persians. 

A'PHEK,  slrens^lli,  I.,  a  city  in  Lebanon, 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  Josh.  13:4; 
19:30;  but  not  subdued,  Judg.  1:31.  Its 
site  may  be  still  found  on  the  northwest 
slopes  of  Mount  Lebanon,  called  Aphka. 
34 


n.  A  place  noted  in  the  wars  with  the 
Philistines,  i  Sam.  4:1;  29:1.  Perhaps  2 
places  are  spoken  of,  one  where  the  Philis- 
tines encamped  before  Eli's  death — appa- 
rently not  far  northwest  of  Jerusalem;  the 
other  farther  north,  towards  Jezreel  and 
Shunem — a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
Josh.  12:18. 

III.  A  city  6  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Gal 
ilee,  the  walls   of  which   fell   ujion    27,000 
Syrians  under  Ben-hadad,  after  his  defeat 
by  the    Israelites,   i    Kin.   20 :  26-34.     Now 
called  Fik. 

APOCALYPSE  signifies  revelation,  but 
is  particularly  referred  to  the  revelations 
which  John  had  in  the  isle  of  Patmos,  whith- 
er he  was  banished  by  Domitian.  Hence 
it  is  another  name  for  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion. This  book  belongs  to  the  prophetical 
writings,  and  stands  in  intimate  relation 
with  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
especially  with  the  writings  of  the  later 
prophets,  as  PZzekiel,  Zechariah,  and  jjar- 
ticularly  Daniel,  inasmuch  as  it  is  almost 
entirely  s\nibolical.  This  circumstance 
has  surrounded  the  interpretation  of  this 
book  with  difiicuities,  which  no  interpreter 
has  yet  been  able  fully  to  overcome.  As 
to  the  author,  the  almost  entire  weight  of 
testimony  is  in  favor  of  John,  the  beloved 
apostle;  and  this  is  undeniablv  im|)lied  in 
the  writer's  account  of  himself.  Rev.  i  :4,  9, 
with  I  John  1:1-3,  and  in  the  harmony  of 
spirit  between  this  and  his  other  writings. 
Most  commentators  su])i)ose  it  to  have 
been  written  on  the  isle  of  Patmos  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  about  A.  D. 
96 ;  there  is  very  slight  ground  for  assign- 
ing it  an  earlier  date. 

It  is  an  expanded  illustration  of  the  first 
great  promise,  "  The  seed  of  the  woman 
shall  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent."  Its 
figures  and  symbols  are  august  and  impres- 
sive. It  is  full  of  prophetic  grandeur,  and 
awful  in  its  types,  shadows,  and  mystic 
symbols:  seven  seals  opened,  seven  trum- 
pets sounded,  seven  vials  poured  out; 
mighty  antagonists  and  hostile  powers,  full 
of  malignity  against  Christianity,  and  for  a 
season  oppressing  it,  but  at  length  defeat- 
ed and  annihilated  ;  the  darkened  heaven, 
tempestuous  sea,  and  convulsed  earth  fight- 
ing against  them,  while  the  issue  of  the 
long  combat  is  the  universal  reign  of  peace 
and  truth  and  righteousness — the  whole 
scene  being  relieved  at  intervals  by  a  cho- 
ral burst  of  praise  to  God  the  Creator,  and 
Christ  the  Redeemer  and  Ciovernor.  Thus 
its  general  scope  is  intelligible  to  all  read- 


APO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


APO 


ers,  or  it  could  not  yield  either  hope  or 
comfort.  It  is  also  full  of  Christ.  It  ex- 
hibits his  glory  as  Redeemer  and  Govern- 
or, and  describes  that  deep  and  universal 
homage  and  praise  which  the  "  Lamb  that 
was  slain  "  is  for  ever  receiving  before  the 
throne.  Either  Christ  is  God,  or  the  saints 
and  angels  are  guilty  of  idolatry. 

The  historical  interpretation  of  its  de- 
tails is  very  difficult,  though  some  of  its 
most  important  portions  clearly  designate 
the  deceitful  and  tyrannical  papal  power, 
in  close  alliance  with  Satan.  See  chs.  13 
and  17  "  To  explain  this  book  perfectly," 
says  Bishop  Newton,  "  is  not  the  work  of 
one  man  or  of  one  age ;  probably  it  never 
will  be  clearly  understood  till  it  is  all  ful- 
filled." 

APOCRYPHA,  concealed ;  as  applied  to 
books,  it  means  those  which  assume  a  claim 
to  a  sacred  character,  but  are  really  unin- 
spired, and  have  not  been  admitted  into  the 
•canon.     These  are  of  2  classes  :  namely 

I.  Those  which  were  in  existence  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  but  were  not  admitted  by 
the  Jews  into  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, because  they  had  no  Hebrew  origi- 
nal, and  were  regarded  as  not  divinely  in- 
spired. The  most  important  of  these  are 
collected  in  the  Apocrypha  often  bound  up 
with  the  English  Bible,  though  without 
good  reason ;  but  in  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate  they  stand  as  canonical. 

These  apocryphal  writings  are  14  in 
number,  namely,  the  2  books  of  Esdras  or 
Ezra,  Tobit,  Judith,  additions  to  Esther,  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Ecclesiasticus,  or  Je- 
sus the  son  of  Sirach,  Baruch,  Song  of  the 
Three  Children,  History  of  Susanna,  Bel 
and  the  Dragon,  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  and 
the  2  books  of  the  Maccabees.  Their  style 
proves  that  they  were  a  part  of  the  Jewish- 
Greek  literature  of  Alexandria,  within  300 
years  before  Christ ;  and  as  the  Septuagint 
Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  came 
from  the  same  quarter,  it  was  often  accom- 
panied by  these  uninspired  Greek  writings, 
and  they  thus  gained  a  general  circulation. 
Josephus  and  Philo,  of  the  ist  century,  ex- 
clude them  from  the  canon.  The  Talmud 
contains  no  trace  of  them ;  and  from  the 
various  lists  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures in  the  early  centuries,  it  is  clear  that 
then  as  now  they  formed  no  part  of  the 
Hebrew  canon.  None  of  them  are  quoted 
or  indorsed  by  Christ  or  the  apostles ;  they 
have  no  prophetic  element ;  they  were  not 
acknowledged  by  the  Christian  fathers ; 
and    their   own    contents    condemn   them. 


abounding  with  errors  and  absurdities. 
Some  of  them,  however,  are  of  value  for 
the  historical  information  they  furnish — 
running  down  to  within  a  half-century  of 
Christ — for  their  moral  and  prudential  max- 
ims, and  for  the  illustrations  they  afford  of 
ancient  life. 

2.  Those  which  were  written  after  the 
time  of  Christ,  but  were  not  admitted  by 
the  churches  into  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  not  being  divinely  inspired. 
These  are  mostly  of  a  legendary  character, 
with  trivial  and  absurd  stories  and  pre- 
tended miracles.  The  chief  of  them  are 
The  Shepherd  of  Hernias,  and  the  Epistles 
of  Clement  and  Ignatius.  They  have  been 
collected  by  Fabricius  in  his  Codex  Apoc. 
New  Testament ,  and  Tischendorf  has  edit- 
ed 22  gospel  fragments  and  13  epistles. 

APOLLO'NIA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  be- 
tween Amphipolis  and  Thessalonica,  a  long 
day's  journey  on  foot,  some  30  miles,  from 
the  former  place,  Acts  17:1.  Its  ruins  bear 
the  name  of  Pollina. 

APOL'LOS,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  a  learn- 
ed and  eloquent  man,  who  through  the 
Scriptures  and  the  ministry  of  John  the 
Baptist  became  a  Christian.  He  visited 
Ephesus  about  A.  D.  54,  and  publicly  pro- 
claimed his  faith  in  Christ;  whereupon  he 
was  further  instructed  in  gospel  truth  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  Passing  thence  into 
Achaia,  he  preached  with  great  power  and 
success,  especially  among  the  Jews,  Acts 
18:24-28.  At  Corinth,  he  for  a  time  wa- 
tered what  Paul  had  planted.  Acts  19:1; 
I  Cor.  1:12;  3:6;  and  was  with  him  at  Eph- 
esus when  1  Cor.  was  written,  16:12.  His 
character  was  not  unlike  that  of  Paul ;  they 
were  equally  grieved  at  the  dissensions  of 
the  Corinthians,  and  at  those  personal  par- 
tialities which  led  many  away  from  Christ, 
I  Cor.  3:4-22;  1612;  and  they  cooperated 
to  the  end  in  serving  him,  Titus  3:13.  Je- 
rome is  of  opinion  that  Apollos  afterwards 
returned  to  Corinth  from  Crete. 

APOL'LYON,  see  Abaddon. 

APOS'TLE,  a  messenger  or"  envoy.  The 
term  is  applied  to  Jesus  Christ,  who  was 
God's  envoy  to  save  the  world,  Heb.  3:1; 
though,  more  commonly,  the  title  is  given 
to  persons  who  were  envoys  commissioned 
by  the  Saviour  himself.  It  is  the  term 
translated  "messengers"  in  2  Cor.  8:23, 
denoting  delegates  of  the  churches  on  a 
charitable  mission,  ver.  1-6,  16-19 ;  used 
in  Phil.  2:25,  of  Epaphroditus ;  and  in  the 
same  sense  of  envoys  perhaps,  of  Barnabas 
and  Paul  in  Acts  14:4,  14. 

35 


APO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AQU 


In  the  specific  and  usual  sense  of  the 
word  in  the  New  Testament,  the  apostles 
of  Jesus  Christ  were  his  chief  disciples, 
eyewitnesses  of  his  glorv,  Luke  22:28; 
I  Cor.  9:1,  whom  he  invested  with  author- 
it\-,  filled  with  his  Spirit,  intrusted  particu- 
larly with  his  doctrines  and  services,  and 
commissioned  to  raise  the  edifice  of  his 
church.  F"rom  the  nature  of  the  case,  the 
office  of  these  witnesses  of  Christ's  life  ter- 
minated with  them,  and  could  not  be  trans- 
mitted to  successors,  Acts  1:21,  22.  The)' 
were  12  in  number,  answering  to  the  12 
tribes,  Matt.  19:28,  and  were  plain,  un- 
learned men,  chosen  from  the  common 
people.  After  tlieir  calling  and  charge. 
Matt.  10:5-42,  they  attended  their  divine 
Master,  witnessing  his  works,  imbibing  his 
spirit,  and  gradifallv  learning  the  facts  and 
doctrines  of  the  gospel.  During  his  minis- 
try he  sent  them  out  by  twos  on  prepara- 
tory tours  in  Juda;a  only.  Matt.  10,  Luke 
9:1-6;  and  after  his  resurrection  he  sent 
them  into  all  the  world,  commissioned  to 
preach,  to  baptize,  to  work  miracles,  etc. 
See  John  15:27,  i  Cor.  9:1;  15:8;  2  Cor. 
12:22;  I  Thess.  2:13.  The  names  of  the  12 
are,  Simon  Peter;  Andrew,  his  brother; 
James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  called  also  "  the 
greater ;"  John,  his  brother;  Philip;  Bar- 
tholomew ;  Thomas ;  Matthew,  or  Levi ; 
Simon  the  Zealot ;  Lebbaeus,  surnamed 
Thaddaeus,  also  called  Judas  or  Jude ; 
James,  "the  less,"  the  son  of  Alphaeus; 
and  Judas  Iscariot,  Matt.  10:2-4;  Mark  3: 
16;  Luke  6: 14.  The  last  betrayed  his  Mas- 
ter, and  then  hanged  himself,  and  Matthi- 
as was  chosen  in  his  place,  Acts  1:15-26. 

The  apostles  were  on  a  footing  of  entire 
equality,  no  one  claiming  any  authority  or 
primacy  over  the  rest ;  and  none  of  the  12 
was  so  eminent  in  endowments  and  servi- 
ces as  Paul,  2  Cor.  11:5,  23-28,  They  ad- 
vanced slowly  in  their  comprehension  of 
Christ's  mission,  Luke  24:25;  John  16:12, 
until  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  on  them, 
Luke  24:49;  Acts  1:8.  In  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  are  recorded  the  self-sacrificing 
toils  and  sufferings  of  these  Christlike  men, 
who  did  that  which  was  "  right  in  the  sight 
of  God  "  from  love  to  their  Lord ;  and  gave 
themselves  wholly  to  their  work  with  a 
zeal,  lov.e,  and  faith  Christ  delighted  to 
honor — teaching  us  that  apostolic  graces 
alone  can  secure  apostolic  successes.  See 
Paui-,  and  the  Names  of  the  Twelve. 

The  "  Apostles"  Creed,"  so  called,  was 
not  written  by  them,  though  an  admirable 
comi)end  of  the  belief  of  the  early  church. 
36 


APOTH'ECARIES,  Neh.  3:8,  makers  and 
venders  of  pt-rfinnes  and  ointments,  E.\od. 
30:25;  37:29;  2  Chr.  16:14;   Keel.  10:1. 

APPEALS'  were  recognized  in  the  Mo- 
saic law,  Deut.  17:8,  9,  and  were  allowed 
to  accused  persons  in  the  period  of  the 
Judges  and  the  Kings,  far  more  than  in 
the  less  favored  heathen  nations  of  old  or 
modern  times,  Judg.  4:5;  2  Chr.  19:8,  10. 
Paul  as  a  Roman  citizen,  though  not  sen- 
tenced, appealed  for  a  trial  before  the  em- 
peror,  regarding  himself  as  already  con- 
demned if  left  in  reach  of  the  Jews,  Acts 
25:1-12. 

AP'PHIA,  Phile.  2,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  wife  of  Philemon. 

AP'PII-FO'RUM,  markcl-place  of  Appius^ 
a  village  or  market-town  founded  by  Ap. 
plus  Claudius  on  the  great  road  (Via  Appiai 
which  he  constructed  from  Rome  to  Capua. 
Its  remains  are  probablj-  to  be  found  near 
the  present  Treponti,  situated  43  miles 
from  Rome  in  the  border  of  the  Pontine 
marshes,  where  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
town.  Three  Taverns  was  a  village  near 
Cisterna,  about  10  miles  nearer  Rome,  Acts 
28:15. 

AP'PLES  OF  SODOM,  see  Ska,  III. 
AP'PLE- TREES, 
perhaps  quinces,  are 
mentioned  in  Song 
2:3.  5;  8:5;  Joel  1:12. 
Many  suppose  the  cit- 
ron-tree to  be  here 
meant.  The  rich  col- 
or, fragrant  odor,  and 
handsome  appearance 
of  this  tree,  both  in 
flower  and  in  fruit, 
agree  well  with  the 
above  passages,  Song 
7:8.  Thoughts  of  wise 
men,  well  e.xpressed, 
are  like  "  apples  of 
gold  in  pictures  of  sil- 
ver," that  is,  like  ripe 

and  golden  fruit  in  finely  wrought  silver 
baskets,  Prov.  25:11. 

"  Apple  "  of  the  eye,  literally  "  the  little 
man"  or  "pupil  "  of  the  eye,  Deut.  32:10; 
Psa.  17:8. 

APPREHEND',  Phil.  3:12-14,  to  lay  hold 
upon. 

AQ'UILA,  an  eagle,  a  Jew  born  in  Pontus, 
a  tent-maker  by  occupation,  who  with  his 
wife  Priscilla  joined  the  Christian  church 
at  Rome.  When  the  Jews  were  banished 
from  that  city  by  the  emperor  Claudius, 
Aquila  and   his  wife   retired    to   Corinth. 


AR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARA 


They  afterwards  became  the  companions 
of  Paul  in  his  labors,  and  are  mentioned 
by  him  with  much  commendation,  being 
found  both  at  Ephesus  and  at  Rome,  Acts 
18:2,  3,  24-26;  Rom.  16:3,  4;  I  Cor.  16:19; 
2  Tim.  4:19. 

AR,  city,  called  also  Rabbah  and  Rab- 
bath-Moab,  the  capital  of  Moab,  Num.  21  : 
28;  Deut.  2;  Isa.  15:1.  Its  supposed  site, 
still  called  Rabbah,  is  found  upon  a  hill 
some  17  miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
10  south  of  the  Arnon,  midway  between  it 
and  Kir  Moab. 

AR'ABAH,  desert,  often  translated  "  the 


plain,"  denotes  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
north  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Josh.  18:18,  and  in 
some  passages,  south  of  it,  Deut.  1:1 ;  2:8, 
to  the  Red  Sea.  See  Canaan.  "TheAr- 
abah  "  is  often  referred  to  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, in  connection  with  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  Deut.  3:17;  4:49; 
Josh.  3:16;  11:2,  16;  i2;i,  3,  8;  and  with 
Gilgal  and  Jericho,  Deut.  11:30;  Josh.  8: 14; 
2  Kin.  25:4.  It  occurs  in  the  history  of  Da- 
vid, 2  Sam.  2:29;  5:7;  and  in  the  flight  of 
Zedekiah,  Jer.  39 : 4 ;  52 : 7.  For  history  and 
description  of  this  valley,  and  for  the  por- 
tion south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  see  Jordan. 


A   SCENE    IN    ARABIA. 


ARA'BIA  is  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
lying  south  and  east  of  Judaea.  It  extends 
1,600  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  1,400 
from  east  to  west.  On  the  north  it  is  bound- 
ed by  part  of  Syria,  on  the  east  by  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  and  the  Euphrates,  on  the  south 
by  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Straits  of  Ba- 
belmandel,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Red 
Sea,  Egypt,  and  Palestine.  Arabia  is  dis- 
tinguished by  geographers  as  in  3  parts — 
Deserta,  Petraea,  and  Feli.x. 


Arabia  Dkskr'ta,  the  desert,  a  vast 
steppe,  or  elevated  expanse  of  sand,  with 
occasional  hills  and  a  sparse  vegetation. 
It  has  the  mountains  of  Gilead  on  the  west, 
and  the  river  Euphrates  on  the  east,  and 
extends  far  to  the  south.  It  comprehends 
the  country  of  the  Itureatis,  the  Ishmael- 
ites,  the  people  of  Kedar,  and  others,  who 
led  a  wandering  life,  having  no  cities, 
houses,  or  fixed  habitations,  but  wholly 
dwelling  in  tents  ;  in  modern  Arabic,  such 

37 


ARA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARA 


are  called  Bedawln,  or  Bedouins.  When 
Paul  says  he  "  went  into  Arabia  and  re- 
turned again  to  Damascus,"  he  meant 
doubtless  the  northern  part  of  Arabia  De- 
serta,  which  lay  adjacent  to  the  territories 
of  Damascus,  Gal.  1:17. 

Ar.\bia  Pktr^'a,  the  rocky,  lies  south  of 
the  Holy  Land,  and  had  Petra  for  its  cap- 
ital. See  Sela.  This  region  contained  the 
southern  Edomites,  the  Amalekites,  etc., 
whose  successors  are  at  present  known 
under  the  general  name  of  Arabs.  In  this 
country  were  Kadesh-barnea.  Gerar,  Beer- 
sheba,  Paran,  Arad,  Hasmona,  Oboth,  De- 
dan,  etc.,  also  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai 
and  the  land  of  Midian.  This  portion  of 
.Arabia,  though  smaller  than  the  others,  is 
rich  in  historical  associations.  The  patri- 
arch Job  was  familiar  with  its  scenery.  At 
Horeb,  Moses  saw  the  burning  bush,  and 
Elijah  heard  the  "still  small  voice."  In 
this  "great  and  terrible  wilderness  "  from 
Mount  Sinai  to  the  promised  land,  the  He- 
brews spent  their  40  j-ears  of  wanderings. 

Arabia  Fe'lix,  llic  liappy,  lies  still  far- 
ther south  and  east,  being  bounded  east 
by  the  Persian  Gulf,  south  by  the  ocean  be- 
tween Africa  and  India,  and  west  by  the 
Red  Sea.  As  this  region  did  not  immedi- 
ately adjoin  the  Holy  Land,  it  is  not  so 
frequently  mentioned  as  the  former  ones. 
The  queen  of  Sheba,  who  visited  Solomon, 

1  Kin.  10:1,  was  probably  queen  of  part  of 
Arabia  Feli.x;  and  the  Jewish  kings  ob- 
tained gold  and  flocks  from  it,  i  Kin.  10:15; 

2  Chr.  17:11.  This  country  abounded  with 
riches,  and  particularly  with  spices,  and 
comprised  the  provinces  now  called  Hed- 
jaz,  Yemen,  Hadramaut,  etc.  It  is  much 
celebrated  in  modern  times  by  reason  of 
the  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina  being  situ- 
ated in  it. 

There  are,  according  to  native  histori- 
ans, two  races  of  Arabs:  those  who  derive 
their  descent  from  the  primitive  inhabi- 
tants of  the  land,  Joktan,  etc.,  and  those  who 
claim  Ishmael  as  their  ancestor.  Southern 
Arabia  was  settled  in  ])art  by  Cush  and  his 
sons,  descendants  of  Ham,  who  also  peo- 
pled the  adjoining  coast  of  Africa,  and  in 
part  by  descendants  of  Shem,  jiarticularly 
Joktan,  Gen.  10:25,  26.  Jshmael,  Gen.  25: 
13-15,  and  the  6  sons  of  Abraham  by  Ketu- 
rah.  Gen.  25:2,  together  with  the  seed  of 
Esau  and  of  Lot,  first  occupied  the  parts  of 
Arabia  near  Juda;a,  and  in  time  spread  over 
almost  the  whole  country.  The  changes  of 
40  centuries  render  it  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish either  of  these  parent  sources  in 
38 


the  numerous  Arab  tribes  descended  from 
them.  These  tribes  have  traditions  and 
peculiarities  of  their  own,  and  incessant 
feuds ;  yet  as  a  whole  they  are  but  one  peo- 
ple, distinct  from  all  others.  The  only  gen- 
eral division  is  into  those  who  dwell  in 
cities,  as  in  Southern  Arabia,  and  those 
who  live  in  the  fields  and  deserts.  The 
latter  are  migratory,  dwelling  in  tents  and 
removing  according  to  the  convenience  of 
water  and  pasturage,  and  are  often  rob- 
bers. Each  tribe  is  divided  up  into  little 
communities,  of  which  a  sheikh  or  patriarch 
is  the  head.  Such  are  the  Bedazveen  or 
Bedouins. 

In  ancient  times  the  Arabs  were  idola- 
ters and  star  -  worshippers.  A  form  of 
Christianity  made  much  progress  in  the  3d 
century  among  them.  They  are  now  nom- 
inall}-  Mohammedans,  but  their  religion 
sits  but  lightly  on  them.  Isolated  from 
other  nations,  and  with  slight  e.xceptions 
free  from  all  foreign  control,  they  jjreserve 
their  ancient  manners  with  singular  fidel- 
ity, and  the  study  of  these  throws  much 
light  upon  Bible  narratives.  Their  lan- 
guage also  is  still  spoken  with  great  puri- 
ty ;  and  as  it  is  near  akin  to  the  Hebrew, 
it  furnishes  invaluable  aid  in  the  study  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

Respecting  the  productions  and  peculi- 
arities of  Arabia,  see  Desert,  Parched 
Ground,  Sela,  Sinai,  Winds,  etc. 

A'RAD,  a  wild  ass,  a  Canaanitish  city  on 
the  e.xtreme  south  of  Judaea,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  which  drove  back  the  Hebrews  as 
they  attempted  to  enter  the  promised  land 
from  Kadesh,  Num.  21:1;  it  was  afterwards 
subdued.  Josh.  10:41;  12:14;  Judg.  1:16. 
Robinson  found  its  site  on  a  hill  about  18 
miles  south  of  Hebron. 

A'RAM,  high,  I.,  the  name  of  3  men  in 
the  Bible:  a  son  of  Shem,  Gen.  10:22;  a 
grandson  of  Nahor,  Gen.  22:21;  and  an 
ancestor  of  our  Lord,  Ruth  4:19;  i  Chr. 
2:10;  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  3:33. 

II.  Nearly  synonymous  with  Syria,  the 
Hebrew  name  of  the  whole  region  north- 
east of  Palestine,  e.xtendingfrom  the  Tigris 
on  the  east  nearly  to  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west,  and  to  the  Taurus  range  on  the 
north.  It  was  named  after  Aram  the  son 
of  Shem.  Thus  defined,  it  includes  also 
Mesopotamia,  which  the  Hebrews  named 
Arain-naharaim,  Aram  of  the  Izco  riiwrs. 
Gen.  24:10,  or  Padan-aram,  the  plain  of 
Aram,  Gen.  25:20;  48:7.  Various  cities  in 
the  western  part  of  Aram  gave  their  own 
names  to  the  regions  around  them:  as  Da- 


ARA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARC 


mascus  ( Aram-Dammesek),  2  Sam.  8:6; 
Maachah,  near  Bashan,  i  Chr.  19:6;  Ge- 
shur,  Josh.  12:5;  2  Sam.  15:8;  Zobah,  and 
Beth-rehob,  2  Sam.  10:6,  8.  Several  ot 
these  were  powerful  states,  and  often 
waged  war  against  Israel.  David  subdued 
them  and  made  them  tributaries,  and  Sol- 
omon   preserved   this   supremacy.      After 


him  it  was  lost,  except  perhaps  under  Jero- 
boam II.  See  SvKi.\,  P.\UAN-.\R.\M.  The 
Aramaean  language,  nearlj'  resembling  the 
Hebrew,  gradually  supplanted  the  latter 
as  a  spoken  language,  and  was  in  use  in 
Judaea  at  the  time  of  Christ.  It  is  still 
used  by  Syrian  Christians  around  Mo- 
sul. 


MOUNT   ARAR.\T,    IN    ARMENIA. 


AR'ARAT,  holy  ffrotind,  a  province  in 
the  centre  of  Armenia,  between  the  river 
Araxes  and  the  lakes  Van  and  Ooroomiah, 
2  Kin.  19:37;  Isa.  37:38;  sometimes  used 
to  denote  the  whole  country,  Jer.  51:27. 
On  the  mountains  of  Ararat  the  ark  rested. 
Gen.  8:4;  and  from  this  region  men  jour- 
neyed eastward.  Gen.  11:2,  to  the  land  of 
Shinar. 

The  noble  mountain,  which  is  called  by 
the  Armenians  Masis,  by  the  Turks  Agri- 
Dagh  or  Steep  Mountain,  by  the  Persians 
Kuh-i-Nuh  or  Noah's  Mountain,  and  by 
Europeans  generally  Ararat,  consists  of  2 
peaks,  one  4,000  feet  higher  than  the  other, 
connected  with  a  chain  of  mountains  run- 
ning off  to  the  northwest  and  west,  which 
yet  do  not  detract  at  all  from  the  lonely 
dignity  of  this  stupendous  mass.  Its  sum- 
mit, covered  with  perpetual  snow,  rises  to 
the  height  of  16,915  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
and  it  is  a  volcano,  having  been  in  erup- 
tion so  late  as   1840.     The  ark  probably 


rested,  not  on  the  peak  of  Ararat,  but 
somewhere  on  the  lofty  plateau  in  that  re- 
gion. 

ARAU'NAH,  a  Jebusite,  residing  on 
Mount  Moriah  after  the  Jebusites  were  dis- 
possessed by  David,  2  Sam.  5:6;  24:18.     In 

1  Chr.  21:18^  he  is  called  Ornan.  The  di- 
vine choice  of  his  land  for  the  temple  site, 

2  Chr.  3:1,  and  his  readiness  to  give  it 
freely  for  this  purpose,  suggest  the  proba- 
bilitj^  that  he  was  a  convert  to  the  true  re- 
ligion. David  seems  to  have  bought  the 
threshing-floor  and  oxen  for  50  shekels  of 
silver,  and  the  whole  hill  for  600  shekels  of 
gold. 

AR'BA,  an  ancestor  of  the  Anakim,  and 
founder  of  Hebron,  to  which  he  gave  its 
ancient  name.  Josh.  15:13;  Gen.  35:27. 

ARCHAN'GEL,  a  chief  angel,  only  twice 
used  in  the  Bible,  i  Thess.  4:16;  Jude  9. 
In  this  last  passage  it  is  applied  to  Michael, 
who,  in  Dan.  10:13,  21;  12:1,  is  described 
as  "  one  of  the  chief  princes,"  having   a 

39 


ARC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


ARI 


special  charge  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and 
in  Rev.  12:7-9  as  the  leader  of  an  angelic 
army. 

ARCHE'LA'IJS,  prince  0/ /he  />rop/c,  a  son 
of  Herod  the  Great,  by  his  Samaritan  wife 
Malthace.  He  was  educated  with  his  bro- 
ther Antipas  at  Rome,  and  after  his  father's 
death  was  placed  over  Judoea,  Iduma;a, 
and  Samaria,  with  the  title  of  e/huarch  or 
Ictrarch  ;  whence  he  is  said  to  reign.  Matt. 
2:22.  This  j)assage  implies  that  he  inherit- 
ed the  tyrannical  and  cruel  disposition  of 
his  father;  and  history  informs  us  that 
after  enjoying  his  power  for  10  years,  he 
was  accused  before  the  emperor  on  ac- 
count of  his  cruelties,  and  banished  to  Vi- 
enne  on  the  Rhone,  where  he  died. 

AR'CHERS,  see  Bow. 

ARCHIP'PUS,  ruler  of  horses,  a  Chris- 
tian minister,  closely  associated  with  Phi- 
lemon and  Apphia,  saluted  by  Paul  as  his 
"  fellow-soldier,"  Phile.  2,  and  exhorted  to 
fulfil  his  ministry  at  CoJosse,  Col.  4.17. 

ARCTU'RUS,  the  Bear's  Tail,  the  con- 
stellation Ursa  Major.  The  "  sons  "  of  Arc- 
turus  are  probably  the  stars  in  the  bodj- 
and  tail  of  I'rsa  Major,  Job  9:9;  38:32. 

AREOP'AGUS,  /////  of  Mars,  the  seat  of 
the  ancient  and  venerable  supreme  court 
of  Athens,  called  the  Areopagites,  Acts  17 : 
19-34.  This  was  composed  entirely  of  ex- 
archons,  of  grave  and  blameless  character, 
and  their  wise  and  just  decisions  made  it 
famous  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Greece. 
The  acting  arclions,  or  chief  magistrates  of 
the  city  for  the  >ear,  had  seats  with  them. 


RUINS  OF  THE   ARKOPAGUS  AND  ACROPOLIS. 

Their  numbers  and  authority  varied  from 
age  to  age.    Here  a  crowd  once  assembled 
to  hear  Paul  preach.    The  stone  seats  of  the 
40 


Areopagus  lay  open  to  the  sky ;  in  the  court 
stood  Epicureans,  Stoics,  etc. ;  around  them 
spread  the  city,  full  of  idolaters  and  their 
temples ;  and  a  little  southeast  ro.se  the 
steep  height  of  the  Acropolis,  on  whose  lev- 
el summit  were  crowded  more  and  richer 
idolatrous  structures  than  on  anj-  other 
equal  space  in  the  world.  Amid  this  scene 
Paul  exhibited  the  sin  and  folly  of  idol- 
worship  with  such  boldness  and  power  that 
none  could  refute  him,  and  some  were  con- 
verted.    See  Athens. 

AR'ETAS,  a  king  of  Northwestern  Ara- 
bia, who  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Herod  Antipas;  but  she  being  repudiated 
by  Herod,  Aretas  made  war  upon  him  and 
destroyed  his  army.  In  consequence  of 
this,  the  emperor  Tiberius  directed  V'itel- 
lius,  then  proconsul  of  Syria,  to  make  war 
upon  the  Arabian  king,  and  bring  him  alive 
or  dead  to  Rome.  But  while  Vitellius  was 
in  the  midst  of  preparation  for  the  war,  he 
received  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Tibe- 
rius, A.  D.  37 ;  on  wliich  he  recalled  his 
troops,  and  then  left  the  province.  Aretas, 
either  taking  advantage  of  this  supineness, 
or  favored  by  the  new  emperor  Caligula, 
seems  to  have  got  possession  of  Damascus, 
over  which  he  appointed  a  governor  or  eth- 
narch,  who,  A.  D.  39,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Jews,  attempted  to  put  Paul  in  prison, 
2  Cor.  1 1 -.32.     Compare  Acts  9:24,  25. 

AR'GOB,  stony,  a  city  in  Bashan  and  Ma- 
nasseh  east  of  the  Jordan ;  also  the  region 
around  it,  afterwards'  Trachonitis.  This 
was  very  fertile,  and  contained  at  one  time 
60  walled  towns,  which  were  taken  by  Jair 
the  son  of  Manasseh,  and  called  after  him, 
Deut.  3:4,  13,  14;  I  Kin.  4:13.  Recent  e.x- 
plorers  in  this  region,  the  Lejah,  south  of 
Damascus  and  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
find  it  a  vast  basin  full  of  basaltic  rocks,  in 
which  are  the  remains  of  scores  of  Roman 
towns  in  a  remarkable  state  of  preserva- 
tion. 

A'RIEL,  the  lion  of  God,  one  of  Ezra's 
chief  men,  Ezra  8: 16.  This  word  is  used, 
in  2  Sam.  23:20;  i  Chr.  11:22,  as  a  descrip- 
tive or  perhaps  a  family  name  of  2  "  lion- 
like "  men  of  Moab.  In  anotlier  sense, 
Ezekiel  applies  it  to  the  altar  of  God,  Ezek. 
43:15,  and  Isaiah  to  Jerusalem,  as  the 
hearth  on  which  both  the  burnt-offerings 
and  the  enemies  of  God  should  be  con- 
sumed, Isa.  2g:i,  2,  7.     See  also  Gen.  49:9. 

ARIMATHiE'A,  or  R.\'mah  (dual,  Ra- 
mathaim),  double  heights,  a  city  whence 
came  Joseph  the  counsellor,  in  w^hose  new 
tomb  the  body  of  Jesus  was  laid,  Matt.  27: 


TOWER  AT  RAMLEH. 


ARI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARK 


57;  John  19:38.  We  learn  from  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  that  this  city  was  near  Lydda, 
a  town  24  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  It 
has  generally  been  located  at  the  modern 
Ramleh,  a  town  near  Lydda,  of  3,000  in- 
habitants, in  which  the  route  from  Egypt 
to  Syria  crosses  that  from  Jerusalem  to 
Joppa.  But  its  site  is  rather  to  be  sought 
a  few  miles  east  of  Lydda,  in  the  hills 
which  skirt  the  plain  of  Sharon.  The  ist 
book  of  Maccabees,  11:34,  speaks  of  it  as 
transferred,  together  with  Lydda,  from 
Samaria  to  Judaea,  which  maj'  account  for 
Luke's  calling  it  "  a  city  of  the  Jews,"  Luke 
23:51.  It  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
same  place  as  the  Ramah  of  Mount  Ephra- 
im,  the  birthplace  and  residence  of  Sam- 
uel. This  was  called  also  Ramathaim- 
Zophim,  I  Sam.  1:1,  19,  from  which  name 
the  form  Arimathaea  is  readilj^  derived. 
See  Ram.\h. 

A'RIOCH,  venerable,  I.,  king  of  Ellasar, 
and  ally  of  Chedorlaomer,  Gen.  14:1. 

II.  A  captain  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  guard, 
Dan.  2:14. 

ARISTAR'CHUS,  Ike  best  prince,  a  native 
of  Thessalonica,  a  faithful  fellow-laborer 
with  Paul,  Acts  20:4;  27:2;  Phile.  24.  His 
life  was  endangered  in  the  riot  at  Ephesus, 
e.vcited  by  the  silversmiths,  Acts  19:29;  but 
having  escaped,  he  continvied  with  Paul, 
and  was  a  prisoner  with  him  at 
Rome,  Col.  4:10. 

ARISTOBU'LUS,  best  counsel- 
lor, a  resident  of  Rome  whose 
household  was  saluted  by  Paul, 
Rom.  16:10. 

ARK  OF  Noah,  the  vessel  in 
which  the  family  of  Noah  was 
preserved    during    the    deluge  5 

when  all  the  rest  of  our  race 
perished  for  their  sins.  We  may 
regard  it  as  a  large,  oblong, 
floating  house,  with  a  roof  either 
flat  or  only  slightly  inclined, 
with  3  stories,  and  a  door  in 
the  side.  There  were  windows 
"above,"  probably  in  the  roof, 
a  cubit  in  height.  Gen.  6:16; 
8:13. 

The  dimensions  of  the  ark, 
taking  the  cubit  as  18  inches, 
were  450  feet  in  length,  75  in 
breadth,  and  45  in  height.  It  was  built  of 
light  gopher-wood,  and  made  waterproof 
with  bitumen,  and  was  no  doubt  large 
enough  to  accommodate  the  8  persons  of 
Noah's  family  and  the  animals  to  be  saved 
in  it — namely,  of  all  birds  and  clean  beasts 


7  each,  and  of  unclean  beasts  2  each,  male 
and  female.  Many  questions  have  been 
raised,  and  discussed  at  great  length  by 
skeptics  and  others,  respecting  the  form 
and  dimensions  of  the  ark ;  the  number  of 
animals  saved  in  it — whether  including  all 
Species  then  e.^isting  in  the  world,  except 
such  as  live  in  water  or  lie  dormant,  or 
only  the  species  living  in  the  parts  of  the 
world  then  peopled  by  man ;  and  as  to  the 
possibility  of  their  being  all  lodged  in  the 
ark,  and  their  food  during  the  year.  Some 
of  these  questions  the  Bible  clearly  settles. 
Others  it  is  vain  to  discuss,  since  we  have 
no  means  of  deciding  them.  Certain  it  is, 
that  while  the  Bible  eulogizes  the  faith  and 
obedience  of  Noah,  it  shows  that  his  sal- 
vation was  a  miracle  of  Providence.  It 
was  by  miracle  that  he  was  forewarned 
and  directed  to  prepare  for  the  flood ;  and 
the  same  miraculous  power  accomplished 
all  that  Noah  was  unable  to  do  in  design- 
ing, building,  and  filling  the  ark,  and  pre- 
serving and  guiding  it  through  the  deluge. 
It  has  been  commonly  supposed  that  the 
warning  came  to  Noah  120  years  before 
the  flood.  Compare  Gen.  5:32  with  7:6, 
and  Gen.  6:t,  with  i  Pet.  3:20.  Tradi- 
tions of  the  ark  are  found  in  most  na- 
tions all  over  the  globe.  See  Deluge 
and  Noah. 


ARK  of  the  Covenant,  the  sacred  chest 
or  coffer  in  which  the  tables  of  the  law  were 
deposited^  written  by  the  finger  of  God,  and 
witnessing  to  his  covenant  with  his  people. 
E.xod.  25:22;  34:29.  It  was  of  shittim-w^ood, 
covered  within  and  without  with  plates  of 

41 


ARK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARM 


gold,  nearly  4  feet  in  length,  and  2  feet  3 
inches  in  width  and  height.  On  the  top  of 
it,  all  around,  ran  a  kind  of  golden  crown. 
It  had  4  rings  of  gold,  2  on  each  side, 
through  which  staves  were  put,  by  which 
it  was  carried.  These  also  were  overlaid 
with  the  finest  gold,  and  were  not  to  be  re*- 
moved  from  the  rings,  Exod.  25: 10-22.  The 
lid  of  the  ark,  all  of  gold,  was  called  the 
mercy-seat ;  and  upon  its  opposite  ends 
w'ere  two  golden  cherubim,  fronting  each 
other  and  tlie  mercy-seat,  which  they  cov- 
ered with  their  outspread  wings,  Exod.  t,~  : 
1-9.  Here  God  specially  dwelt,  2  Kin.  19: 
15,  I  Chr.  13:6,  and  shone  forth,  perhaps 
by  some  sensible  manifestations,  Lev.  16:2; 
Psa.  80: 1.  It  was  his  footstool,  i  Chr.  28:2; 
Psa.  99:5.  Here  he  received  the  homage 
of  his  i)eople,  and  dispensed  his  living  ora- 
cles, Num.  7:89.  The  great  yearly  sacri- 
fice of  expiation  was  here  offered  by  the 
high-priest,  Heb.  9:7,  in  the  Holy  of  Ho- 
lies, where  no  one  else  was  allowed  to 
enter.  Hence  there  was  no  object  held 
more  sacred  by  the  Jews  than  the  "  ark  of 
God."  During  their  journeys  in  the  wilder- 
ness, it  was  borne  by  the  priests  under  a 
purple  canopy  and  with  great  reverence 
before  the  host  of  Israel,  Num.  4:5,  6;  10: 
33-36.  Before  it  the  Jordan  was  divided, 
and  behind  it  the  waters  flowed  on  again. 
Josh.  3,  4.  The  walls  of  Jericho  fell  down 
before  it,  Josh.  6:4-12. 

.\fter  this,  the  ark  continued  some  time 
at  Gilgal,  whence  it  was  removed  to  Shi- 
loh.  Josh.  4:19;  10:43;  18:1.  Hence  the 
Israelites  took  it  to  their  camp ;  but  when 
they  gave  battle  to  the  Philistines,  it  was 
taken  by  the  enemy,  i  Sam.  4.  The  Phil- 
istines, oppressed  by  the  hand  of  God,  re- 
turned the  ark,  and  it  was  lodged  at  Kir- 
jath-jearim,  i  Sam.  7:1.  It  was  afterwards, 
in  the  reign  of  Saul,  at  Nob.  David  con- 
veyed it  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  the  house 
of  Obed-Edom,  and  thence  to  his  palace 
on  Zion,  2  Sam.  6;  and  lastly,  Solomon 
brought  it  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
2  Chr.  5:2.  See  Psalms  24,  47,  105,  132.  It 
remained  in  the  temple,  with  all  suitable 
respect,  till  the  times  of  the  later  idola- 
trous kings  of  Judah,  who  ])rofaned  the 
Most  Holy  place  with  their  idols,  when  the 
priests  appear  to  have  removed  the  ark 
from  the  temple.  At  least,  Josiah  com- 
manded them  to  bring  it  back  to  the  sanc- 
tuary, and  forbade  them  to  carry  it  about, 
as  they  had  hitherto  done,  2  Chr.  33:7; 
35:3.  The  ark  appears  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed at  the  captivity,  or  perhaps  con- 
42 


cealed  by  pious  Jews  in  some  hiding-place 
afterwards  undiscoverable,  as  we  hear 
nothing  more  of  it ;  and  the  want  of  it 
made  the  second  temple  less  glorious  than 
the  first. 

Besides  the  tables  of  the  covenant,  placed 
by  Moses  in  this  sacred  coffer,  (iod  appoint-  • 
ed  the  blossoming  rod  of  Aaron  to  be  lodged 
there,  Num.  17: 10;  Heb. 9:4;  agoldenvase 
of  manna  gathered  in  the  wilderness,  Exod. 
16 :  ifT,,  34 ;  and  a  copy  of  the  book  of  the  law, 
Deut.  31 :26.  At  a  later  time  these  articles 
seem  to  have  been  removed,  at  least  tem- 
porarily, I  Kin.  8:9. 

AR'KITES,  descendants  of  Canaan,  of 
the  Zidonian  branch,  who  settled  a  town 
called  Arka,  at  the  northwest  foot  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  (ien.  10:17;  i  Chr.  1:15.  The 
ruins  of  Arka  have  been  found  by  Burck- 
hardt  and  others  about  14  miles  northeast 
of  Tripolis. 

ARM,  the  symbol  of  i)ower.  Job  38:15; 
Psa.  10:15;  89:13;   Isa.  52:10;  Ezek.  30:21. 

ARMAGED'DON,  mountain  of  Megiddo, 
Rev.  16: 16.  Megiddo  is  a  city  in  the  great 
plain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cartnel,  which 
had  been  the  scene  of  much  slaughter, 
Judg.  4,  5,  7;  I  Sam.  31:8;  2  Kin.  23:29,  30. 
Hence  it  is  referred  to  in  the  above  text 
as  the  place  in  which  God  will  collect  to- 
gether his  enemies  for  destruction.  Com- 
pare the  figurative  name  "  valley  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,"  suggested  by  the  great  victory 
of  that  king,  2  Chr.  20:26;  Joel  3:2,  12; 
Zech.  14:2,  4. 

ARME'NIA,  a  large  country  of  Asia,  hav- 
ing Media  on  the  east,  Cappadocia  on  the 
west,  Colchis  and  Iberia  on  the  north,  Mes- 
opotamia on  the  south,  and  the  Euphrates 
and  Syria  on  the  southwest.  It  is  an  eleva- 
ted table-land,  with  a  cold  but  salubrious 
climate.  Lying  between  the  Caucasus  and 
the  Taurus  ranges,  with  Mount  Ararat  tow- 
ering in  its  central  province,  it  gives  rise 
to  3  notable  rivers,  the  Euphrates.  Tigris, 
and  Araxes.  It  is  only  named  in  Scrip- 
ture as  the  place  of  refuge  of  2  Assyrian 
parricides,  2  Kin.  19:37.  The  modern  Ar- 
menian Church  resembles  strongly  the 
Greek  Church,  and  is  sadly  debased  and 
corrupt.      See   Ar.arat,   Minni,   and   To- 

GARMAH. 

ARM'LET,  see  Bracelet. 

ARMS  and  ARMOR.  The  Hebrews  used 
in  w^ar  offensive  arms  of  the  same  kinds  as 
were  employed  by  other  people  of  their 
time  and  of  the  East  —  swords,  lances, 
spears,  darts,  javelins,  bows,  arrows,  and 
slings.      For   defensive  armor,  they  used 


ARM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARO 


helmets,  cuirasses,  bucklers,  armor  for  the 
thighs,  etc.    See  War,   Shield. 


shield,  target,  or  buckler,  either  of  wood 
covered  with  tough  hides,  or  of  metal; 
4.  The  leg-pieces,  or  greaves,  of  thick  leath- 
er or  brass.  See  Eph.  6:11-17.  The  offen- 
sive arms  are  the  bow  and  arrow  ;  the  bat- 
tle-a.xe ;  the  spear,  dart,  and  javelin  or  short 


In  the  accompanying  engravings  are  rep- 
resented specimens  of  the  various  weapons 
anciently  used ;  also  of  the  several  parts  of 
the  armor  for  defence,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  worn:  i.  The  cuirass,  or 
defence  of  the  body,  called  in  Scripture  the 
coat  of  mail,  habergeon,  and  breastplate; 


it  appears  to  have  been  made  of  leather  or 
some  pliant  material,  sometimes  covered 
with  metallic  scales,  and  capable  of  taking 
the  form  of  the  parts  of  the  body  it  pro- 
tected ;  2.  The  helmet,  usually  of  tough 
hide  or  metal,  with  its  flowing  crest ;  3.  The 


spear ;  the  sling ;  and  the  sword  with  its 
sheath,  the  ancient  sword  being  short, 
straight,  and  two-edged. 

Each  Jewish  tribe  had  its  own  banner. 
Under  Abomination  is  a  cut  representing 
the  ensigns  of  the  Roman  legions,  which 
the  Jews  regarded  as  idolatrous,  not  only 
because  they  had  been  consecrated  to  idols, 
and  by  heathen  priests,  but  as  they  had 
images  on  them,  and  were  objects  of  ado- 
ration, Exod.  20:4. 

AR'NON,  roaring,  a  river  rising  in  the 
mountains  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which 
it  flows,  Deut.  2:24.  It  is  now  called  Wady 
Modjeb,  and  anciently  divided  the  territo- 
ries of  the  Moabites  in  turn  from  those  of 
the  Ammonites,  Amorites,  and  Reubenites, 
Num.  21 ;  13  ;  Josh.  13 :  16.  It  flows  in  a  deep 
and  wild  ravine  of  the  same  name.  Burck- 
hardt  was  35  minutes  in  descending  to  the 
river  bed.  Here  the  heat  of  midsummer  is 
e.xtreme,  and  the  river  becomes  almost 
dried  up;  but  in  the  rainy  season  there  is 
an  impetuous  torrent. 

AR'OER,  laid  bai'e,  I.,  an  ancient  city  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Arnon,  in  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  Deut. 
2:36;  4:48;  Josh.  13:9,  12  miles  from  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  was  in  the  territory  of  the 
Amorites,  Josh.  12:2,  but  seems  to  have 
fallen  at  a  later  day  into  the  hands  of  Moab, 
Jer.  48:19. 

II.  A  town  in.  the  tribe  of  Gad,  probably 
east  of  Rabbath-Ammon,  Josh.  13:25,  and 

43 


ARP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASA 


perhaps  on  the  Jabbok,  2  Sam.  24:5.     It  is 
mentioned  in  Judg.  11:33. 

III.  A  town  of  Judah,  to  which  David 
sent  presents,  i  Sam.  30:28;  i  Chr.  11:44. 
Robinson  found  traces  of  it  about  12  miles 
southeast  from  Beersheba. 

AR'PAD,  support,  a  Syrian  city,  associa- 
ted with  Hamath,  2  Kin.  18:34;  19;  Isa. 
10:9;  36:19,  and  with  Damascus,  Jer.  49:23. 
Its  site  is  unknown. 

ARPHAX'AD,  son  of  Shem,  born  2  3'ears 
after  the  flood,  Gen.  10:22;  11:10;  Luke 
3  :  36.  Seven  generations  followed  him  be- 
fore Abraham,  and  yet  he  lived  till  after 
the  settlement  of  Abraham  in  the  land  of 
I^romise.     He  died  A.  M.  2096,  aged  438. 

AR'ROW,  used  by  the  Jews  both  in  hunt- 
ing and  in  war;  sometimes  merely  a  sharp- 
ened reed,  sometimes  feathered,  barbed, 
and  even  poisoned,  Job  6:4.  The  quiver 
hung  by  the  side  from  the  girdle  or  on  the 
back,  projecting  above  the  left  shoulder,  so 
that  arrows  could  easily  be  drawn.  The 
bow  was  of  various  forms  and  materials, 
and  many  could  be  used  only  by  the 
strongest  men,  Psa.  18:34.  Arrows  were 
used  to  convey  fire  to  an  enemy's  house, 
or  to  his  clothing  or  person,  and  the  shield 
was  sometimes  wet  as  a  safeguard,  Psa. 
120:4;  Eph.  6:16;  thej^were  also  employed 
in  divination,  Ezek.  21:21.  The  word  is 
applied  symbolically  to  children,  Psa. 
127:4.  5;  to  the  lightning,  Psa.  18:14;  Hab. 
3:11;  to  sudden  calamities.  Job  6:4;  Psa. 
38:2:  91:5;  Ezek.  5:16;  and  to  the  deceit- 
ful and  bitter  words  of  an  evil  tongue,  Psa. 
64:3;  120:4. 

ARTAXER'XES,  s^reat  king,  the  name  or 
title  of  several  kings  of  Persia.  I.  In  Ezra 
4:7-24,  Smerdis  the  Magian,  who  usurped 
the  throne  after  the  death  of  Cambyses, 
B.  C.  522,  pretending  to  be  .Smerdis,  the 
son  of  Cyrus,  whom  Cambyses  had  put  to 
death.  At  the  instigation  of  Rehum,  etc., 
he  stopped  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple. 
He  was  murdered,  after  a  reign  of  8 
months,  and  was  succeeded  by  Darius,  son 
of  Hystaspes. 

II.  In  Ezra  7,  probably  Artaxer.xes  Lon- 
gimanus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Xer.xes, 
who  ascended  the  throne  B.  C.  466,  and 
died  B.  C.  427,  after  a  mild  reign  of  39 
years.  In  the  7th  year  of  his  reign,  B.  C. 
459,  Ezra  led  a  2d  company  of  the  Jewish 
exiles  back  to  Jerusalem.  In  the  20th  year, 
B.  C.  446,  Nehemiah  was  sent  to  Jerusalem 
as  gf)vernor,  Neh.  2:1;  ,5:14,  etc. 

AR'TEMAS,  thr  gift  of  Diatia,  a  faithful 
minister,  cooperating  with  Paul,  Titus  3: 12. 
44 


ARTIL'LERY,  or  weapons;  in  i  Sam. 
20:40,  bow  and  arrows. 

AR'VAD,  icandcring,  a  Phuenician  city, 
on  a  small  rocky  island  north  of  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Eleutherus,  22  miles  north  of 
Tripolis,  now  called  Ruad,  and  in  ruins. 
It  lay  in  deep  water  2  or  3  miles  from  the 
shore,  with  walls  of  huge  bevelled  stones, 
and  was  a  stronger  place  than  Tyre.  The 
Arvadites  also  occupied  the  adjacent  coast ; 
w^ere  descendants  of  Canaan,  (Jen.  10:18; 
I  Chr.  1:16;  and  were  noted  mariners, 
Ezek.  27:8,  II. 

A'SA,  healing,  the  3d  king  of  Judah  after 
Solomon,  son  and  successor  of  Abijam, 
I  Kin.  15:8.  He  began  to  reign  B.  C.  956, 
and  reigned  41  years  at  Jerusalem.  The 
first  part  of  his  reign  was  comparatively 
peaceful  and  prosperous.  He  restored  the 
pure  worship  of  God ;  expelled  those  who 
prostituted  themselves  in  honor  of  their 
false  gods;  purified  Jerusalem  from  the  in- 
famous practices  attending  the  worship  of 
idols ;  and  deprived  his  mother  of  her  office 
and  dignity  of  queen,  because  she  erected 
an  idol  to  Astarte.  In  the  nth  year  of  his 
reign,  God  gave  him  the  victory  over  the 
vast  army  of  the  Cushite  king  Zerah ;  and 
the  prophet  Azariah  encouraged  him  to  go 
on  in  his  work  of  reform.  He  convoked 
the  nation,  and  renewed  its  covenant  with 
Jehovah.  And  yet,  when  Baasha  king  of 
Israel  opposed  this  reformation,  he  sought 
aid  not  from  God,  but  from  heathen  Syria. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  he  became  dis- 
eased in  his  feet ;  and  Scripture  reproaches 
him  with  having  had  recourse  to  the  physi- 
cians rather  than  to  the  Lord,  2  Chr.  16: 12. 
Yet  his  reign  was,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the 
happiest  which  Judah  enjoyed,  and  the 
Bible  repeatedly  commends  his  piety  as  an 
example,  i  Kin.  22:43;  2  Chr.  20:32;  21:12. 
His  funeral  rites  were  celebrated  with  spe- 
cial magnificence.  There  w?.s  ill-will  and 
strife  between  Asa  and  Baasha  all  their 
days,  as  between  Rehoboam  and  Israel, 
I  Kin.  15:6,  16. 

AS'AHEL,  a  work  of  God,  son  of  David's 
sister  Zeruiah,  and  brother  of  Joab  and 
Abishai ;  one  of  David's  30  heroes,  and  ex- 
tremely swift  of  foot ;  reluctantly  killed  by 
Abner  at  Gibeon,  2  Sam.  2:18,  23. 

Three  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  2  Chr.  17:8;  31:13;  Ezra  10:15. 

A'SAPH,  assembler,  I.,  a  celebrated  mu- 
sician in  David's  time,  a  Levite,  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  temple  music,  i  Chr. 
6:39;  15:17;  16:5;  25:1,2.  This  service 
appears   to   have   been   hered^tar}'   in  his 


ASC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASH 


family,  Neh.  7:44;  11:22.  He  is  also  called 
a  seer,  2  Chr.  29:30;  and  his  name  is  pre- 
fixed to  12  Psalms  (50,  73-'i3)>  perhaps 
written  for  him  or  his  family  to  sing.  See 
Music. 

II.  A  recorder  of  king  Hezekiah,  2  Kin. 
18:18;  Isa.  36:3. 

III.  Keeper  of  forests  under  Artaxer.xes, 
though  from  his  name  he  appears  to  have 
been  a  Jew,  Neh.  2:8. 

ASCEN'SION,  the  visible  ascent  of  Christ 
to  heaven.  When  our  Saviour  had  re- 
peatedly conversed  with  his  apostles  dur- 
ing 40  days  after  his  resurrection,  and 
afforded  them  infallible  proofs  of  its  real- 
ity, he  led  them  out  to  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  thence  rose  to  heaven  in  their  sight, 
there  to  continue  till  he  shall  come  again 
at  the  last  day  to  judge  the  quick  and  the 
dead,  Acts  1:9,  11.  The  ascension  was 
demonstrated  by  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  as  had  been  promised,  John  16 : 7-14 ; 
Acts  2.  It  was  Christ's  real  human  nature 
that  ascended;  and  he  thus  triumphed  glo- 
riously over  death  and  hell,  as  head  of  his 
body  the  Church.  While  he  blessed  his  dis- 
ciples he  was  parted  from  them,  the  act  a 
last  pledge  of  his  perpetual  benediction  ; 
and  multitudes  of  the  angelic  host  accom- 
panied and  welcomed  him,  Psa.  24:9;  68:17. 
The  consequences  resulting  from  his  as- 
cension are:  the  fulfilment  of  types  and 
prophecies  concerning  it ;  his  appearance 
as  the  great  High-priest  in  the  presence  of 
God  for  us ;  his  more  open  and  full  as- 
sumption of  his  kingly  office;  his  receiving 
gifts  for  men  ;  his  opening  the  way  to  heav- 
en for  his  people,  Heb.  10:19,  20;  and  as- 
suring his  saints  of  their  ascension  to  heav- 
en after  the  resurrection,  John  14:1,  2. 

ASCENT.     See  Akr.4BBIm,  Wall. 

AS'ENATH,  servant  of  Neith,  daughter 
of  Potipherah,  priest  or  prince  of  On  ;  given 
in  marriage  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph,  as  add- 
ing honor  and  strength  to  his  high  office. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Ephraim  and  Ma- 
nasseh,  Gei>,  41:45;  46:20,  B.  C.  1715. 

AS'ER.     See  AsHER. 

ASH,  Isa.  44:14,  conjectured  to  signify 
some  variety  of  the  pine. 

ASH'DOD,  a  stronghold,  one  of  the  5 
chief  cities  of  the  Philistines,  assigned  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  but  not  conquered  by 
them.  Josh.  13:3;  15:47;  i  Sam.  5:  i ;  6: 17  ; 
Neh.  4:7.  Here  stood  the  temple  of  Da- 
gon ;  and  hither  the  ark  was  brought  after 
the  battle  of  Ebenezer,  i  Sam.  5:1.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  Assyrian  general  Tartan, 
Isa.  20:1,  and  afterwards  for  29  years  by 


Psammeticus,  Jer.  25:20.  It  was  called  by 
the  Greeks  Azotus,  and  belonged  to  Judaea 
in  the  time  of  Christ.  Here  Philip  preached 
the  gospel.  Acts  8:40.  It  was  a  strongly 
fortified  city,  on  an  elevation  halfway  from 
Gaza  to  Joppa,  and  3  miles  from  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  and  is  now  a  miserable  village, 
called  Esdud. 

ASH'DOTH  PIS'GAH,  springs  of  Pisg ah, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Deut. 
y-^^i;  4:49;  Josh.  12:3;   13:20. 

ASH'ER,  happy,  the  8th  son  of  Jacob  and 
2d  of  Zilpah,  Gen.  30:13;  35:26;  own  bro- 
ther of  Gad.  He  had  4  sons  and  i  daugh- 
ter, Num.  26:44-47.  On  entering  Canaan 
his  tribe  was  the  5th  in  order,  numbering 
53,400.  The  portion  of  Asher  lay  along  the 
seaboard,  having  Lebanon  and  Zidon  on 
the  north,  Carmel  and  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
on  the  south,  including  Dor,  and  Zebulun 
and  Naphtali  on  the  east.  It  was  fruitful 
in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  minerals,  Gen. 
49:20;  Deut.  33:24,  25.  Part  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian coast  was  included.  Josh.  19:25,  28; 
but  the  Asherites  were  unable  to  expel  the 
Canaanites,  and  dwelt  among  them,  Judg. 
1 :3i,  32,  to  the  serious  injury  of  their  own 
piety  and  patriotism,  Judg.  5:17,  18.  They 
are  honorably  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
David,  I  Chr.  12 :36,  and  of  Hezekiah,  2  Chr. 
30:11.  Anna  the  prophetess  belonged  to 
this  tribe,  Luke  2:36. 

ASH'ES.  To  repent  in  sackcloth  and 
ashes,  or  to  lie  down  among  ashes,  was  an 
external  sign  of  self-affliction  for  sin,  or  of 
grief  under  misfortune,  Psa.  102:9.  We 
find  it  adopted  by  Job,  2:8  ;  by  many  Jews 
when  in  great  fear,  Esth.  4:3;  and  by  the 
king  of  Nineveh,  Jonah  3:6.  The  ashes  of 
a  red  heifer  were  used  in  ceremonial  puri- 
fication. Num.  19;   Heb.  9:13. 

ASH'IMA,  a  deity  adored  by  the  men  of 
Hamath  settled  in  Samaria,  2  Kin.  17:30. 

ASH'KELON,  see  AsKELON. 

ASH'KENAZ,  son  of  Gomer  and  grand- 
son of  Japheth,  Gen.  10:3;  i  Chr.  1:6.  His 
descendants  are  named  in  Jer.  51:27  with 
Minni  and  Ararat,  provinces  of  Armenia. 
Their  land  lay  towards  the  Black  Sea,  and 
sent  colonies  into  Europe,  perhaps  giving 
rise  to  the  name  Scandinavia. 

ASH'PENAZ,  chief  of  the  eunuchs  of  king 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  the  charge  of 
Daniel  and  his  young  companions,  and 
was  led  to  show  them  favor  at  his  own 
peril,  Dan.  i  :3-i8. 

ASH'TAROTH,  images  of  Astarte,  a  city 
of  Og,  in  Bashan,  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  with- 
in the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  Josh.  13:31, 

45 


ASH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASS 


and  a  Levitical  city,  i  Chr.  6:71,  called  also 
Beeshterah,  Josh.  21:27. 

ASH'TEROTH  KARNA'IM,  two -homed 
Aslartc,  (ieii.  14:5,  an  ancient  city  of  the 
Rephaim,  supposed  to  be  found  at  the 
modern  town  Mezareib,  on  the  Haj  or  pil- 
grim route  to  Mecca,  some  50  miles  south 
by  west  of  Damascus. 


ASHrOKi;i  H,  KRO.M    A     r\  K1.\N    COIN. 

ASH'TORETH,  i)lural  ASH'TAROTH, 
called  l)y  the  Greeks  Astarte,  a  goddess  of 
the  Phcjenicians,  2  Kin.  23:13,  whose  wor- 
ship was  also  introduced  among  the  Israel- 
ites and  Philistines,  i  Kin.  11:5,33;  i  Sam. 
7:3;  31:10;  and  was  verj'  ancient  and 
widely  spread,  ''xen.  14:5.  She  is  common- 
ly named  in  connection  with  Baal,  Judg. 
2:13;  to: 6;  I  Sam.  7:4;  12:10.  Another 
Hebrew  name  for  the  same  goddess  is 
Asherah,  the  happy,  the  fortunate  ;  or  more 
simply,  fortune.  This  is  commonly  ren- 
dered in  the  English  version  ''  grove  ;"  but 
both  these  Hebrew  names  of  Astarte  often 
signify  wooden  images  or  statues  of  Astar- 
te, which  are  said  to  be  set  up,  broken 
down,  destroyed,  etc.  In  connection  with 
her  worship  there  was  much  licentiousness. 
See  2  Kin.  21:7;  23:6.  Compare  Lev. 
19:29;  Deut.  23:18.  See  Baal.  Compare 
Judg.  3:7;  6:25;  I  Kin.  18:19;  Jer.  7:18; 
8:2;  11:13;  44:17,  18;  Kzek.  16. 

A'SIA.  Asia  Minor  is  the  jieninsula  which 
lies  l)etween  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea  and 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
formerly  included  the  provinces  of  Phry- 
gia,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Caria,  Lycia,  Lydia, 
Mysia,  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Cappadocia, 
Galatia,  Lycaonia,  and  Pisidia.  Many  Jews 
were  scattered  over  these  regions,  as  a])- 
pears  from  the  history  in  Acts,  and  from 
Joscphus.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment cotnprehend,  under  the  name  of  Asia, 
perhaps  (i)  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  Acts 
19:26,  27 ;  but  usually  (2)  only  the  western 
part  of  that  country,  the  region  of  Ionia, 
^olis,  and  Doris,  of  which  Ephesus  was 
46 


the  capital,  and  which  Strabo  also  calls 
Asia,  Acts  2:9;  6:9;  16:6;  19:10,22.  Cicero 
speaks  of  proconsular  Asia  as  containing 
the  provinces  of  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Caria,  and 
Lydia. 

AS'KELON,  migralion,  a  strongly  forti- 
fied city  of  the  Philistines,  between  Ashdod 
and  Gaza,  on  the  Mediterranean.  After 
the  death  of  Joshua,  the  tribe  of  Judah 
took  Askelon  ;  but  it  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  5  governments  lielonging  to  the 
Philistines,  Judg.  1:18;  i  Sam.  6:17.  Sam- 
son went  down  there  to  slay  ancl  des])oil 
30  men,  Judg.  14:19.  Christians  were  cru- 
elly persecuted  there  in  the  time  of  Julian, 
and  it  was  occupied  by  king  Richard  dur- 
ing the  Crusades.  It  is  now  a  scene  of 
desolation,  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech.  9:5. 

ASNAP'PAR,  leader,  the  Assyrian  satrap, 
by  whom  the  territory  of  the  10  tribes  was 
peopled  by  emigrants  from  beyond  the 
Euphrates,  2  Kin.  17:24;  Ezra  4:10.  Ezra 
styles  him  "  great  and  noble ;"  but  no  other 
trace  of  him  is  left. 

ASP,  Hebrew  pethcn,  a  serpent,  whose 
poison  kills  almost  the  instant  it  penetrates. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Deut.  32:33;  Job  20:14, 
16;  Psa.  58:4;  91:13;  Isa.  11:8;  Jer.  8:17; 
Rom.  3: 13.  A  traveller  in  the  desert  south 
of  Judah  says,  "One  day  we  saw  in  our 
path  an  asp,  a  foot  long,  coiled  up  in  the 
attitude  of  springing.  Our  Arabs  killed 
it,  saying  it  was  exceedingly  venomous." 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  these  ser- 
pents literally  deaf;  but  they  might  act  as 
if  they  were,  refusing  to  follow  the  call  and 
music  of  the  serpent-charmer — as  the  co- 
bras do  at  this  day  in  Egypt. 

The  Hebrew  pethoi  signifies  distension, 
and  is  now  generally  taken  to  mean  the 
liajc  or  Egyptian  hooded-snake,  which  like 
the  Indian  cobra-di-cai)e]lo  swells  its  neck 
when  excited,  and  rises  on  its  tail  to  strike. 
It  is  often  met  in  ancient  Egyptian  sculp- 
tures under  the  name  of  Kneph.     See  Skr- 

PKNT. 

ASS,  an  animal  well  known  for  dt)inestic 
uses,  and  frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. They  were  not  only  used  as  beasts 
of  burden,  Gen.  49:14,  and  for  jiloughing, 
etc.,  but  people  of  the  first  quality  in  Pales- 
tine rode  on  asses.  Deborah  describes  the 
nobles  as  those  who  "  ride  on  white  asses," 
Judg.  5:10.  Compare  Judg.  10:4;  12:14. 
And  thus  our  Lord  rode  in  kinglj-  triumph 
into  Jerusalem.  Zech.  9:9;  Matt.  21:2.  The 
Oriental  asses,  compared  with  those  of 
Northern  countries,  are  far  more  stately, 
active,  and  lively.    Indeed,  the\-  were  high- 


ASS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASS 


ly  prized,  and  were  preferred  for  riding, 
especially  the  she-asses,  on  account  of  their 
sure-footedness.  Hence  we  so  often  find 
mention  of  she-asses  alone. 

The  domestic  ass  was  a  faithful  servant, 
Isa.  1 :3,  the  mainstay  of  many  a  poor  fam- 
ily, Job  24 : 3,  and  a  valuable  property  of  the 
wealthy.  Gen.  49:11 ;  Job  1:3. 


The  wild  ass  is  a  well-known  Oriental 
animal,  often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  Gen. 
16:12;  Job  39:5;  Hos.  8:9,  and  is  a  much 
handsomer  and  more  dignified  animal  than 
the  common  ass.  These  animals  were  an- 
ciently found  in  Palestine,  Syria,  Arabia 
Deserta,  Mesopotamia,  Phrygia,  and  Lyca- 
onia ;  but  they  rarely  occur  in  those  regions 
at  the  present  time,  and  seem  to  be  almost 
entirely  confined  to  Tartary,  some  parts  of 
Persia  and  India,  and  Africa.  Their  hab- 
its greatly  resemble  those  of  the  wild  horse. 
They  assemble  in  troops  under  the  conduct 
of  a  leader  or  sentinel,  and  are  extremely 
shy  and  vigilant.     See  Ishmael. 

ASSAY',  to  attempt.  Job  4 : 2  ;  Heb.  1 1 :  29. 

AS'SHUR,  black.     See  Assyria. 

AS'SOS,  a  seaport  in  Mvsia,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Adramyttium,  opposite  to  and  7  miles 
north  of  the  island  of  Lesbos  ;  and  20  miles 
south  of  Troas,  though  much  farther  by  sea. 
Here  Paul  took  ship  for  Mitylene,  Acts 
20:13,  14.  It  is  now  a  poor  village,  called 
Beiram. 

ASSU'RANCE  OF  Faith,  Heb.  10:22,  is  a 
full  and  hearty  conviction  of  the  truth  of 
the  gospel  of  salvation  by  Christ's  sacri- 
fice. Assurance  of  Hope,  Heb.  6:11,  is 
an  abiding  persuasion  that  we  are  children 
of  God  and  heirs  in  Christ  Jesus  of  eternal 
life.  It  must  be  inwrought  in  the  soul  by 
the  Holy  Spirit,  Rom.  8:15,  16;  i  Cor.  1:22; 
1  John  3:24;  4:13,  but  is  greatly  dependent 
on  the   measure  of  our   penitence,   faith, 


charity,  etc.,  i  John  2:3,5,  29;  3:14,  19,  24. 
Every  believer  ought  to  know  that  he  is 
alive  unto  God  by  the  conscious  vigor  and 
activity  of  his  spiritual  life  in  holy  acts. 
One  may  have  a  prevailing  assurance,  and 
yet  be  at  times  harassed  by  doubts  and 
feajs ;  but  a  confident  assurance  of  salva- 
tion, without  penitence,  love,  etc.,  and  the 
witness  of  a  consistent  life,  is  fatal  pre- 
sumption. 

ASSYR'IA,  a  celebrated  country  and  em- 
pire, had  its  name  from  Asshur,  or  Assur, 
the  2d  son  of  Shem,  who  went  out  from 
Babylon  and  settled  in  that  region.  Gen. 
10:11,  22,  and  appears  from  the  recently 
discovered  monuments  to  have  been  dei- 
fied by  the  later  Assyrians. 

Assyria  ancient  and  proper,  lay  east  of 
the  Tigris,  between  Armenia,  Susiana,  and 
Media.  Six  provinces  were  attributed  to 
it  by  Ptolemy,  covering  nearly  the  region 
of  the  modern  Kurdistan  and  the  pashalic 
of  Mosul.  Of  these  provinces,  Adiabene 
was  the  most  fertile  and  important ;  in  it 
was  situated  Nineveh  the  capital ;  and  the 
term  Assyria  seems  sometimes  to  have 
meant  only  this  province. 

Generally,  however,  the  word  means  the 
Kingdom  of  Assyria,  including  Babylonia 
and  Mesopotamia,  and  extending  to  the 
Euphrates,  which  is  therefore  used  by  Isa- 
iah as  an  image  of  this  empire,  Isa.  7:20; 
8:7.  In  the  height  of  its  power  it  held 
swa^'  over  a  large  part  of  Western  Asia. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  state, 
the  name  continued  to  be  applied  to  those 
countries  which  had  been  formerly  under 
its  dominion,  as  to  Babylonia,  2  Kin.  23:29; 
Jer.  2:18;  and  to  Persia,  Ezra  6:22,  where 
Darius  is  also  called  king  of  Assyria. 

The  early  history  of  Assyria  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  The  most  ancient  of  the 
Assyrian  ruins,  recently  disentombed,  are 
at  Kileh-Shergat,  60  miles  south  of  Nine- 
veh, on  the  Tigris.  This  was  anciently 
Asshur,  and  was  the  first  seat  of  govern- 
ment, probably  from  1273  B.  C.  to  930  B.  C. 
The  most  famous  of  the  early  kings,  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  were  Tiglath-pile- 
ser  I.  in  the  time  of  Samuel,  and  Sarda- 
napalus,  whose  son  Shalmaneser  I.  came 
in  conflict  with  Ben-hadad,  Hazael,  and 
Jehu.  We  know  from  the  sacred  narrative 
that  Assyria  was  a  powerful  nation,  and 
during  the  reign  of  the  Jewish  kings  it  was 
an  object  of  perpetual  dread.  Pul,  king  of 
Assyria,  invaded  Israel  in  the  reign  of 
Menahem,  about  769  B.  C,  2  Kin.  15:19,  20. 
Tiglath-pileser  II.  assisted  Ahaz  against  a 

47 


AST 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ATA 


confederate  army  formed  of  the  Syrian 

forces  in  league  with  those  of  the  lo  tribes, 
2  Kin.  i6:i-io.  Shahiianeser  II.  invaded 
Israel,  conquered  Hoshea,  and  made  him 
a  vassal,  bound  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute. 
Hoshea  wishing,  however,  to  throw  off  the 
yoke,  attempted  to  form  a  league  with 
Egypt,  and  refused  the  tribute.  On  ascer- 
taining this  design  of  the  Israelitish  prince, 
the  Assyrians  again  invaded  Israel,  re- 
duced Samaria,  loaded  its  king  with  fetters, 
and  transported  the  people  of  the  land  into 
Media,  putting  an  end  to  the  separate  king- 
dom of  the  lo  tribes,  2  Kin.  17:5;  18:9, 
B.  C.  721.  The  3  tribes  located  east  of  Jor- 
dan had  already  been  deported  into  Media 
by  Tiglath-pileser,  when  he  ravaged  Israel 
to  save  Ahaz  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
Sargon  intervened  between  Shalmaneser 
II.  and  Sennacherib;  and  this  latter  king 
came  into  Judah  with  a  powerful  army  in 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  but  was  miracu- 
lously defeated,  2  Kin.  18:13;  19:35.  Esar- 
haddon,  his  son  and  successor,  ravaged 
Judah  in  the  days  of  Manasseh,  and  car- 
ried the  conquered  sovereign  in  chains  to 
Babylon.  After  this  period  the  empire  of 
Assyria,  having  stood  over  1,000  years  and 
flourished  exceedingly  for  500  years,  began 
to  wane.  One  of  its  last  monarchs  was 
Sardanapalus,  Assur-bani-pal  of  the  recent- 
ly discovered  stone  records ;  and  it  was  he, 
or  perhaps  his  son  Saracus,  who  on  the  eve 
of  capture  collected  his  wives  and  treasures 
in  his  palace,  and  setting  fire  to  the  build- 
ing perished  in  the  flames.  The  kingdom 
fell,  B.  C.  625,  into  the  hands  of  the  Medes, 
and  was  divided  between  them  and  the 
Babylonians,  and  the  very  name  of  Assyria 
was  thenceforth  forgotten.  Num.  24:24; 
Isa.  10:5-19;  Nah.  3:19;  Zeph.  2:13-15. 
Its  capital,  once  the  most  powerful  and  re- 
nowned city  of  the  Eastern  world,  and  its 
other  cities,  perished  from  history ;  but  their 
remains,  e.xhumed  from  the  huge  mounds 
that  have  i)rotected  them,  signally  attest 
the  sacred  records.  See  Ni.neveh,  C.^lah. 
These  sculptured  remains  concur  with  the 
Bible  to  depict  a  powerful,  stern,  and  war- 
like race,  familiar  with  many  of  the  arts  of 
civilized  life,  but  barbarous,  sensual,  cruel, 
and  idolatrous. 

ASTROL'OGERS,  men  who  pretended  to 
foretell  future  events  by  means  of  astro- 
nomical observations,  Isa.  47:13.  It  was 
fancied  that  the  stars  and  planets  had  an 
influence,  for  good  or  for  evil,  on  human 
affairs,  and  that  certain  aspects  and  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were 
48 


full  of  meaning  to  those  who  had  skill  to 

interpret  them,  Dan.  2:2;  4:7;  5:7,  11,  25. 
These  superstitions  were  prevalent  among 
the  Chalda;ans,  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Phoe- 
nicians, and  Arabians,  and  were  closely 
connected  with  the  worship  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  Deut.  4:19;  17:3;  2  Kin. 
23:5,  12;  Jer.  19:13  ;  Ezek.  8:16;  Zeph.  1:5. 
They  were  thus  idolatrous  in  their  spirit, 
robbed  God  of  his  glory,  and  were  highly 
offensive  in  his  sight,  Deut.  18: 10.  See  Magi. 

ASTRON'OMY,  /lie  science  0/  the  heaven- 
ly bodies,  was  much  studied  in  Asia  in  an- 
cient times.  The  (."iialdajans  e.xcelled  in 
it.  The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have 
made  great  proficiency  in  it,  though  their 
climate  and  mode  of  life  invited  to  the 
contemplation  of  the  heavens.  Revelation 
had  taught  them  who  created  and  governed 
all  the  worlds,  Gen.  i,  and  the  infinite  pres- 
ence of  the  one  living  and  true  God  filled 
the  universe,  to  their  minds,  with  a  glory 
unknown  toothers.  Psalm  19;  Isa.  40:26; 
Amos  5:8.  The  Bible  does  not  aim  to  teach 
the  science  of  astronomy,  but  speaks  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  in  the  familiar  lan- 
guage of  mankind  in  all  ages.  The  fol- 
lowing heavenly  bodies  are  alluded  to  par- 
ticularly in  Scripture:  Venus,  as  morning 
star,  Isa.  14:12;  Rev.  2:28;  Orion  and  the 
Pleiades,  Job  9:9;  38:31;  Amos  5:8;  the 
Great  Bear,  called  "  Arcturus,"  Job  9:9; 
38:32;  Draco,  "the  crooked  serpent,"  Job 
26:13;  Mazzaloth  and  Gemini,  2  Kin.  23:5; 
Acts  28:  II.  The  planets  Jupiter  and  Venus 
were  worshipped  under  various  names  as 
Baal  and  Ashtoreth,  Gad  and  Meni,  Isa. 
65:11.  Mercury  is  named  as  Nebo,  in  Isa. 
46:1 ;  Saturn  as  Chiun,  in  Amos  5:26;  and 
Mars  as  Xergal,  in  2  Kin.  17:30.  See  Idol- 
atry and  Stars. 

ASUP'PIM,  collections.  The  "  house  of 
.•\sui)pim  "  was  probably  a  storehouse  in 
connection  with  the  temple,  i  Chr.  26:15; 
in  Neh.  12:25,  "thresholds." 

ASYN'CRITUS,  tuconifiaradle,Rom.  16: 14. 

A'TAD,  thorn,  a  Canaanite,  at  whose 
threshing-floor  a  solemn  mourning  was 
held  for  a  week  over  the  remains  of  Jacob, 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Hebron,  Gen. 
50:10,11.     See  Abel-Mizraim. 

AT'AROTH,  crowns.  Several  places  of 
this  name  occur  in  Scripture:  one  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  2:54;  one  or  two  in 
Ephraim,  Josh.  16:2,  5,  7;  18:13;  and  one 
or  two  in  Gad,  Num.  32:3,34,  35.  Rob- 
inson found  traces  of  one  of  those  in 
Ephraim,  on  a  hill  about  6  miles  north  by 
west  from  Bethel. 


ATH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ATH 


ATHALI'AH,  afflicted  by  the  Lord,  a 
granddaughter  of  Omri,  2  Chr.  22:2,  and 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  2  Kin.  11  :i. 
Strangely  enough,  she  was  chosen  as  the 
wife  of  Jehoram,  son  of  the  pious  Jehosha- 
phat  king  of  Judah.  Her  pernicious  influ- 
ence drew  into  idolatry  and  crime  both  her 
husband  and  her  son  Ahaziah,  2  Chr.  21:6; 
22:3.  After  their  ])reniature  death,  she 
usurped  the  throne,  and  sought  to  secure 
herself  in  it  by  the  murder  of  all  the  seed 
royal.  Only  Joash  her  grandson,  then  an 
infant,  was  saved  by  his  aunt  Jehosheba. 
Six  years  afterwards  he  was  brought  from 
his  place  of  refuge,  and  crowned  by  the 
bold  and  faithful  high-priest  Jehoiada,  who 
at  the  same  time  caused  the  blood-stained 
Athaliah  to  be  put  to  death,  2  Kin.  11; 
2  Chr.  23  ;  S84  878  B.  C. 

A'THEISM  is  primarily  a  sin  of  the  heart, 
rather  than  an  error  of  the  intellect.  All 
men  are  by  their  fallen  nature  "without 
God  (literally,  atheists)  in  the  world,"  Eph. 
2: 12.  When  the  unrenewed  mind  comes  to 
view  a  just,  holy,  and  almighty  God,  con- 


scious of  its  guilt,  it  spontaneously  cries 
out,  "  Depart  from  us  ;  for  we  desire  not 
the  knowledge  of  thy  ways,"  Job  21:14. 
"  The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart.  There  is 
no  God,"  Psa.  14:1.  This  atheism  of  the 
heart,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  produ- 
ces most  of  the  intellectual  atheism  in  the 
world,  as  well  as  the  practical  atheism  so 
universally  shown  by  those  who  profess  to 
believe  in  God,  but  act  in  many  respects  as 
though  there  was  no  God. 

In  the  common  use  of  the  word,  all  those 
are  atheists  who  deny  the  existence  of  a 
personal,  self-conscious,  and  infiniie  Spirit, 
the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  universe.  The 
term  includes  Pantheists  and  Materialists, 
who  find  no  God  except  matter  and  its 
forces,  as  well  as  those  philosophers  who 
affirm  that  there  is  no  God  whose  existence 
can  be  known  and  proved  to  human  rea- 
son, and  those  who  say  that  he  exists  only 
in  the  thoughts  of  men. 

The  Bible  does  not  argue  the  existence  of 
God:  it  assumes  and  declares  it.  Those  who 
deny  it  are  "  without  excuse,"  Rom.  i  :20. 


THE  ACROPOLIS  AT  ATHENS,  AS  IT  WAS. 


ATH'ENS,  the  city  of  Minerva,  the  chief 
city  of  Attica  in  Greece,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Cecrops,  1556  B.  C,  or  15  years 
after  the  birth  of  Moses.  It  was  situated 
on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  46  miles  east  of  Cor- 
inth, and  about  5  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  city  was  in  a  plain  extending  to  the 
sea  on  the  southwest,  where  it  had  3  ports, 
Pireeus  being  the  chief,  the  passage  to 
which  was  defended  by  long  and  broad 
walls.  Several  rocky  hills  rose  in  the 
4 


plain,  the  largest  of  which  was  the  citadel, 
or  Acropolis,  150  feet  high.  Around  this 
the  city  was  built,  most  of  the  buildings 
spreading  towards  t^e  sea.  The  summit 
of  the  hill  was  nearly  level,  about  800  feet 
long  and  400  wide.  The  only  way  to  the 
Acropolis  was  through  the  Propylaea,  a 
magnificent  gateway  at  the  western  end, 
from  which  there  was  an  ascent  by  marble 
steps  to  the  summit  of  the  hill,  where  stood, 
on  the  left,  the  temple  of  Pallas    Athene 

49 


ATO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AVE 


< Minerva),  the  protectress  of  the  city.  Un- 
der the  same  roof  was  the  temple  of  Nep- 
tune. In  the  area,  on  a  high  pedestal, 
stood  a  bronze  statue  of  Minerva  70  feet 
high.  On  the  right  arose  the  Parthenon, 
the  glory  of  Athens,  the  noblest  triumph  of 
Grecian  architecture.  Its  ruins,  still  sub- 
lime in  decay,  are  the  first  object  that  at- 
tracts the  traveller's  eye.  It  was  of  the 
Doric  order  of  architecture,  built  of  beauti- 
ful white  marble,  and  was  about  160  feet 
wide,  226  feet  deep,  and  70  feet  high.  With- 
in the  temple  was  a  statue  of  Minerva,  by 
Phidias,  celebrated  for  its  e.\quisite  beauty. 
It  was  made  of  gold  and  ivory,  and  was 
nearly  40  feet  high.  A  small  valley  lay  be- 
tween the  Acropolis  and  the  hill,  west  by 
north,  on  which  the  high  council  held  its 
sessions;  it  also  separated  the  Areopagus 
from  the  Pnyx  on  the  west  or  southwest,  a 
small  rocky  hill  on  which  the  general  as- 
semblies of  the  jjeople  were  held.  Here 
the  spot  is  yet  pointed  out  frc^m  which  the 
eminent  orators  addressed  the  people.  It 
is  cut  in  the  natural  rock.  In  this  vicinity 
also  was  the  agora,  or  market-place.  Acts 
17:17,  south  of  the  Acropolis,  with  the 
heights  of  the  Areopagus  and  the  Pny.\  on 
the  east  and  northwest,  and  a  4th  hill,  that ' 
of  the  Museum,  on  the  south.  It  was  an 
open  square  surrounded  by  beautiful  struc- 
tures; while  on  every  side  altars,  shrines, 
and  temples  were  seen,  some  of  them  e.v- 
ceedingly  magnificent.  This  beautiful  city 
was  also  celebrated  for  the  military  talents 
and  the  learning,  eloquence,  and  polite- 
ness of  its  inhabitants.  It  was  the  verj' 
flower  of  ancient  civilization;  its  schools  of 
philosophy  were  the  most  illustrious  in  the 
world,  and  its  painters,  sculptors,  and  archi- 
tects have  never  been  surpassed.  Yet  no 
city  was  so  "wholly  given  to  idolatry."  In 
New  Testament  times,  from  140  B.  C,  it 
was  a  Roman  city.  The  apostle  Paul  vis- 
ited it  about  A.  D.  52,  and  among  its  proud 
philosophers  preached  Jesus  and  the  res- 
urrection with  fidelity  and  success.  Acts 
17:15-34-  See  Areopagus.  At  present 
Athens  has  a  population  of  about  48,000, 
chiefly  devoted  adherents  of  the  Greek 
Church.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  new  king- 
dom of  Greece. 

ATONE'MENT  is  the  satisfaction  offered 
to  divine  justice  for  the  sins  of  mankind 
by  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ ;  by  virtue  of 
which  all  true  penitents  believing  in  Christ 
are  reconciled  to  God,  are  freed  from  the 
penalty  of  their  sins,  and  entitled  to  eter- 
nal life.  The  atonement  by  Jesus  Christ  is 
50 


the  great  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  the 
gospel,  and  is  presented  in  a  great  variety 
of  terms  and  illustrations  in  both  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New.  The  ideas  of 
expiation  and  of  reconciliation  are  both 
included  in  it;  and  it  is  spoken  of  as  a 
ransom,  a  purchase,  a  satisfaction,  and  a 
substitution.  See  Expiation,  Redemp- 
tion, Sacrifices.  The  English  word  at- 
one-ment  originally  denoted  the  reconcili- 
ation of  parties  previouslj-  at  variance, 
Rom.  5:11;  11:15.  It  is  used  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  translate  a  Hebrew  word 
which  means  a  covering,  Psa.  32:  i,  2;  Acts 
5:30,  31  ;  implying  that  by  a  divine  propi- 
tiation the  sinner  is  xrovered  from  the  just 
anger  of  God.  This  is  actually  eflfected  by 
the  death  of  Christ ;  while  the  ceremonial 
offerings  of  the  Jewish  Church  only  secured 
from  impending  temporal  judgments,  and 
typified  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  which 
"  cleanseth  us  from  all  sin."  See  Propiti- 
ation. 

Atonement,  Day  of.     See  Expiation. 

ATTALI'A,  a  seaport  in  Pamphylia,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Catarrhactes,  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  way  from 
Perga  to  Antioch,  Acts  14:25.  There  is 
still  a  considerable  town  there,  Satalia  or 
Adalia,  with  extensive  ruins  in  the  vicinity. 

AUGUS'TUS,  venerable,  the  title  added 
bj-  the  Roman  Senate  to  that  of  Caesar  or 
emperor,  and  given  B.  C.  27  to  C.  J.  C.  Oc- 
tavianus,  the  first  peacefully  acknowledged 
emperor  of  Rome.  This  was  4  years  after 
he  gained  imperial  power  by  the  decisive 
naval  battle  of  Actium.  Augustus  was  the 
emperor  who  appointed  the  enrolment, 
Luke  2:1,  which  obliged  Joseph  and  the 
Virgin  to  go  to  Bethlehem,  the  place  where 
the  Messiah  was  to  be  born.  He  also  closed 
the  temple  of  Janus,  in  token  of  the  rare 
occurrence,  a  universal  peace;  thus  un- 
consciously celebrating  the  coming  of  the 
Prince  of  Peace.  He  died  A.  D.  14,  having 
2  years  before  admitted  Tiberius  to  a  share 
in  the  government. 

In  Acts  25:21,  25,  Nero  is  meant. 

A'VA,  a  i)lace  from  which  Assyrians  were 
sent  to  colonize  Samaria  in  exchange  for 
Jews,  2  Kin.  17:24,31;  apparently  the  same 
as  IvAH  and  Ahava. 

A'VEN,  nothingness,  or  On,  in  Amos  1:5, 
seems  to  denote  the  region  around  Baal- 
bek, where  was  a  famous  idol  temple  for 
sun-worship.  See  Hei.iopolis,  II.  In  Hos. 
10:8,  Aven  is  the  same  as  Beth-aven  or 
Bethel.  In  Ezek.  30:17,  it  is  Heliopoi-is 
in  Egypt,  which  see. 


AVE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAA 


AVEN'GER.     See  Blood,  Refuge. 

A'VIM,  or  A'viTES,  descendants  of  Ca- 
naan, Gen.  10:17,  on  the  coast  of  Palestine 
from  Gaza  towards  the  river  of  Egypt,  ex- 
pelled by  invading  Philistines  or  Caphto- 
rim,  before  the  time  of  Moses,  Deut.  2:23. 
Some  yet  remained  in  the  time  of  Joshua, 
Josh.  13:3.  They  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  the  same  people  with  the  Hivites,  of 
whom  traces  were  found  in  various  parts 
of  Canaan,  Gen.  34:2;  Josh.  9:7;   11:3. 

AZARI'AH,  whom  the  Lord  helps,  a  king 
of  Judah,  2  Kin.  15:1-7,  in  2  Chr.  26  and 
■elsewhere  called  Uzziah.  He  began  to 
reign  at  16  years  of  age,  B.  C.  806.  The 
first  part  of  his  reign  was  prosperous  and 
happy;  but  afterwards,  presuming  to  offer 
incense  in  the  temple,  he  was  smitten  with 
leprosy,  and  continued  a  leper  till  his  death, 
2  Chr.  26:16-23. 

This  name  was  very  common  among  the 
Jews,  and  was  borne  by  many  briefly  re- 
ferred to  in  Scripture.  Three  of  them  were 
high-priests,  i  Chr.  6:9, 10;  2  Chr.  26: 17-20; 
31:10,  13,  and  one  a  prophet,  2  Chr.  15:1. 
See  also  Abednego. 

AZE'KAH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
about  15  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem, 
mentioned  in  the  narratives  of  Joshua  and 
Saul,  Josh.  10:10;  I  Sam.  17:1;  taken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  34:7,  but  afterwards 
repeopled  by  the  Jews,  Neh.  11:30. 

AZO'TUS.     See  AsHDOD. 

AZ'ZAH,  the  same  as  Gaza. 

B. 

BA'AL,  lord,  I.,  in  the  Old  Testament 
denotes  an  idol  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
particularly  of  the  Tj^ians,  whose  worship 
was  also  introduced  with  great  solemnities 
among  the  Hebrews,  and  especially  at  Sa- 
maria, along  with  that  of  Astarte,  Judg. 
6:25-32;  2  Kin.  10:18,  28.  See  Ashto- 
reth.  The  plural,  Baalim,  signifies  ima- 
ges or  statues  of  Baal,  Judg.  2:11;  10:10, 
and  sometimes  the  same  god  in  other  places 
and  with  other  titles.  The  worship  of  Baal 
was  very  ancient  and  widespread;  we  find 
it  among  the  Moabites  in  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses, Num.  22:41;  25:3.  Of  its  prevalence 
among  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians, 
we  have  an  evidence  in  the  proper  names 
of  persons  ;  as,  among  the  former,  Ethbaal, 
Jerubbaal;  and  among  the  latter,  Hanni- 
bal, Asdrubal,  etc.  Among  the  Babyloni- 
ans, the  same  idol  was  worshipped  under 
the  name  of  Bel,  Isa.  46:1;  Jer.  50:2; 
51:44.     There  are  traces  of  Baal-worship 


found  in  Northern  Europe  and  the  British 
Islands  to  this  day,  in  the  names  of  places 
and  in  superstitious  practices. 


HEAD  OF   BAAL,  FROM  A  TVRIAN  COIN. 

Idolatry  and  astrology  were  associated 
in  the  religions  of  the  East.  Baal  and  As- 
tarte are  regarded  by  some  writers  as  rep- 
resenting the  sun  and  the  moon  ;  by  others, 
Jupiter  and  Venus,  stars  of  good  fortune ; 
and  to  symbolize  the  male  and  female  re- 
productive forces  in  nature.  The  sun  was 
an  object  of  worship  among  these  nations 
under  his  own  name,  as  2  Kin.  23:11. 

The  temples  and  altars  of  Baal  were  gen- 
erally on  eminences.  Manasseh  placed  in 
the  two  courts  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
altars  to  all  the  host  of  heaven,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  Astarte,  2  Kin.  21:5,  7.  Jeremiah 
threatens  the  Jews  who  had  sacrificed  to 
Baal  on  the  house-top,  Jer.  32:29;  and  Jo- 
siah  destroyed  the  altars  which  Ahaz  had 
erected  on  the  terrace  of  his  palace,  2  Kin. 
23:12. 

Human  victims  were  offered  to  Baal,  as 
they  were  also  to  the  sun,  Jer.  19:5.  See 
Moloch. 

The  children  of  Israel  were  prone  to 
serve  Baal.  See  Num.  25:3;  Judg,  2:13; 
y.j.  Under  Samuel  they  put  away  their 
idols,  1  Sam.  7:4,  and  this  continued  under 
David  and  Solomon;  but  under  Ahab, 
whose  wife  Jezebel  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Zidonian  king  Ethbaal,  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  restored  with  great  pomp,  i  Kin.  16:31 ; 
2  Kin.  11:18. 

Joined  with  other  words,  Baal  signifies 
local  idols.  Baal-Berith,  the  "lord  of  the 
covenant,"  was  a  god  of  the  Shechemites, 
Judg.  8:33;  9:4,  46.  Baal-Peor,  "the  lord 
of  Peor,"  was  a  filthy  idol  of  the  Moabites, 
Num.   25:3,   5;    Hos.  9:10.      Baal-Zebub, 

51 


BAA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


"  lord  of  flies,"  was  a  g<)d  of  the  Philistines 
at  Ekron.    See  Bkelzkhih. 

II.  The  word  Baal  also  occurs  in  many 
compound  names  of  places  and  persons, 
usually  having  some  reference  to  the  idol. 

BA'ALAH,  misiress,  a  town  in  the  tribe 
of  Simeon,  Josh.  15:29;  19:3;  i  Chr.  13:6. 
The  same  as  Kikj.\th-jk.\rim. 

BA'ALATH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
Josh.  19:44,  not  far  from  Bethhoron.  It 
may  be  the  Baalath  rebuilt  by  Solomon, 
I  Kin.  9: 18;  2  Chr.  8:6. 

BA'ALBEK.    See  Heliopolis,  II. 

BAAL-GAD',  a  city  in  the  valley  of  Leba- 
non, at  the  foot  of  Hermon;  the  northern- 
most point  wiiich  the  conquests  of  Joshua 
reached,  Josh.  11:17;  12:7;  13:5.  It  was 
perhaps  the  same  as  Baal -hermon,  near  or 
a  part  of  Mount  Hermon.  According  to 
Schwarz  and  Robinson,  it  was  the  place 
afterwards  called  Banias.  See  C^sarea- 
Philippi. 

BAAL-HA'ZOR,  where  Absalom  kept  his 
flocks,  2  Sam.  13:23,  was  near  Ejjhraim, 
some  8  miles  east  of  Jerusalem. 

BA'ALI,  Hos.  2;  16,  17,  means  both  my 
lord,  that  is,  my  husband,  and  my  Baal ; 
and  its  use  in  the  first  sense  was  to  be 
avoided,  so  as  not  to  suggest  the  second 
sense.  It  also  expressed  more  fear  and 
less  love  and  trust  than  the  name  Ishi,  viy 
vian,  i.  e.,  husband. 

BA'ALIS,  a  proud  lord,  king  of  the  Am- 
monites in  the  time  of  the  captivity.  He 
caused  the  assassination  of  Gedaliah,  then 
governor  of  Judah,  Jer.  40:14;  41:1-10. 
B.C.  588. 

BAAL-ME'ON,  in  Reuben,  beyond  the 
Jordan,  near  Nebo,  Num.  32:38;  i  Chr. 
5:8;  called  also  Beth-meon,  Jer.  48:23,  and 
Beth-baal-meon,Josh.  13:17.  Its  ruins  are  2 
miles  southeast  of  Heshbon.  E^zekiel,  25:9, 
speaks  of  it  as  then  a  Moabitish  town. 

BAAL-PERA'ZIM,  place  of  breaches,  a 
name  given  by  David  to  the  scene  of  a  bat- 
tle with  the  Philistines,  2  Sam.  5:20;  i  Chr. 
14:11  ;  Isa.  28:21.  It  was  in  the  valley  of 
Repliaim,  not  far  southwest  of  Jerusalem. 

BAAL-ZE'BUB.      See  BEELZEBUB. 

BAAL-ZE'PHON.  a  town  in  EgvTit,  prob- 
ably near  the  modern  Suez,  location  uncer- 
tain, E.xod.  14:2;  Num.  33:7. 

BA'ANAH,  son  ofaffliciion.  and  Re'chab, 
sons  of  Rimmon,  in  the  service  of  Ishbo- 
sheth  the  son  of  Saul.  Thinking  to  obtain 
a  reward  from  David,  they  secretly  slew 
their  master  while  reposing  at  noon,  and 
carried  his  head  to  David  at  Hebron.  They 
suffered,  however,  the  punishment  suitable 
52 


for  those  whose  "  feet  are  swift  to  shed 
blood,"  2  Sam.  4:1-12. 

BA'ASHA,  waster,  son  of  a  certain  Ahi- 
jah,  and  commander  of  the  armies  of  Na- 
dab,  king  of  Israel.  He  killed  his  master 
treacherously  at  the  siege  of  Ciibbethon, 
and  usurped  the  kingdom,  B.  C.  953,  which 
he  possessed  24  years.  He  exterminated 
the  whole  race  of  Jeroboam,  as  had  been 
predicted,  i  Kin.  14:7-14;  but  by  his  bad 
conduct  and  idolatry  incurred  God's  indig- 
nation, I  Kin.  15;  16:1-7,  12.  About  the 
middle  of  his  reign  he  made  war  on 'Asa, 
but  was  defeated  by  the  aid  of  Ben-hadad 
I.  of  Damascus,  2  Chr.  16.  God  sent  him  a 
warning  by  the  mouth  of  Jehu  the  i)rophet ; 
which  was  fulfilled  in  the  extermination  of 
his  family  2  years  after  his  own  death. 

BA'BEL,  confusion,  the  name  of  a  city 
founded  by  Nimrod,  in  the  plain  of  Shinar. 
See  Babylon.  Also  of  a  lofty  tower,  be- 
gun by  the  descendants  of  Noah,  among 
whom  Nimrod  was  a  leader,  about  120  years 
after  the  flood  ;  so  called  because  (}od  there 
confounded  the  language  of  those  who  were 
employed  in  the  undertaking,  (Jen.  10;  10; 
11:9.  Tlieir  object  was  to  concentrate  the 
population  and  the  dominion  at  that  spot ; 
and  as  this  was  contrary  to  the  divine  pur- 
pose of  re])lenishing  the  earth  with  inhab- 
itants, and  betrayed  an  ungodly  and  per- 
haps idolatrous  disposition,  God  frustrated 
their  designs  by  miraculously  giving  to  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  people  different  lan- 
guages, or  different  modes  of  jironuncia- 
tion  and  divergent  dialects  of  the  original 
language  of  man,  thus  causing  them  to  dis- 
perse over  the  globe.  Compare  Acts  2:1-11. 
The  tower  was  apparently  left  incomplete, 
but  in  its  vicinity  arose  afterwards  the  cel- 
ebrated city  of  Babylon.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  tower  of  Babel  was  after- 
wards finished,  and  called  the  tower  of 
Belus,  within  the  city  of  Babylon.  Herod- 
otus visited  this  tower,  and  describes  it  as 
a  square  jiyramid,  measuring  Iialf  a  mile  in 
circumference  at  the  base,  from  which  the 
tower  rose  in  8  stories,  one  above  anoth- 
er, gradually  decreasing  to  the  summit, 
which  was  reached  by  a  road  winding  up 
around  tlie  outside.  This  tower  was  used 
for  astronomical  ]:)urposes,  but  was  chiefly 
devoted  to  the  worship  of  Bel,  whose  tem- 
ple contained  immense  treasures,  inclu- 
ding several  statues  of  massive  gold,  one 
of  which  was  40  feet  in  height.  Here  were 
probably  deposited  the  sacred  golden  ves- 
sels brought  from  Jerusalem,  2  Chr.  36:7; 
Jer.  51:44.     Its  ruins  were  generally  sup- 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAR 


RUINS   AT    BIRS-NIMRUU. 


posed  to  be  the  present  Birs-Nimrud,  6 
miles  southwest  of  Hilleh,  the  modern  Bab- 
ylon. 

This,  however,  many  regard  as  the  an- 
cient Borsippa;  and  its  distance  from  the 
other  great  ruins,  lo  miles,  seems  to  put 
it  beyond  the  limits  of  Babylon  proper. 
It  is  nevertheless  a  majestic  ruin,  and  its 
structure  may  be  studied  as  a  type  of  many 
other  buildings  of  the  same  country  and 
age.  This  temple-tower  or  pyramid  is  now 
an  immense  mound  of  sun-dried  bricks, 
laid  with  bitumen  in  7  square  receding 
stages,  the  lowest  272  feet  each  side,  and 
26  feet  high ;  the  2d  stage  230  feet  each 
side  and  26  feet  high,  etc.,  reaching  the 
height  of  153  feet  in  all.  It  is  over  2,000 
feet  in  circuit,  and  is  a  ruinous  heap,  shat- 
tered by  violence,  furrowed  by  storms,  and 
strewn  with  fragments  of  brick,  pottery, 
etc.,  fused  and  vitrified  by  some  intense 
heat.  On  the  top  rises  an  irregular  tower 
90  feet  in  circumference  and  35  feet  high, 
built  of  a  fine  brick — with  which  the  whole 
mound  appears  to  have  been  faced.  The 
tower  is  rent  asunder  and  mutilated  at  the 
top,  and  scathed  as  if  by  lightning — a  mon- 
ument, as  many  believe,  of  the  just  wrath 
of  God.     See  Nebuchadnezz.\r. 

BAB'YLON,  I.,  a  celebrated  city  situated 
■on  the  Euphrates,  the  original  foundation 
of  which  is  described  under  the  word  Ba- 
bel, the  capital  of  the  Chaldaean  kingdom. 
It  lay  in  the  vast  and  fertile  plain  of  Shi- 
nar,  watered  by  the  Euphrates,  which 
flowed  through  the  city.  Its  walls  are  de- 
scribed as  50  miles  in  circumference,  300 


feet  high,  and  75  feet  wide,  Jer.  51:44-58. 
A  deep  trench  ran  parallel  with  the  walls. 
In  each  of  the  4  sides  were  25  brazen  gates, 
from  which  roads  crossed  to  the  opposite 
gates.  On  the  squares  thus  formed,  count- 
less houses  and  vast  gardens  were  made. 
The  temple  of  Belus  has  been  described 
under  Babel.  Nebuchadnezzar's  palace 
was  in  an  enclosure  6  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. Within  this  were  also  "  the  hanging 
gardens,"  an  immense  artificial  mound  75 
feet  high,  sustained  by  arches  upon  arches, 
terraced  off  for  trees  and  flowers,  the  wa- 
ter for  which  was  drawn  from  the  river  by 
machinery  concealed  in  the  mound,  Dan. 
4:29,  30. 

According  to  Berosus  there  were  11  Chal- 
dsean  kings  in  224  years,  terminating  in 
1976  B.  C. ;  when  Babylon  fell  under  Elam- 
ite  kings  for  458  years,  till  1518  B.  C.  Then 
followed  Arab  kings  and  a  long  period  of 
Assyrian  rivalry  or  rule,  2  Chr.  33:11, 
until  747  B.  C.  From  this  date,  when  Na- 
bonassar  was  king,  Ptolemy  the  geograph- 
er gives  a  complete  list  of  kings  and  the 
times  of  their  reigns,  the  names  and  dates 
of  which  well  agree  with  those  compiled 
by  Rawlinson  and  Smith  from  3,000  com- 
mercial tablets,  recently  exhumed.  The 
5th  king  in  his  list,  Nardocempalus,  721 
B.  C,  is  identified  with  Merodach-Baladan. 
Babylon  was  subjected  to  Sennacherib, 
king  of  Assyria,  702  B.  C.  ;  and  the  name 
of  Esar-haddon  his  son  appears  in  the  list 
as  Asaridanus,  B.  C.  680.  Nabopolassar, 
independent  king  of  Babylon,  appears  in 
625  B.  C,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  his  son  604 

53 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


B.  C. ;  the  Egyptian  invasion  under  Necho 
in  608  B.  C.  was  repelled  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who  afterwards  overran  all  the 
country  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  ravaged 
Egypt  itself.  He  was  great  in  peace  as 
well  as  in  war,  and  was  preeminent  as  a 
builder  of  temples  and  palaces.  Evil-me- 
rodach  his  son,  Ptolemy  dates  at  561  B.  C, 
and  Neriglissar  his  brother  at  559  B.  C,  fol- 
lowed by  Laborosoarchod  son  of  the  latter, 
who  was  the  same  year,  555  B.  C,  succeed- 
ed by  Nabonnedus,  father  of  Belshazzar. 

Under  Nebuchadnezzar,  Babylon  reached 
the  summit  of  her  greatness  and  splendor. 
She  was  renowned  for  learning,  especially 
in  astronomy,  Isa.  47:10;  Dan.  i  :4,  and  for 
skill  in  various  arts,  as  the  making  of  car- 
pets and  cloths,  of  perfumes,  jewelry,  etc. 
Her  location  gave  her  to  a  great  extent  the 
control  of  the  traffic,  by  the  Euphrates  and 
by  caravans,  between  Central  Asia  and 
Arabia  and  Egypt.  She  was  "a  city  of 
merchants,"  Isa.  43:14;  Ezek.  17:4;  and 
into  her  lap  flowed,  either  through  con- 
quest or  commerce,  the  wealth  of  almost  all 
known  lands,  Hab.  1:6-10.  Justly,  there- 
fore, might  the  prophets  call  her  "  the 
great,"  Dan.  4 :  20 ;  "  the  praise  of  the  whole 
earth,"  Jer.  51 :4i ;  "  the  beauty  of  the  Chal- 
dees'  excellency,"  Isa.  13:19;  "the  lady  of 
kingdoms,"  Isa.  47:5;  but  also  "the  ten- 
der and  delicate,"  and  "  given  to  pleas- 
ures," Isa.  47:  r,  8.  Corruptness  and  licen- 
tiousness of  manners  and  morals  were  car- 
ried to  a  frightful  extreme.  Bel,  Nebo, 
Nergal,  Merodach,  Succoth-benoth,  and 
other  idols,  were  worshipped  with  rites  in 
which  impurity  was  made  a  matter  of  reli- 
gion. Well  might  we  expect  Jehovah  to 
bring  down  vengeance  on  her  crimes.  In- 
deed, the  woes  denounced  against  Baby- 
lon by  the  prophets  170  years  before  con- 
stitute some  of  the  most  awfully  splendid 
and  sublime  portions  of  the  whole  Bible, 
Isa.  13:1-22;  14:22;  21:9;  47;  Jer.  25;  50; 
51,  etc. 

The  city  did  not  long  remain  the  capital 
of  the  world.  Under  the  reign  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's grandson,  Nabonnedus,  and 
his  son  the  Belshazzar  of  the  Scriptures,  it 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Cyrus.  The 
accounts  of  Greek  historians  harmonize 
here  with  that  of  the  Bible:  that  Cyrus 
made  his  successful  assault  on  a  night 
when  the  whole  city,  relying  on  the  strength 
of  the  walls,  had  given  themselves  up  to 
the  riot  and  debauchery  of  a  grand  public 
festival,  and  the  king  and  his  nobles  were 
revelling  at  a  splendid  entertainment.  Cy- 
54 


rus  had  caused  a  canal,  which  ran  west  of 
the  city,  and  carried  off  the  superfluous 
water  of  the  Euphrates  into  the  lake  of 
Nitocris,  to  be  cleared  out,  in  order  to  turn 
the  river  into  it,  which,  by  this  means,  was 
rendered  so  shallow  that  his  soldiers  were 
able  to  penetrate  along  its  bed  into  the  city, 
Dan.  5.  538  B.  C.  From  this  time  its  im- 
portance declined,  for  Cyrus  made  Susa  the 
capital  of  his  kingdom.  It  revolted  against 
Darius  Hystaspis,  who  again  subdued  it, 
broke  down  all  its  gates,  and  reduced  its 
walls  to  the  height  of  50  cubits.  According 
to  Strabo,  Xerxes  destroyed  the  tower  of 
Belus.  Under  the  Persians,  and  under  Al- 
exander's successors,  Babylon  continued 
to  decline,  especially  after  Seleucus  Nica- 
tor  had  founded  Seleucia,  and  made  it  his 
residence.  A  great  portion  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Babylon  removed  thither ;  and  in 
Strabo's  time,  that  is,  under  Augustus,. 
Babylon  had  become  so  desolate  that  it 
might  be  called  a  vast  desert,  Jer.  '50;  51. 
There  was  a  town  on  its  site  until  the  4th 
century,  and  many  Jews  dwelt  there,  i  Pet. 
5: 13.  But  from  this  time  onward,  Babylon 
ceases  almost  to  be  mentioned;  even  its- 
ruins  have  not  been  discovered  until  with- 
in the  last  2  centuries ;  and  it  is  only  with- 
in the  present  century  that  these  ruins 
have  been  traced  and  described.  These 
consist  of  numerous   mounds,  usually   of 


A    BABVLONIAN    BRICK. 


brick,   deeply  furrowed   and    decayed  by- 
time,  strewn  with  fragments  of  brick,  bitu- 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


VIEW   OF   BABIL    FROM    THE    \Vi:ST,    W  1  IH    THE   KASR. 


men,  pottery,  etc.  One  of  these  is  de- 
scribed above.  See  Babel.  Another,  4 
miles  north  by  west  of  Hilleh,  and  called 
by  the  natives  Kasr,  the  palace,  is  supposed 
to  be  the  ruins  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  famous 
palace.  It  is  an  irregular  square,  some 
8,000  feet  in  circuit ;  no  plan  of  the  palace 
can  be  traced,  but  portions  of  the  wafl  re- 
main— of  a  fine  yellow,  burnt  brick,  laid  in 
lime  cement.  Not  very  far  from  this  on  the 
north  is  the  great  mound  called  Mujellibeh, 
or  by  the  natives  Babil,  600  feet  long,  400 
wide,  and  140  high.  It  was  probably  built 
in  stages,  is  coated  with  a  fine  burnt  brick 
laid  in  mortar,  and  is  thought  by  George 
Smith  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  tem- 
ple of  Belus,  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
From  these  mounds  thousands  of  bricks 
have  been  dug,  bearing  arrow-headed  in- 
scriptions as  ancient  as  the  time  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, whose  name  constantly  occurs, 
and  containing  a  full  record  of  Babylonian 
kings  down  to  the  death  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis.  South  of  the  Kasr  is  another  vast 
mound  still  more  ancient,  more  than  10,000 
feet  in  circuit.  It  is  called  the  Amram 
mound ;  its  bricks  are  inferior  to  those  of 
the  other  two  mounds,  and  the  names  upon 
them  are  anterior  to  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Many  smaller  mounds,  embankments,  etc., 
are  spread  over  the  plains  around.  The 
aspect  of  the  whole  region  is  dreary  and 
forlorn.  It  is  infested  by  noxious  animals, 
and  perhaps  in  no  place  under  heaven  is 


the  contrast  between  ancient  magnificence 
and  present  desolation  greater  than  here. 
The  awful  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  uttered  more 
than  a  century  before,  has  been  most  liter- 
ally fulfilled,  Isa.  13 ;  14. 

The  name  of  Babylon  is  used  symboli- 
cally in  Rev.  14:8;  16;  17;  18,  to  mark  the 
idolatry,  superstition,  lewdness,  luxury, 
and  persecution  of  the  people  of  God 
which  characterized  heathen  Rome  and 
modern  Antichrist.  No  other  city  but 
Rome  can  be  meant  by  "that  great  city 
that  ruleth  over  the  kings  of  the  earth," 
sitting  on  its  "  7  hills,"  "  drunken  with  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  of  Jesus."  Some 
thus  interpret  i  Pet.  5:13;  but  this  is  only 
a  fanciful  conjecture.  To  use  such  an 
enigmatical  name,  in  such  a  place,  instead 
of  the  familiar  Rome,  would  have  been 
unnatural ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  ancient  Babylon  is  meant,  since 
we  know  that  Jews  lived  there  at  the  time 
of  Christ.     See  Peter. 

II.  There  was  also  a  Babylon  in  Egypt, 
a  fort  not  far  from  Heliopolis.  Some  sup- 
pose this  to  be  the  Babylon  mentioned 
I  Pet.  5:13,  but  with  no  good  reason. 

BABYLO'NIA,  the  province  of  which 
Babylon  was  the  capital ;  now  the  Babylo- 
nian or  Arabian  Irak,  which  constitutes 
the  pashalic  of  Bagdad.  This  celebrated 
province  included  the  tract  of  country  lying 
on  the  river  Euphrates,  bounded  north  by 
Mesopotamia  and  Assyria,   and  south  by 

55 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAL 


the  Persian  Gulf.  This  gulf  was  indeed 
its  only  definite  and  natural  boundary;  for 
towards  the  north,  towards  the  east  or  Per- 
sia, and  towards  the  west  ok  desert  Arabia, 
its  limits  were  quite  indefinite.  Both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times,  important  tracts 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  and  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
still  more  on  both  banks  of  their  united 
streams,  were  reckoned  to  Babylonia,  or 
Irak  el-Arab. 

The  most  ancient  name  of  the  country  is 
Shinar,  Gen.  io:io;  Dan.  1:2.  Afterwards 
Babel,  Babylon,  and  Babylonia  became  its 
common  appellation,  with  which,  at  a  later 
period,  Chaldjca,  or  the  land  of  the  Chal- 
daeans,  was  used  as  synonymous,  after  this 
people  had  got  the  whole  into  their  pos- 
session. 

Babylonia  is  an  e.xtensive  plain,  e.xtend- 
ing  some  400  miles  northwest  and  south- 
east along  the  2  rivers,  and  about  100  miles 
wide,  interrupted  by  no  hill  or  mountain, 
consisting  of  a  fatty,  brownish  soil,  and 
subject  to  the  annual  inundations  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  more  especially  of 
the  latter,  whose  banks  are  lower  than 
those  of  the  Tigris.  The  Euphrates  com- 
monly rises  about  12  feet  above  its  ordi- 
nary level,  and  continues  at  this  height 
from  the  end  of  April  till  June.  To  pro- 
vide means  for  drawing  off  the  superabun- 
dant water,  and  distributing  it  to  those 
tracts  which  were  in  themselves  less  wa- 
tered, the  whole  land  came  to  be  divided 
up  by  a  multitude  of  larger  and  smaller 
canals,  which  seem  to  be  the  "  rivers  of 
Babylon"  spoken  of  in  Psa.  137:1.  Baby- 
lonia also  contained  several  large  lakes, 
partly  the  work  of  art  and  partly  formed 
by  the  inundations  of  the  2  rivers.  It  was 
therefore  a  land  abounding  in  water;  and 
Jeremiah  might  well  say  of  it  that  it 
"  dwelt  upon  many  waters."  Its  soil,  when 
well  cultivated,  is  of  extraordinary  fertil- 
ity; but  now  dry  and  waste  lands  alter- 
nate with  still  more  desolate  marshes,  Isa. 
14:23;  Jer.  51:13,  2n,  42. 

The  Babylonians  belonged  to  the  She- 
mitic  branch  of  the  descendants  of  Noah, 
and  their  language  had  an  affinity  with  the 
Arabic  and  Hebrew,  nearly  resembling 
what  is  now  called  Chaldee.  Yet  the  Bab- 
ylonian empire  was  ap])arently  founded  by 
Nimrod,  a  Cushite  descendant  of  Noah,  20 
centuries  before  Christ,  and  then  embraced 
the  cities  Babel,  Erech,  Ur,  Accad,  and  Cal- 
neh.  Gen.  10:10.  See  Nimrofj.  After  the 
building  of  Nineveh  by  Ninus,  1237  B.  C, 
56 


that  city  became  the  seat  of  power,  and  con- 
tinued so  until  about  606  B.  C,  when  the 
Assyrian  empire  gave  way  to  the  Chaldaean, 
and  Babylon  reached  its  highest  point  in 
fame  and  power.  Upon  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity,  many  still  remained  in 
Babylonia,  and  to  their  posterity  the  gospel 
was  early  conveyed.  Peter  wrote  his  ist 
epistle  there,  i  Pet.  5:13.  The  Jews  had 
thriving  synagogues  in  Babylonia,  and  one 
of  their  Talmuds  was  there  composed. 
See  B.ABVLON  and  Chaldeans. 

BA'CA,  tears,  or  weeping,  Psa.  84:6.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  understand  here  that 
there  was  really  a  valley  so  called,  any 
more  than  in  Psa.  23:4  any  one  valley  in 
Judaea  is  meant.  Those  who  are  permitted 
to  make  the  usual  j)ilgrimages  to  Jerusa- 
lem in  order  to  worship  Jehovah  in  the 
temple,  love  the  ways  which  lead  thither, 
even  though  rough  and  dreary;  a  vale  of 
tears  is  to  them  as  a  well-watered  country. 

BAD'GER,  a  small  inoffensive  animal,  of 
the  bear  genus,  which  remains  torpid  all 
winter.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  cold  coun- 
tries, and  is  not  found  in  Palestine.  Hence 
many  think  the  "  badgers'  skins "  men- 
tioned E.xod.  25:5;  26:14;  Ezek.  16:10,  and 
elsewhere,  as  being  used  for  covering  the 
tabernacle  and  for  shoes,  were  the  skins 
not  of  this  animal,  but  of  a  species  of  seal 
found  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  called  the  du- 
gong.  Burckhardt  remarks  that  he  "saw 
parts  of  the  skin  of  a  large  fish,  killed  on 
the  coast,  which  was  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  is  employed  by  the  Arabs  instead  of 
leather  for  sandals."  Others,  objecting  to 
the  dugong  as  ceremonially  luiclean.  Lev. 
11:10-12,  think  the  animal  in  question  was 
of  the  antelope  species,  the  skins  of  which 
the  Jews  had  obtained  in  Egypt. 

BAG,  Deut.  25:13;  Luke  12:33.  Eastern 
money  was  often  sealed  up  in  bags  con- 
taining a  certain  sum,  for  which  they  passed 
current  while  the  seal  remained  unbroken, 
2  Kin.  12:10.  The  disciples  had  a  common 
purse,  for  the  poor,  John  12:6. 

BAHU'RIM,  i'o//«^  w^«,  a  town  of  Ben- 
jamin, near  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  the 
Jordan.  It  is  several  times  mentioned  in 
the  history  of  David,  2  Sam.  3:16;  16:5; 
17:18. 

BA'JITH,  a  house,  the  site  of  an  idol  tem- 
ple in  Moab,  where  the  king  offered  vain 
supplications  against  the  AssjTians,  Isa. 
15:2;  16:12. 

BAKER.     See  Brkad. 

BA'LAAM,  lord  of  Ihe  people,  a  celebra- 
ted diviner,  of  the  city  Pethor,  on  tiie  Eu- 


BAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAL 


phrates,  Num.  22:5.  Balak,  king  of  Moab, 
having  seen  the  multitudes  of  Israel,  and 
fearing  they  would  overwhelm  him  as  they 
had  just  done  the  Amorites,  sent  for  Ba- 
laam, who  was  famous  for  his  supposed 
supernatural  powers,  to  come  and  curse 
them.  Balaam,  though  eager  for  gain,  was 
led  to  ask  counsel  of  God,  who  forbade  his 
going.  Balak  afterwards  sent  other  depu- 
ties, whom  Balaam  finally  accompanied 
without  the  approval  of  God,  who  sent  an 
angel  to  meet  and  warn  him  in  the  way. 
Here  occurred  the  miracle  of  Balaam's  ass, 
which  is  spoken  of  throughout  the  Bible  as 
a  real  occurrence  and  not  a  mere  vision. 
Num.  22:22,  35;  2  Pet.  2:16.  But  instead 
of  cursing,  he  was  constrained  by  the  Spirit 
of  God  to  bless  the  children  of  Israel,  in 
poetic  strains  of  exceeding  beauty  and 
power.  This  he  did  a  second  and  a  third 
time,  to  the  extreme  mortification  of  Balak, 
who  dismissed  him  in  great  anger.  Balaam 
subsequently  foretold  what  Israel  should  in 
future  times  do  to  the  nations  round  about ; 
and  after  having  advised  Balak  to  engage 
Israel  in  idolatry  and  whoredom,  that  they 
might  offend  God  and  be  forsaken  by  him, 
returned  to  his  own  land.  His  bad  counsel 
was  pursued ;  the  young  women  of  Moab 
inveigled  the  Hebrews  to  the  impure  and 
idolatrous  worship  of  Baal-Peor,  for  which 
24,000  Israelites  were  slain,  Num.  25:1-9; 
31:16. 

Balaam  was  probably  a  descendant  of 
Shem,  and  possessed  many  just  ideas  of 
the  true  God.  He  calls  him  "  the  Lord 
my  God,"  Num.  22:18;  and  yet  he  seems 
to  have  been  onlj'  an  enchanter  and  false 
prophet,  like  many  in  the  times  of  the  kings 
of  Israel,  until  he  came  in  collision  with 
the  people  of  God.  In  this  transaction  he 
was  made  a  bearer,  against  his  own  will,  of 
the  sublime  messages  of  Jehovah  ;  yet  his 
heart  remained  unchanged,  and  he  died 
not  "the  death  of  the  righteous,''  Num. 
31:8,  but  fighting  against  Israel,  Josh.  13:22. 
His  fearful  doom  warns  us  never  to  disre- 
gard the  monitions  of  conscience,  nor  seek 
for  gain  in  ways  God  does  not  approve, 
2  Pet.  2:15;  Jude  1 1 ;   Rev.  2 :  14. 

BA'LAK,  waste,  king  of  Moab  when  the 
Israelites  were  drawing  near  the  promised 
land.  Filled  with  terror  lest  they  should 
attack  and  destroy  him,  as  they  had  Sihon 
and  Og,  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Midianities  to  war  against  them,  and 
implored  the  soothsayer  Balaam  to  come 
and  curse  them.  His  fears  and  his  devi- 
ces were  both  in  vain,   Deut.  2:9;  Judg. 


11:25.  See  Balaam.  He  found  he  had 
nothing  to  fear  from  Israel  if  at  peace  with 
them,  and  nothing  to  hope  if  at  war  with 
them,  Rev.  2:14. 

BAL'ANCE,  or  scales,  a  dual  word  in 
Hebrew.  Balances  were  very  early  in  use, 
to  weigh  money,  before  coinage  began,  Gen. 
23:16;  43:21;  Job  31:6.  They  are  shown 
on  Egyptian  monuments.  Stones  early 
gave  place  to  lead  for  weights,  which  were 
carried  in  a  bag,  Deut.  25:13,  and  God 
made  it  a  matter  of  religion  to  have  them 
just  and  equal.  Lev.  19:36;  Prov.  20:10. 
Bread  sold  by  weight  was  a  symbol  of  fam- 
ine. Lev.  26:26;  Rev.  6:5. 

BALD'NESS.  It  was  customary  to  cut 
oflf  the  hair,  or  to  shave  the  head,  as  a  to- 
ken of  mourning,  on  the  death  of  a  rela- 
tive, Job  1:20;  Jer.  16:6.  This  was  forbid- 
den to  the  Israelites,  being  a  heathen  cus- 
tom, Deut.  14:1;  yet  it  continued  to  mark 
the  close  of  a  Nazarite's  vow.  Num.  6:2, 
18;  Acts  21 :24.  Baldness  was  treated  with 
contempt,  because  it  exposed  a  man  to  the 
suspicion  of  leprosy.  The  cry  of  the  chil- 
dren at  Bethel  after  Elisha,  "  Go  up,  thou 
bald-head,"  2  Kin.  2:23,  indicated  great 
contempt  for  him  as  a  prophet  of  the  Lord, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  scoff  at  the  miracle 
of  Elijah's  ascension. 


BALM,  or  more  properly.  Balsam,  the 
gum  from  the  balsam-tree,  the  Opobalsa- 
mum,  anciently  found  in  Judaea,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Gilead,  Jer.  8:22;  46:11.  It 
was  reckoned  very  valuable  in  the  cure  of 
external  wounds.  The  true  balsam-tree  is 
an  evergreen,  a  native  of  Southern  Arabia 
and  Abyssinia,  and  is  about  14  feet  high. 
It  yields  its  gum  in  very  small  quantities. 

57 


BAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAR 


At  the  present  day,  this  is  collected  chiefly 
in  Arabia,  between  Mecca  and  Medina,  and 
is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  balm  of 
Mecca.  Its  odor  is  exquisitely  fragrant  and 
pungent.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is  still  in 
the  highest  esteem  among  the  Turks  and 
other  Oriental  nations,  both  as  a  medicine 
and  as  a  cosmetic,  Gen.  37:25;  Jer.  51:8; 
Ezek.  27: 17. 

BA'MAH,  plural  BA'MOTH,  high  places, 
Ezek.  20:29.  Bamoth-baal  was  a  station 
of  the  Hebrews  near  the  Arnon,  in  the  bor- 
der of  Moab,  Num.  21:20;  22:41;  after- 
wards assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Josh.  13:17;  Baal  was  worshipped  there, 
and  it  was  perhaps  referred  to  in  Isa.  15:2. 
See  High  Places. 

BAND,  Acts  10: 1,  a  military  cohort,  or 
regiment,  commanded  by  a  tribune. 

BANNER.     See  Abominatio.v,  Ensign. 

BANQUET.     See  Eating,  Fe.asts. 

BAP'TISM  is  the  holy  ordinance  or  sac- 
rament by  which  persons  are  admitted  as 
members  of  the  Christian  community.  It 
is  administered  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther, the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  is 
a  visible  and  public  profession  of  faith  in 
Christ  and  his  salvation,  of  vital  union 
with  him,  of  the  obligation  to  live  a  new 
life  according  to  his  precepts  and  in  his 
service,  and  of  the  e.xpectation  of  sharing 
in  his  glorious  and  heavenly  immortality. 
It  is  not  by  any  means  to  be  regarded  as 
a  regenerating  ordinance,  though  signifi- 
cant of  regeneration.  It  was  established 
in  the  Christian  church  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  as  i  of  the  2  only  sacraments 
of  his  church.  Matt.  28:19;  John  3:22,  26; 
4:1,  2;  Acts  8:12,  36;  16:33,  and  is  bind- 
ing on  his  followers  to  the  end  of  time, 
Mark  16: 16.  The  use  of  water  in  this  ordi- 
nance is  grounded  in  part  on  its  qualities 
as  the  great  element  of  purification,  Psa. 
26:6;  51:2,  7;  Isa.  1:18;  Zech.  13:1;  Acts 
*  22:16,  and  on  the  rites  of  the  ancient  dis- 
pensation, in  which  "water  and  blood" 
were  the  divinely-appointed  symbols  of 
moral  renovation  and  atonement.  Lev.  16:4, 
16,  24. 

The  proper  subjects  of  baptism  are  true 
believers,  and  according  to  Paedobaptists 
their  infant  children,  which  Baptists  deny; 
and  the  mode,  as  the  Baptists  believe,  is  by 
immersion  only,  while  Pjedobaptists  believe 
sprinkling  or  pouring  equally  valid. 

Baptism  "with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 

WITH   FIRE,"   Matt.  3:11;    Luke   3:16,   is 

perhaps  best  explained  by  a  reference  to 

Acts  1:5;  2:3,4;  10:45;  11:13.     The  bap- 

58 


tism  of  John,  Matt.  3:11,  required  peni- 
tence, and  faith  in  God's  pardoning  love, 
but  preceded  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit 
with  his  special  gifts,  and  the  command  to 
baptize  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  Acts 
18:25,  26;  19: 1-6. 

In  I  Cor.  15:29,  the  question  in  other 
words  may  be.  Why,  when  many  suffer 
death  for  Christ's  sake,  do  others  still  come 
forward  and  publicly  confess  Christ,  thus 
taking  the  place  of  the  dead? 

BARAB'BAS,  son  of  Abba,  a  noted  rob- 
ber in  Christ's  time,  who  was  imprisoned 
and  awaiting  death  for  sedition  and  mur- 
der. Acts  3:14.  It  was  a  custom  of  the 
Romans,  for  the  sake  of  conciliating  the 
Jews,  to  release  one  Jewish  prisoner,  whom 
they  might  choose,  at  the  yearly  Passover. 
Pilate  desired  thus  to  release  Jesus,  but 
the  Jews  demanded  Barabbas,  Matt.  27: 16- 
26 ;  Luke  23 :  16-25.  Thus  we  see  that  men 
can  prefer  a  ruffian  to  the  Lord  of  glory, 
and  a  destroj-er  of  life  to  Him  who  heals 
our  sicknesses  and  saves  our  souls  by  giv- 
ing his  own  life  for  ours. 

BA'RAK,  lightning,  the  son  of  Abinoam, 
of  Kedesh  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  God 
summoned  him,  by  means  of  Deborah  the 
prophetess,  to  release  Israel  from  the  yoke 
of  Jabin,  king  of  North  Canaan.  Having 
first  secured  the  attendance  of  the  prophet- 
ess, he  gathered  10,000  men,  and  stationed 
them  on  Mount  Tabor,  perhaps  to  avoid 
the  enemies'  900  chariots  of  iron,  Judg.  4:3. 
God  fought  for  Israel  in  the  battle  which 
ensued,  and  the  song  of  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak, Judg.  5,  chronicles  their  victory.  Read- 
ing the  inspired  narrative  on  the  spot,  one 
is  struck  with  a  vivid  sense  of  its  truth  and 
accuracy,  finding  the  same  places  around 
him,  with  the  old  names,  in  the  order  re- 
quired by  the  history.  Barak  is  enrolled 
among  those  illustrious  for  faith,  Heb. 
11:32.     See  Kishon. 

BARBA'RIAN,  a  foreigner.  According 
to  the  Greek  idiom,  all  other  nations,  how- 
ever learned  and  polite  they  might  be,  were 
"barbarians."  Hence  Paul  comprehends 
all  mankind  under  the  names  of  "  Greeks 
and  barbarians,"  Rom.  i :  14.  Luke  calls 
the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Malta  "  bar- 
barians, "  they  being  of  the  Phcenician  race, 
and  speaking  the  dialect  of  Carthage,  Acts 
28:2,4. 

BAR-JE'SUS.    See  Elymas. 

BAR'LEY  was  sown  in  Palestine  from 
November  to  February,  and  reaped  at  and 
after  the  Passover.  The  Hebrews  fre- 
quently used  barley -bread,  2  Sam.  17:28; 


BAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAR 


2  Kin.  4:42;  John  6:9,  though  it  was  con- 
sidered inferior  to  wheat.  Compare  Num. 
5:15;  Judg.  7:13;  Ezek.  13:19.  The  mod- 
ern Arabs  ridicule  their  enemies  as  "  eaters 
of  barley-bread."  Barley  also  was  much 
used  as  food  for  cattle,  i  Kin.  4:28. 

BARN.  Garners,  storehouses,  and  gran- 
aries are  often  spoken  of  in  the  Bible,  Job 
39:12;  Psa.  144:13;  Matt.  3:12.  They  were 
receptacles  for  grain  and  other  produce, 
rather  than  for  hay,  and  were  often  under 
ground.  In  some  parts  of  the  East,  domes- 
tic beasts  are  lodged  on  the  ground  floor 
of  the  owner's  house,  the  family  occupying 
the  rooms  above. 

BAR'NABAS,  son  of  exhortatioti,  or  Jo- 
ses,  was  a  Levite  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  who 
sold  all  his  property  and  laid  the  price  of 
it  at  the  apostles'  feet.  Acts  4 :  36,  37.  When 
Paul  came  to  Jerusalem,  3  years  after  his 
conversion,  about  A.  D.  38,  Barnabas  intro- 
duced him  to  the  other  apostles,  Acts  9 :  26, 
27.  Five  years  afterwards,  the  church  at 
Jerusalem,  being  informed  of  the  progress 
of  the  gospel  at  Antioch,  sent  Barnabas 
thither,  who  beheld  with  great  joy  the  won- 
ders of  the  grace  of  God,  Acts  1 1 :  20-24. 
He  afterwaf-ds  went  to  Tarsus,  to  seek 
Paul  and  bring  him  to  Antioch,  where  they 
dwelt  together  2  years,  and  great  numbers 
were  converted.  They  left  Antioch  A.  D. 
45,  to  convey  alms  from  this  church  to  that 
at  Jerusalem,  and  soon  returned,  bringing 
with  them  John  Mark,  Acts  1 1 :  28-30 ;  12:25. 
While  they  were  at  Antioch,  A.  D.  45,  the 
Holy  Ghost  directed  that  they  should  be 
set  apart  for  those  labors  to  which  he 
had  appointed  them,  the  planting  of  new 
churches  among  the  Gentiles.  Thus  early 
in  the  Christian  church  was  the  missionary 
cause  instituted:  the  Holy  Ghost  charging 
believers  with  the  duty  of  consecrating 
chosen  men  to  carry  the  gospel  to  the  hea- 
then, of  providing  what  was  necessary  for 
the  work,  and  of  watching  over  its  pro- 
gress. They  visited  Cyprus  and  some  cit- 
ies of  Asia  Minor,  Acts  13:2-14,  and  after  3 
years  returned  to  Antioch,  gathered  the 
church,  and  rehearsed  all  that  God  had 
done  by  them.  In  A.  D.  50,  he  and  Paul 
were  appointed  delegates  from  the  Syrian 
churches  to  consult  the  apostles  and  elders 
at  Jerusalem  respecting  certain  questions 
raised  by  Jewish  zealots ;  and  having  ob- 
tained the  judgment  of  the  brethren  at 
Jerusalem,  they  returned  with  it,  accom- 
panied by  Silas  and  Barnabas.  At  Anti- 
och he  was  led  into  dissimulation  by  Peter, 
and  was,  in  consequence,  reproved  by  Paul. 


While  preparing  for  a  second  missionary 
tour,  Paul  and  Barnabas,  having  a  dispute 
relative  to  Mark,  Barnabas'  nephew,  sep- 
arated, Paul  going  to  Asia,  and  Barnabas 
with  Mark  to  Cyprus,  Acts  13-15;  Gal. 
2: 13.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  subsequent 
history. 

There  is  a  spurious  gospel,  in  Arabic, 
attributed  to  him,  but  written  by  some 
heretical  Christian ;  also  another  spurious 
work,  probably  of  the  5th  century,  profess- 
ing to  relate  his  labors  in  Cyprus  and  his 
death  there;  and  an  epistle,  treating  main- 
ly of  the  connection  of  the  Mosaic  dispen- 
sation with  the  gospel,  but  evidently  writ- 
ten by  some  other  hand,  though  at  a  very 
earl}'  date,  probably  near  the  beginning  of 
the  2d  century.  A  complete  copy  of  the 
original  Greek  was  found  by  Dr.  Tischen- 
dorf,  appended  to  the  Sinaitic  MS.  of  the 
New  Testament.  Its  value  is  that  of  an 
ancient  witness,  not  of  an  inspired  author- 
ity. Its  language  constantly  accords  with 
that  of  the  New  Testament.  It  shows  no 
trace  of  pope,  tradition,  priests,  masses, 
penances,  confession,  or  purgatory  —  no 
word  about  prayers  to  angels,  saints,  or 
Mary.  It  distinctly  recognizes  the  Chris- 
tian Sabbath :  "  Wherefore  also  we  pass  the 
8th  day  in  rejoicing,  wherein  also  Jesus 
rose  from  the  dead,  and  having  been  man- 
ifested, he  ascended  into  the  heavens." 

BAR'REL,  I  Kin.  17:12;  18:33,  the  word 
in  Hebrew  usually  translated  pitcher. 

BAR'RENNESS  was  an  affliction  pecu- 
liarly lamented  throughout  the  East,  Gen. 
16:1;  30:1-23;  I  Sam.  1:6,  19;  Isa.  47:9; 
49:21 ;  Luke  i  :25,  especially  by  the  Jewish 
women,  who  remembered  the  promised 
Messiah,  Gen.  3: 15,  and  hoped  for  the  hon- 
or of  his  parentage.  The  strength  of  this 
feeling  is  evinced  by  the  extraordinary  and 
often  unjustifiable  measures  it  led  them  to 
adopt.  Gen.  16:2;  19:31;  38:14;  Deut.  25:5- 
10.  Professed  Christians  are  charged  with 
barrenness,  if  they  are  destitute  of  the  fruits 
of  the  Spirit,  and  do  not  abound  in  good 
works,  Luke  13:6-9;  2  Pet.  i:S. 

BAR'SABAS,  son  of  Saba.  I.  Joseph 
Barsabas,  surnamed  The  Just,  was  one  of 
Christ's  early  disciples,  and  probably 
among  the  70.  He  was  i  of  the  2  candi- 
dates for  the  vacancy  left  by  Judas  Iscariot 
in  the  apostleship.  Acts  i. 

II.  Judas  Barsabas  was  "a  prophet," 
or  preacher  of  the  gospel,  and  a  distin- 
guished member  of  the  Jerusalem  church. 
He  was  deputed,  with  Silas,  to  accompany 
Paul  and  Barnabas  in  a  mission  of  impor- 

,S9 


BAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAS 


tance  to  the  Gentile  converts  in  the  Syrian 
churches,  Acts  15:22-33. 

BARTHOL'OMEW,  son  of  Talmai,  one  of 
the  12  apostles,  Matt.  10:3;  Mark  3:i<S; 
Luke  6:14;  Acts  1:13.  He  is  named  in 
connection  with  Philip,  and  seems  to  have 
been  the  same  person  whom  John  calls 
Nathanael,  John  1:45-51,  and  mentions 
among  the  other  apostles,  John  21:2.  See 
Apostlk  and  Nathanael. 

BARTIM.ffi'US,  son  of  Timaeus,  a  blind 
man,  to  whom  Christ  gave  sight,  by  the 
wayside  near  Jericho,  Matt.  20:29-34;  Mark 
10:46-52;  Luke  18:35-43.  There  were  2 
healed,  according  to  Matthew,  although 
Mark  and  Luke  only  mention  Bartimteus. 
As  to  the  time  of  the  occurrence,  we  may 
suppose  that  Bartimaeus  heard  the  ap- 
proach of  Christ,  Luke  18:35,  and  learned 
who  he  was  on  the  first  day;  and  encour- 
aged by  the  mercy  of  the  Saviour  to  Zac- 
chaeus,  and  being  joined  by  another  blind 
man,  called  to  him  for  help  as  he  again 
passed  by  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem.  The 
touching  narrative  of  his  steadfast  faith, 
and  Christ's  ready  compassion,  should  en- 
courage all  to  go  boldly  unto  Jesus. 

BA'RUCH,  blessed,  the  son  of  Neriah,  of 
a  distinguished  family  in  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah.  He  was  the  faithful  friend  of  Jere- 
miah. About  605  B.  C.  he  wrote  down, 
from  the  lips  of  Jeremiah,  all  the  divine 
messages  to  that  prophet,  and  subsequent- 
ly read  them  to  the  people,  and  again  to 
certain  princes.  These  last  took  the  book, 
and  soon  made  known  its  contents  to  king 
Jehoiakim,  who  impiously  destroyed  it. 
Baruch  wrote  it  down  a  2d  time  as  be- 
fore, with  some  additions,  Jer.  36.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  accompanied 
his  brother  Seraiah  to  Babylon,  with  the 
predictions  of  Jeremiah  respecting  that 
city,  Jer.  51:59-64.  He  afterwards  shared 
the  persecutions  of  the  prophet,  was  im- 
prisoned with  him,  and  forced  to  go  to 
Egypt  with  the  rebellious  Jews,  Jer.  43.  An 
apocryphal  book  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Another  Baruch  is  mentioned  in  Neh. 
11:5;  and  a  3d  among  the  friends  of  Nehe- 
miah,  Neh.  3:20;  10:6. 

BARZIL'LAI,  of  iron,  L,  of  Meholah  in 
Simeon;  father  of  Adriel,  who  married  Me- 
rab  the  daughter  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  18:19; 
2  Sam.  21 :8. 

IL  An  aged  and  wealthy  Gileadite,  a 
friend  of  David  when  he  was  in  exile  dur- 
ing Absalom's  rebellion.  He  sent  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  provisions,  beds,  and  other 
conveniences  for  the  use  of  the  king's  fol- 
60 


lowers,  2  Sam.  17:27;  19:32.  On  David's 
return,  Barzillai  accompanied  him  as  far 
as  Jordan,  but  declined,  in  consequence  of 
his  great  age,  to  proceed  to  Jerusalem  and 
receive  the  favors  the  king  had  intended 
for  him.  See  Chimham.  David,  in  his 
final  charge  to  Solomon,  enjoined  upon 
him  to  show  kindness  to  Barzillai's  family, 
and  to  make  them  members  of  the  royal 
household,  i  Kin.  2:7. 

\\\.  A  priest  who  married  a  daughter  of 
the  above,  Ezra  2:61;  Neh.  7:63. 

BA'SHAN,  liffht  soil,  Num.  21:33,  a  rich 
hilly  district  lying  east  of  the  Jordan,  and 
between  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  on  the 
north  and  those  of  Gilead  on  the  south, 
Josh.  12:3-5.  It  covered  the  same  terri- 
tory in  general  as  the  later  Roman  prov- 
inces:  Gaulonitis,  now  Jau Ian,  bordering 
on  the  Upper  Jordan  towards  Hermon ; 
Trachonitis,  now  el  Lejah,  the  rocky  tract 
on  the  east ;  Batanaea,  now  Bathanyeh,  on 
the  southeast;  and  Auranitis,  now  Haii- 
f-an,  on  the  south.  Bashan  is  celebrated 
in  Scripture  for  its  stately  oaks,  Isa.  2:13, 
its  fine  breed  of  cattle,  and  its  rich  pas- 
turage :  "  Rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan," 
Deut.  32:14;  "Rams,  bulls,  goats,  all  of 
them  fatlings  of  Bashan,"  Ezek.  39 :  18. 
Travellers  describe  the  interior  as  still 
abounding  with  verdant  and  fertile  mead- 
ows, valleys  traversed  bj-  refreshing 
streams,  hills  crowned  with  forests,  and 
pastures  offering  an  abundance  to  the 
flocks.  The  Hauran  plain  is  still  thickly 
strewn  with  ruins  of  towns  and  villages, 
built  entire!}^  in  or  of  the  native  rock. 
Many  of  these,  though  unoccupied  for  ages, 
are  well  preserved ;  and  though  built  since 
the  time  of  Christ,  their  numbers  confirm 
the  Bible  statement  that  in  the  time  of 
Joshua,  Argob,  one  of  its  chief  districts, 
contained  60  walled  towns,  Deut.  3:4,  5; 
Josh.  20:8;  21:27.  Bashan  was  assigned, 
after  the  conquest  of  Og  and  his  people,  to 
the  half- tribe  of  Manasseh,  Josh.  12:4; 
13:29-31.  Solomon  drew  supplies  from 
this  region,  i  Kin.  4:13.  It  was  conquered 
by  Hazael,  but  Joash  recovered  it,  2  Kin. 
10:33;   13:25. 

BASH'EMATH,  or  'Rx^'v.MiVVH, ftaffranl, 
I.,  a  daughter  of  Ishmael,  and  3d  wife  of 
Esau  ;  mother  of  Reuel,  and  of  4  Edomite 
tribes,  Gen.  36:2-4.  She  is  also  called 
Mahalath  in  Gen.  28:9.  It  maybe  that  she 
dropped  this  name  and  took  the  other  after 
the  death  of  Bashemath  or  Adah,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Elon  and  the  1st  of  Esau's  wives, 
Gen.  26:34. 


BAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEA 


II.  Bas'math,  daughter  of  Solomon,  and 
wife  of  Ahimaaz,  i  Kin.  4:15. 

BAT,  classed  among  unclean  fowls,  in 
Lev.  11:19;  Deut.  14:18,  because  of  its  so- 
called  wings  and  its  flying.  These  noisome 
animals  still  swarm  in  Eastern  caverns,  and 
find  a  congenial  lurking-place  in  the  ruins 
of  heathen  temples,  Isa.  2:20. 

BATH,  a  Hebrew  measure,  containing  7 
or  8  gallons,  liquid  measure;  and  3  or  4 
pecks,  dry  measure,  i  Kin.  7:26,  2,%;  Isa. 
5 :  10.     See  tables  at  the  end  of  this  book. 

BATHING.     See  Washing. 

BATH-SHEBA.     See  below. 


BATTERING-RAM   AND    TOWEK. 

BAT'TERING-RAM,  a  military  engine  f^r 
battering  walls,  2  Sam.  20:15.     A  long  and 
solid  beam,  armed  at  one  end  with  a  metal- 
lic ram's-head,  was  suspended  by  the 
middle,  and  swung  violently  and  re- 
peatedly against  the  walls  of  a  city 
or  castle,  till  a  breach  was  made.     It 
was  sometimes  in  the  lower  part  of  a 
wooden  tower  built  upon  wheels  and 
sheathed  with  skins,  and  was  worked 
by  more  than  100  men;  while  the  up- 
per part  of  the  tower  was  filled  with 
archers  and  slingers,  Ezek.4:2;  21 :22; 
26:9.     See  War. 

BATH'-SHEBA,  daughter  of  the  oath,      ,_^ 
the  wife  of  Uriah,  and  probably  grand- 
daughter of  Ahithophel,  which  see ;       '^ 
called  Bathshua  in  i  Chr.  3:5.     Da- 
vid first  committed  adultery  with  her,       ^ 
then  caused  her  husband  to  be  slain, 
and    afterwards    took    her    to    wife; 
These  sins  greatly  displeased  Jeho- 
vah, who  sent  the  prophet  Nathan  to 
David,  with  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb. 
David  bitterly  repented,  but  was  yet  pun- 
ished, 2  Sam.  11:12.      Bath-sheba  was  the 
mother  of  Solomon,  whose  succession  to 


the  throne  she  took  pains  to  secure,  i  Kin. 
1:15,  and  of  3  other  sons,  i  Chr.  3:5.  She 
is  afterwards  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
Adonijah,  i  Kin.  2: 13,  in  the  title  of  Psa.  51, 
and  among  the  ancestors  of  Christ,  Matt. 
1:6. 

BAT'TLEMENT,  a  balustrade  around  the 
roofs  of  ancient  houses,  which  were  flat, 
and  were  much  resorted  to  for  fresh  air, 
amusement,  or  retirement  by  day,  and  for 
sleep  at  night.  The  Mosaic  law  required 
a  battlement  for  each  house,  Deut.  22:8, 
and  the  spirit  of  this  rule  is  of  very  wide 
application. 

BAY-TREE.  The  laurel  of  North  Africa 
and  the  south  of  Europe ;  an  evergreen 
tree,  a  wreath  of  which  has  been  from  time 
immemorial  the  symbolical  crown  of  poets 
and  warriors.  The  word  rendered  "  bay- 
tree  "  in  Psa.  37:35  seems  to  mean  simply 
a  native  tree,  green  and  vigorous. 

BDEL'LIUM  is  commonly  supposed  to 
mean  the  aromatic  gum  of  a  tree  growing 
near  the  Persian  Gulf,  etc.  It  is  transpa- 
rent, and  bitter  to  the  taste,  yet  very  fra- 
grant while  burning,  (ien.  2:12;  Num. 
11:7. 

BEANS,  as  well  as  other  leguminous 
plants,  are  still  much  used  in  Syria,  2  Sam. 
17:28.  They  blossom  in  January,  and  un- 
til March.  Pliny  alludes  to  their  use  with 
barley,  etc.,  in  bread,  as  in  Ezek.  4:9. 

BEAR.  That  bears  were  common  in  Pal- 
estine appears  from  many  passages  in  the 
Old  Testament,  i  Sam.  17:34,36,37;  2  Sam. 


SYRIAN  bear  :  URSUS  SVRIACUS. 

17:8;  2  Kin.  2:24;  Dan.  7:5;  Amos  5:19. 
The  species  known  in  Syria  resembles  the 
common  brown  bear;  it  is  still  met  in  the 
recesses  of  Lebanon.     To  a  sullen  and  fe- 

61 


BEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BED 


rocious  disposition  the  bear  joins  immense 
strength,  considerable  sagacity,  and  the 
power  of  climbing  trees.  Her  ferocity, 
especially  when  her  young  are  injured,  is 
proverbial.  See  2  Sam.  17:8;  Prov.  17:12; 
Isa.  11:7;  59:11;  Hos.  13:8. 


ORIENTAL   HEADS,  WITH    BEARDS. 

BEARD.  The  Hebrews  regarded  a  thin, 
scanty  beard  as  a  great  deformity ;  while  a 
long,  full,  flowing  beard  was  esteemed  the 
noblest  ornament  of  personal  beauty  and 
dignity.  A  man's  honor  was  lodged,  as  it 
were,  in  his  beard.  To  insult  it  by  word 
or  act  was  the  grossest  indignity;  to  take 
it  respectfully  in  the  right  hand  and  kiss  it 
was  a  mode  of  expressing  high  esteem  and 
love  permitted  only  to  the  nearest  friends. 


BEARDS   r-ROM    EGYPTIAN   PAINTINGS. 

It  was  cherished  with  great  care,  Psalm 
133:2;  Dan.  10:3.  To  neglect,  tear,  or  cut 
it  indicated  the  deepest  grief,  Ezra  9:3; 
Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  41:5;  48:37;  while  to  be 
deprived  of  it  was  a  mark  of  servility  and 
infamy.  Many  would  prefer  death  to  such 
a  mutilation.  These  facts  explain  many 
passages  of  Scripture :  as  the  gross  insult 
offered  to  David's  ambassadors,  2  Sam. 
10:4-14;  the  zealous  indignation  of  Nehe- 
miah,  Neh.  13:25;  the  mode  in  which  the 
feigned  insanity  of  David  was  expressed, 
I  Sam.  21:13,  and  the  grief  of  Mephibo- 
sheth,  2  Sam.  19:24;  the  treachery  of  Joab, 
62 


2  Sam.  20:9,  and  perhaps  of  Judas;  also 
several  passages  in  the  prophets,  Isa.  7:20; 
50:6;  Kzek.  5:1-5.  The  Assyrian  monu- 
ments show  us  all  their  kings,  warriors, 
priests,  etc.,  with  full  beards,  often  dressed 
with  elaborate  care ;  while  eunuchs  are 
depicted  without  beards.  In  Egypt,  on  the 
contrary,  only  captives  and  other  foreign- 
ers are  usually  represented  with  beards; 
and  Herodotus  says  the  Egyptians  only 
let  them  grow  as  a  sign  of  mourning : 
hence  Joseph,  when  released  from  prison, 
shaved  before  going  to  Pharaoh,  Gen.  41 :  14. 
See  Shaving. 

BEASTS.  This  word,  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  man,  denotes  all  animals  be- 
sides, Psa.  36:6;  sometimes  it  means  quad- 
rupeds, and  not  creeping  things.  Lev.  11:2- 
7 ;  and  sometimes  domestic  cattle,  in  dis- 
tinction from  wild  creatures,  Gen.  1:25; 
45: 17.  They  were  all  brought  to  Adam  to 
be  named.  Few  are  mentioned  in  the  Bi- 
ble but  such  as  lived  in  Palestine  and  the 
countries  adjacent.  Beasts  suffer  with  man 
under  the  penalties  of  the  fall,  Gen.  3:14; 
Exod.  9:6;  13:15:  Ezek.  38:20;  Hos.  4:3. 
Yet  various  merciful  provisions  for  them 
were  made  in  the  Jewish  law,  Exod.  20:10; 
23:11,12;  Lev.  22:28;  25:7;  Deut.  22:4,6, 
7;  25:4.  Animals  were  classed  in  the  law 
as  clean  or  unclean,  with  a  primary  refer- 
ence to  animal  sacrifices,  Gen.  7:2;  Lev. 
II.    See  Clean. 

The  word  beasts  is  figuratively  used  to 
symbolize  various  kings  and  nations,  Psa. 
74:14;  Isa.  27:1;  Ezek.  29:3;  Dan.  7;  8; 
Rev.  12;  13.  It  also  describes  the  charac- 
ter of  violent  and  brutal  men,  Psa.  22:12, 
16;  I  Cor.  15:32;  2  Pet.  2:12.  One  Hebrew 
word  commonly  rendered  beast  signifies 
liviiiff  crealiifes.  In  Ezekiel's  vision,  Ezek. 
I,  this  is  applied  to  human  beings  or  their 
symbols.  In  the  book  of  Revelation  two 
distinct  words  are  employed  symbolically, 
both  rendered  "beast"  in  our  version. 
One  is  applied  to  persecuting  earthly  pow- 
ers. Rev.  11:7;  13:1,  etc.;  the  other  to  su- 
perhuman beings  or  their  symbols.  Rev. 
4:6,  etc.  This  latter  might  be  appropriate- 
ly rendered  "  living  creature,"  as  the  cor- 
responding Hebrew  word  is  in  Ezekiel. 

BED,  in  the  East,  is,  and  was  anciently, 
a  divan,  or  broad  low  step  around  the 
sides  of  a  room,  like  a  low  sofa,  which  an- 
swered the  purpose  of  a  lounge  by  day  for 
reclining,  and  of  a  bed  by  night  for  sleep- 
ing, Exod.  8:3;  2  Sam.  4:5-7,  It  was  fur- 
nished with  pillows,  I  Sam.  19:13.  Some- 
times it  was  raised  several  steps  above  the 


BEE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEE 


I  \ 

AN   EASTERN   DIVAN,    OR   BED. 


floor,  2  Kin.  1:4;  Psa.  132:3.  It  was  cov- 
ered very  diiferently,  and  with  more  or 
less  ornament,  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
owner  of  the  house.  The  poor  had  but  a 
simple  mattress  or  sheep-skin,  or  a  cloak 


EGYPTIAN  BED,   WITH   HEAD-REST. 

or  blanket,  which  also  answered  to  wrap 
themselves  in  by  day,  Exod.  22:27;  Deut. 
24:13.  Hence  it  was  easy  for  the  persons 
whom  Jesus  healed  to  take  up  their  beds 
and  walk,  Mark4:2i.  Bedsteads,  however, 
were  not  unknown,  though  unlike  those  of 
modern  times.  See  Deut.  3:11;  i  Sam. 
19:15;  Esth.  1:6;  7:8;  Amos  6:4.  The 
Jews  only  laid  off  their  sandals  and  outer 
garments  at  night.  The  bed-chambers  for 
the  females  were  the  most  secluded  rooms 
of  the  house,  Exod.  8:3;  2  Kin.  6:12. 

BEE.  Bees  are  mentioned  in  Deut.  i  :44; 
Judg.  14:8;  Psa.  118:12;  Isa.  7:18,  etc. 
Palestine  abounded  in  "  milk  and  honey." 
Many  travellers  speak  of  countless  swarms, 


not  only  domesticated,  but  wild.  Matt.  3:4, 
the  latter  often  filling  great  cavities  in  the 
sides  of  cliffs,  so  that  many  natives  get 
their  living  by  the  sale  of  this  "  honey  out 
of  the  stony  rock,"  Deut.  32:13;  Psa.  81:16; 
Ezek.  27:17.     On  Isa.  7:18  see  Hiss. 

BEEL'ZEBUB,  "the  prince  of  the^iljev- 
ils,"  Matt.  10:25;  12:24;  Mark  3:22.  Miis 
name  is  derived  from  Baal-zebub,  an  idol 
deity  among  the  Ekronites,  signifying  lord 
of  flies,  fly-baal,  as  though  to  protect  his 
worshippers  from  the  torm.ent  of  the  gnats 
and  flies  with  which  that  region  was  infest- 
ed, 2  Kin.  1:2,  3,  16.  It  is  also  sometimes 
written  Beel-zebul,  which  signifies  proba- 
bly the  dung-god.  The  Jews  seem  to  have 
applied  this  appellation  to  Satan,  as  being 
the  author  of  all  the  pollutions  and  abomi- 
nations of  idol-worship  ;  and  Christ  uses  it 
as  another  name  for  Satan,  Matt.  12:24-30; 
Mark  3:22-30;  Luke  11:14-20. 

BE'ER,  a  well,  I.,  a  station  of  the  He- 
brews in  Moab,  where  God  gave  them 
water.  Num.  21:16-18;  Isa.  15:8. 

II.  A  town  in  Judah,  according  to  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome  a  few  miles  west  of  Jeru- 
salem, near  Beth-shemesh.  Jotham  took 
refuge  there  from  his  brother  Abimelech, 
Judg.  9:21. 

BEER'I.     See  Anah. 

BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI,  well  of  him  living, 
and  seeing  me,  a  fountain  on  the  southwest 
border  of  Canaan,  where  Hagar  was  visit- 
ed by  an  angel,  and  near  which  Isaac  long 
resided, Gen.  16:7,  14;  24:62;  25:11. 

63 


BEE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEH 


BEE'ROTH,  wells,  a  city  of  Benjamin, 
near  Gibeon,  Josh.  9:17;  28501.4:2,3.  It 
is  now  El-Bireh,  a  village  of  700  inhabi- 
tants, on  a  ridge  10  miles  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem.    It  is  the  customary  resting-place  for 


travellers  the  ist  night  after  leaving  Jeru- 
salem journeying  north,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  here  the  parents  of  Jesus  missed  him, 
as  described  in  Luke  2:43-45,  and  turned 
back  to  Jerusalem. 


ANCIENT  WELL   OF   liKKR-SHEBA — 12    FEET   IN    DIAMETER. 


BE'ER-SHE'BA,  the  well  (if  the  oath,  Gen. 
21:31 ;  26:31,  33,  a  city  28  miles  southwest 
of  Hebron,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Holy  Land,  while  Dan  lay  at  the  north- 
ern, Judg.  20:1.  At  Beer-sheba,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  often  dwelt,  Gen.  21:31 ; 
22:19;  26:23;  28:10;  46:1.  The  town  that 
rose  here  was  first  assigned  to  Judah,  and 
then  to  Simeon,  Josh.  15:28;  19:2.  Here 
Samuel  established  his  sons  as  judges, 
I  Sam.  8:2.  Elijah  rested  here  on  his  way 
to  Horeb,  i  Kin.  19:3.  It  was  a  seat  of 
idolatry  in  the  time  of  Uzziah,  Amos  5:5; 
8:14.  After  the  captivity,  it  was  repeopled 
by  the  Jews,  Neh.  11:27,  30,  and  continued 
a  large  village  many  centuries  after  the 
coming  of  Christ.  Dr.  Robinson  found  its 
site  at  Bir-es-SebS,  on  the  border  of  the 
great  desert  south  of  Canaan — the  ruins  of 
a  small  straggling  city,  and  2  deep  stone 
wells  of  excellent  water,  surrounded  by 
stone  troughs  and  bearing  the  marks  of 
great  antiquity,  the  curbstones  being  deep- 
ly grooved,  as  if  fluted  all  around,  by  the 
action  of  ropes  for  many  ages. 

BEESH'TERAH,  a  Levitical  city,  in  Ma- 
64 


nasseh,  beyond  the  Jordan,  Josh.  21 :27.  It 
is  also  called  Ashtaroth,  i  Chr.  6:71,  and 
is  probably  a  contraction  of  Beth-Ashta- 
roth,  house  of  Astarle. 

BEE'TLE,  in  Lev.  11:22,  a  species  of 
locust. 

BEEVES,  cattle,  including  the  larger  an- 
telopes. Lev.  22:19.  It  is  the  old  plural  of 
beef.     See  Cattle. 

BEGGING.    See  Poor. 


HIPPOPOTA.MUS,  OR    BEHEMOTH. 

BEHE'MOTH,  beasts,  elsewhere  so  trans- 
lated, but  retained  from  the  Hebrew  for 
the  huge  amphibious  animal  described  in 


BEK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEN 


Job  40: 15-24.  Commentators  are  now  gen- 
erally agreed  that  it  is  the  hippopotamus, 
or  river-horse,  now  found  only  in  the  Nile 
and  other  great  rivers  of  Africa.  This  is  a 
very  large,  powerful,  and  unwieldy  animal, 
which  lives  in  the  water,  but  comes  out 
upon  the  banks  to  feed  on  grass,  grain, 
green  herbs,  and  branches  of  trees.  The 
appearance  of  the  hippopotamus  on  land 
is  altogether  uncouth,  the  body  being  ex- 
tremely large,  flat,  and  round,  the  head 
large  in  proportion,  and  the  legs  short. 
The  length  of  a  male  has  been  known  to 
be  17  feet,  the  height  7  feet,  and  the  cir- 
cumference 15;  the  head  3  feet  and  a  half, 
and  its  girt  9  feet ;  the  mouth  in  width 
about  2  feet.  The  general  color  is  brown- 
ish ;  the  ears  small  and  pointed ;  the  eyes 
small  and  black;  the  lips  thick  and  broad; 
the  nostrils  small.  The  armament  of  teeth 
in  its  mouth  is  truly  formidable,  particu- 
larly the  tusks  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  are 
of  a  curved  form,  sometimes  2  feet  in 
length,  and  weighing  6  pounds  each.  The 
tail  is  short  and  thick ;  and  the  whole  body 
is  protected  by  a  thick  and  tough  hide, 
which  swords  and  arrows  cannot  pene- 
trate. 

BE'KAH,  cleft,  a  half-shekel ;  in  weight, 
5  pennyweights ;  in  money,  25  to  30  cents. 
This  sum  each  Israelite  over  20  years  old 
was  to  pay  as  a  yearly  poll-tax  for  the  tem- 
ple service,  Exod.  30:13. 

BEL,  the  chief  idol  of  the  Babylonians. 
See  Baal. 

BE'LA,  a  swallozviiig,  Gen.  14.   See  Zoar. 

BE'LIAL,  worthlessness.  A  man  or  son 
of  Belial  is  a  wicked,  profligate,  uncontrol- 
lable fellow,  Judg.  19:22;  I  Sam.  2:12.  It 
is  not  a  proper  name  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  is  abstract,  and  often  is  transla- 
ted wicked,  as  in  Deut.  15:9;  Psa.  101:3. 
In  2  Cor.  6:15,  Belial  is  put  for  the  lord  of 
evil,  Satan. 

BELIEF  usually  means  not  only  cre- 
dence,hvX  trust.  "  Ye  trust  in  God;  trust 
also  in  me,"  John  14:1.  "Trust  in  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.,  Acts  16:31.  See 
Faith. 

BELLS.  The  direction  in  Exod.  28:33- 
35  reminded  both  the  high-priest  and  all 
present  to  give  their  whole  mind  and  heart 
to  the  worship  of  God.  Small  bells,  cas- 
tanets, etc.,  were  and  are  still  much  used 
in  the  East.  In  the  latter  days,  every  pos- 
session and  pleasure  of  man  shall  conform 
to  the  will  of  God,  Zech.  14:20. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR,  prince  of  Bel,  the  last 
king  of  the  Chaldees  at  Babylon,  reigning 
5 


in  conjunction  with  his  father  Nabonnedus 
at  the  time  when  that  city  was  besieged  by 
Cyrus,  B.  C,  53S.  Nabonnedus  was  close- 
ly shut  up  in  Borsippa,  a  neighboring  city; 
while  in  Babylon  itself  Belshazzar  made 
an  impious  feast,  at  which  he  and  his  cour- 
tiers drank  out  of  the  sacred  vessels  which 
had  been  carried  away  from  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  his  grand- 
father. He  was  terrified  by  the  apparition 
of  the  hand  which  wrote  upon  the  wall ; 
and  in  the  same  night  was  slain,  and  the 
city  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  un- 
der Darius  and  Cyrus,  Dan.  5.  The  in- 
scriptions on  some  ancient  cylinders  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Mugheir  remarkably  con- 
firm and  explain  the  Scripture  narrative. 
We  may  thus  also  understand  how  Daniel 
was  made  "  the  jrf  ruler  of  the  kingdom," 
and  not  the  2d,  Dan.  5:29.  See  Babylon, 
Daniel,  Mene. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR,  prince  of  Bel,  the 
Chaldaean  name  given  to  Daniel  at  the 
court  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  1:7;  4:8. 
See  Daniel. 

BEN,  found  in  many  Hebrew  names, 
means  son. 

BENAI'AH,  built  by  the  Lord,  son  of  Je- 
hoiada  a  chief  priest,  i  Chr.  27:5,  and 
commander  of  David's  body-guards.  Sev- 
eral instances  of  his  rare  bravery  are  re- 
corded, 2  Sam.  8 :  i8 ;  23 :  20-23.  He  adhered 
to  Solomon  when  some  favored  the  preten- 
sions of  Adonijah,  slew  Joab  at  the  com- 
mand of  Solomon,  and  was  made  general  of 
the  army  in  his  stead,  i  Kin.  1:36;  2:29-35. 

Eleven  other  Benaiahs  are  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament,  none  of  them  known 
except  from  the  verse  or  two  where  they 
are  mentioned. 

BEN-AM'MI,  son  of  my  people,  son  of 
Lot  and  father  of  the  Ammonites,  Gen. 
19:36-38. 

BENEFACTOR,  Luke  22:25;  in  Greek, 
Euergetes ;  a  title  of  honor  given  to  several 
kings,  as  to  Vespasian,  and  2  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. 

BEN-HA'DAD,  son  of  Hadad,\.,  a  king 
of  Damascene  Syria,  hired  by  Asa  king  of 
Judah  to  make  war  upon  Baasha  king  of 
Israel,  i  Kin.  15 :  18-22.  He  ravaged  a 
large  part  of  Naphtali.  From  i  Kin.  20:34 
it  appears  that  he  also  gained  some  advan- 
tages in  a  war  with  Omri  the  father  of 
Ahab. 

II.  Son  and  successor  of  the  preceding. 
In  2  successive  years  he  raised  large  ar- 
mies, and  made  war  upon  Ahab  king  of 
Israel.     He  was  utterly  routed,  by  the  aid 

65 


BEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


of  Jehovah,  God  of  the  hills  and  the  plains 
also,  I  Kin.  20.  Ahab  spared  him,  contrary 
to  the  command  of  God,  and  gave  him  con- 
ditions of  peace.  These  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  fulfilled;  for,  3  years  after,  Ahab 
renewed  the  war  and  was  slain,  i  Kin.  22. 
After  about  9  years,  Ben-hadad  again  in- 
vaded Israel,  and  the  prophet  Elisha  was 
instrumental  in  frustrating  his  plans,  2  Kin. 
6:8-23.  I^iit  once  more  renewing  the  war, 
he  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  and  reduced  it  to 
extremities  by  famine.  God  sent  a  sudden 
panic  upon  his  army  by  night,  and  they  fled 
precipitately,  2  Kin.  6:27;  7:6;  Prov.  28:1. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  Ben-hadad,  being 
sick,  sent  Hazael  to  ask  the  prophet  Eli- 
sha, then  at  Damascus,  what  the  issue 
would  be.  The  prophet  answered  that  the 
disease  was  not  mortal,  and  yet  he  would 
surely  die ;  a  paradox  which  Hazael  soon 
after  solved  by  stifling  his  master  in  bed, 
2  Kin.  8:7-15.    890  B.  C.    See  Hazael. 

in.  Son  of  the  Hazael  just  named.  His 
father  had  greatly  afflicted  and  oppressed 
Israel ;  but  he  lost  all  that  his  father  had 
gained,  being  thrice  defeated  by  king  Je- 
hoash,  2  Kin.  13;  Amos  1:4. 

BENJAMIN,  son  of  Ike  right  hand,  the 
youngest  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  Gen. 
35:16-18.  Rachel  died  immediately  after 
he  was  born,  near  Bethlehem,  about  1730 
B.  C,  and  with  her  last  breath  named  him 
Ben-oni,  son  of  my  sorrow ;  but  Jacob 
called  him  Benjamin.  He  was  a  great 
comfort  to  his  father,  who  saw  in  him  the 
beloved  wife  he  had  buried,  and  Joseph 
whose  loss  he  mourned.  He  could  hardly 
be  persuaded  to  let  him  go  with  his  breth- 
ren to  Egypt,  Gen.  42  ;  43.  The  tribe  of 
Benjamin  w-as  small  at  first,  and  was  almost 
exterminated  in  the  days  of  the  Judges, 
Judg.  20,  but  afterwards  greatly  increased, 
2  Chr.  14:8;  17:17.  It  was  valiant,  Gen. 
49:27,  and  "beloved  of  the  Lord,"  dwell- 
ing safely  by  him,  Deut.  33:12;  for  its  ter- 
ritory adjoined  Judah  and  the  Holy  City  on 
the  south — having  for  its  eastern  boundarj' 
the  Jordan,  Ephraim  on  the  north,  and  Dan 
on  the  west.  Bethel,  Gibeon,  Ramah,  and 
Jericho  were  some  of  its  chief  towns,  and 
Jerusalem  was  within  the  border  assigned 
to  it — which  contained  about  250  square 
miles.  At  the  revolt  of  the  10  tribes,  Ben- 
jamin adhered  to  Judah ;  and  the  2  tribes 
were  ever  closely  united,  i  Kin.  11:13; 
12:20;  Ezra  4:1;  10.9.  King  Saul  and  Saul 
of  Tarsus  were  both  Benjamites,  Phil.  3:5. 

BE'RA,  king  of  Sodom  in  the  days   of 
Abraham,  Gen.  14.     B.  C.  1913. 
66 


BERA'CHAH,  blessing,  a  beautiful  valley 
between  Tekoa  and  Etham,  where  Jehosh- 
aphat  and  all  Judah  held  a  thanksgiving 
for  their  miraculous  victory  over  the  Moa- 
bites  and  Ammonites,  2  Chr.  20:26.  It  is 
still  called  Bereikut. 

BERNI'CE,  or  Bkreni'ce,  bringing  vic- 
tory, eldest  daughter  of  king  Herod  Agrip- 
pa  I.,  and  sister  of  the  younger  Agrippa, 
Acts  25:13,  23;  26:30.  She  was  first  mar- 
ried to  her  uncle  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis; 
and  after  his  death,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
merited  suspicion  of  incest  with  her  bro- 
ther Agrippa,  she  became  the  wife  of  Pole- 
mon,  king  of  Cilicia.  This  connection 
being  soon  dissolved,  she  returned  to  her 
brother,  and  afterwards  became  mistress 
of  Vespasian  and  Titus. 

BERCE'A,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  not  far 
from  Fella,  towards  the  southwest,  and  near 
Mount  Bermius.  It  was  afterwards  called 
Irenopolis,  and  is  now  called  by  the  Turks 
Boor;  by  others,  CaraVeria.  Paul  preached 
the  gospel  here  with  success,  on  his  ist  vis- 
it to  Europe;  the  ingenuous  Beraeans  ex- 
amined his  doctrine  b\-  the  Old  Testament 
scriptures,  and  many  believed.  Acts  17:10, 
14;  20:4.     It  was  the  home  of  Sopater. 

BERO'THAI,  a  Syrian  town,  conquered 
by  David,  2  Sam.  8:8;  called  Chun  in  i  Chr. 
18:8.  Perhaps  the  same  as  Berothah,  which 
Furst  and  Mislin  find  in  the  modern  Bey- 
rout  ;  but  aside  from  the  name,  the  indica- 
tions point  to  an  inland  site,  or  two,  nearer 
Hamath  and  Damascus,  Ezek.  47:16. 

BER'YL,  the  name  of  a  precious  stone  of 
a  sea-green  color,  found  principally  in  In- 
dia, Exod.  28:20;  Dan.  10:6;  Rev.  21:20. 
The  stone,  however,  meant  in  these  passa- 
ges is  rather  the  yellow  topaz. 

BE'SOM,  a  broom.  Before  "the  besom 
of  destruction  "  the  hosts  of  God's  enemies 
are  like  the  dust  of  the  floor,  Isa.  14:23. 

BE'SOR,  cool,  a  brook  flowing  into  the 
Mediterranean  5  miles  south  of  Gaza,  pass- 
ing by  Aroer  and  Beer-sheba,  i  Sam.  30:9- 
21.     It  dries  up  in  spring. 

BESTEAD',  situated.  "  Hardly  bestead," 
brought  into  distress,  Isa.  8:21. 

BESTOW,  in  2  Kin.  5:24;  Luke  12:17, 
to  lay  a\vay  in  safety. 

BE'TAH,  confidence,  or  Tib'hath,  a  city 
of  Syria-Zobaii,  taken  by  David,  2  Sam. 
8:8;  i  Chr.  18:8;  perhaps  the  modern  Tai- 
beh,  between  Aleppo  and  Tadmor. 

BETH,  house,  found  in  many  names  of 
places:  sometimes  the  place  or  dwelling, 
and  at  others  the  temple.  It  becomes  Beit 
in  modern  Arabic. 


BETHANY. 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


BETH-AB'ARA,  place  of  the  ford,  on  the 
■east  bank  of  the  Jordan,  where  John  bap- 
tized, John  1 :28.  It  was  perhaps  the  same 
as  Beth-barah,  where  a  ford  was  seized  to 
intercept  the  Midianites  defeated  by  Gid- 
■eon,Judg.  7:24.  This,  however,  was  prob- 
ably in  the  region  of  Bethshean,  while 
Beth-abara  was  more  accessible  to  "Jeru- 
salem and  all  Judaea,"  perhaps  opposite 
the  north  end  of  the  plain  of  Jericho.  Many 
■of  the  best  Greek  manuscripts,  and  the 
Revised  Version,  have  Bethany,  also  un- 
known, instead  of  Beth-abara. 

BETH' ANY, />/«£•<?  of  dales,  a  village  beau- 
tifully situated  on  the  east  slope  of  Mount 
Olivet,  about  2  miles  east-southeast  of  Je- 
rusalem, on  the  road  to  Jericho.  It  was 
often  visited  by  Christ,  Matt.  21:17;  Mark 
11: 1,  12;  Luke  19:29.  Here  Martha  and 
Mary  dwelt,  and  Lazarus  was  raised  from 
the  dead,  John  11;  here  Mary  anointed 
the  Lord  against  the  day  of  his  burying, 
John  12;  hence  he  went  on  his  triumphal 
■entry  into  the  holy  city;  here  he  spent  sev- 
eral nights  of  the  memorable  week  of  his 
•death ;  and  from  the  midst  of  his  disciples, 
near  this  village  which  he  loved,  he  ascend- 
ed to  heaven,  Luke  24:50.  Scarcely  any 
place  in  that  land  has  witnessed  so  many 
scenes  of  tender  interest  to  the  Christian. 
Its  modern  name,  Aziriyeh,  is  derived  from 
Lazarus.    It  is  a  poor  village  of  20  families. 

BETH-AR'BEL,  probably  afterwards 
•called  Arbela,  now  Irbid.  One  Arbela  lay 
25  miles  southeast  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee; 
the  other,  now  Irbid,  was  in  Galilee,  near 
Magdala.  Here  were  some  large  and  al- 
most inaccessible  fortified  caverns,  in  the 
sides  of  precipices,  the  resort  of  robbers  in 
the  time  of  Herod,  who  could  only  be 
reached  by  letting  down  soldiers  in  large 
boxes  suspended  by  iron  chains.  Josephus 
afterwards  fortified  them  against  the  Ro- 
mans. Shalmaneser  seems  to  have  taken 
this  place  in  his  war  with  Hoshea,  Hos. 
10:14. 

BETH-A'VEN,  house  of  vanity,  or  idols, 
a  place  and  desert  near  Bethel  on  the  east, 
Josh.  7:2;  18:12;  I  Sam.  13:5;  14:23;  a 
name  reproachfully  used  at  times  for  Beth- 
el itself,  after  the  golden  calves  were  there 
set  up,  Hos.  4:15;  10:5:  Beth-el  meaning 
the  house  of  God. 

BETH-BA'RAH.     See  Beth-abara. 

BETH-CAR',  house  of  the  lamb,  in  Dan, 
-west  of  Mizpeh  ;  noted  for  the  defeat  of  the 
Philistines,  and  the  Eben-ezer  set  up  by 
Samuel,  i  Sam.  7:11. 

BETH-DA'GON,  temple  of  Dagon,  I.,  a 


place  in  the  lowland  of  Judiea,  towards 
Philistia,  Josh.  18:41. 

II.  In  Asher,  near  the  sea-coast,  between 
Dor  and  Mount  Carmel. 

Robinson  found  a  3d  a  few  miles  east 
of  Nablfis — traces  of  the  worship  of  Da- 
gon, apparently  left  by  Philistines,  i  Sam. 

13:5-7;  29:1;  31:1- 

BETH'EL,  house  of  God,  a  city  west  of 
Ai,  on  the  confines  of  the  tribes  of  Ephra- 
im  and  Benjamin,  Gen.  12:8;  28:10-22, 
on  the  spot  where  Jacob  slept  and  had 
his  memorable  dream,  the  name  he  then 
gave  it  superseding  the  old  name  Luz, 
Judg.  1:23.  Thirty  years  after,  he  again 
pitched  his  tent  there,  and  reconsecrated 
the  spot  in  fulfilment  of  his  vow,  building 
an  altar  and  a  pillar,  and  receiving  re- 
newed covenant  promises  from  God,  Gen. 
35:1-15;  Hos.  12:4,  5.  Here  also  he  buried 
Deborah.  It  was  captured  by  Joshua,  and 
given  to  Benjamin,  Josh.  12:9;  18:22.  The 
Ephraimites,  however,  expelled  the  Ca- 
naanites,  Judg.  1:22-26.  Here  the  ark  of 
the  covenant,  and  probably  the  tabernacle, 
long  remained,  Judg.  20:26;  i  Sam.  10:3. 
Samuel  held  his  court  here  in  turn,  i  Sam. 
7:16.  After  Solomon,  it  became  a  seat  of 
gross  idolatry:  Jeroboam  choosing  it  as 
the  place  for  one  of  his  golden  calves,  from 
the  sacredness  previously  attached  to  it, 
and  as  well  situated  to  intercept  those  who 
would  go  to  Jerusalem  to  worship,  i  Kin. 
12:20.  The  prophets  were  charged  with 
messages  against  Bethel,  i  Kin.  13:1,  2; 
Jer.  48:13;  Amos  3:14;  7:10.  The  ist  of 
these  was  fulfilled  by  Josiah,  2  Kin.  23:15; 
and  the  others  in  the  later  desolation  of 
Bethel,  where  nothing  but  ruins  can  now 
be  found.  Its  site  was  identified  by  Dr. 
Robinson,  in  the  place  now  called  Beitin. 
It  is  12  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  on  the 
southern  side  of  a  hill,  with  a  narrow  and 
fertile  valley  on  the  east,  and  the  long- 
travelled  road  on  the  west.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  hill  are  the  remains  of  a  vast  stone 
reservoir,  of  an  ancient  Hebrew  age.  See 
Beth-aven. 

BETHES'DA,  house  of  mercy,  a  pool  near 
the  temple  in  Jerusalem,  with  an  open 
building  over  or  near  it,  for  the  sick  who 
came  to  try  its  healing  efficacy,  John  5:2. 
Tradition  locates  this  pool  in  what  is  now 
a  large  dry  reservoir,  constructed  to  hold 
water — 360  feet  long,  130  wide,  and  over 
75  deep — along  the  outside  of  the  north 
wall  of  the  temple  area.  Robinson,  how- 
ever, shows  the  probability  that  this  is  but 
a  portion  of  the  trench  which  separated 

67 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


Mount  Moriah  from  the  adjacent  hill  on  the 
north.  He  suggests  that  the  true  Bethesda 
may  perhaps  be  "  The  Fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin,'' in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  S50  feet  south  of  the  temple 
area.  This  pool  is  of  great  antiquity,  and 
is  fed  from  ancient  reservoirs  under  the 
temple.  Two  flights  of  steps,  16  and  13  in 
number,  with  a  platform  of  12  feet  between 
them,  lead  down  to  the  pool ;  this  is  15  feet 
long,  and  5  or  6  feet  wide.  Its  waters  rise 
and  fall  at  irregular  intervals,  and  flow 
down  by  a  subterranean  channel  to  the 
pool  of  Siloam.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the 
"  king's  pool  "  of  Neh.  2 :  14.  Bethesda, 
even  if  known  and  accessible  to  us,  has 
lost  Its  healing  power ;  but  the  fountain 
Christ  has  opened  for  sin,  guilt,  and  death 
is  nigh  to  all  and  of  never-failing  virtue. 
John  5:4,  ascribing  the  troubling  of  the 
water  to  an  angel,  is  omitted  in  the  Revised 
Version,  as  an  interpolation.  See  Siloam. 
BETH-HAC'CEREM,  house  of  the  vine- 
yard, conjectured  to  be  the  Frank  Moun- 
tain, between  Tekoa  and  Bethlehem,  a 
height  on  which  a  beacon  was  to  be  set  up 
on  the  approach  of  the  Babylonians,  Neh. 
3:14;  Jer.  6:1.     This  is  a  solitary  conical 


hill,  on  which  the  Crusaders  had  a  strong; 
fortress. 

^^'XYi-'AOO'l^PM., partridge-house,  a  towa 
of  Benjamin,  on  the  border  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15:6;  18:19,  21;  now  Ain  Hajla,  3  miles, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  on  the  way 
to  Jericho.     See  .A.bel-mizr.\i.m. 

BETH-HO'RON,  house  of  the  hollow,  now 
Beit-ur,  the  name  common  to  2  towns  in 
the  northwest  corner  of  Benjamin,  still  dis- 
tinguished as  the  Upper  and  the  Lower, 
Josh.  10: 10,  II ;  16:3,5;  21:22;  iChr.  7:24. 
These  lay  on  2  ridges,  with  valleys  on  each, 
side ;  Beth-horon  the  Nether  being  separa- 
ted from  the  Upper  by  a  small  valley,  and 
a  rocky  and  rough  pass  up  the  ridge  on 
which  Upper  Beth-horon  stood,  about  12 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  usual 
route  to  the  sea-coast.  Down  this  pass- 
Joshua  drove  the  Amorites,  and  here  Paul 
passed  by  night  on  his  way  to  Antipatris, 
Josh.  10:1-11;  Acts  23:31,  32. 

BETH-JESH'IMOTH,  place  of  deserts,  a 
citj^  of  Reuben,  taken  from  the  Moabites, 
Num.  33:49;  Josh.  12:3;  13:20;  but  reta- 
ken by  them  after  the  captivity,  Ezek.  25:9. 
It  lay  not  far  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jor- 
dan. 


HKTHLEHE.Vl,    AS   IT    NOW    IS. 


BETH'LEHEM,  house  of  bread,  I.,  a  very 

old  and  celebrated  city,  the  birthplace  of 

David  and  of  Christ.    It  was  in  the  tribe  of 

Judah,  5  miles  south  by  west  of  Jerusalem, 

68 


in  a  fertile  region.  This  also  gave  it  its  an- 
cient name,  Ephrath,//-;^?'//)//,  Gen.  35:16; 
48:7;  Ruth  1:2;  Mic.  5:2.  It  was  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  east  end  of  an  oblong 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


ridge  a  mile  long,  running  east  and  west, 
2,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
affording  a  fine  view  in  every  direction. 
The  hills  around  it  were  terraced,  and 
■clothed  with  vines,  fig-trees,  and  almonds  ; 
-and  the  vallej's  bore  rich  crops  of  grain. 
It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:6, 
but  was  comparatively  an  unimportant 
place,  Mic.  5:1,  and  is  not  mentioned  by 
Joshua  or  Nehemiah  among  the  cities  of 
Judah.  Its  memory  is  delightfully  associ- 
ated with  the  names  of  Boaz  and  Ruth ;  it 
is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  and  city  of 
David,  I  Sam.  17:12,  15;  20:6;  2  Sam. 
23 :  14-17,  though  little  is  said  of  it  during 
his  reign,  and  it  is  seldom  mentioned  in 
later  Old  Testament  history,  2  Chr.  11:6; 
Ezra  2:21;  Neh.  7:26.  But  above  all,  it  is 
hallowed  as  the  place  where  the  Redeemer 
was  born.  Over  that  lovely  spot  the  gui- 
ding star  hovered  ;  there  the  Eastern  sages 
worshipped  the  King  of  kings,  and  there, 
where  David  watched  his  flock  and  praised 
God,  were  heard  the  songs  of  the  angelic 
host  at  the  Saviour's  birth,  Luke  2 : 8.  Beth- 
lehem is  now  called  Beit-lahm,  and  contains 
about  3,000  inhabitants,  almost  exclusively 
nominal  Greek  Christians.  In  the  eastern 
suburbs  stands  the  "  Church  of  the  Nativ- 
ity," adjoining  the  Latin  Convent,  and  said 
to  have  been  built  by  the  emperor  Justin- 
ian, on  the  site  of  Constantine's  earlier  and 
inferior  church.  Twenty  feet  beneath  it  is 
the  cave,  now  lined  with  Italian  marble, 
where  the  monks  show  you  the  very  spot 
where  Christ  was  born,  and  that  where  his 
manger  stood.  But  there  is  little  ground 
for  the  tradition ;  and  the  cave  is  a  deep 
and  steep  underground  vault,  and  too  dis- 
tant from  the  town.  The  "  well  of  Bethle- 
hem "  which  David  longed  for,  2  Sam. 
23:15,  is  "by  the  gate  "  on  the  south  side — 
a  cistern  of  sweet  water.  Haifa  mile  north 
is  the  spot  pointed  out  by  tradition  as 
Rachel's  tomb.  Gen.  35:16-20;  and  about  2 
miles  southwest  are  the  great  reservoirs 
described  under  Solomon's  Pools. 

II.  A  place  in  Zebulun,  Josh.  19: 15 ;  Judg. 
12:10,  in  distinction  from  which  the  city  of 
David  was  often  called  Bethlehem-Judah. 
It  is  now  a  miserable  village,  6  miles  west 
of  Nazareth. 

BETH-NIM'RAH,  house  of  sweet  water. 
Num.  32:3, 36;  Josh.  13:27,  and  Nimrim,  Isa. 
15:6;  Jer.  48:34;  a  fortified  town  in  Gad,  a 
little  east  of  the  Jordan,  on  a  water-course 
leading,  from  near  Ramoth-Gilead,  south- 
west into  that  river,  above  Jericho.  Its  lo- 
cation would  answer  well  for  Beth-abara. 


BETH-PE'OR,  temple  of  Peor,  a  town  of 
Moab,  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  opposite 
Jericho,  in  the  limits  assigned  to  Reuben, 
and  conquered  from  the  Amorites,  Josh. 
13:20.  It  was  infamous  for  the  worship  of 
Baal-Peor.  In  the  adjacent  valley  Moses 
rehearsed  the  law  to  Israel,  and  was  bur- 
ied, Deut.  4:44-46;  34:6. 

BETH'PHA-GE,  place  of  figs,  a  little  vil- 
lage on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  near  to  Bethany,  Matt.  21:1;  Mark 
11:1  ;   Luke  19:29. 

BETHSA'IDA,  place  of  fishing,  I.,  a  city 
in  Galilee,  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Lake 
of  Gennesareth,  a  little  north  of  Caperna- 
um ;  it  was  the  birthplace  of  the  apostles 
Philip,  Andrew,  and  Peter,  John  i :  44 ; 
12:21,  and  was  often  visited  by  our  Lord, 
Matt.  11:21;  Mark  6:45;  8:22.  Robinson 
locates  it  at  a  copious  fountain  less  than  a 
mile  north  of  Khan  Minyeh,  at  a  village 
called  Ain  Et-Tabighah. 

II.  A  city  in  Gaulonitis,  north  of  the  same 
lake,  and  east  of  the  Jordan.  Near  this 
place  Christ  fed  the  5,000,  John  6:3,  10.  It 
lay  on  a  gentle  hill  near  the  Jordan,  sep- 
arated from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  by  a  plain 

3  miles  wide,  of  surpassing  fertility,  Luke 
9:10.  Compare  Matt.  14:13-22;  Mark  6:31- 
45;  8:22.  This  town  was  enlarged  by  Phil- 
ip, tetrarch  of  that  region,  Luke  3:1,  and 
called  Julias  in  honor  of  Julia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Augustus.     It  is  now  little  but  ruins. 

BETH-SHE' AN,  or  Beth-SHAN,  house  oj 
rest,  afterwards  Scythopolis,  was  situated 
on  the  route  from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus, 

4  miles  west  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  e.xtrem- 
ity  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  an  arm  of  the 
great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  running  down 
from  it  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  It  stood  on  the 
brow,  just  where  the  former  valley  drops 
down  by  a  rather  steep  descent  to  the  level 
of  the  latter.  A  brook  flows  by  it,  from  the 
fountain  near  Jezreel,  alluded  to  in  i  Sam. 
29:1.  Beth-shean  was  assigned  to  Manas- 
seh,  though  not  at  once  subdued.  Josh. 
17:11,  16;  Judg.  1:27.  The  dead  body  of 
Saul  was  fastened  to  its  walls  by  the  Phil- 
istines, I  Sam.  31:10,  12;  2  Sam.  21:12; 
I  Kin.  4:12.  It  is  now  called  Beisan,  and 
is  about  24  miles  south  of  Tiberias.  It  con- 
tains 70  or  80  houses.  The  ruins  of  the 
ancient  city  show  it  to  have  been  nearly  3 
miles  in  circuit. 

BETH-SHE'MESH,  house  of  the  sun,  I., 
a  city  of  Judah  given  to  the  priests.  Josh. 
21:16;  I  Chr.  6:59;  I  Sam.  6:15.  It  lay  15 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  border 

69 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIB 


of  Dan  and  of  the  Philistines,  Josh.  15:10; 

1  Sam.  6:12;  2  Chr.  28:18.  Probably  the 
same  as  Ir-shemesh,  Josh.  19:41.  It  is 
memorable  for  a  battle  between  Judah  and 
Israel,   in   which    Amaziah   was   defeated, 

2  Kin.  14:12-14;  and  for  the  return  of  the 
ark  from  Ekron  by  the  Philistines,  and  the 
punishment  of  those  who  then  profaned  it, 
I  Sam.  6.  Some  commentators  suppose  the 
numbers  in  verse  19  should  be  translated 
"threescore  and  ten  men,  even  fifty  out  of 
one  thousand,"  or  i  in  20  of  the  men  of 
the  city.  Its  site  is  identified,  and  is  now 
called  'Ain-Shems. 

II.  A  celebrated  city  in  Egypt,  Jer.  43:13. 
See  Helioi'olis. 

There  were  also  2  other  towns  of  this 
name,  in  Issachar  and  Naphtali,  Josh. 
19:22,38,  suggesting  the  widespread  wor- 
ship of  the  sun  by  the  Canaanites. 

BETH-SHIT'TAH,  home  of  the  acacia, 
near  the  Jordan  ;  site  not  identified,  Judg. 
7:22. 

BETH-TAP'PUAH,  place  of  apples,  in  Ju- 
dah, near  Hebron,  Josh.  15:53;  i  Chr.  2:43; 
now  Tefiuh,  5  miles  west  of  Hebron. 

BETHU'EL,  man  of  God,  son  of  Abra- 
ham's brother  Nahor,  and  father  of  Laban 
and  Rebekah,  Gen.  22:22,  23;  24:50. 

BETH-ZUR',  house  of  rock,  a  city  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judah,  near  Hebron,  Josh. 
15:58.  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr. 
11:7,  and  assisted  in  rebuilding  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  3:1-6.  It  was  famous  in  the  wars  of 
the  Maccabees.  Josepiius  calls  it  one  of 
the  strongest  fortresses  in  Judaea;  and  its 
site  has  been  identified  by  Robinson  at 
Beit-siir,  a  height  commanding  the  road 
from  Hebron  and  the  south  to  Jerusalem. 

BETROTH'ING,  the  engagement  of  a  man 
and  woman  to  marry  each  other  at  a  future 
time.  Parents  anciently  often  betrothed 
their  daughters  without  their  consent,  and 
even  while  very  young,  as  is  still  the  case 
in  Oriental  countries.  Sometimes  a  writ- 
ten contract  was  made,  in  which  the  bride- 
groom bound  himself  to  give  a  certain  sum 
as  a  portion  to  his  bride.  The  marriage 
was  not  completed  until  the  bride  was  at 
least  12  years  old;  j'et  the  betrothal  could 
be  dissolved  only  by  divorce  or  death, 
Matt.  1:18-25;  Luke  1:27.  God  speaks  of 
betrothing  his  people  to  himself  in  tender 
affection,  and  ])ledging  his  word  that  all 
his  gracious  promises  shall  be  fulfilled  to 
them,  Jer.  2:2;  Hos.  2:19,  20.  Of  this,  min- 
isters are  the  instruments,  through  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  2  Cor.  11:2.  Hence 
the  following  word, 
70 


BEU'LAH,  married,  a  term  applied  to  the 
Israel  of  God,  in  Isa.  62:4,  to  signify  his 
intimate  and  vital  union  with  them. 

BEWRAY',  disclose,  Prov.  27:16;  Matt. 
26:73;  or  betray,  Isa.  16:3. 

BEZAL'E-EL,  in  the  shadow  of  God,  an. 
artificer  endued  by  God  with  special  skill 
for  constructing  and  adorning  the  taberna- 
cle, Exod.  31 :2  ;  35:30.  Aholiab,  employed 
under  his  direction,  was  specially  skilful  ia 
all  textile  fabrics,  as  Bazaleel  was  in  met- 
als, wood,  and  stone,  Exod.  37:1  to  38:23. 

BE'ZEK,  lightning,  a  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites, of  which  Adoni-bezek  was  king.  The 
account  of  its  capture  by  Judah  is  in  Judg. 
1 : 1-8.  Here  Saul  reviewed  his  forces  be- 
fore going  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jabesh-Gil- 
ead,  I  Sam.  11:8;  though  the  natural  un- 
derstanding of  this  narrative  would  imply 
another  Bezek,  nearer  to  Jabesh-Gilead. 

BE'ZER,  gold  ore,  a  city  of  refuge,  in  the 
plain  country  of  Reuben  beyond  Jordan. 
Its  exact  site  is  not  known,  Deut.  4:43;. 
Josh.  20:8;  21:36. 

BIBLE,  the  Book,  by  way  of  distinction. 
The  book  of  all  books.  It  is  also  called 
Scripture,  or  The  Scriptures,  that  is,  the 
writings.  Acts  8:32;  2  Tim.  3:16.  It  com- 
prises the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  or 
more  properly.  Covenants,  Exod.  24  :  7  ; 
Matt.  26:28.  The  former  was  written  most- 
ly in  Hebrew,  and  was  the  Bible  of  the  an- 
cient Jewish  Church ;  a  few  chapters  of 
Daniel  and  Ezra  only  were  written  in  Chal- 
dee.  The  latter  was  wholly  written  in 
Greek,  which  was  the  language  most  gen- 
erally understood  in  Juda;a  and  the  adja- 
cent countries  first  visited  by  the  gospel. 
The  entire  Bible  is  the  rule  of  faith  to  all 
Christians,  and  not  the  New  Testament 
alone ;  though  this  is  of  especial  value  as- 
unfolding  the  history  and  doctrines  of  our 
divine  Redeemer,  and  his  holy  institu- 
tions. The  fact  that  God  gave  the  inspired 
writings  to  men  in  the  languages  most 
familiar  to  the  mass  of  the  people  who  re- 
ceived them,  proves  tliat  he  intended  they 
should  be  read  not  by  the  learned  alone, 
but  by  all  the  people,  and  in  their  own 
spoken  language. 

The  Old  Testament  contains  39  books. 
Josephus  and  the  church  fathers  mention  a 
division  into  22  books,  corresponding  with 
the  22  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
But  we  have  no  sufficient  evidence  that 
such  a  division  prevailed  among  the  Jews 
themselves.  They  arranged  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  3  divisions,  called, 
the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms  cr 


BIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIB 


Writings,  that  is,  the  Holy  Writings,  Matt. 
11:13;  Luke  24:44.  The  Law  embraces 
the  5  books  of  Moses.  These  are  divided 
into  convenient  sections  to  be  read  through 
once  a  j'ear  in  their  synagogues.  The  2d 
division,  the  Prophets,  is  subdivided  into 
the  ybrmer  prophets,  namely,  the  liistori- 
cal  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings ;  and  the  /aier,  that  is,  the  prophets 
proper,  with  the  exception  of  the  book  of 
Daniel.  The  later  prophets  are  once  more 
distributed  into  the  greater — Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah (not  including  Lamentations),  and 
Ezekiel ;  and  the  less — the  12  minor  proph- 
ets. Selections  from  both  the  earlier  and 
the  later  prophets  are  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues along  with  the  sections  of  the  Law ; 
but  these  do  not  embrace  the  whole  of  the 
prophets,  and  the  arrangement  of  them  dif- 
fers among  different  divisions  of  the  Jews. 
The  Holy  Writings  (Hagiographa)  em- 
brace all  the  remaining  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  namely  (according  to  the  Ma- 
soretic  arrangement),  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Job,  Solomon's  Song,  Ruth,  Lamentations, 
Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah.  Chronicles.  In  the  arrangement  of 
the  Old  Testament  books  now  prevalent, 
the  historical  books  come  first,  then  the 
devotional  and  didactic,  and  lastly  the  pro- 
phetical. The  Jews  ascribe  to  Ezra  the 
honor  of  arranging  and  completing  the 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament  books,  being 
inspired  for  this  work  by  the  Spirit  of  God, 
and  aided  by  Nehemiah  and  other  learned 
and  pious  Jews  of  his  day.  The  New  Tes- 
tament writings,  27  in  number,  were  re- 
ceived each  one  by  itself  from  the  hands  of 
the  apostles,  and  w.ere,  as  their  inspired 
works,  gradually  collected  into  i  volume 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 

The  division  into  chapters  and  verses 
was  not  made  until  comparatively  modern 
times,  though  there  appears  to  have  been  a 
more  ancient  separation  into  short  sections 
or  paragraphs.  The  chapters  now  used 
were  arranged  probably  by  Cardinal  Hugo, 
about  the  year  1240.  The  division  into 
verses  was  made  in  the  Old  Testament  in 
1450,  and  recognized  in  the  Hebrew  Con- 
cordance of  Rabbi  Nathan.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  verses  of  the  New  Testament 
as  we  now  have  them  was  perfected  in  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  an  edition  of  which  with 
verses  was  published  by  Robert  Stephens, 
a  learned  French  printer,  in  1551.  He  also 
modified  and  completed  the  division  of  the 
Old  Testament  into  verses,  in  an  edition  of 
the  whole  Bible,  the  Vulgate,  in  1555.    This 


division  into  verses,  and  even  into  chap- 
ters, having  regard  more  to  convenience  of 
reference  than  to  the  meaning,  must  oftei* 
be  disregarded  in  reading  in  order  to  get 
the  true  sense. 

The  genuineness,  authenticity,  and  di- 
vine origin  of  the  Scriptures  cannot  be 
here  discussed.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
the  treatises  of  Bogue,  Gregory,  Keith, 
Mcllvaine,  Nelson,  Spring,  Garbett,  Bar- 
rows, Christlieb,  Tischendorf,  etc.,  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Tract  Society. 

The  first  well-known  English  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  was  that  of  Wick- 
liflfe,  made  about  1370,  before  the  invention 
of  printing,  though  others  had  been  made, 
one  as  early  as  king  Alfred,  of  parts  of  the 
Bible  into  Saxon.  In  the  time  of  Edward 
I.,  1250,  it  required  the  earnings  of  a  day- 
laborer  for  15  years  to  purchase  a  manu- 
script copy  of  the  entire  Bible.  Now,  a 
printed  copy  may  be  had  for  the  earnings 
of  a  few  hours.  The  first  printed  English 
Testament  was  that  of  Tyndale,  in  1526, 
which  was  afterwards  followed  by  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch.  The  first  com- 
plete English  Bible  is  that  of  Miles  Cover- 
dale,  in  1535,  printed  probably  at  Antwerp. 
Matthew's  Bible — so  called,  but  supposed 
to  be  the  work,  or  compilation  chiefly,  of 
John  Rogers  the  martyr — appeared  in  1537. 
Whittingham  and  some  other  prelates,  who 
resided  at  Geneva  during  the  bloody  reign 
of  Mary,  published  there  another  edition 
in  1560,  hence  called  the  Geneva  Bible.  At 
the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth,  a  new 
revision  was  made,  which  appeared  in  1568, 
and  is  called  the  Bishops'  Bible.  This  con- 
tinued in  use  till  our  present  English  ver- 
sion, made  by  order  of  James  I.,  was  pub- 
lished in  161 1.  The  first  copy  of  this  was 
made  by  47  of  the  most  learned  men  in 
England,  divided  into  6  companies.  This 
copy  was  then  revised  by  a  committee  of 
12,  or  2  from  each  of  the  6  companies; 
and  then  again  by  2  others.  The  work  of 
translation  and  revision  occupied  between 
4  and  5  years;  and  the  faithful,  clear,  and 
vigorous  standard  Bible  thus  secured  is  an 
enduring  monument  of  the  learning,  wis- 
dom, and  fidelity  of  the  translators. 

The  zeal  of  Protestants  in  circulating 
Bibles  in  English  compelled  the  Romanists 
to  have  somewhat  to  show  ;  and  they  issued 
a  version  of  the  New  Testament  at  Rheims 
in  1582,  and  of  the  Old  Testament  at  Douay 
in  1609.  Their  present  Bible,  on  the  basis 
of  the  Douay  version,  adopts  largely  the 
language  of  king  James'  Bible,  but  is  in 


BIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIR 


the  main  a  reproduction  of  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate. 

The  hew  Anglo-American  revised  ver- 
sion (R.  V.  in  this  volume)  was  the  work  of 
a  Committee  of  eminent  British  scholars  of 
the  Church  of  England,  appointed  bj^  the 
Convocation  of  Canterbury  in  May,  1870, 
and  an  associate  Committee  of  American 
scholars  organized  in  1871.  There  were 
some  80  active  members  in  all.  The  object 
was,  not  to  make  a  new  translation,  but  to 
improve  the  Authorized  Version  by  remov- 
ing errors  and  solecisms,  and  by  embody- 
ing the  best  results  of  all  the  Biblical  stud- 
ies since  161 1,  and  the  verifications  of  the 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  now 
brought  so  near  to  perfection.  The  New 
Testament  appeared  in  1881,  and  was  ea- 
gerly hailed  by  all  classes  in  Christendom. 
It  is  acknowledged  by  scholars  as  a  great 
advance  towards  a  perfect  version  of  the 
Word  of  God.  A  large  part  of  its  changes 
were  anticipated  by  learned  men,  and 
many  more  are  fully  approved,  while  not 
a  few  blemishes  remain.  It  is  as  yet  too 
early  to  judge  whether  it  will  in  its  present 
form  supersede  the  familiar  and  beloved 
Authorized  \'ersion  in  the  hearts  and 
homes  of  the  people.  The  Revised  Ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  is  now  in  press. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  movements 
of  modern  times,  and  that  which  holds  out 
the  greatest  promise  of  good  for  the  com- 
ing triumphs  of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom, 
and  the  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  future  generations,  is  the  mighty 
effort  which  is  inaking  to  circulate  the 
holy  Scriptures,  not  only  in  Christian,  but 
also  in  heathen  lands.  In  the  year  1804, 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was 
formed ;  and  the  success  which  has  attend- 
ed its  labors  has  by  far  exceeded  the  most 
sanguine  expectations  of  its  founders  and 
supporters.  "  Their  voice  has  gone  out 
through  all  the  earth,  and  their  words  to 
the  end  of  the  world."  During  the  first  80 
years  of  this  society,  it  printed  or  assisted 
in  printing  the  Scriptures  in  240  languages 
or  dialects,  in  many  of  which  they  had  never 
before  been  printed,  and  issued  upwards 
of  100,000,000  copies  of  the  sacred  writings, 
in  whole  or  in  part.  Other  similar  associa- 
tions have  followed  nobly  this  glorious  ex- 
ample; and  of  these  none  has  labored  with 
more  effect  than  the  American  Bible  Soci- 
ety, which  was  formed  in  1816,  and  has 
now,  1886,  issued  over  46,000,000  Bibles, 
New  Testaments,  and  Portions.  In  all 
languages  and  by  all  known  organized 
72 


Bible  Societies,  over  190,000,000  have  been 
issued  since  1804. 

BIER.    See  Burial. 

BIG'THAN,  fortune-gii'en,  a  eunuch  or 
chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus, 
whose  conspiracy  against  that  king  was 
frustrated  by  the  vigilance  of  Mordecai, 
Esth.  2:21 ;  6:2.     About  455  B.  C. 

BIL'DAD,  son  of  strife,  a  descendant  of 
Abraham  bj'  Keturah,  Gen.  25:1,  2.  Shuah 
and  his  brethren  were  located  in  Arabia 
Petraea ;  and  thus  Bildad  the  Shuhite  was 
a  neighbor  and  friend  of  Job,  and  came  to 
condole  with  him  in  his  affliction.  Job  2:11 ; 
8;  18;  25.  His  chief  topics  are  the  sudden- 
ness, swiftness,  and  terribleness  of  God's 
wrath  upon  hypocrites  and  oppressors. 

BIL'HAH,  fallerhiff,  the  handmaid  of 
Rachel,  given  by  her  to  her  husband  Jacob 
when  herself  childless,  that  she  might  be- 
come a  mother  through  her  handmaid. 
Bilhah  was  the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naph- 
tali,  Gen.  30:1-8.     See  Reuben. 

BIRDS,  like  other  animals,  were  divided 
by  Moses  into  clean  and  unclean;  the  for- 
mer might  be  eaten,  the  latter  not.  The 
general  ground  of  distinction  is,  that  those 
which  feed  on  grain  or  seeds  are  clean ; 
while  those  which  devour  flesh,  fish,  or 
carrion  are  unclean.  Turtle-doves,  A'oung 
pigeons,  and  perhaps  some  other  kinds  of 
birds,  were  prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  law 
as  offerings,  Lev.  5:7-10;  14:4-7;  Luke 
2:24. 

There  is  great  difficulty  in  accurately 
determining  the  different  species  of  birds 
prohibited  in  Lev.  11:13-19;  Deut.  14:11- 
20,  and  the  proper  version  of  the  Hebrew 
names.  The  information  we  have  respect- 
ing them  may  be  found  under  the  names 
by  which  they  are  translated  in  our  Bible. 

Moses,  to  inculcate  humanity  on  the 
Israelites,  ordered  them,  if  they  found  a 
bird's  nest,  not  to  take  the  dam  with  the 
young,  but  to  suffer  the  old  one  to  fly  away, 
and  to  take  the  young  only,  Deut.  22:6,  7; 
and  in  Psa.  84:3  there  is  an  affecting  allu- 
sion to  the  safety  and  happiness  of  the 
birds  who  built  their  nests  within  the  tem- 
ple courts,  thus  putting  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  God. 

Cages  for  singing-birds  are  alluded  to  in 
Jer.  5:27;  snares  in  Prov.  7:23  ;  Eccl.  9:12  ; 
and  migration  in  Jer.  8:7.  Birds  of  prey 
are  emblems  of  destroying  hosts,  Isa.  46 : 1 1 : 
Jer.  12:9;  Ezek.  32:4;  Rev.  19:17-19;  and 
the  Lord  comes  to  the  defence  of  his  peo- 
ple with  the  swiftness  of  the  eagle,  Isa. 
31:5- 


BIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BLA 


BIRTH.     See  Children. 

BIRTH'DAY.  The  anniversary  of  one's 
birth  was  celebrated  in  very  early  times, 
Gen.  40:20;  Job  1:4,  13,  18,  and  often  with 
no  little  pomp.  There  is  no  mention,  how- 
-ever,  of  such  celebrations  among  the  Jews, 
-except  in  Herod's  case.  Matt.  14:6;  and 
this  may  have  been  partly  in  honor  of  his 
accession.    See  Hos.  7:5. 

BIRTH'RIGHT,  the  privilege  of  the  first- 
born son.  Among  the  Hebrews,  as  indeed 
among  most  other  nations,  the  firstborn 
enjoyed  special  privileges;  and  wherever 
polygamy  was  tolerated,  it  Avas  highly  ne- 
cessary to  fix  them,  Deut.  21 :  15-17.  Besides 
the  father's  chief  blessing.  Gen.  27,  and  va- 
rious minor  advantages,  the  firstborn  son 
■was,  first,  specially  consecrated  to  the  Lord, 
Ex.  13:11-16;  22:29:  and  the  firstborn  son 
■of  a  high  priest  was  to  succeed  his  father 
In  that  office.  Among  the  sons  of  Jacob, 
Reuben  the  firstborn  forfeited  this  right  of 
the  firstborn,  Gen.  35:22;  49:3,  4,  and  God 
gave  it  to  Levi,  Num.  3:12,  13;  8:18.  Sec- 
ondly, the  firstborn  was  entitled  to  a  share 
■of  his  father's  estate  twice  as  large  as  any 
of  the  other  brethren  received,  Deut.  21 :  17. 
Compare  Elisha's  request  of  the  departing 
Elijah,  2  Kin.  2:9.  Thirdly,  he  succeeded 
to  the  official  dignities  and  rights  of  his 
father,  2  Chr.  21 :3.  In  some  of  these  priv- 
ileges there  is  an  allusion  to  Him  who  is 
■"  the  firstborn  among  manj^  brethren," 
Rom.  8:29;  Col.  1:18;  Heb.  1:2-6.  Uni- 
versal dominion  is  His,  and  an  everlasting 
priesthood.    See  Firstborn. 

BISH'OP,  overseer,  one  who  has  the 
charge  and  direction  of  anything.  The 
most  common  acceptation  of  the  word 
■episcopos  in  the  New  Testament  is  that 
which  occurs  in  Acts  20:28;  Phil.  1:1, 
where  it  signifies  the  pastor  of  a  church, 
and  is  equivalent  to  presbiileros,  presbyter 
or  elder,  i  Tim.  5:17;  i  Pet.  5:1,  2.  Peter 
calls  Jesus  Christ  "the  Shepherd  and  Bish- 
op of  your  souls,"  i  Pet.  2:25.  Paul  de- 
scribes the  qualities  requisite  in  bishops, 
I  Tim.  3:2;  Tit.  1:5,  7,  etc. ;  Christ  himself 
is  their  great  exemplar. 

BITHI'AH,  daughter  of  the  Lord,  daugh- 
ter of  a  Pharaoh,  married  to  Mered,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  4: 18. 

BITH'RON,  ravine,  the  region  between 
Mahanaim  and  the  Jordan,  with  a  narrow 
valley  running  down  to  a  ford,  2  Sam. 
2:29. 

BITHYN'IA,  I  Pet.  1:1,  a  province  in  the 
northern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea,  having  Paphlagonia  on 
4 


the  east,  Phrygia  and  Galatia  on  the  south, 
and  Mysia  on  the  southwest.  It  was  di- 
rectly opposite  to  Constantinople.  It  is 
famous  as  being  one  of  the  provinces  to 
which  the  apostle  Peter  addressed  his  ist 
epistle ;  also  as  having  been  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Pliny,  who,  in  a  letter  to  the 
emperor  Trajan,  makes  honorable  mention 
of  the  number,  character,  and  customs  of 
the  persecuted  Christians  there,  about  A.  D. 
106;  also  for  the  holding  of  the  most  cele- 
brated council  of  the  Christian  church  in 
the  city  of  Nicaea,  its  metropolis,  about 
A.  D.  325.  When  Paul  attempted  to  go 
into  Bithynia,  the  Spirit  suffered  him  not, 
Acts  16:7. 


BIT'TERN,  a  fowl  about  the  size  of  a 
heron,  and  of  the  same  genus.  Nineveh 
and  Babylon  become  a  possession  for  "  the 
bittern"  and  other  wild  birds,  Isa.  14:23; 
34:11;  Zeph.  2:14.  It  is  found  among  the 
marshes  of  Western  Asia,  resorting  to  ru- 
ined buildings,  and  uttering  a  peculiar 
harsh  cry  before  and  after  its  evening  flight. 
The  R.V.  reads  "porcupine,"  for  "bittern." 

BITU'MEN.    See  Pitch. 

BLACK,  a  symbol  of  affliction  and  gloom, 
Job  30:30;  Jer.  14:2. 

BLAINS,  Exod.  9:8-10,  burning  ulcerous 
eruptions,  miraculously  caused  by  the 
ashes  which  Moses  threw  up  among  the 
Egyptians.  It  was  the  6th  plague,  and  is 
called  in  Deut.  28:27,  35,  "the  botch  of 
Egypt,"    perhaps    the   black    leprosy.      If 

73 


BLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BLI 


these  ashes  came  from  the  brick-kihis 
where  the  Hebrews  had  toiled,  tlie  pains 
whicli  the  Egyptians  suffered  would  natu- 
rally remind  them  of  those  which  they  had 
inflicted. 

BLASPHEMY.  A  man  is  guilty  of  blas- 
phemy when  he  speaks  of  God,  or  his  at- 
tributes, injuriously;  when  he  calumnious- 
ly  ascribes  such  qualities  to  Him  as  do  not 
belong  to  Him,  or  robs  Him  of  those  which 
do,  Psa.  74:18;  Isa.  52:5;  Rom.  2:24.  The 
law  sentenced  blasphemers  to  death  by 
stoning.  Lev.  24:12-16;  and  on  this  charge 
both  Christ  and  Stephen  were  condemned. 
In  a  lower  sense,  men  are  said  to  be  blas- 
phemed when  abused  by  calumnious  and 
reviling  words,  i  Kin.  21:10;  Acts  6:11. 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Matt.  12:31,  32;  Mark  3:28;  Luke  12:10. 
This  sin  was  committed  by  the  Pharisees 
when  they,  in  violation  of  their  own  con- 
victions, wilfully  and  maliciously  ascribed 
the  miracles  of  the  Son  of  God  and  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  evil  one.  It 
is  often  inquired  whether  this  was  the  "sin 
unto  death"  spoken  of  i  John  5:16,  and 
whether  it  is  committed  in  these  days. 
However  these  questions  may  be  answered, 
certain  it  is  that  when  one  can  ridicule  re- 
ligion and  its  ordinances,  when  he  can 
make  sport  of  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  human  heart,  when  he  can  persist 
in  a  wilful  disbelief  of  the  gospel,  and  cast 
contempt  upon  Christianity  and  "the  min- 
istration of  the  Spirit,"  he  is  going  to  a 
fearful  e.xtremitj^  of  guilt,  and  provoking 
the  final  withdrawment  of  divine  grace. 
While  on  the  other  hand  the  vilest  blas- 
phemer, who  feels  the  relentings  of  godly 
sorrow  for  his  sins,  and  the  desire  to  con- 
fess them  at  the  Saviour's  feet,  may  be  sure 
of  realizing  the  truth  of  Christ's  word, 
"  Him  that  cometh  unto  me  I  will  in  no 
wise  cast  out." 

BLAST'ING.     See  Winds. 

BLAS'TUS.  sprotit,  a  chamberlain  of  Her- 
od Agrippa,  bribed  to  favor  the  men  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  Acts  12:20. 

BLEM'ISHES,  imperfections  or  deformi- 
ties which  unfitted  men  for  the  priesthood, 
and  animals  for  sacrifice,  enumerated  in 
Lev.  21 :  18-20;  22:20-24.  The  great  High- 
priest  of  our  profession  offered  himself 
without  s])ot  to  God. 

BLESS'ING.  When  God  blesses,  he  be- 
stows that  efficacy  which  renders  his  bless- 
ing efifectual.  His  blessings  are  either  tem- 
poral or  spiritual,  bodily  or  mental ;  but  in 
ever\-thing  they  really  convey  the  good 
74 


which  they  import.  Num.  6:23-27.  The 
blessings  of  men  to  other  men,  unless  they 
be  inspired  prophecies,  as  in  Gen.  32;  49; 
Deut.  2>l>  or  official  benedictions,  Num. 
6:23-27;  Deut.  21:5,  are  only  good  wishes^ 
and  as  it  were  a  prayer  to  the  Author  of  all 
good  for  the  welfare  of  the  subjects  of  them. 
Blessing,  on  the  part  of  man  towards  God, 
is  an  act  of  adoring  praise,  or  thanksgiving 
for  all  his  mercies,  Psa.  103:1,  or  for  some 
special  mercy— as  for  food,  for  which  thanks, 
are  rendered  to  God,  or  for  any  other  good, 
Psa.  116:13;  I  Cor.  10:16.  See  Saluta- 
tion. 

BLIND'NESS.  This  distressing  malady 
is  very  prevalent  in  the  East,  where  many 
physical  causes  unite  to  injure  the  eyes  : 
the  sun  is  hot,  and  in  the  atmosphere  floats 
a  very  fine  dust,  which  enters  and  frets  the 
eye ;  insects  also  are  very  numerous,  and 
both  foster  and  convey  eye-maladies.  The 
armies  of  France  and  England,  while  in 
Egypt,  suffered  severely  from  ophthalmic 
diseases.  Blindness  is  perpetuated  as  a 
contagious  disease  by  the  filthy  habits  of 
the  natives.  It  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
also  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  one-tenth  of  the 
population  of  Jaffa  having  lost  one  eye  or 
both.  In  ancient  times,  the  eyes  of  persons 
hated  or  feared  were  often  torn  out,  Judg. 
16:21;  I  Sam.  11:2;  2  Kin.  25:7.  Blind- 
ness was  sometimes  inflicted  as  a  punish- 
ment. Gen.  19:11;  Acts  13:11;  was  often 
threatened  as  a  penalty,  Deut.  28:28;  and 
was  sometimes  miraculously  sent,  and  re- 
moved, 2  Kin.  6:18-20;  Acts  9:9,  18.  The 
Jews  were  enjoined  by  the  humane  laws  of 
Moses  to  show  all  kindness  and  considera- 
tion to  the  blind.  Lev.  19:14;  Deut.  27:18. 
No  one  affected  with  this  infirmity  could 
officiate  as  priest.  Lev.  21:18. 

Our  Saviour  miraculously  cured  many- 
cases  of  blindness,  both  that  caused  bj'^ 
disease  and  that  which  had  e.xisted  from 
birth.  In  these  latter  cases  there  was  a 
double  miracle;  for  not  only  was  the  or- 
gan of  sight  restored,  but  also  the  faculty 
of  using  it,  which  is  usually  gained  only  by 
long  experience,  Mark  8:22-25.  The  an- 
ointing with  clay,  Matt.  9:29;  John  9:6, 
cannot  have  had  any  healing  effi?ct.  The 
healing  was  wholly  miraculous,  Christ  first 
imparting  faith  in  his  divine  power  and 
love,  and  then  enabling  the  sightless  orbs 
to  struggle  into  vision  in  their  eagerness 
to  behold  the  Lord. 

"  Blindness  "  is  often  used  for  ignorance 
and  error,  especially  our  sinful  want  of 
discernment    as   to   spiritual    things,   Isa. 


BLO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BOA 


42:18-20;  Matt.  15:14;  2  Cor.  4:4.  The 
abuse  of  God's  mercy  increases  this  bhnd- 
ness,  John  12:40.  Blessed  are  the  eyes 
that  find  their  sight  in  striving  to  behold 
the  Redeemer. 

BLOOD.  The  life  of  all  animals  was  re- 
garded as  especially  in  the  blood,  Gen.  9:4; 
Deut.  12:23,  which  was  hence  a  sacred  and 
essential  part  of  the  sacrifices  offered  to 
God,  Heb.  9:22.  It  was  solemnly  sprin- 
kled upon  the  altar  and  the  mercy-seat, 
"  for  it  is  the  blood  that  maketh  atonement 
for  the  soul,"  Lev.  17 — the  life  of  the  vic- 
tim for  the  life  of  the  sinner.  It  was  there- 
fore most  sacredly  associated  with  the 
blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  "  clean- 
seth  us  from  all  sin,"  John  19:34;  Eph.  1:7; 

1  John  I  :■].  This  is  the  blood  shed  on  Cal- 
vary to  ratify  and  seal  Christ's  covenant 
for  the  redemption  of  sinners,  Matt.  26:28; 
Heb.  13:20.  See  Coven.\nt.  Hence  the 
strict  prohibition  of  the  Israelites  to  eat 
blood,  or  any  meat  in  which  blood  re- 
mained ;  a  prohibition  renewed  in  Acts 
15:29.  In  direct  opposition  to  this  are  the 
heathen  customs  of  drinking  the  blood  of 
animals  and  even  of  men — of  eating  raw 
flesh,  with  the  blood,  and  even  fresh  cut 
from  the  living  animal,  i  Sam.  14:32;  Psa. 
16:4;  Ezek.  33:25. 

Besides  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word 
blood,  it  often  signifies  the  guilt  of  murder, 

2  Sam.  3:28;  Matt.  27:25;  also  relationship 
or  consanguinity.  "  Not  of  blood,"  in  John 
1:13,  means,  not  by  virtue  of  descent  from 
Abraham,  or  any  pious  ancestry.  "  Flesh 
and  blood  "  are  placed  in  contrast  with  a 
spiritual  nature,  Matt.  16:17,  the  glorified 
body,  I  Cor.  15:50,  and  evil  spirits,  Eph. 
6:12.  The  cause  "between  blood  and 
blood,"  Deut.  17:8,  was  one  where  life  was 
depending  on  the  judgment  rendered. 

BLOOD-AVEN'GER.  The  sacredness  of 
human  life,  and  the  justice  of  punishing  a 
murderer  by  death,  are  grounded  on  the 
fact  that  man  was  made  in  the  image  of 
God,  Gen.  9 : 6.  Among  the  Arabs,  the  near- 
est male  relative  of  a  murdered  person 
was  to  pursue  the  homicide  until  by  force 
or  craft  he  put  him  to  death.  The  law  of 
Moses  expressly  forbade  the  acceptance  of 
any  ransom  for  a  life  forfeited  to  justice  by 
taking  the  life  of  another.  Num.  35:31 ;  but 
it  interfered  between  an  accused  person 
and  his  pursuer,  by  providing  a  sanctu- 
ary— at  the  altar  of  God  and  in  the  6  cities 
of  refuge — where  the  accused  might  be  safe 
until  it  was  proved  that  he  had  committed 
the  act  wilfully  or  accidentally,  Josh.  20:6, 


9.  In  the  former  case,  he  was  at  once 
given  up  to  his  pursuer  for  death,  E.xod. 
21:14;  I  l^ii^-  2:29,  34.  In  the  latter  case, 
he  might  dwell  with  safety  in  the  city  of 
refuge ;  but  should  he  go  elsewhere  before 
the  death  of  the  high-priest,  he  was  liable 
to  be  slain  by  the  avenger  of  blood,  Num. 
35:25-28.    See  Refuge. 

The  "  issue  of  blood  "  was  often  a  chronic 
disease,  Luke  8:43  ;  and  the  "  bloody  flux," 
in  Acts  28:8,  was  the  dysentery. 

BLUE.     See  Purple. 

BOANER'GES,  sons  of  thunder,  a  name 
given  by  our  Saviour  to  James  and  John 
the  sons  of  Zebedee,  Mark  3: 17,  on  account 
of  their  power  as  preachers,  or  of  the  traits 
shown  in  Matt.  20:20-23;  Luke  9:53,  54. 


BOAR.  The  wild  boar  is  considered  as 
the  parent  stock  of  the  common  hog.  He 
is  a  furious  and  formidable  animal.  The 
tusks  are  larger  and  stronger  than  in  the 
tame  herds.  The  color  is  iron-gray,  incli- 
ning to  black.  His  snout  is  long,  and  his 
ears  are  short.  Wild  boars  are  found  on 
Mount  Carmel,  and  near  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias. The  destructive  ravages  of  the  ani- 
mal are  referred  to  in  Psa.  80:13.  See 
Swine. 

BO'AZ,  alacrity,  Ruth  2 :  i,  a  wealthy  Beth- 
lehemite,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  through 
whom  is  traced  the  regular  succession  of 
Jewish  kings.  Matt.  1:5.  His  conduct  in 
the  case  of  Ruth  proves  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  fine  spirit  and  of  strict  integrity. 
He  admitted  the  claim  which  Ruth  had 
upon  him  as  a  near  kinsman,  under  the 
Levitical  law  married  the  poor  gleaner, 
and  thus  became  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
David,  and  also  of  David's  Son  and  Lord. 
He  was  the  father  of  Obed,  Obed  was  the 
father  of  Jesse,  and  Jesse  of  David.  The 
whole  narrative  is  a  beautiful  picture  of 
the  simplicity  of  the  age,  when  artificial 
courtesies  had  not  usurped  the  place  of 
natural  and  sincere  expressions  of  love. 

BoAz  was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  2 
brazen  pillars  which  Solomon  erected  ia 

75 


BOC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


liOO 


the  porch  of  the  temple,  the  other  being 
called  Jachin.  These  columns  with  their 
chapiters  were  about  35  feet  high,  i  Kin. 
7:15,  16,  21. 

BO'CHIM,  weepings,  a  place  near  Gilgal, 
where  the  angel  of  the  Lord  reproved  Is- 
rael for  their  remissness,  Judg.  2:1-5. 

BODY,  Matt.  26:26.  "This  represents 
my  body."  See  Gen.  41 :26.  Christ  did 
not  offer  his  body  to  be  eaten ;  he  was 
still  alive.  "  Body  of  this  death,"  Rom.  . 
7:24,  may  allude  to  a  practice  of  ancient  '; 
tyrants — binding  a  corpse  to  a  criminal, 
to  torment,  infect,  and  consume  him. 

BOLLED,  Exod.  9:31,  swollen  out 
ready  to  blossom. 

BOND,  BOND'AGE.     See  SLAVE. 

BOOK,  means  primarily  any  writing, 
Isa.  29:11,  12;  a  bill  of  divorce,  accusa- 
tion, or  sale,  a  letter,  a  register,  or  a  vol- 
ume. 

Several  sorts  of  materials  were  anciently 
used  in  making  books.  Plates  of  lead  or 
copper,  the  bark  of  trees,  brick,  stone,  and 
wood  were  originally  employed  to  engrave 
such  things  and  documents  upon  as  men 
desired  to  transmit  to  posterity,  Deut.  27:2, 
3  ;  Job  19 :  23,  24.  God's  laws  were  writ- 
ten on  stone  tablets.  Words  cut  in  stone 
were  sometimes  filled  in  with  melted  lead, 
Job  19:24.  Inscriptions  were  also  made  on 
tiles  and  bricks,  which  were  afterwards 
hardened  by  fire.  Many  of  these  are  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  See  B.\uylon, 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Thus  in  excavating 
at  Koyunjik  a  royal  Library  was  found,  the 
floor  covered  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more 
with  terra-cotta  tablets,  stamped  on  both 
sides  with  minute  Assyrian  characters. 
These  were  all  numbered,  and  constituted 
regular  treatises  on  history,  astronomy, 
astrology,  law,  religion,  language,  mathe- 
matics, etc. — a  full  encyclopaedia  "  for  the 
use  of  the  people."  In  forming  these  Li- 
braries Assyria  seems  to  have  followed  the 
lead  and  copied  the  books  of  Babylonia, 
where  the  ancient  Accadian  language  was 
used  and  cuneiform  characters,  translating 
the  books  with  the  aid  of  grammars  and 
dictionaries  still  in. part  extant.  These 
unique  Libraries  pour  a  flood  of  light  on 
the  history,  science,  and  daily  life  of  those 
days.  They  give  legends  of  the  creation 
and  the  deluge,  mention  the  division  of 
time  into  weeks,  months,  and  years,  the 
day  of  rest,  and  the  dates  of  many  events 
recorded  in  the  Bible,  and  strikingly  con- 
firm its  antiquity  and  truth.  They  show 
that  a  certain  knowledge  of  God  and  di- 
76 


vine  things  was  then  common  among  man- 
kind. Nothing  has  yet  been  found  in  them 
implying  a  beginning  of  authentic  history 
earlier  than  about  2400  B.  C.  The  divine 
providence  is  wonderfully  shown  in  the 
use  and  the  preservation  of  these  "  books 
in  stones." 


ancient  books,  pens,  and  inkstand. 

In  later  days  tablets  of  box-wood  and  of 
ivory  were  common  among  the  ancients: 
when  they  were  of  wood  only,  they  were 
often  coated  over  with  wax,  which  received 
the  writing  inscribed  on  them  with  the 
point  of  a  style,  or  iron  pen,  Jer.  17:13; 
and  what  was  written  might  be  effaced  by 
the  broad  end  of  the  style,  Luke  i  :63.  Af- 
terwards, the  leaves  of  the  palm-tree  were 
used  instead  of  wooden  tablets,  and  also 
the  finest  and  thinnest  bark  of  trees ;  hence 
the  word  liber,  which  denotes  the  inner 
bark  of  trees,  signifies  also  a  book.  As 
these  barks  were  rolled  up,  to  be  more 
readilj'  carried  about,  the  united  rolls  were 
called  volumen,  a  volume ;  a  name  given 
likewise  to  rolls  of  paper  or  of  parchment. 
The  ancients  wrote  likewise  on  linen.  But 
the  oldest  material  commonly  employed 
for  writing  upon  appears  to  have  been  the 
papyrus,  a  reed  very  common  in  Egypt  and 
other  places,  and  still  found  in  Sicily  and 
Chaldaea.  From  this  comes  our  word  pa- 
per. At  a  later  period,  parchment  from 
skins  was  invented  in  Pergamos,  and  was 
there  used  for  rolls  or  vohivies,  Psa.  40:7; 
Zech.  5:1;  2  Tim.  4:13;  2  John  12.  The 
pen  for  writing  on  these  soft  materials  was 
a  small  brush,  or  a  reed  split  at  the  end, 
Jer.  36:23.  The  ink  was  prepared  with 
lampblack,  coal  of  ivory,  various  gums, 
etc.,  and  the  writing  was  sometimes  perma- 
nently fixed  by  fire.  Scribes  carried  their 
inkhorns  hanging  to  their  girdles,  Ezek. 
9:2.  The  making  of  paper  from  linen,  in 
its  modern  form,  was  first  known  in  Europe 
about  A.  D.  1300.  The  art  of  printing  was 
introduced  about  150  years  later.  See  Lan- 
guage. 


BOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BOR 


An  ancient  book,  therefore,  had  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  thick  roll  of  some  paper-like 
substance,    Ezek.    2:9,  written   usually  in 


CASE  HOLDING  THE  PENTATEUCH   ROLLS. 

parallel  columns  on  one  side  only,  and  read 
by  gradually  unrolling  it  by  means  of  2 
small  rollers,  one  at  the  beginning  and  the 
other  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  Isa.  34:4; 
Luke  4:17-20.  The  writing  was  without 
separation  into  words  or  sentences,  and  in 
capital  letters  only.  A  roll  was  sometimes 
sealed,  being  first  tied  or  wrapped  about 
with  a  cord,  on  which  the  wax  was  dropped, 
and  stamped  by  a  signet,  Isa.  29:11;  Dan. 
12:4;  Rev.  5:1-3. 

That  writing  was  practised  very  early, 
may  be  inferred  from  allusions  to  the  art 


in  Gen.  5:1  ;  Exod.  17:14;  Job  9:25;  19:23- 
31:35.  The  Egyptians  were  accustomed  tc> 
it  from  the  earliest  known  ages. 

Ancient  writers,  instead  of  writing  their 
books  with  their  own  hand,  often  employed 
amanuenses.  St.  Paul  notes  it  as  a  par- 
ticular circumstance,  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  that  he  had  written  it  with  his 
own  hand.  Gal.  6:11.  To  other  letters  he 
only  affixed  his  salutation  with  his  own 
hand,  i  Cor.  16:21;  Col.  4:18;  2  Thess. 
3:17.  The  amanuensis  who  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  has  mentioned  him- 
self at  the  close,  Rom.  16:22.  See  Letter, 
Ephesus. 

Book  of  the  Generation  is  used,  in 
Gen.  5:1;  Matt.  1:1,  in  the  sense  of  a  gen- 
eological  record.     See  Generation. 

Book  of  the  wars  of  the  Lord, 
Num.  21 :  14,  was  probably  a  sort  of  mili- 
tary journal,  formed  of  detached  odes. 

The  book  of  Jasher,  2  Sam.  1:18,  may 
perhaps  have  been  a  collection  of  national 
ballads,  one  of  the  forms  most  used  for 
perpetuating  history  in  ancient  times. 

The  books  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  IsrUel  were  apparently 
national  annals,  i  Kin.  14:19,  29. 

Book  of  Life,  or  of  the  Living,  Psa. 
69:28,  perhaps  refers  to  the  custom  of  prin- 
ces, of  keeping  a  list  of  persons  in  their 
service,  etc.  So  God  is  represented  as  in- 
scribing the  names,  acts,  and  destinies  of 
men  in  volumes  ;  and  the  volume  of  those 
who  are  chosen  to  salvation  is  "  the  book 
of  life,"  Phil.  4:3. 

BOOTH,  a  shelter,  made  usually  of  poles 
fixed  upright  in  the  ground,  and  covered 
over  with  green  boughs.  Gen.  33:17;  Job 
27 :  18.  The  great  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or 
booths,  had  its  name  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  Jews  were  directed  by  their  law  to 
dwell  in  booths  during  the  7  days  of  this 
feast,  Lev.  23:40-42;  Neh.  8:14.  See  Tab- 
ernacle and  Garden. 

BOO'TY.  Spoils  taken  in  war  were  to  be 
shared  equally  by  those  who  fought  and 
those  who  guarded  the  camp.  Num.  31:27- 
32.  The  Lord's  portion  was  first  deducted 
from  the  whole;  and  in  after  times  the 
king  appropriated  a  large  part  to  himself. 

BOR'ROW.  The  Hebrews  are  said  to 
have  "  borrowed  "  of  the  Egyptians,  Exod. 
3:22;  12:35.  The  original  word  denotes 
simply  asked.  As  they  were  known  to  be 
taking  a  final  leave  of  Egypt,  it  is  plain 
that  the  Egyptians  did  not  expect  the  things 
asked  for  to  be  returned.  They  asked  for 
them   by   divine   direction,    and  they  un- 

77 


BOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


BOW 


•doubtedly  received  much  less  than  a  fair 
compensation  for  their  many  years  of  hard 
service. 

BO'SOM.  The  Orientals  wore  long,  wide, 
and  loose  garments;  and  when  about  to 
carry  anything  that  their  hands  would  not 
contain,  they  used  a  fold  in  the  bosom  of 
their  robe  above  the  girdle,  Luke  6:38. 
See  Girdle  and  Garmp:nts.  The  expres- 
sion naturally  came  to  be  used  even  when 
the  article  was  too  large  to  be  so  carried. 
Thus  in  Isa.  65:6,  7,  "  measure  their  work 
into  their  bosom."  Our  Saviour  is  said  to 
■carry  his  lambs  in  his  bosom,  which  beauti- 
fully represents  his  tender  care  and  watch- 
fulness over  them,  Isa.  40:11.  See  Abr.\- 
JiAM's  Bosom,  Eating.  In  Prov.  19:24; 
26: 15,  the  word  is  mis-translated  "  bosom  " 
which  is  rendered  "dish  "  in  2  Kin.  21:13, 
and  "pan"  in  2  Chr.  35:13. 

BOS'SES,  the  thickest  and  strongest 
parts,  the  projecting  points,  of  shields,  Job 
15:26. 


GOAT-SKIN   WATER   BOTTLES. 

BOT'TLE.  The  engraving  shows  the 
form  of  an  ancient  goat-skin  bottle,  out  of 
which  a  water-carrier  is  offering  to  sell  a 
draught  of  water.  After  the  skin  has  been 
stripped  off  from  a  goat  or  kid,  and  prop- 
erly dressed  and  tanned,  the  places  where 
the  legs  had  been  are  closed  up ;  and  where 
the  neck  was  is  the  opening  left  for  re- 
ceiving and  discharging  the  contents  of  the 
bottle.  These  were  readily  borne  upon 
the  shoulder.  Gen.  21:14.  See  also  Josh. 
9:4,  13;  Jer.  13:12.  They  were  liable  to  be 
much  injured  by  exposure  to  heat  and 
smoke,  Psa.  119:83,  and  to  lose  their  con- 
tents by  evaporation  under  the  hot  sun  on 
a  journey,  and  were  often  oiled  on  the  out- 
side as  a  safeguard. 

By  receiving  the  liquor  poured  into  it,  a 
skin  bottle  must  be  greatly  swelled  and 
distended  ;  and  still  more,  if  the  liquor  be 
wine,  by  its  fermentation  while  advancing 
to  ripeness.  Hence  the  propriety  of  put- 
ting new  wine  into  w<?if  bottles,  which  being 
78 


in  the  prime  of  their  strength,  may  resist 
the  expansion  of  their  contents,  and  pre- 


EGYPTIAK   BOTTLES,  ETC. 

serve  the  wine  to  maturity;  while  old  bot- 
tles maj-,  without  danger,  contain  old  wine, 
whose  fermentation  is  already  past.  Matt. 
9:17;  Luke  5:38;  Job  32:19. 

Such  bottles,  or  skins,  are  still  univer- 
sally employed  in  travelling  in  the  East, 
as  well  as  by  the  public  water-carriers,  and 
for  domestic  uses.  They  were  made,  for 
storage  in  wine-cellars,  of  the  hides  of  oxen 
or  camels.  But  the  smaller  ones,  of  goat 
or  kid  skins,  were  more  generally  used  for 
water  as  well  as  wine.  The  ancients,  how- 
ever, were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  ma- 
king earthenware,  and  had  a  variety  of 
elegant  bottles,  vials,  and  vases  for  domes- 
tic and  toilet  purposes,  made  of  the  pre- 
cious metals,  of  stone,  glass,  porcelain,  and 
alabaster,  Isa.  30:14;  Jer.  19:1, 10, 11;  Lam. 
4:2.     See  Cruse,  Vine,  Tears. 

BOAV,  a  weapon  much  used  in  ancient 
times,  both  for  hunting  and  for  war.  It 
was  made  of  wood,  horn,  or  steel.  Gen. 
27:3;  Psa.  18:34;  and  the  foot  was  some- 
times used  in  bending  it.  It  was  carried 
in  a  case  when  not  used,  Hab.  3:9.  The 
Benjamites  were  celebrated  fur  their  skill 
in  the  use  of  this  weapon,  i  Chr.  12:2; 
2  Chr.  14:8;  17:17.  SeeARMS.  The  phrase, 
"  a  deceitful  bow,"  to  which  the  people  of 
Israel  are  compared,  Psa.  78:57;  Hos.  7:16, 
means  an  ill-made  or  twisted  bow,  which 
does  not  shoot  the  arrow  as  it  is  aimed.  In 
2  Sam.  1:18,  the  words  "the  use  of"  are 
not  in  the  Hebrew.  Tlie  use  of  the  bow 
in  war  had  long  been  common  among  the 


BOW 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BRA 


Jews,  Gen.  48:22;  and  to  "teach  them  the 
bow"  is  by  some  supposed  to  mean,  teach 
them  the  song  of  the  bow,  the  lamentation 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  which  follows;  so 
called  from  the  mention  of  the  weapon  in 
verse  22,  as  the  first  5  books  in  the  Bible 
take  their  title  in  Hebrew  from  some  of 
the  first  words  in  each.     See  Arrow. 

BOWELS  are  often  put  by  the  Hebrew 
writers  for  the  inner  man,  just  as  we  often 
use  the  word  heart  as  the  seat  of  mercy, 
tenderness,  compassion,  etc.,  i  Kin.  3:26; 
Isa.  63:15;  Jer.  31:20;  Col.  3:12;  i  John 
.3:17;  and  in  many  cases  the  Hebrew  or 
Greek  word  is  so  translated  in  our  Bible, 
as  it  should  have  been  in  others,  by  "  heart," 
"affections,"  etc.,  Col.  3:12;  Phile.  7,  12, 
20  ;  I  John  3: 17. 

BOWING.    See  Salutations. 

BOX,  in  2  Kin.  9.1,  3,  means  flask,  or  bot- 
tle, as  in  I  Sam.  10:  i  it  is  a  vial.  See  Ala- 
baster. 

BOX-TREE,  a  well-known  beautiful  ever- 
green, growing  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  Its  wood  is  highly  prized  by 
engravers.  The  Hebrew  word  is  employed 
in  Isa.  41:19;  60:13;  and  Ezek.  27:6,  and 
probably  denotes  the  box,  though  it  is 
thought  by  many  to  have  been  a  species  of 
cedar.  It  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  the  abi- 
ding grace  and  prosperity  of  the  church  of 
God. 

BOZ'RAH,  inclositre,  I.,  Gen.  36:33,  a  city 
•of  Edom,  Isa.  34:6;  63:1,  and  the  region 
around  it,  Jer.  49:13,  22.  It  is  associated 
with  Teman,  and  with  the  Red  Sea,  Jer. 
49:20-22;  Amos  1:12.  Its  site  is  found  in 
the  modern  El-Busaireh,  midway  between 
Kir  Moab  and  Mount  Hor,  south  by  east  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  This  is  a  village  of  about 
50  houses,  on  a  hill  crowned  by  a  small 
castle.  The  ruins  are  those  of  a  consider- 
able city. 

II.  Bozrah  of  Moab,  Jer.  48:24,  may  be 
the  same  place  with  Bezer.  It  is  found 
by  Porter  in  Buzrah,  60  miles  south  of  Da- 
mascus, now  a  petty  village  amid  vast 
ruins  of  temples,  towers,  and  dwellings, 
mostly  of  the  Roman  period,  but  some  ap- 
parently of  the  ages  before  Joshua. 

BRACE'LET,  properly  an  ornamental 
circlet  for  the  wrist,  or  for  the  arm  above 
the  elbow;  but  one  term  so  rendered 
■sometimes  signifies  an  ornament  worn  on 
the  leg.  Num.  31 :  50 ;  Isa.  3 :  16, 19.  Armlets 
were  worn  even  by  men.  Song  5:14,  some- 
times as  a  badge  of  royalty,  2  Sam.  i :  10. 
In  the  Nineveh  sculptures  the  Assyrian 
iings  have  armlets  on  the  arms  and  brace- 


lets on  the  wrists,  of  elegant  forms  and 
apparently  set  with  jewels.  Bracelets  were 
of  a  great  variety  of  materials  and  forms ; 
were  usually  large,  and  often  of  great 
value.  Gen.  24:22. 

The  women  of  Syria  and  Arabia  at  this 
day  wear  rings  above  their  ankles,  to 
which  are  fastened  many  other  lesser  rings, 
which  make  a  tinkling  noise,  like  little 
bells,  when  they  walk,  Isa.  3:16.  These 
rings  are  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  glass,  or 
even  of  varnished  earth,  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  wearer.  The  princesses 
wear  large  hollow  rings  of  gold,  within 
which  are  inclosed  little  pebbles,  that  tin- 
kle. Modern  Hindoo  ladies  wear  a  profu- 
sion of  armlets,  sometimes  of  the  most 
costl}'  materials,  and  forming  their  chief 
wealth.     See  Rings. 

BRAM'BLES.     See  THISTLES. 

BRANCH.  As  trees  denote,  in  figura- 
tive language,  great  men  and  princes,  so 
branches,  boughs,  and  plants  denote  their 
offspring.  Christ  is  called  "the  Branch," 
the  "  Rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,"  and 
the  "Branch  out  of  his  roots,"  Isa.  11  :i; 
53:2;  Zech.  3:8;  6:12;  being  a  royal  de- 
scendant of  the  princely  house  of  David, 
Jer.  23:5;  33:15.  The  word  branch  also  il- 
lustrates the  union  of  believers  with  Christ, 
John  15:5,  6.  It  is  used  in  Ezek.  8: 17  as  a 
symbol  of  idolatrous  worship,  probably  in 
allusion  to  the  carrying  of  fragrant  boughs 
in  honor  of  idols. 

BRASS  is  early  and  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  English  Bible,  Gen.  4:22;  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  copper  is  intended,  brass 
being  a  mixed  metal — copper  and  zinc. 
Compare  Deut.  8:9;  Job  28:2.  The  an- 
cients knew  nothing  of  that  particular 
compound,  though  well  acquainted  with 
bronze — copper  and  tin — of  which  arms, 
mirrors,  and  ornaments  were  made.  Cop- 
per was  used  for  many  purposes  about  the 
temple.  Lev.  6:28;  Num.  16:39;  2  Chr. 
4:16,  18;  for  filters,  Judg.  16:21;  2  Kin. 
25:7;  for  armor,  i  Sam.  17:5,  6,  38;  for 
musical  instruments,  i  Chr.  15:19;  and  for 
money.  Matt.  10:9.  "Brass"  is  used  to 
describe  drought,  insensibility,  baseness, 
and  obstinacy  in  sin.  Lev.  26:19;  Deut. 
28:23;  Isa.  48:4;  Jer.  6:28;  Ezek.  22:18. 
It  is  also  a  symbol  of  strength,  Psa.  107:16; 
Dan.  2:39;  Zech.  6:1.     See  Copper. 

BR  A' VERY,  Isa.  3 :  18,  brilliance  or  finery. 

BRAWLER,  a  noisy,  quarrelsome  fel- 
low. Tit.  3:2. 

BRAVING.    See  Mortar. 

BRA'ZEN  SEA.     See  Sea. 

79 


BRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BRE 


BRA'ZEN  SER'PENT,  an  image  in  brass 
prepared  by  Moses,  resembling  the  fiery 
serpents  so  destructive  to  Israel  in  the  des- 
ert, and  set  up  in  the  midst  of  the  camp  in 
the  view  of  all,  that  whosoever  would  evince 
penitence,  faith,  and  obedience  by  looking 
to  it  might  live,  Num.  21 :6-9.  Our  Saviour 
has  shown  us  that  this  was  typical  of  him- 
self and  of  salvation  through  him — a  gra- 
tuitous salvation,  free  to  all,  on  the  easy 
terms  of  faith  and  obedience,  John  3-.  14,  15. 
The  scene  of  this  great  salvation  was  a  lit- 
tle south  of  Mount  Hor,  on  the  west  side. 
Num.  21:4;  33:38-41.  Much  labor  has  been 
spent  in  the  effort  to  find  some  reason  why 
the  serpent — the  symbol  of  wisdom,  and 
also  of  evil — was  set  up  as  a  type  of  Christ : 
but  the  brazen  serpent  appears  to  have 
been  chosen  simply  as  in  the  likeness  of 
the  fiery  serpents  ;  and  it  was  "  lifted  up  " 
in  view  of  all,  as  Christ  on  the  cross  is 
freely  offered  to  all  mankind.  The  brazen 
serpent  was  long  preserved,  as  a  memorial 
of  the  gracious  miracle  wrought  in  connec- 
tion with  it ;  but  being  regarded  as  an  ob- 
ject of  worship,  it  was  broken  to  pieces  by 
king  Hezekiah,  as  Nehushtan  —  a  mere 
piece  of  brass,  2  Kin.  18:4. 

BREACH'ES,  Judg.  5: 17,  harbors. 

BREACH  OF  PROMISE,  Num.  14:34,  the 
results  of  God's  indignant  turning  away 
from  men. 

BREAD,  a  word  which  in  Scripture  is 
often  put  iox  food  in  general,  Gen.  3:19; 
18:5;  28:20;  Exod.  2:20;  Lev.  11:3.  Man- 
na is  called  dread  {rom  heaven,  Exod.  16:4. 
Bread,  in  the  proper  and  literal  sense,  usu- 
ally means  cakes  made  of  wheaten  flour. 
Gen.  18:6;  barley  being  used  chiefly  by  the 
poor  and  for  feeding  horses.  The  wheat 
was  ground  daily,  in  small  stone  mills;  the 
flour  was  made  into  dough  in  a  wooden 
trough,  and  subsequently  leavened,  if  there 
was  time,  Exod.  12:34;  Hos.  7:4.  It  was 
then  made  into  cakes,  and  baked. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  had  several  ways 
of  making  bread  :  they  often  baked  it  un- 
der the  ashes  and  embers  upon  the  earth. 
Gen.  18:6,  upon  round  copper  or  iron 
plates,  or  in  pans  or  stoves  made  on  pur- 
l)ose.  The  Arabians  and  other  Oriental 
nations,  among  whom  wood  is  scarce,  often 
bake  their  bread  between  2  fires  made  of 
cow-dung,  which  burns  slowly.  The  bread 
is  good,  if  eaten  the  same  day,  but  the  crust 
is  black  and  burnt,  and  retains  a  smell  of 
the  fuel  used  in  baking  it.  This  explains 
Ezek.  4:9,  15.  A  "cake  not  turned"  would 
be  ruined  by  the  neglect,  Hos.  7:8. 
80 


The  Hebrews,  in  common  with  other 
Eastern  people,  had  a  kind  of  oven  (/an- 
noor),  which  is  like  a  large  urn,  open  at  the 
top,  in  which  they  made  a  fire.  When  it 
was  well  heated,  they  mingled  flour  in  wa- 
ter, and  this  paste  they  applied  to  the  out- 
side of  the  urn.  Such  bread  is  baked  very 
quickly,  and  is  taken  off  in  thin  pieces,  like 
our  wafers.  Lev.  2.  Bread  was  also  baked 
in  cavities  sunk  in  the  ground,  or  the  floor 
of  the  tent,  and  well  lined  with  compost  or 
cement.  A  fire  was  built  oit  the  floor  of 
this  oven ;  and  the  sides  being  sufficiently 
heated,  thin  cakes  were  adroitly  stuck  upon 
them,  and  soon  baked.  Domestic  bread- 
making  was  women's  work  throughout, 
I  Sam.  8:13;  Matt.  24:41,  but  in  the  large 
towns  there  were  public  ov?ns,  and  bakers 
by  trade,  who  were  wont  to  occupy  the 
same  street;  as  is  still  customary  in  the 
East,  as  among  us,  with  men  of  every  trade, 
Jer.  37:21;  Hos.  7:4.  Pharaoh  had  his 
chief  baker.  Gen.  40:2. 

The  Hebrews  did  not  cut  their  bread,, 
but  broke  it,  Lam.  4:4,  hence  the  expres- 
sion so  usual  in  Scripture,  of  "  breakings 
bread,"  to  signify  taking  a  repast.  In  the 
institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  our  Sa- 
viour broke  the  bread  which  he  had  conse- 
crated ;  whence  "to  break  bread,"  and 
"breaking  of  bread,"  are  used  for  celebra- 
ting the  Lord's  Supper.    See  under  E.\ting. 

"Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters,"  Eccl. 
II :  I,  may  be  merely  an  exhortation  to  gen- 
erous and  trustful  charity,  or  may  also  con- 
tain an  allusion  to  the  custom  of  sowing  rice 
or  grain  on  a  soil  overflowed  for  the  time 
with  water,  as  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 


v\».>K'*A:i.%!t. 


THE  TABLE   OF  SHOW-BREAD. 

Show-bread,  Heb.  bread  of  presence^ 
was  bread  offered  every  Sabbath  day  on 
the  golden  table  which  stood  before  God 
in  the  holy  place,  Exod.  25:30;  12  cakes  of 
unleavened  bread,  offered  with  salt  and 
frankincense,  Lev.  2:13;  24:5-9.  The  old 
cakes  remained  till  replaced  by  the  new ; 


BRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BRI 


hence  the  name,  "the  continual  bread," 
Num.  4:7,  and  the  "hallowed  bread," 
I  Sam.  21:4-6.  The  show-bread  could  be 
lawfully  eaten  by  none  but  the  priests  ; 
nevertheless,  David  having  received  some 
of  these  loaves  from  the  high-priest  Ahim- 
elech,  ate  of  them  without  scruple  in  his 
necessity,  i  Sam.  21:1-6;  and  our  Saviour 
quotes  his  example  to  justify  the  disciples, 
who  had  bruised  ears  of  corn,  and  were 
eating  them  on  the  Sabbath  day,  Matt. 
12:1-4.  The  table  of  show-bread  from 
Herod's  temple  seems  to  have  been  faith- 
fully copied  on  the  Arch  of  Titus  at  Rome. 
See  Candlestick. 


BREAST'PLATE,  or  "  breastplate  of  judg- 
ment," Exod.  28:15,  30,  a  piece  of  embroi- 
dery, about  10  inches  square,  Exod.  28:15- 
40,  of  very  rich  work,  which  the  high-priest 
wore  on  his  breast.  It  was  made  of  2  pie- 
ces of  the  same  rich  embroidered  stuff  of 
which  the  ephod  was  made,  having  a  front 
and  a  lining,  and  forming  a  kind  of  purse 
or  bag.  The  front  was  set  with  12  precious 
stones,  on  each  of  which  was  engraved  the 
name  of  one  of  the  tribes,  and  the  high-priest 
thus  bore  "  the  judgment  of  the  children  of 
Israel  upon  his  heart  before  the  Lord"— a 
"  memorial  "  of  their  acceptance  through 
his  atoning  sacrifices.  According  to  Jose- 
phus  and  the  Seventy,  these  jewels  were 
the  Urim  and  Thummim.  Probably  they 
still  exist  somewhere — symbols  of  the  eter- 
nal fidelity  of  God.  They  were  placed  in  4 
rows,  in  the  order  of  their  encampment  in 
the  wilderness.  Num.  10:14-27,  and  divi- 
ded from  each  other  by  the  little  golden 
squares  or  partitions  in  which  they  were 
set.  At  each  corner  was  a  gold  ring  an- 
swering to  a  ring  upon  the  ephod,  these  4 
6 


pairs  of  rings  serving  to  hold  the  breast- 
plate in  its  place  on  the  front  of  the  ephod, 
by  means  of  4  blue  ribbons,  one  at  each 
corner.     See  also  Arms  and  Armor. 

BREATHED  on  them,  John  20:22,  com- 
municating the  Holy  Spirit.  Compare  Gen. 
2:7. 

BREECH'ES,  Exod.  28:42,  short  drawers 
worn  by  the  priests. 

BRICKS  were  usually  made  of  clay  dried 
and  hardened  in  the  sun,  Gen.  11:3,  though 
brick-kilns  were  sometimes  used,  2  Sam. 
12:31;  Isa.  65:3;  Jer.43:9:  Nah.  3:14.  The 
tower  of  Babel  was  constructed  of  brick, 
cemented  with  bitumen.  The  bricks  or 
tiles  used  were  often  a  foot  square  and  yA 
inches  thick;  and  great  numb^s  of  them 
are  found,  both  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt, 
impressed  with  some  royal  or  priestly 
stamp.  See  B.-vbylon,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Egypt,  etc. 

Brick-making  was  the  labor  in  which  the 
Hebrews  in  Egypt  were  most  oppressed. 


On  the  monuments  of  Egypt  all  the  parts 
of  this  hard  and  ancient  task-work  are 
painted  — the  carrying,  tempering,  and 
moulding  of  the  clay,  and  the  drying  and 
piling  of  the  bricks— all  done  by  foreigners 


BRICK-MAKING,  UNDER    A   TASKMASTER. 

under  the  orders  of  taskmasters.      Many 
bricks  bear  the  stamp  of  Thothmes  III., 

81 


BRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BUL 


contemporary  with  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt. 
The  straw  was  probabl,v  mixed  with  the 
clay  to  compact  it.  See  Wilkinson's  "An- 
cient Egyptians." 

BRIDE  and  BRIDE'GROOM.  See  Mar- 
RiAGK  and  Solomon's  Song. 

BRI'ERS.     See  Thistles. 

BRIG'ANDINE,  a  coat  of  mail,  Jer.  46:4; 
51 :3.     See  Arms. 

BRIM'STONE,  or  sulphur,  a  mineral  sub- 
stance, highly  inflammable,  and  burning 
with  a  suffocating  smell.  Sodom  and  the 
other  cities  of  the  plain  were  destroyed 
"  by  brimstone  and  fire,"  Gen.  19:24;  Deut. 
29:23;  and  this  awful  catastrophe  is  often 
used  in  Scripture  as  an  emblem  of  the 
temporal  Aid  eternal  judgments  of  God 
upon  the  wicked,  Job  18:15;  Psa.  11:6;  Isa. 
30'-33',  34:9;  Rev.  21:8.  Crude  brimstone 
or  sulphur  is  found  by  Arabs  and  travel- 
lers, washed  ashore  around  the  Dead  Sea, 
in  pieces  sometimes  as  large  as  apples. 

BRING  ON  THE  WAV,  sometimes  to  ac- 
company one  part  way  on  his  journey,  and 
sometimes  also  to  provide  him  the  means 
for  his  journey.  Gen.  18:16;  2  Cor.  1:16; 
Tit.  3:13. 

BROID'ERED,  I  Tim.  2:9,  braided  or 
plaited. 

BROOK.     See  River. 

BROTH'ER  signifies  in  Scripture  the  son 
of  the  same  parent  or  parents.  Matt.  1:2; 
Luke  6:14;  a  near  kinsman,  Gen.  13:8; 
14:16;  one  of  the  same  stock  or  country, 
Matt.  5:47;  Acts  3:22;  Heb.  7:5;  a  fellow- 
man,  an  equal.  Matt.  5:23;  7:3;  one  be- 
loved, 2  Sam.  1:26;  Christians,  as  sons  of 
God,  Acts  9:30;  11:29,  ^^^  ^s  disciples  of 
Christ,  Matt.  25:40.  It  is  a  favorite  He- 
brew idiom  to  express  some  close  resem- 
blance :  Job  says,  "  I  am  a  brother  to  drag- 
ons," Job  30:29.  In  Matt.  12:46-50;  13:55, 
56;  Mark  3:31-35;  6:3;  John  2:12;  7:3; 
Acts  1:14,  the  brothers  of  Christ  are  so 
mentioned,  in  connection  with  his  mother 
and  sisters,  as  almost  to  require  us  to  be- 
lieve they  were  children  of  Joseph  and 
Mary,  younger  than  Jesus.  Christ's  neigh- 
bors at  Nazareth  say  of  him  and  his  fam- 
ily, "  Is  not  this  the  carpenter's  son?  is  not 
his  mother  called  Mary  ?  and  his  bj-ethren 
James  and  Joses  and  Simon  and  Judas? 
and  his  sisters,  are  they  not  all  with  us?" 
Matt.  13:55,  56.  The  expressions  in  Luke 
2:7,  "her  firstborn  son,"  and  in  Matt.  1:25, 
"  knew  her  not  till  she  had  brought  forth 
her  firstborn  son,"  and  the  fact  that  they 
lived  together  probably  30  year=,  most  natu- 
rally imply  that  they  afterwards  had  other 
82 


children.  The  theory  that  these  "  breth- 
ren "  of  Christ  were  identical  with  his  cous- 
ins, the  sons  of  Mary  a  sister  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  Alphajus,  has  many  difiiculties; 
the  "brethren"  of  Christ  are  always  asso- 
ciated with  his  mother — 10  times — not  with 
the  other  woman ;  they  did  not  believe  on 
him  till  after  his  death,  John  7:5  (compare 
Psa.  69:8),  whereas  his  cousins  were  2  of 
them  probably  apostles,  and  the  "  brethren 
of  Christ"  are  plainly  distinguished  from 
the  apostles.  Acts  i :  13,  14;  i  Cor.  9:5  ;  Jude 
17.  So  once,  when  his  disciplfs,  including 
his  cousins,  were  standing  around  him,  his 
nioihey  and  brethren  came  to  see  him,  Matt. 
12:46-50.  If  these  were  cousins,  Christ 
must  have  said,  "Who  is  my  mother  and 
who  are  my  cousins  ?  .  . .  Whosoever  shall 
do  the  will  of  my  Father  in  heaven,  the 
same  is  my  cousin,  and.  sister,  and  mo- 
ther." Equally  absurd  is  it  to  substitute 
"  cousins  "  for  "  brethren  "  in  Matt.  13 
above  quoted.  Christ's  brothers  are  men- 
tioned 15  times,  and  the  term  used  is  al- 
ways adelphos,  brother ;  never  anepsios, 
cousin,  nor  sungenes,  kinsman.  Against 
these  arguments,  the  tradition  of  the  early 
Fathers,  who  soon  began  to  regard  mar- 
riage as  a  defilement,  are  of  little  account; 
also  "  the  brethren  "  and  the  cousins  bear- 
ing the  same  names,  for  the  names  were 
very  common,  and  might  well  recur  in  2 
related  families;  and  the  objection  that 
Christ  on  the  cross  gave  his  mother  into 
John's  care  is  removed  by  the  facts  that  he 
is  supposed  to  have  had  means,  and  that 
Christ's  brothers  had  been  unbelievers. 

BRUIT,  rumor,  Jer.  10:22;  Nah.  3:19. 

BUCKLER.    See  Shield. 

BUF'FET,  to  strike  or  beat  with  the  fist, 
Matt.  26:67;  I  Cor.  4:11;  i  Pet.  2:20. 

BUL,  in  I  Kin.  6:58,  the  8th  month,  usu- 
ally called  Marcheshvan,  which  see.  Sol- 
omon's temple  was  finished  in  Bui. 

BULLS  OF  Bashan,  pasturing  in  a  fertile 
region  and  with  but  few  keepers,  became 
strong  and  fierce,  and  might  "compass 
about "  an  intruder,  and  trample  him  un- 
der foot.  They  are  symbols  of  powerful, 
fierce,  and  numerous  foes,  Psa.  22:12; 
68:30;  Isa.  34:7.     See  Ox. 

BUL'RUSH,  or  papy'rus,  a  reed  formerly 
growing  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  now 
in  Palestine  around  the  Upper  Jordan,  and 
in  Abyssinia,  in  marshy  ground,  Job  8:n, 
to  the  height  of  loor  12  feet,  Isa.  35:7.  The 
stalks  are  pliable,  and  capable  of  being 
interwoven  very  closely,  as  in  the  construc- 
tion of  arks,  Exod.  2:3,  5,  and  vessels  of 


BUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BUR 


larger  dimensions,  Isa.  18:2.     Boats  of  this 
material   were   very   common    in    Egypt. 


The  inner  bark  of  this  plant,  platted  and 
•cemented  together,  furnished  a  writing 
material,  whence  our  word  paper ;  and 
the  pith  was  sometimes  used  for  food.  See 
Book. 

BUR'DEN,  a  weight  or  load,  on  body  or 
soul ;  often  used  figuratively^  to  denote 
afflictions,  failings,  sins,  Psa.  38:4;  55:22; 
Gal.  6:2;  services  under  the  law,  Matt. 
23:4;  official  responsibilities,  Exod.  18:22; 
Deut.  1:12;  and  especially  prophetic  mes- 
sages, not  always  of  a  threatening  charac- 
ter, Isa.  19:1.  In  this  last  sense  the  He- 
brew word  may  be  rendered  "  oracle," 
"  divine  declaration,"  or  "  prophecy,"  as 
in  Prov.  30:1;  31:1.  Seejer.  23:33-40. 
•  BUR'IAL.  The  Hebrews  were  at  all 
times  very  careful  in  the  burial  of  their 
dead.  Gen.  25:9;  35:29.  To  be  deprived 
of  entombment  or  burial  was  thought  one 
•of  the  greatest  marks  of  dishonor  or  causes 
•of  unhappiness,  Eccl.  6:3;  Jer.  22:18,  19; 
it  being  denied  to  none,  not  even  to  ene- 
mies, Deut.  21:23;  I  Kin.  11:15.  Good 
men  made  it  a  part  of  their  piety  to  inter 
the  dead.  Indeed,  how  shocking  must  the 
sight  of  unburied  corpses  have  been  to  the 
Jews,  when  their  land  was  thought  to  be 
polluted  if  the  dead  were  in  anj'  manner 
exposed  to  view,  2  Sam.  21:14;  and  when 


the  very  touch  of  a  dead  body,  or  of  any- 
thing that  had  touched  a  dead  body,  was 
esteemed  a  defilement,  and  required  a  cer- 
emonial ablution.  Num.  19:11-22. 

Only  3  cases  of  burning  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  occur  in  Scripture :  the  family  of 
Achan,  after  they  were  stoned,  Josh.  7:24, 
25,  the  mangled  remains  of  Saul  and  his 
sons,  I  Sam.  31 :  12,  and  perhaps  the  victims 
of  some  plague,  Amos  6:10.  It  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  nearest  relatives  to  close  the 
eyes  of  the  dying,  and  give  them  the  part- 
ing kiss,  and  then  to  commence  the  wail- 
ing for  the  dead.  Gen.  46:4;  50:1;  in  this 
wailing,  which  continued  at  intervals  until 
after  the  burial,  they  were  joined  by  other 
relatives  and  friends,  John  11:19,  whose 
loud  and  shrill  lamentations  are  referred 
to  in  Mark  5:38.  It  is  also  a  custom  still 
prevailing  in  the  East  to  hire  wailing  wo- 
men, Jer.  9:17;  Amos  5:16,  who  praised 
the  deceased,  Acts  9:39,  and  by  doleful 
cries  and  frantic  gestures,  aided  at  times 
by  melancholy  tones  of  music.  Matt.  9:23, 
strove  to  e.xpress  the  deepest  grief,  Ezek. 
24: 17,  18. 

Immediately  after  death  the  body  was 
washed,  and  laid  out  in  a  convenient  room. 
Acts  9:37-39,  and  sometimes  anointed, 
Matt.  26: 12;  it  was  wrapped  in  many  folds 
of  linen,  with  spices,  and  the  head  bound 
about  with  a  napkin,  Matt.  27 :  59 ;  and 
each  limb  and  finger  wrapped  separately-, 
John  11:44,  as  the  mummies  of  Egypt  are 
found  to  have  been.  Unless  the  body  was 
to  be  embalmed,  the  burial  took  place 
very  soon,  on  account  both  of  the  heat  of 
the  climate  and  of  the  ceremonial  unclean- 
ness  incurred.  Rarely  did  24  hours  elapse 
between  death  and  burial.  Acts  5:6,  10; 
and  in  Jerusalem  to-day  burial,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  is  not  delayed  more  than  3  or  4 
hours.  The  body  being  shrouded,  was 
placed  upon  a  bier — a  board  resting  on  a 
simple  handbarrow  borne  by  men — to  be 
conveyed  to  the  tomb,  2  Sam.  3:31;  Luke 
7:14.  Sometimes  a  more  costly  bier  or 
bed  was  used,  2  Chr.  16:14;  and  the  bod- 
ies of  kings  and  some  others  may  have 
been  laid  in  coffins  of  wood,  or  stone  sar- 
cophagi. Gen.  50:26;  2  Kin.  13:21.  The 
relatives  attended  the  bier  to  the  tomb, 
which  was  usually  without  the  city;  and 
spices  and  aromatic  woods  were  often 
burned  at  the  burial,  2  Chr.  16: 14.  A  ban- 
quet sometimes  followed  the  funeral,  Jer. 
16:7,  8;  and  during  subsequent  days  the 
bereaved  friends  were  wont  to  go  to  the 
grave  from  time  to  time,  to  weep  and  to 

83 


BUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


C^S 


adorn  the  place  with  fresh  flowers,  John 
11:31,  a  custom  observed  even  at  this  day. 
See  Embalming,  Mourning,  Setulchrk. 

BURN'ING.  This  most  cruel  mode  of 
execution  was  ancientlj'  common,  and  was 
not  unknown  to  the  Hebrews.  See  Gen. 
38:24;  Lev.  20:14;  21:9;  Jer.  29:22;  Dan.  3:6. 

BURNT-OFFERINGS.     See  SACRIFICE. 

BUSH'EL,  used  in  the  New  Testament 
to  express  the  Greek  modius,  which  was 
about  a  peck  by  our  measure. 

BUT'LER,  a  court-officer  in  charge  of  the 
wines,  etc.,  of  Eastern  monarchs,  in  con- 
stant attendance,  obliged  to  taste  their 
wines  before  giving  them  out,  as  a  pledge 
that  no  poison  was  mixed  with  them,  but 
usually  confided  in,  and  often  of  much  in- 
fluence. Pharaoh's  chief  butler  in  Egypt, 
Gen.  40;  41,  Rabshakeh  with  Sennacherib, 
Isa.  36,  and  Nehemiah  with  Artaxerxes, 
Neh.  I ;  2,  are  examples. 

BUT'TER.  The  Hebrew  word  usually 
rendered  dnlier  denotes,  properly,  sour  or 
curdled  milk,  Gen.  i8:S;  Judg.  5:25;  Job 
20:17,  a  favorite  beverage  in  the  East  to 
the  present  day.  Yet  butter  must  have 
been  known  to  the  Hebrews.  Though  usu- 
ally liquid  in  those  hot  climates,  it  is  much 
used  by  the  Arabs  and  Syrians  of  our  own 
times,  and  is  made  by  pouring  the  milk 
into  the  common  goat-skin  bottle,  suspend- 
ing this  from  the  tent-poles,  and  swinging 
it  to  and  fro  with  a  jerk,  until  the  process 
is  completed.  Still  it  is  not  certain  that 
the  Hebrew  word  rendered  butter  ever  de- 
notes that  article.  Even  in  Prov.  30:33  we 
may  render,  "  The  pressing  of  milk  bring- 
eth  forth  cheese;"  elsewhere  the  render- 
ing "curd,"  or  "curdled  milk,"  would  be 
appropriate;  and  in  Job  29:6;  Psa.  55:21; 
Isa.  7: 15,  22,  "  cream." 

BUZ,  despised,  2d  son  of  Nahor  and  Mil- 
cah,  and  ancestor  of  the  Buzites,  who  lived 
in  Mesopotamia  or  Ram,  and  afterwards 
perhaps  in  Arabia  Deserta,  Gen.  22:21; 
Job  32:2 ;  Jer.  25:23. 

BY-AND-BY,  Matt.  13:21;  Mark  6:25; 
Luke  17:7;  21:9,  means  immediately. 

c. 

CAB,  a  Hebrew  measure,  the  6th  part  of 
a  seah,  and  the  18th  part  of  an  ephah.  A 
cab  contained  3  and  one-third  pints  of  our 
wine  measure,  and  2  and  five-sixths  pints 
of  our  corn  measure,  2  Kin.  6:25. 

CA'BUL,  probably  displeasing,  L,  a  name 
given  by  Hiram  king  of  Tyre  to  a  district 
in  Northwestern  Galilee  containing  20  cit- 
84 


ies,  which  Solomon  gave  him  for  his  help 
in  building  the  temple,  i  Kin.  9:13;  the 
term  implying  his  dissatisfaction  with  the 
gift. 

n.  A  city  of  Asher,  8  or  9  miles  east  of 
Akka  or  Acre,  Josh.  19:27. 

C.«'SAR,  originally  the  surname  of  the 
Julian  family  at  Rome.  After  being  digni- 
fied in  the  person  of  Julius  Cassar,  it  be- 
came the  usual  appellation  of  those  of  his 
familj'  who  ascended  the  throne.  The  last 
of  these  was  Nero,  but  the  name  was  still 
retained  by  his  successors  as  a  sort  of  title 
belonging  to  the  imperial  dignity.  The 
emperors  alluded  to  by  this  title  in  the 
New  Testament  are  Augustus,  Luke  2:1; 
T'HERius,  Luke  3:1;  20:22;  Claudius, 
Acts  11:28;  and  Nero,  Acts  25:8;  Phil. 
4:22.  Caligula,  who  succeeded  Tiberius, 
is  not  mentioned. 

C.ffi;SARE'A,  often  called  Caesarea  of  Pal- 
estine, on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  60  miles  from  Jerusalem,  between 
Joppa  and  Tyre,  Acts  10:23,  24;  21:8. 
It  was  anciently  a  small  place,  called  the 
Tower  of  Strato,  but  was  rebuilt  with  great 
splendor,  and  strongly  fortified  by  Herod 
the  Great,  who  formed  a  harbor  by  con- 
structing a  vast  semicircular  breakwater, 
adorned  the  city  with  many  stately  build- 
ings, and  named  it  Coesarea,  in  honor  of 
Augustus.  It  was  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Greeks,  and  Herod  established  in  it  quin- 
quennial games  in  honor  of  the  emperor. 
This  city  was  the  capital  of  Judaea  during 
the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great  and  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  and  was  also  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  power  while  Judtea  was  governed 
as  a  province  of  the  empire.  It  was  sub- 
ject to  frequent  commotions  between  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews,  so  that  on  one 
occasion  20,000  persons  are  said  to  have 
fallen  in  one  day. 

It  is  noted  in  gospel  history  as  the  resi- 
dence of  Philip  the  evangelist,  Acts  8:40; 
21:8;  and  of  Cornelius  the  centurion,  the 
firstfruits  from  the  Gentiles,  Acts  10;  11  :i- 
18.  Here  Herod  Agrippa  was  smitten  by 
the  angel  of  God,  Acts  12:20-23.  Paul  sev- 
eral times  visited  it.  Acts  9:30;  18:22;  21:8, 
16;  here  he  appeared  before  Felix,  who 
trembled  under  his  appeals.  Acts  23 :  23 ;  24 ; 
here  he  was  imprisoned  for  2  years ;  and 
after  pleading  before  Festus  and  Agrippa, 
he  sailed  hence  for  imperial  Rome,  Acts 
25:26;  27:1.  It  was  the  birthplace  and 
home  of  Eusebius  the  church  historian, 
early  in  the  4th  century.  It  is  now  called 
Kaiseriyeh,  and  is  only  a  heap  of  ruins  ten- 


c^s 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAL 


anted  bj'  snakes,  scorpions,  lizards,  wild 
boars,  and  jackals. 

CffiSARE'A-PHILIP'PI,  a  city  3  or  4  miles 
east  of  Dan,  near  the  eastern  source  of  the 
Jordan;  anciently  called  Paneas,  now  Ba- 
nias,  from  an  adjacent  grotto  dedicated  to 
Pan,  from  which  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
Jordan  flowed.  It  stood  where  the  moun- 
tains southwest  of  Hermon  join  the  plain 
above  Lake  Huleh,  on  an  elevated  plateau 
surrounded  by  ravines  and  water-courses, 
and  its  walls  were  thick  and  strong.  It 
was  enlarged  and  embellished  by  Philip 
the  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  and  called 
Caesarea  in  honor  of  Tiberius  Caesar ;  and 
the  name  Philippi  was  added  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Caesarea  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Our  Saviour  visited  this  place  short- 
ly before  his  transfiguration,  Matt.  16:13- 
28;  Mark  8:27-38;  Luke  9:18,  27.  After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Titus  here 
made  the  captive  Jews  fight  and  kill  each 
other  in  gladiatorial  shows.  In  the  time  of 
the  Crusades  it  underwent  many  changes, 
and  is  now  a  paltry  village  amid  extensive 
ruins,  among  which  is  a  vast  castle  on  the 
high  ground,  parts  of  which  date  back  far 
into  Old  Testament  times. 

CA'IAPHAS,  depressio7i,  high-priest  of 
the  Jews,  A.  D.  25  to  36.  He  was  a  Saddu- 
cee,  and  a  bitter  enemy  of  Christ.  At  his 
palace  the  priests,  etc.,  met  after  the  resur- 
rection of  Lazarus  to  plot  the  death  of  the 
Saviour,  lest  all  the  people  should  believe 
on  him.  On  one  of  these  occasions,  John 
11:47-54,  he  counselled  the  death  of  Christ 
for  the  political  salvation  of  the  nation ; 
and  his  words  were,  unconsciously  to  him, 
an  inspired  prediction  of  the  salvation  of  a 
lost  world.  These  plots  against  Christ, 
Matt.  26:1-5;  Mark  14:1;  Luke  22:2,  led 
to  his  seizure,  and  he  was  brought  first  be- 
fore Annas,  formerly  high-priest,  who  sent 
him  to  Caiaphas  his  son-in-law.  See  An- 
N.-vs.  Caiaphas  examined  Christ  before  the 
assembling  of  the  Sanhedrin,  after  which 
the  trial  went  on,  and  Christ  was  con- 
demned, mocked,  and  transferred  to  Pilate 
for  sentence  and  execution,  Matt.  26:57-68; 
Mark  14:53-72;  Luke  22:54-71 ;  John  18:13- 
27.  Not  content  with  procuring  the  death 
of  the  Saviour,  Caiaphas  and  his  friends 
violently  persecuted  his  followers,  Acts 
4:1-6;  5:17,33.  But  a  few  years  after  the 
ascension  of  Christ,  and  soon  after  the 
degradation  of  Pilate,  Caiaphas  also  was 
deposed  from  office  by  the  Roman  procon- 
sul Vitellius.  Like  Balaam  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, he  is  a  melancholy  instance  of  light 


resisted,  privilege,  station,  and  opportunity 
abused,  and  prophetic  words  concerning 
Christ  joined  with  a  life  of  infidelity  and 
crime  and  a  fearful  death. 

CAIN,  possession,  the  firstborn  of  the  hu- 
man race.  Gen.  4:1,  an  agriculturist,  and 
the  first  murderer.  See  Abel.  His  crime 
was  committed  against  the  warnings  of 
God,  and  he  despised  the  call  of  God  to 
confession  and  penitence.  Gen.  4:6-9.  His 
punishment  included  an  increase  of  physi- 
cal wants  and  hardships,  distress  of  con- 
science, banishment  from  society,  and  loss 
of  God's  manifested  presence  and  favor, 
Gen.  4:16.  But  God  mingled  mercy  with 
judgment,  and  appointed  for  Cain  some 
sign  to  assure  him  that  he  should  not  suffer 
the  death-penalty  he  had  incurred  at  the 
hand  of  man,  for  God  only  was  his  judge. 
He  withdrew  into  the  land  of  Nod,  east  of 
Eden,  and  built  a  fixed  abode,  which  he 
named  Enoch,  after  one  of  his  sons,  Heb. 
11:4;   I  John  3: 12  ;  Jude  11. 

CAI'NAN,  possessor,  or  Kenan,  I.,  son  of 
Enos,  and  father  of  Mahalaleel,  Gen.  5:9; 
I  Chr.  1:2.     He  lived  to  be  910  years  old. 

II.  Son  of  Arphaxad  and  father  of  Salah, 
Luke  3:36.  This  Cainan,  however,  is  not 
named  in  the  3  Old  Testament  genealo- 
gies. Gen.  10:24;  11:12;  I  Chr.  1:24,  nor 
in  most  ancient  versions,  but  occurs  in  the 
Septuagint  in  the  above  two  passages  in 
Genesis,  and  was  perhaps  copied  thence 
by  Luke. 

CAKE.     See  Bread. 

CA'LAH,  old  age,  a  very  ancient  city  of 
Assyria,  built  by  Asshur  or  by  Nimrod, 
Gen.  10:11,  12.  It  was  at  some  distance 
from  Nineveh,  and  Resen  lay  between 
them.  It  is  thought  by  Porter  and  Kalisch 
to  be  the  place  now  called  Kaleh-Sherghat, 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Tigris,  60  miles 
south  of  Nineveh.  Here  have  been  dis- 
entombed some  of  the  oldest  Assyrian 
monuments  yet  found,  the  name  of  Asshur 
being  among  the  inscriptions.  It  was  the 
capital  of  the  Assyrian  kingdom  many 
years,  before  Nineveh. 

CAL'AMUS.     See  Cane. 

CA'LEB,  a  dog,  I.,  son  of  Jephunneh,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  was  sent,  with  one 
man  from  each  of  the  other  tribes,  to  search 
out  the  promised  land.  Num.  13;  14.  B.  C. 
1491.  Of  all  the  12,  Caleb  and  Joshua  acted 
the  part  of  true  and  faithful  men  ;  and  they 
only,  of  all  the  men  of  war  of  Israel,  were 
permitted  to  enter  Canaan,  Num.  14:6-24, 
38;  26:65.  He  was  one  of  the  princes  ap- 
pointed to  divide  the  conquered  territory 

85 


CAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAL 


among  the  tribes,  Num.  34:19.  Hebron 
was  given  to  him  as  a  reward  of  his  fidel- 
ity, according  to  the  promise  of  God,  Deut. 
1:36;  Josh.  14.  Though  85  years  old,  he 
still  retained  his  vigor,  and  soon  drove  out 
the  Anakim  from  his  inheritance.  He  gave 
a  portion  also  with  his  daughter  Achsah  to 
Othniel  his  nephew,  who  had  earned  the 
reward  by  his  valor  in  the  capture  of  De- 
bir.  Josh.  15: 13-19;  21:12.  This  region  was 
for  some  time  called  by  his  name,  i  Sam. 
30:14,  and  lay  between  Hebron  and  Car- 
mel  in  the  south  of  Judah. 

n.  A  son  of  Hur,  whose  children  peo- 
pled the  country  about  Bethlehem,  etc., 
I  Chr.  2:50-55. 

CALF,  the  young  of  the  cow,  a  clean  ani- 
mal much  used  in  sacrifice  ;  hence  the  ex- 
pression, "  So  will  we  render  the  calves  of 
our  lips,"  Hos.  14:2.,  /.  ^.,  offer  as  sacrifices 
the  pra\-ers  and  praises  of  our  lips,  Heb. 
13 :  15.  The  stall-fed  or  fatted  calf  was  con- 
sidered the  choicest  animal  food.  Gen. 
18:7;  I  Sam.  28:24;  Amos  6:4;  Luke  15:23. 

In  Jer.  34: 18,  "  they  cut  the  calf  in  twain, 
and  passed  between  the  parts  thereof," 
there  is  an  allusion  to  an  ancient  mode  of 
ratifj-ing  a  covenant ;  the  parties  thus  sig- 
nifying their  willingness  to  be  themselves 
cut  in  pieces  if  unfaithful,  Gen.  15:9-18. 

The  golden  calf  worshipped  by  the 
Jews  at  Mount  Sinai,  while  Moses  was  ab- 
sent in  the  mount,  was  cast  by  Aaron  from 
the  earrings  of  the  people.  It  was  in  imi- 
tation probably  of  the  idol  Mnevis,  wor- 
shipped in  On,  Egypt,  as  a  gilded  calf.  It 
was  a  hollow  figure  perhaps,  or  a  wooden 
figure  coated  over  with  gold.  This  calf 
they  intended  as  a  symbol  of  Jehovah, 
Exod.  32:5,  and  its  story  is  a  most  signifi- 
cant admonition  to  worship  God  in  spirit 
and  beware  of  all  material  forms  and 
"  aids  to  devotion,"  however  plausible.  Its 
worship  was  attended  with  degrading  ob- 
scenities, and  was  punished  by  the  death 
of  3,000  men. 

The  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam  were 
erected  by  him,  one  at  each  extreme  of  his 
kingdom,  that  the  10  tribes  might  be  pre- 
vented from  resorting  to  Jerusalem  to  wor- 
ship, and  thus  coalescing  with  the  men  of 
Judah,  1  Kin.  12:26-29.  Thus  the  people 
"forgot  God  their  Saviour,"  and  sank  into 
gross  idolatry.  Jeroboam  may  not  have 
intended  to  institute  a  new  religion,  but  to 
adapt  the  old  to  his  political  exigencies — 
making  the  calves  as  symbols  of  Jehovah, 
whose  prophets  his  priests  still  claimed  to 
be,  I  Kin.  22:6.  Yet  Jeroboam  is  scarcely 
86 


ever  mentioned  in  Scripture  without  the 
brand  upon  him,  "  who  made  Israel  to  sin," 
2  Kin.  17:21.  The  prophet  Hosea  fre- 
quently alludes  to  the  calf  at  Bethel,  to  the 
folly  and  guilt  of  its  worshippers,  and  to 
the  day  when  both  idol  and  people  should 
be  broken  in  pieces  by  the  Assyrians. 

CALL  ON  THE  NAME  OF  THE  LORD, 

means  to  pray  to  him  as  God,  Gen.  12:8; 
Psa.  79:6;  105:1.  This  is  its  meaning  also 
when  Christ  is  spoken  of — he  is  worshipped 
as  Jehovah,  Acts  2:21;  7:59;  Rom.  10:12; 
I  Cor.  1:2.  In  Gen.  4:26  organized  public 
worship  is  intended. 

In  some  passages  a  person  is  "  called  " 
thus  and  so,  to  intimate  emphatically  that 
he  is,  and  is  to  be  acknowledged,  what  he 
is  called,  Isa.  9:6;  56:7;  Matt.  1:25.  A  di- 
vine "  call  "  signifies  the  designation  of 
individuals  or  nations  to  certain  functions, 
privileges,  or  penalties,  Exod.  31:2;  Isa. 
22:20;  42:6;  also  the  invitation  of  the  gos- 
pel to  sinners,  Matt.  9:13;  11:28;  22:3,  4; 
Rom.  8:28-30;  2  Tim.  1:9. 

CAL'NEH,  called  Calno,  Isa.  10:9,  and 
Canneh,  Ezek.  27:23,  one  of  Nimrod's  cit- 
ies. Gen.  10:10,  afterwards  called  Ctesi- 
phon  ;  it  lay  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris 
opposite  Seleucia,  20  miles  below  Bagdad. 
Ctesiphon  was  a  winter  residence  of  the 
Parthian  kings.  Nothing  now  remains  but 
the  ruins  of  a  palace  and  mounds  of  rub- 
bish. Rawlinson,  however,  locates  Calneh 
at  Niffer,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, 60  miles  southeast  of  Babylon — the  site 
of  some  place  of  importance. 

CAL' VARY,  Luke  23:33,  or  Gol'gotha, 
the  latter  being  the  Hebrew  term,  place  of 
a  skull,  the  place  where  our  Saviour  was 
crucified,  near  by  Jerusalem,  John  19:20, 
but  outside  of  its  walls.  Matt.  27^:33;  Mark 
15:22;  John  19:17;  Heb.  13:12.  In  the 
same  place  was  a  private  garden,  and  a 
tomb  in  which  the  body  of  Christ  lay  un- 
til the  resurrection,  John  19:41.  42.  The 
expression  ''Mount  Calvary"  has  no  evi- 
dence to  support  it  beyond  what  is  implied 
in  the  name  Golgotha,  which  might  well 
be  given  to  a  slight  elevation  shaped  like 
the  top  of  a  skull,  and  the  probability  that 
such  a  place  would  be  chosen  for  the  cruci- 
fixion. It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  true 
localities  of  Calvary  and  the  tomb  are  those 
covered  by  the  present  "  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,"  a  vast  structure  north  of 
Mount  Zion  and  within  the  modern  city, 
built  on  the  site  which  was  fixed  under  the 
empress  Helena,  A.  D.  335,  by  tradition  and 
a  pretended  miracle.     Some  Biblical  geog- 


CAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAM 


raphers  adhere  to  this  location ;  but  Rob- 
inson and  many  others  strongly  oppose  it, 
on  ^he  ground  of  the  weakness  of  the  tra- 
dition, and  the  difficulty  of  supposing  that 
this  place  lay  outside  of  the  ancient  walls. 
See  Jerusalem.  Dr.  Fisk,  while  visiting 
the  spot  under  the  natural  desire  to  iden- 
tify the  scene  of  these  most  sacred  events, 
felt  it  to  be  just  possible,  and  that  was  all, 
that  the  spot  shown  him  might  be  the  ac- 
tual scene  of  the  crucifixion ;  that  the  rock 
shown  him  might  be  a  part  of  the  rock 
riven  by  the  earthquake ;  that  the  stone 
column  he  saw,  half  concealed  by  iron- 
work, might  have  been  that  to  which  our 
Lord  was  bound  when  scourged  ;  that  the 
small  fragment  of  rude  stone  seen  by  the 
light  of  a  small  taper,  through  a  kind  of 
iron  filagree,  might  have  been  the  stone  on 
which  he  sat  to  be  crowned  with  thorns ; 
that  the  spot  overhung  with  lamps,  and 
covered  with  a  white  marble  sarcophagus, 
with  a  kind  of  domed  structure  in  the  cen- 
tre, might  have  been  the  place  of  our  Lord's 
burial  and  resurrection :  but  when  he  saw 
the  near  juxtaposition  of  all  these  things, 
and  knew  that  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
structure  of  the  church  the  site  had  to  be 
cut  down  and  levelled ;  when  he  reflected 
that  on  the  very  spot  a  heathen  temple  had 
stood,  till  removed  by  the  empress  Helena 
to  make  room  for  this  church ;  and,  more- 
over, when  he  considered  the  superstitious 
purpose  all  these  things  were  to  serve,  and 
the  spirit  of  that  church  which  thus  para- 
ded these  objects  of  curiosity,  he  could  not 
bring  himself  to  feel  that  they  were  what 
they  professed  to  be. 

Let  us  be  thankful  that  though  the  exact 
scene  of  Christ's  death  is  now  unknown, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  fact.  "  He 
died,  and  was  buried,  and  the  third  day 
rose  again,  according  to  the  Scriptures." 
Then  the  old  ritual  passed  away,  Satan 
was  despoiled,  man  was  redeemed,  God 
reconciled,  and  heaven  opened  to  all  be- 
lievers. 

CAMBY'SES.     See  Ahasuerus,  U. 

CAM'EL,  carrier,  a.  beast  of  burden  very 
common  in  the  East,  where  it  is  called  "the 
land-ship,"  and  "  the  carrier  of  the  desert." 
It  is  6  or  7  feet  high,  and  is  exceedingly 
strong,  tough,  and  enduring  of  labor.  The 
feet  are  constructed  with  a  tough  elastic 
sole,  which  prevents  the  animal  from  sink- 
ing in  the  sand  ;  and  on  all  sorts  of  ground 
it  is  very  sure-footed.  The  Arabian  spe- 
cies, most  commonly  referred  to  in  Scrip- 
ture, has  but  one  hump  on  the  back;  while 


the  Bactrian  camel,  found  in  Central  Asia, 
has   two.     While  the  animal  is  well   fed, 


THE    SWIFT   CAMEL,  OR    DROMEDARY. 

these  humps  swell  with  accumulated  fat, 
which  is  gradually  absorbed  under  scarcity 
and  toil,  to  supply  the  lack  of  food.  The 
dromedary  is  a  lighter  and  swifter  vari- 
ety, otherwise  not  distinguishable  from  the 
common  camel,  Isa.  60:6;  Jer.  2:23.  It 
cannot  travel  more  than  8  or  9  miles  an 
hour,  but  can  maintain  this  speed  hour 
after  hour.  Within  the  cavity  of  the  cam- 
el's stomach  is  a  sort  of  paunch,  provided 
with  membranous  cells  to  contain  an  extra 
provision  of  water ;  the  supply  with  which 
this  is  filled  will  last  for  many  days  while 
he  traverses  the  desert.  His  food  is  coarse 
leaves,  twigs,  thistles,  which  he  prefers  to 
the  tenderest  grass,  and  on  which  he  per- 
forms the  longest  journeys.  But  generally, 
on  a  march,  about  a  pound  weight  of  dates, 
beans,  or  barley  will  serve  for  24  hours. 
The  camel  kneels  to  receive  its  load,  which 
varies  from  500  to  i,ooo  or  1,200  pounds. 
Meanwhile  it  is  wont  to  utter  loud  cries  or 
growls  of  anger  and  impatience.  Though 
generally  docile,  it  is  often  obstinate  and 
stupid,  and  at  times  ferocious ;  the  young 
are  as  dull  and  ungainly  as  the  old.  The 
ordinary  camel's  average  rate  of  travel  is 
about  2  and  one-third  miles  an  hour ;  and 
it  jogs  on  with  a  sullen  pertinacity  hour 
after  hour  without  fatigue,  seeming  as  fresh 
at  night  as  in  the  morning.  No  other  ani- 
mal could  endure  the  severe  and  continual 
hardships  of  the  camel,  his  rough  usage, 
his  coarse  and  scanty  food.  The  Arabians 
well  say  of  him,  "Job's  beast  is  a  monu- 
ment of  God's  mercy." 
This  useful  animal  has  been  much  em- 

87 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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ployed  in  the  East  from  a  verj'  early  peri- 
od, (ien.  12:16;  Exod.  9:3.  The  merchants 
of  those  sultry  climes  have  found  it  the 
only  means  of  exchanging  the  products  of 
different  lands,  and  from  time  immemorial 
long  caravans  have  traversed  year  after 
year  the  almost  pathless  deserts.  Gen. 
37:25.  The  number  of  one's  camels  was  a 
token  of  his  wealth.  Job  had  3,000,  and 
the  Midianites'  camels  were  like  the  sand 
of  the  sea,  Jud.  7:12;  i  Chr.  5:21  ;  Job  i  :3. 
Rebekah  came  to  Isaac  riding  upon  a  cam- 
el, Gen.  24:64;  the  queen  of  Sheba  brought 
them  to  Solomon,  and  Hazael  to  Elisha, 
laden  with  the  choicest  gifts,  i  Kin.  10:2; 
2  Kin.  8:9;  the  Cushites  had  them  in  abun- 
dance, 2  Chr.  14:15;  and  they  were  even 
made  serviceable  in  war,  i  Sam.  30:17. 
The  camel  was  to  the  Hebrews  an  unclean 
animal,  as  it  does  not  fully  divide  the  hoof. 
Lev.  11:4;  yet  its  milk  has  ever  been  to 
the  Arabs  an  important  article  of  food,  and 
is  highly  prized  as  a  cooling  and  healthy 
drink.  Indeed,  no  animal  is  more  useful 
to  the  Arabs,  while  living  or  after  death. 
Its  flesh  is  coarse-grained  but  palatable, 
especially  when  young  and  well  fed.  Out 
of  its  hair  they  manufacture  carpets,  tent 
cloth,  and  large  sacks  for  corn.  Of  its  skin 
they  make  huge  water-bottles  and  leather 
sacks,  also  sandals,  ropes,  and  thongs.  Its 
dung,  dried  in  the  sun,  serves  them  for 
fuel. 

■  Camels'  hair  was  woven  into  cloth  in 
the  East,  some  of  it  exceedingly  fine  and 
soft,  but  usually  coarse  and  rough,  used  for 
making  the  coats  of  shepherds  and  camel- 
drivers,  and  for  covering  tents.  It  was 
this  that  John  the  Baptist  wore,  and  not 
"soft  raiment,"  Matt.  3:4;  11:8.  Modern 
dervishes  wear  garments  of  this  kind  ;  and 
this  appears  to  be  meant  in  2  Kin.  1:8; 
Zech.  13:4. 

The  expression,  "  It  is  easier  for  a  camel 
to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,"  etc.. 
Matt.  19:24,  was  a  proverb  to  describe  an 
impossibility.  The  same  phrase  occurs 
in  the  Koran ;  and  a  similar  one  in  the 
Talmud,  respecting  an  elephant's  going 
through  a  needle's  eye.  See  also  the  prov- 
erb in  Matt.  23:24,  which  illustrates  the 
hypocrisy  of  the  Pharisees  by  the  custom 
of  passing  wine  through  a  strainer.  The 
old  versions  of  the  New  Testament,  instead 
of  "  strain  ai "  a  gnat,  have  "  strain  on/," 
which  conveys  the  true  meaning. 

CAMP,  ENCAMP'MENTS,  2  Kin.  6:8; 
Rev.  20:9.  These  terms  usually  refer  to 
the  movements  of  the   Israelites  between 


Egypt  and  Canaan ;  and  many  passages  of 
the  Levitical  law  relate  to  things  done 
"  within "  or  "  without  the  camp,"  Lev. 
10:4,5;  14:3124:14.  Compare  John  19: 17, 
20;  Heb.  13:11-13.  The  whole  body  of  the 
people  consisted  of  600,000  fighting  men, 
besides  women  and  children.  Num.  1:2; 
and  was  disposed  into  4  battalions,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  inclose  the  tabernacle  in  a 
square,  and  each  under  one  general  stand- 
ard. In  the  tabernacle  was  the  ark,  with 
the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire  over  it,  and  the 
priests'  tents  around  it,  Num.  2 ;  3.  The 
mode  in  which  this  vast  mass  of  people 
was  arranged,  with  the  most  perfect  order, 
cleanliness,  and  subordination,  must  excite 
general  surprise.  Balaam,  standing  on 
the  heights  of  Moab,  viewed  the  imposing 
spectacle  with  admiration  and  awe.  "  How 
goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob !  the  Lord 
his  God  is  with  him,"  Num.  23;  24. 

The  order  appointed  for  the  removal  of 
the  hosts  of  Israel  from  one  encampment 
to  another  is  detailed  in  Num.  9 ;  10.  The 
names  of  41  encampments  are  given  in 
Num.  33 ;  from  the  first  in  Rameses,  in  the 
month  April,  B.  C.  1491,  to  the  last  on  the 
brink  of  the  Jordan  40  years  later.  See 
Exodus  and  Wanderings. 

Travellers  in  the  desert  chose  a  spot  of 
rising  ground,  and  by  a  spring  of  water  if 
possible,  and  were  wont  to  pitch  their  tents 
in  the  centre  of  a  circle  formed  by  their 
camels  and  baggage,  which  served  as  a 
barrier  against  an  assault.  A  similar  mode 
of  encamping  was  practised  by  large  cara- 
vans, and  by  armies,  i  Sam.  17:20;  26:5, 
margin. 

CAM'PHIRE,  in  Sol.  Song  1:14;  4:13,  is 
not  the  gum  camphor  of  our  apothecaries, 
but  the  cyprus-flower  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  the  Lawsonia  Alba  of  botanists,  the 
Henna  of  the  Arabs,  a  whitish  fragrant 
flower,  hanging  in  clusters  like  grapes,  on 
a  bush  4  to  6  feet  high.  Oriental  ladies 
make  use  of  the  dried  and  powdered  leaves 
to  give  their  nails,  feet,  and  hands  a  red- 
dish orange  tinge.  The  nails  of  Egyptian 
mummies  are  found  thus  dyed.  See  Eye- 
lids. The  flowers  of  the  el-Henna  are 
fragrant;  and  being  disposed  in  clusters, 
the  females  of  Egypt  are  fond  of  carrying 
it  in  their  bosoms. 

CA'NA,  the  birthplace  of  Nathanael,  the 
city  in  which  our  Lord  performed  his  first 
miracle,  and  from  which  he  soon  after  sent 
a  miraculous  healing  "  down  "  to  the  noble- 
man's son  at  Capernaum,  18  miles  off,  John 
2:1-11;  4:46-54;  21:2.     It  was  called  Cana 


CAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAN 


of  Galilee,  now  Kana-el-Jelil,  and  lay  8 
miles  north  of  Nazareth.  This  is  Robin- 
son's view.  The  commonly  received  site, 
Kefr  Kenna,  is  nearer  Nazareth.  Cana  is 
now  in  ruins. 

CA'NAAN,  low,  I.,  the  4th  son  of  Ham, 
and  grandson  of  Noah,  Gen.  9:18.  His 
numerous  posterity  seem  to  have  occupied 
Zidon  .first,  and  thence  spread  into  Syria 
and  Canaan,  Gen.  10:15-19;  i  Chr.  1:13-16. 
The  Jews  believe  that  he  was  implicated 
with  his  father  in  the  dishonor  done  to 
Noah,  Gen.  9:20-27,  which  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  curse  under  which  he  and  his 
posterity  suffered.  Josh.  9:23,  27;  2  Chr. 
8:7,8. 

II.  The  land  peopled  by  Canaan  and  his 
posterity,  and  afterwards  given  to  the  He- 
brews. This  country  has  at  different  peri- 
ods been  called  by  various  names,  either 
from  its  inhabitants  or  some  circumstances 
connected  with  its  history,  (i.)  "  The  land 
of  Canaan,"  from  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham, 
who  divided  it  among  his  11  sons,  each  of 
whom  became  the  head  of  a  numerous 
tribe,  and  ultimately  of  a  distinct  people. 
Gen.  10:15-20;  11:31.  This  did  not  at  first 
include  any  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  Num. 
32:26-32.  (2.)  "The  land  of  Promise," 
Heb.  II  :9,  from  the  promise  given  to  Abra- 
ham that  his  posterity  should  possess  it. 
Gen.  12:7;  13:15.  These  being  termed 
Hebrews,  the  region  in  which  they  dwelt 
was  called  (3.)  "  The  land  of  the  Hebrews," 
Gen.  40:15;  and  (4.)  "  The  land  of  Israel," 
from  the  Israelites,  or  posterity  of  Jacob, 
having  settled  there.  This  name  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  comprehends  all  that  tract  of  ground  on 
each  side  of  the  Jordan  which  God  gave  for 
an  inheritance  to  the  Hebrews.  At  a  later 
age,  this  term  was  often  restricted  to  the 
territory  of  the  10  tribes,  Ezek.  27 :  17. 
(5.)  "The  land  of  Judah."  This  at  first 
comprised  only  the  region  which  was  allot- 
ted to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  After  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  10  tribes,  the  land  which  be- 
longed to  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who  formed 
a  separate  kingdom,  was  distinguished  by 
the  appellation  of  "  the  land  of  Judah,"  or 
Judaea;  which  latter  name  the  whole  coun- 
try retained  during  the  existence  of  the  2d 
temple,  and  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans.  (6.)  "  The  Holy  Land."  This 
name  appears  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Hebrews  after  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
Zech.  2:13.  (7.)  "Palestine,"  Exod.  15:14, 
a  name  derived  from  the  Philistines,  who 
migrated  from  Egypt,  and  having  expelled 


the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  settled  on  the 
borders  of  the  Mediterranean.  Their  name 
was  subsequently  given  to  the  whole  coun- 
try, though  they  in  fact  possessed  only  a 
small  part  of  it.  By  heathen  writers,  the 
Holy  Land  has  been  variously  termed  Pal- 
estine, Syria,  and  Phoenicia.  Its  popula- 
tion in  its  most  prosperous  days  was  4  or  5 
millions;  now  one  and  a  half  millions. 

Canaan  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  north  by  Mount  Leba- 
non and  Syria,  east  by  Arabia  Deserta, 
and  south  by  Edom  and  the  desert  of  Zin 
and  Paran.  Its  extreme  length  was  about 
180  miles,  and  its  average  width  about  60; 
and  it  contained  10,000  square  miles — more 
or  less,  at  different  periods.  It  general 
form  and  dimensions  Coleman  has  well 
compared  to  those  of  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire.  At  the  period  of  David,  vast 
tributary  regions  were  for  a  time  annexed 
to  the  Holy  Land.  These  included  the  bor- 
dering natit>ns  on  the  east,  far  into  Arabia 
Deserta;  thence  north  to  Tiphsah  on  the 
Euphrates,  with  all  Syria  between  Leba- 
non and  the  Euphrates.  On  the  south  it 
included  Edom,  and  reached  the  Red  Sea 
at  Ezion-geber. 

The  land  of  Canaan  has  been  variously 
divided.  Under  Joshua  it  was  apportioned 
out  to  the  12  tribes.  Under  Rehoboam  it 
was  divided  into  the  2  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  It  afterwards  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Babylonians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Syrians,  and  the  Romans.  During  the  time 
of  our  Saviour,  it  was  under  the  dominion 
of  the  last-mentioned  people,  and  was  divi- 
ded into  5  provinces :  Galilee,  Samaria, 
Judaea,  Peraea,  and  Idumaea.  Peraea  was 
again  divided  into  7  cantons:  Abilene,  Tra- 
chonitis,  Ituraea,  Gaulonitis,  Batanaea,  Pe- 
raea, and  Decapolis.  At  present,  Palestine 
is  subject  to  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  under 
whom  the  pashas  of  Acre  and  Gaza  govern 
the  sea-coast,  and  the  pasha  of  Damascus 
the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  surface  of  the  land  of  Canaan  is 
beautifully  diversified  with  mountains  and 
plains,  rivers  and  valleys.  The  principal 
mountains  are  Lebanon,  Carmel,  Tabor, 
Gilead,  Hermon,  the  Mount  of  Olives,  etc. 
The  plain  of  the  Mediterranean,  of  Esdrae- 
lon,  and  of  Jericho,  are  celebrated  as  the 
scenes  of  many  important  events.  The 
chief  streams  are  the  Jordan,  the  Leontes, 
the  Arnon,  the  Sihor,  the  Jabbok,  and  the 
Kishon.  The  lakes  are  the  Asphaltites  or 
Dead  Sea,  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  or  Sea  of 
Galilee,    and    Lake    Merom.      These    are 

89 


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elsewhere  described,  each  in  its  own 
place. 

The  general  features  of  the  country  may 
here  be  briefly  described.  The  northern 
boundary  is  at  the  lofty  mountains  of  Leb- 
anon and  Hermon,  some  peaks  of  which 
are  10,000  feet  high.  Around  the  base  of 
Mount  Hermon  are  the  various  sources  of 
the  Jordan.  This  river,  passing  through 
Lake  Merom  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  flows 
south  with  'innumerable  windings  into  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  valley  is  deeply  sunk,  and 
from  its  source  to  the  Dead  Sea  it  has  a 
descent  of  2,000  feet.  See  Arabah  and 
Jordan.  The  country  between  the  Jordan 
valley  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is  in 
general  an  elevated  table-land,  broken  up 
by  many  hills,  and  by  numerous  deep  val- 
leys through  which  the  wintry  torrents 
flow  into  Jordan  and  the  sea.  The  table- 
land of  Galilee  may  be  900  or  i,ooo  feet 
above  the  Mediterranean.  In  Lower  Gali- 
lee we  find  the  great  and  beautiful  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  extending  from  Mount  Carmel 
and  Acre  on  the  west  to  Tabor  and  Gilboa, 
with  branches,  to  the  Jordan,  on  the  east. 
From  this  plain  the  land  again  rises  towards 
the  south.  Mount  Gerizim  being  2,849  f^^t, 
Jerusalem  2,593,  and  Hebron  3,040  above 
the  sea.  On  the  sea-coast,  below  Mount 
Carmel,  a  fertile  plain  is  found ;  towards 
the  south  it  becomes  gradually  wider,  and 
e.xpands  at  last  into  the  great  desert  of 
Paran.  From  this  plain  of  the  sea-coast 
the  ascent  to  the  high  land  of  the  interior  is 
by  a  succession  of  natural  terraces ;  while 
the  descent  to  the  Jordan,  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  Edom  is  abrupt  and  precipitous.  The 
country  beyond  the  Jordan  is  mountainous; 
a  rich  grazing  land,  with  many  fertile  val- 
leys. Still  farther  east  is  the  high  and  des- 
olate plateau  of  Arabia  Deserta. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Canaan  were 
highly  favorable.  The  heat  was  not  ex- 
treme except  in  the  deep  river  beds  and 
on  the  sea-coast;  and  the  climate  was  in 
general  mild  and  healthful.  The  varia- 
tions of  sunshine,  clouds,  and  rain,  which 
with  us  extend  throughout  the  year,  are  in 
Palestine  confined  chiefly  to  the  winter  or 
rainy  season.  The  autumnal  rains  usually 
commence  in  the  latter  part  of  October, 
and  soon  after  the  first  showers  wheat  and 
barley  are  sowed.  Rain  falls  more  heavily 
in  December,  and  continues,  though  with 
less  frequency,  until  April.  From  May  to 
October  no  rain  falls.  The  cold  of  winter 
is  not  severe,  and  the  ground  does  not 
freeze.  Snows  a  foot  or  more  deep  some- 
Qo 


times  occur,  and  there  are  frequent  hail- 
storms in  winter.  The  barley  harvest  is 
about  a  fortnight  earlier  than  the  wheat, 
and  both  are  earlier  in  the  plains  than  on 
the  high  land;  altogether  the  grain  harvest 
extends  from  April  to  June.  The  first 
grapes  ripen  in  July,  but  the  vintage  is  not 
over  till  September.  In  this  month  and 
October  the  heat  is  great ;  the  ground  be- 
comes dry  and  parched  ;  verdure  has  long 
before  disappeared ;  pools  and  cisterns  be- 
gin to  dry  up  ;  and  all  nature,  animate  and 
inanimate,  looks  forward  with  longing  for 
the  return  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  soil  of  Canaan  was  highly  produc- 
tive. The  prevailing  rock  is  a  chalky 
limestone,  abounding  in  caverns.  It  read- 
ily formed,  and  was  covered  with,  a  rich 
mould,  which  produced,  in  the  various 
elevations  and  climates  so  remarkably 
grouped  together  in  that  small  region  of 
the  world,  an  unequalled  variety  of  the 
fruits  of  the  ground.  Olives,  figs,  vines, 
and  pomegranates  grew  in  abundance;  the 
hills  were  clothed  with  flocks  and  herds, 
and  the  valleys  were  covered  with  corn. 
The  land  of  promise  was  currently  de- 
scribed as  "  flowing  with  milk  and  honey." 
Yet  the  glowing  description  given  by  Mo- 
ses, Deut.  8:7-9,  and  the  statements  of  his- 
tory as  to  the  vast  population  formerly 
occupying  it,  are  in  striking  contrast  with 
its  present  aspect  of  barrenness  and  deso- 
lation. See  Census.  The  curse  brought 
down  by  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews  still 
blights  their  unhappy  land.  Long  ages  of 
warfare  and  misrule  have  despoiled  and 
depopulated  it.  Its  hills,  once  terraced  to 
the  summit,  and  covered  with  luxuriant 
grain,  vines,  olives,  and  figs,  are  now  bare 
rocks.  Its  early  and  latter  rains,  once 
preserved  in  reservoirs,  and  conducted  by 
winding  channels  to  water  the  ground  in 
the  season  of  drought,  now  flow  off"  un- 
heeded to  the  sea.  The  land,  stripped  of 
its  forests,  lies  open  to  the  sun — which  now 
scorches  where  it  once  fertilized.  And  yet 
some  parts  of  Palestine  still  show  an  aston- 
ishing fertility ;  and  wherever  the  soil  is 
cultivated,  it  yields  a  hundred-fold.  In- 
dian corn  grows  there  11  feet  high,  and 
grapes  are  still  produced  that  almost  rival 
the  clusters  of  Eshcol.  Intelligent  travel- 
lers agree  in  confirming  the  statements  of 
Scripture  as  to  its  ancient  fertility.  See 
Hebrews,  Jud^a. 

Conquest  of  Canaan.  Various  argu- 
ments have  been  adduced  to  justify  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  and   the  extermina- 


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tion  of  its  inhabitants  by  the  Israelites  ;  as 
that  the  land  had  been  allotted  to  Shem 
and  his  sons  after  the  flood,  and  the  sons 
of  Ham  were  usurpers  ;  that  they  first  as- 
saulted the  Jews;  that  Abraham  had  taken 
possession  of  the  land  ages  before ;  that  the 
Canaanites  were  akin  to  the  Egyptians, 
and  implicated  in  their  guilt  and  punish- 
ment as  oppressors  of  the  Hebrews.  What- 
ever justice  there  may  be  in  -any  of  these 
reasons,  they  are  not  those  which  the  Bible 
assigns.  The  only  true  warrant  of  the  Jews 
was,  the  special  command  of  the  Lord  of 
all.  They  were  impressively  taught  that 
the  wickedness  of  those  nations  was  the 
reason  of  their  punishment,  which  the  for- 
bearance of  God  had  long  delayed,  and 
which  was  designed  as  a  warning  to  them 
and  all  mankind  against  idolatry  and  its 
kindred  sins.  It  was  these  sins  the  Jews 
were  to  abhor  and  exterminate ;  they  were 
to  act  as  agents  of  God's  justice,  and  not 
for  the  gratification  of  their  own  avarice, 
anger,  or  lust,  the  spoil  in  many  cases 
bping  doomed  to  destruction.  They  were 
led  into  Canaan  by  a  miracle;  the  first 
city  in  their  way  was  captured  by  a  mir- 
acle; and  God's  hand  was  often  seen  in 
their  aid.  The  narrative  of  the  conquest 
is  given  in  Deut.  1-4;  Joshua;  and  Judges 
I.  The  Canaanites  were  not  wholly  de- 
stroyed. Many  of  them  escaped  to  other 
lands;  and  fragments  of  almost  all  the  na- 
tions remained  in  Judsea,  subject  to  the 
Israelites,  but  snares  to  their  feet  and 
thorns  in  their  sides.  It  must  be  observed, 
also,  that  full  notice  was  previously  given 
them  to  quit  their  forfeited  possessions  ;  a 
solemn  writ  of  ejectment  had  been  issued 
by  the  great  Proprietor,  and  if  they  resist- 
ek,  they  incurred  the  consequences. 

CA'NAANITES,  Gen.  10:18,  19,  the  de- 
scendants of  Canaan.  They  were  descend- 
ants of  Ham,  while  Abraham  and  his  kins- 
men were  Shemites ;  yet  the  language  of 
each  seems  to  have  been  understood  by 
the  others.  Their  first  habitation  was  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  where  they  multiplied 
extremely,  and  by  trade  and  war  acquired 
great  riches,  and  sent  out  colonies  all  over 
the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterrane- 
an. When  the  measure  of  their  idolatries 
and  abominations  was  completed,  God  de- 
livered their  country  into  the  hands  of  the 
Israelites,  who  conquered  it  under  Joshua. 
See  the  previous  article.  The  following 
are  the  principal  tribes  mentioned. 

I.  The  HiviTES  dwelt  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 


Hermon,  or  Anti-Lebanon,  according  to 
Josh.  11:3,  where  it  is  related  that  they, 
along  with  the  united  forces  of  Northern 
Canaan,  were  defeated  by  Joshua.  They 
were  not,  however,  entirely  driven  out  of 
their  possessions,  Judg.  3:3;  2  Sam.  24:7; 

1  Kin.  9:20.  There  were  also  Hivites  in 
Middle  Palestine,  Gen.  34:2;  Josh.  9:1,  7; 
11:19.     See  Hivites. 

2.  The  Canaanites,  in  a  restricted  sense, 
inhabited  the  Jordan  valley  and  the  plains 
west  of  the  Jordan  and  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  Num.  13:29;  Josh. 
11:3;  13:2,3. 

3.  The  GiRGASHiTES  dwelt  between  the 
Canaanites  and  the  Jebusites ;  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  order  in  which  they  are 
mentioned  in  Josh.  24 : 1 1 . 

4.  The  Jebusites  had  possession  of  the 
hill  country  around  Jerusalem,  and  of  that 
city  itself,  of  which  the  ancient  name  was 
Jebus,  Josh.  15:8,  63;  18:28.  The  Benja- 
mites,  to  whom  this  region  was  allotted, 
did  not  drive  out  the  Jebusites,  Judg.  i  :2i. 
David  first  captured  the  citadel  of  Jebus, 

2  Sam.  5:6. 

5.  The  Amorites  inhabited,  in  Abra- 
ham's time,  the  region  south  of  Jerusalem, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Gen. 
14:7.  At  a  later  period,  they  spread  them- 
selves out  over  all  the  mountainous  coun- 
try which  forms  the  southeastern  part  of 
Canaan,  and  which  was  called  from  them 
the  "  mountain  of  the  Amorites,"  and  after- 
wards the  "mountain  of  Judah,"  Deut. 
1:19,  20;  Num.  13:29;  Josh.  11:3.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  Jordan  also  they  had,  be- 
fore the  time  of  Moses,  founded  2  king- 
doms, that  of  Bashan  in  the  north,  and 
another,  bounded  at  first  by  the  Jabbok,  in 
the  south.  But  under  Sihon  they  crossed 
the  Jabbok,  and  took  from  the  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  all  the  country  between  the 
Jabbok  and  the  Arnon ;  so  that  this  latter 
stream  now  became  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  Amorites,  Num.  21:13,  14,  26;  32:33, 
39;  Deut.  4:46,  47;  31:4.  This  last  tract 
the  Israelites  took  possession  of  after  their 
victory  over  Sihon.     See  Amorites. 

6.  The  HiTTiTES,  or  children  of  Heth, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  spies,  Num. 
13:29,  dwelt  among  the  Amorites  in  the 
mountainous  district  of  the  south,  after- 
wards called  the  "  mountain  of  Judah." 
In  the  time  of  Abraham  they  possessed 
Hebron  ;  and  the  patriarch  purchased  from 
them  the  cave  of  Machpelah  as  a  sepulchre, 
Gen.  23;  25:9,  10.  After  the  Israelites  en- 
tered Canaan,  the  Hittites  seem  to  have 

91 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAN 


moved  farther  northward.  The  country 
around  Bethel  is  called  "  the  land  of  the 
Hittites,"  Judg.  1:26.     See  Hittites. 

7.  The  Perizzitks  were  found  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Canaan.  The  name  signifies 
inhabitants  of  the  plains,  from  their  origi- 
nal abode.  According  to  Gen.  13:7,  they 
dwelt  with  the  Canaanites,  between  Bethel 
and  Ai;  and  according  to  Gen.  34:30,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Shechem.     See  Pkkizzites. 

Besides  these  7  tribes,  there  were  several 
others  of  the  same  parentage,  dwelling 
north  of  Canaan.  These  were  the  Arkites, 
Arvadites,  Hamathites,  and  Zemarites. 
There  were  also  several  other  tribes  of  di- 
verse origin  within  the  bounds  of  Canaan, 
destroyed  by  the  Israelites;  such  as  the 
Anakim,  the  Amalekites,  and  the  Rephaim 
or  giants. 

Simon  the  Canaanite.    See  Zelotes. 

CAN'DACE,  prince  of  servants,  an  Ethi- 
opian queen,  whose  high  treasurer,  proba- 
bly of  Jewish  birth,  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity under  the  preaching  of  Philip  the 
evangelist,  Acts  8:27.  A.  D.  30.  The  Ethi- 
opia over  which  she  ruled  was  not  Abys- 
sinia, but  that  region  of  Upper  Nubia  called 
by  the  Greeks  Meroe ;  and  is  supposed  to 
correspond  with  the  present  province  of 
Atbara,  lying  between  13  and  18  degrees 
north  latitude.  Extensive  ruins  found  in 
this  neighborhood,  and  along  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Nile,  indicate  high  civilization 
among  the  ancient  Ethiopians.  Pliny  and 
Strabo  inform  us  that  for  some  time  before 
and  after  the  Christian  era  Ethiopia  was 
under  the  government  of  female  sovereigns, 
who  all  bore  the  appellation  of  Candace. 
Irenaeus  and  Eusebius  ascribe  to  Canda- 


ce's  minister  her  own  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity and  the  promulgation  of  the  gospel 
through  her  kingdom. 

CAN'DLE,  often  used  in  the  Bible,  A.  V., 
for /aw//),  Job  18:6;  Prov.  31:18;  Luke  15:8. 
Candles  were  unknown  in  the  East.  See 
Lamp.  A  light  in  the  house  is  an  emblem 
of  prosperity,  Job  21:17,  being  often  kept 
burning  all  night. 


GOLDEN   CANDLESTICK  :    PLAN    ANU    ELKVATION. 

CAN'DLESTICK.  In  the  tabernacle,  the 
golden  "  candlestick  " — or  rather  candela- 
brum or  lamp-stand — stood  on  the  left  hand 
of  one  entering  the  Holy  Place,  opposite 
the  table  of  show-bread.  It  consisted  of  a 
pedestal ;  an  upright  shaft ;  6  arms,  3  on 
one  side,  and  3  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
shaft ;  and  7  lamps  surmounting  the  shaft 
and  arms.  The  arms  were  adorned  with 
3  kinds  of  carved  ornaments,  called  cups, 
globes,  and  blossoms.  Its  lamps  were  sup- 
plied with  pure  olive  oil,  and  lighted  every 
evening,  Exod.  25:31-40;  30:7,8;  37:17-24; 
Lev.  24:1-3;  I  Sam.  3:3;  2  Chr.  13:11.  In 
the  ist  temple  there  were  10  candelabra  of 
pure  gold,  half  of  them  standing  on  the 


SPOILS   OF    JERUSALEM,  KROM    THE   ARCH   OF   TITUS   AT    ROME. 


north,  and  half  on  the  south  side,  within 
the  Holy  Place,  i  Kin.  7 :  49,  50 ;  2  Chr.  4:7; 
Jer.  52 :  19.  In  the  2d  temple  there  was  but 
1,  resembling  that  of  the  tabernacle.  This 
92 


was  carried  to  Rome,  on  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem;  it  was  lodged  in  Vespasian's 
temple  to  Peace,  and  copied  on  the  tri- 
umphal arch  of  Titus,  where  its  mutilated 


CAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAP 


image  is  yet  to  be  seen.  See  the  beautiful 
and  significant  visions  of  the  candlestick 
by  Zechariah  and  John,  Zech.  4:2-12;  Rev. 
1:12,  20. 

CANE,  or  Cal'amus,  sweet,  Song  4:14, 
an  aromatic  reed  mentioned  among  the 
drugs  of  which  the  sacred  perfumes  were 
compounded,  Exod.  30:23.  The  true  odo- 
riferous calamus  or  grass  came  from  India  ; 
and  the  prophets  speak  of  it  as  a  foreign 
commodity  of  great  value,  Isa.  43:24;  Jer. 
6:20;  Ezek.  27:19.     See  Reed. 

CAN'KER-WORM,  in  our  Bible,  A.  V.,  is 
put  where  the  Hebrew  means  a  species  of 
locust,  perhaps  in  the  larva  state,  Joel  1:4; 
Nah.  3:15,  16. 

CAN'ON,  a  straight  rod ;  hence  a  rule  or 
standard,  by  which  the  rectitude  of  opin- 
ions or  actions  may  be  decided.  In  the 
latter  sense  it  is  used  in  Gal.  6:16;  Phil. 
3:16,  and  by  the  Greek  fathers.  As  the 
standard  to  which  they  sought  to  appeal 
on  all  questions  was  the  will  of  God  in  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
they  came  naturally  to  apply  this  term  to 
the  collective  body  of  those  writings,  and 
to  speak  of  them  as  the  canon  or  rule. 
Canon  is  also  equivalent  to  a  list  or  cata- 
logue, in  which  are  inserted  all  those  books 
which  contain  the  inspired  rule  of  faith 
and  practice. 

In  order  to  establish  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture, it  must  be  shown  that  all  its  books 
are  of  divine  authority;  that  they  are  en- 
tire and  incorrupt;  that  it  is  without  addi- 
tion from  any  foreign  source  ;  and  that  the 
whole  of  the  books  for  which  divine  author- 
ity can  be  proved  are  included.   See  Bible. 

CAN'TICLES.     See  Solomon's  Song. 

CAPER'NAUM,  village  of  Naimm,  a  chief 
city  of  Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ,  not 
mentioned  before  the  captivity  in  Babylon. 
It  lay  on  the  northwest  shore  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  about  5  miles  from  the  Jordan,  and 
on  the  frequented  route  from  Damascus  to 
the  Mediterranean.  It  was  a  "  city,"  and 
a  revenue  station,  Matt.  9:1,  9;  17:24. 
This  seems  to  have  been  the  residence  of 
Christ,  during  the  3  years  of  his  ministry, 
more  than  any  other  place.  The  brothers 
Andrew  and  Peter  dwelt  there ;  Christ  often 
taught  in  its  synagogues,  one  of  which  was 
the  gift  of  a  Roman  centurion,  Luke  7:5, 
and  wrought  mighty  works  there — the  heal- 
ing of  the  centurion's  servant.  Matt.  8:5, 
the  man  with  an  unclean  spirit,  and  Pe- 
ter's wife's  mother,  Mark  1:21-34,  the  par- 
alytic, Mark  2:1,  and  the  nobleman's  son, 
John  4:46,  and  many  others.     On  its  wa- 


ters the  miracles  of  the  tribute-money  and 
of  the  stilling  the  tempest  occurred,  Matt. 
17:27;  John  6:17-21;  and  it  is  called  "his 
own  city,"  Matt.  4:12-16;  9:1;  Mark  2:1. 
Its  inhabitants  were  thus  "  exalted  unto 
heaven;"  but  their  unbelief  and  impeni- 
tence cast  them  down  to  destruction.  Matt. 
1 1 :  20-24.  The  very  name  and  site  of  Ca- 
pernaum have  been  lost.  Dr.  Robinson 
locates  it  at  Khan  Minyeh,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  fine  plain  of  Gennesaret, 
where- ruins  of  some  extent  still  remain, 
and  a  copious  fountain  not  far  from  the 
sea ;  Capt.  Wilson  and  other  authorities,  at 
Tell  Hflm,  3  miles  to  the  northeast,  where 
the  remains  of  a  large  Jewish  synagogue 
and  other  ruins  are  found ;  and  others  still, 
with  less  probability,  at  the  Round  P'oun- 
tain,  near  the  south  end  of  the  plain,  3 
miles  south  of  Khan  Minyeh  and  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  the  lake. 

CAPH'TORIM,  descendants  of  Mizraim, 
and  kindred  to  the  Casluhim,  near  whom 
they  probably  originated  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Africa.  These  last  two  people  are 
both  named  as  ancestors  of  the  Philistines, 
Gen.  10:14;  Deut.  2:23;  Amos  9:7;  and  it 
is  probable  that  a  colony  made  up  from 
both  drove  out  the  Avim  from  the  country 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  Mediterrane- 
an, and  occupied  it  under  the  name  of  Phil- 
istines, which  it  is  generally  agreed  means 
strangers.  They  were  there  in  Abraham's 
day.  Gen.  21:32,34,  but  whether  they  came 
directly  from  Egypt,  or  from  Cyprus,  Crete, 
or  Cappadocia,  is  not  agreed. 

CAPPADO'CIA,  the  largest  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Asia  Minor ;  having  Pontus  on  the 
north,  Mount  Taurus,  separating  it  from 
Cilicia  and  Syria,  on  the  south,  Galatia  on 
the  west,  and  the  Euphrates  and  Armenia 
on  the  east.  It  was  watered  by  the  river 
Halys,  and  was  noted  for  its  fine  pastures 
and  its  excellent  breed  of  horses,  asses, 
and  sheep.  There  were  many  Jews  resi- 
ding in  it,  Acts  2:9;  and  Christianity  was 
early  introduced  there,  i  Pet.  1:1,  among 
a  people  proverbial  for  dulness,  faithless- 
ness, and  vice.  See  Crete.  Several  cel- 
ebrated Christian  fathers  flourished  in  this 
province,  as  Basil  and  the  3  Gregories ;  and 
their  churches  may  be  traced  as  late  as  the 
loth  century. 

CAP'TAIN,  a  military  chief,  or  in  some 
cases  a  civil  officer ;  often  a  military  tri- 
bune or  commander  of  1,000  men,  John 
18:12;  Acts  21:31.  In  Gen.  39:1,  etc.,  prob- 
ably it  describes  Potiphar  as  head  of  the 
executors  of  the  king's  orders ;   in  Luke 

93 


CAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAP 


22:4,  52 ;  Acts  4:1;  5:24,  it  means  the  lead- 
er of  the  nightly  temple-guard  of  priests 
and  Levites,  as  in  2  Kin.  11:19;  25:18;  in 
Acts  28:16,  it  was  apparently  the  Praetori- 
an prefect,  over  the  emperor's  body-guard. 
Applied  to  Christ  in  Heb.  2:10,  it  is  not  a 
military  term,  but  means  "  author "  or 
source,  as  in  Heb.  12:2. 

CAP'TIVES,  taken  in  war,  seem  ancient- 
ly to  have  been  looked  upon  as  justly  liable 
to  death,  and  hence  to  any  treatment  less 
dreadful  than  death.  Their  necks  were 
trodden  upon.  Josh.  10:24,  in  token  of  ab- 
ject subjection,  which  illustrates  Psa.  no:  i. 
They  were  sold  into  servitude,  like  Joseph. 
They  were  mutilated,  like  Samson,  Adoni- 
zedek,  or  Zedekiah.  They  were  stripped 
of  all  clothing,  and  driven  in  crowds  to 
adorn  the  victor's  triumph,  Isa.  20:4.  Large 
numbers  of  them  were  selected,  often  by  a 
measuring  line,  2  Sam.  8:2,  and  slain,  2  Chr. 
25: 12.  This  was  sometimes  done  with  de- 
signed cruelty,  2  Sam.  12:31  ;  i  Chr.  20:3. 
See  CUT  in  Ninevkh.  See  also  2  Kin.  8:12; 
Nah.  3:5,  6;  Zech.  14:2.  A  whole  people 
was  sometimes  sold  into  slavery,  or  trans- 
planted to  another  country.  The  Romans 
in  some  cases  bound  a  living  cai)tive  to  a 
dead  body,  and  left  them  to  perish  togeth- 
er— a  practice  which  may  illustrate  the 
apostle's  cry,  "  O  wretched  man  that  I  am ! 
who  shall  deliver  me  from  the  body  of  this 
death  ?"  Rom.  7:24. 

CAPTIVITY.  God  often  punished  the 
sins  of  the  Jews  by  captivities  or  servi- 
tudes, according  to  his  threatenings,  Deut. 
28.  Their  first  captivity,  however,  from 
which  Moses  delivered  them,  should  be 
considered  rather  as  a  permission  of  Prov- 
idence, than  as  a  punishment  for  sin. 
There  were  6  subjugations  of  the  12  tribes 
during  the  period  of  the  Judges.  But  the 
most  remarkable  captivities,  or  rather  ex- 
patriations of  the  Hebrews,  were  those  of 
Israel  and  Judah  under  the  regal  govern- 
ment. Israel  was  first  carried  away  in 
part  about  740  B.  C,  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
2  Kin.  15:29.  The  tribes  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, with  parts  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali, 
I  Chr.  5:26;  Isa.  9:1,  were  the  first  suffer- 
ers. Twenty  years  later,  Shalmaneser  car- 
ried away  the  remainder  of  Israel,  2  Kin. 
17:6,  and  located  them  in  distant  cities, 
many  of  them  probably  not  far  from  the 
Caspian  Sea;  and  their  place  was  supplied 
by  colonies  from  Babylon  and  Persia,  2  Kin. 
17:6-24.  Aside  from  certain  prophecies, 
Isa.  11:12,  13;  Jer.  31:7-9,  16-20:  49:2; 
Ezek.  37:16;  Hos.  11: 11;  Amos  9:14; 
94 


Obad.  18 ;  19,  etc.,  which  are  variously  in- 
terpreted to  mean  a  past  or  a  future  return, 
a  physical  or  a  spiritual  restoration,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  the  10  tribes  as  a  body 
ever  returned  to  Palestine. 

To  Judah  are  generally  reckoned  3  cap- 
tivities :  I.  I'nder  Jehoiakim,  in  his  3d  year, 
B.  C.  606,  when  Daniel  and  others  were  car- 
ried to  Babylon,  2  Kin.  24:1,  2;  Dan.  1:1. 
2.  In  the  last  year  of  Jehoiakim,  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  3,023  Jews  to  Bab- 
jlon ;  or  rather,  under  Jehoiachin,  when 
this  prince  also  was  sent  to  Babylon ;  that 
is,  in  the  7th  and  8th  years  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, B.  C.  598,  2  Kin.  24:12;  2  Chr.  36:8, 
10;  Jer.  52:28.  3.  Under  Zedekiah,  B.  C. 
588,  when  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  were 
destroyed,  and  most  that  was  valuable 
among  the  people  and  their  treasures  was 
carried  to  Babylon,  2  Kin.  25 ;  2  Chr.  36. 
This  was  132  years  after  the  final  captivity 
of  Israel.  The  70  years  during  which  they 
were  to  remain  in  captivity,  Jer.  25:11; 
29: 10,  are  reckoned  probably  from  the  date 
of  the  first  ca])tivity,  B.  C.  606.  Besides  the 
3  occasions  above  named,  several  other  in- 
vasions and  partial  captivities  are  alluded 
to  in  2  Kin.  15: 19;   17:3-6;   18:13;  25:11. 

While  in  Babylonia,  the  Jews  were  treat- 
ed mildly,  and  more  like  colonists  than 
slaves.  They  had  judges  and  elders  who 
governed  them,  and  decided  matters  in  dis- 
pute juridically  according  to  their  laws. 
The  books  of  Nehemiah  and  Daniel  show 
us  Jews  in  high  positions  at  court,  and  the 
book  of  Esther  celebrates  their  numbers 
and  power  in  the  Persian  empire.  There 
were  priests  among  them,  Jer.  29:1,  and 
they  preserved  their  genealogical  registers 
and  many  of  their  rites  and  customs.  The 
prophets  labored,  not  in  vain,  to  keep  alive 
the  flame  of  true  religion. 

At  length  the  70  years  were  fulfilled,  and 
Cyrus,  in  the  ist  year  of  his  reign  at  Baby- 
lon, B.  C.  536,  made  a  jjroclamation  through- 
out his  empire  permitting  the  i)eople  of  God 
to  return  to  their  own  country  and  rebuild 
the  temple,  Ezra  i:ii.  Nearly  50,000  ac- 
cepted the  invitation,  though  a  large  pro- 
portion preferred  to  remain,  Ezra  2:2;  Neh. 
7:7.  This  company  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  2d  temple,  which  was  completed  in  the 
6th  year  of  Darius,  B.  C.  516.  Fifty-eight 
years  after,  Ezra  led  a  small  company  of 
7,000  from  Babylon  to  Judaea.  He  was 
succeeded  as  governor  by  Nehemiah,  who 
labored  faithfully  and  successfully  to  re- 
form the  people,  and  many  of  the  good 
fruits  of  his  labors  remained  until  the  time 


CAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAR 


of  Christ.  The  Jewish  character  and  lan- 
guage were  changed  by  their  sojourn  for 
so  long  a  time  among  foreigners,  Neh.  8:8; 
and  it  is  noteworthy  that  we  hear  little  of 
idols  or  idolatry  among  them  after  the  cap- 
tivity. 

Probably  none  among  the  posterity  of 
Jacob  can  now  prove  from  which  of  his  i2 
sons  they  are  descended.  Both  Judah  and 
Israel  being  removed  from  "the  lot  of  their 
inheritance"  in  Canaan,  and  dispersed 
among  strangers,  the  various  tribes  would 
naturally  amalgamate  with  each  other,  the 
envy  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  would  depart, 
and  the  memory  of  Abraham,  Moses,  and 
David  would  revive,  Ezra  6:i6,  17;  8:35; 
Ezek.  37:26-28.  They  are  called  the  "  dis- 
persed among  the  Gentiles,"  John  7:35, 
and  2  of  the  inspired  epistles  were  written 
to  them,  Jas.  i :  i ;  i  Pet.  i :  i. 

The  last  captivity  of  the  Jews,  A.  D.  71, 
after  they  had  filled  up  the  measure  of 
their  iniquity  by  rejecting  Christ  and  the 
gospel,  was  a  terrible  one.  According  to 
Josephus,  1,100,000  perished  at  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  and  nearly  100,000  cap- 
tives were  scattered  among  the  provinces 
and  slain  in  gladiatorial  shows,  doomed  to 
toil  as  public  slaves,  or  sold  into  private 


bondage.  The  cut  represents  the  medal  of 
the  emperor  Vespasian,  A.  D.  71,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Under 
the  emperor  Hadrian,  A.  D.  133,  a  similar 
crushing  blow  fell  on  the  Jews  who  had 
again  assembled  in  Judaea;  and  at  this 
day  they  are  scattered  all  over  the  world, 
yet  distinct  from  the  people  among  whom 
they  dwell,  suffering  under  the  woe  which 
unbelief  has  brought  upon  their  fathers 
and  themselves,  until  the  time  come  when 
Christ  "  shall  turn  away  ungodliness  from 
Jacob,"  Rom.  11:25,  26. 

CAR'BUNCLE,  a  precious  stone,  like  a 
large  ruby  or  garnet,  of  a  dark  red  color, 


said  to  glitter  even  in  the  dark,  and  to 
sparkle  more  than  the  ruby.  The  word 
is  put  to  represent  2  different  Hebrew 
words,  one  of  which,  Exod.  28:17;  Ezek. 
28:13,  is  commonly  thought  to  mean  the 
emerald;  and  the  other,  Isa.  54:12,  maj' 
mean  a  brilliant  species  of  ruby. 

CAR'CHEMISH,/or/  of  Chemosh,  usually 
identified  with  Circesium,  a  fortified  city 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates,  where 
the  river  Chaboras  enters  it.  In  Isa.  10:9, 
it  appears  as  taken  by  some  king  of  As- 
syria. It  was  attacked  by  Pharaoh-necho 
king  of  Egj-pt,  near  the  close  of  Josiah's 
reign,  B.  C.  609,  2  Chr.  35:20.  Three  years 
afterwards  Necho  was  signally  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  46:1-12.  In  later 
times  it  was  held  as  a  frontier  post  of  the 
Roman  empire  on  the  east.  Rawlinson 
places  it  at  Hierapolis,  near  Bir,  much  far- 
ther up  the  river. 

CAR'MEL,  tlie  park,  ox ,  fruitful  field,  I., 
a  city  of  Judah,  on  a  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  9  miles  south  by  east  of  Hebron, 
Josh.  15:55;  2  Chr.  26:10.  Here  Saul,  re- 
turning from  his  expedition  against  Ama- 
lek,  erected  a  trophy ;  and  here  Nabal  the 
Carmelite,  Abigail's  husband,  dwelt,  i  Sam. 
15:12;  25;  27:3.  Its  ruins  indicate  that  it 
was  a  large  place. 

II.  A  celebrated  range  of  hills,  12  miles 
long,  running  northwest  beside  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  and  ending  in  the  promontory 
south  of  the  Bay  of  Acre,  Josh.  19:26.  Its 
greatest  height  is  about  i,Sio  feet;  at  its 
northeastern  foot  runs  the  brook  Kishon, 
and  a  little  farther  north,  the  river  Belus. 
On  its  northern  point  now  stands  a  convent 
of  the  Carmelite  friars,  an  order  established 
in  the  12th  century,  and  having  various 
branches  in  Europe.  Mount  Carmel  is  the 
only  great  promontory  upon  the  coast  of 
Palestine.  The  foot  of  the  northern  part 
approaches  the  water  so  that,  seen  from 
the  hills  northeast  of  Acre,  Mount  Carmel 
appears  as  if  "  dipping  his  feet  in  the 
western  sea ;"  farther  south  it  retires  more 
inland,  so  that  between  the  mountain  and 
the  sea  there  is  an  extensive  plain  covered 
with  fields  and  olive-trees.  Mr.  Carne 
traversed  the  whole  summit,  which  occu- 
pied several  hours.  He  says,  "  It  is  the 
finest  and  most  beautiful  mountain  in  Pal- 
estine, of  great  length,  and  in  many  parts 
covered  with  trees  and  flowers.  On  reach- 
ing, at  last,  the  opposite  summit,  and  com- 
ing out  of  a  wood,  we  saw  the  celebrated 
plain  of  Esdraelon  beneath,  with  the  river 
Kishon  flowing  through  it ;  Mounts  Tabor 

95 


CAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAR 


.MOUNT   CARMEL  AND   HAIFA. 


and  Little  Hermon  were  in  front  (east); 
and  on  the  right  (south)  the  prospect  was 
bounded  by  the  hills  of  Samaria."  From 
the  southeast  side  of  this  ridge,  a  range  of 
low  wooded  hills  on  the  south  spreads 
and  rises  into  the  high  lands  of  Samaria. 
Those  who  visit  Mount  Carmel  in  the  last 
part  of  the  dry  season  find  everything 
parched  and  brown,  especially  at  the  west- 
ern end ;  but  at  other  seasons  its  exuber- 
ance of  vegetable  and  animal  life  shows 
how  just  were  the  allusions  of  ancient  wri- 
ters to  its  e.xceeding  beauty,  Isa.  55:2,  its 
verdure  of  drapery  and  grace  of  outline, 
Song  7:5,  and  its  rich  pastures,  Isa.  33:9; 
Jer.  50:19;  Amos  1:2.  The  rock  of  the 
mountain  is  a  hard  limestone,  abounding 
in  natural  caves,  Amos  9:3.  These  have 
in  many  cases  been  enlarged,  and  other- 
wise fitted  for  human  habitation ;  and  the 
mountain  has  been  in  various  ages  a  favor- 
ite residence  for  devotees.  It  is  memora- 
ble for  frequent  visits  of  the  prophets  Eli- 
jah and  Elisha,  2  Kin.  1:9-15;  2:25;  4:25; 
and  especially  for  the  destruction  of  the 
priests  of  Baal  upon  it,  i  Kin.  18.  This 
took  place  at  the  western  end  of  the  ridge. 
Mar  Elyas,  a  high  and  bold  point  sloping 
down  to  the  plain.  There  is  still  a  well  on 
the  hillside,  at  a  spot  now  called  F^l-Mahar- 
rakah,  the  burning;  and  the  ancient  Ki- 
96 


shon  is  now  known  as  the  Nahr  el-Mukatta, 
river  of  slaughter.  It  flows  into  the  sea 
east  of  Carmel  and  Haifa. 

CAR'NAL,  fleshly,  unholy ;  in  contrast 
with  spiritual  and  holy.  It  describes  all 
unrenewed  men — born  of  fallen  parents, 
and  not  born  anew  of  the  Holj-  Spirit, 
Rom.  7: 14. 

CAR'PENTERS,  and  their  tools  and  work, 
are  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible ;  and  a 
high  degree  of  skill  in  many  kinds  of  wood- 
work was  early  attained,  and  shown  in  the 
building  of  the  ark,  the  tabernacle,  the 
temple,  royal  palaces,  and  even  the  car- 
ving of  idols,  Gen.  6;  Exod.  27;  2  Chr.  3; 
9:11;  Isa.  44:13.  This  trade  of  civilized 
life  was  honored  among  the  Jews,  and  is 
for  ever  endeared  to  all  its  Christian  mem- 
bers by  the  fact  that  our  Lord  himself  was 
one  of  them — a  workingman,  Matt.  13:55; 
Mark  6:3. 

CAR'PUS,y>-//;V,  a  disciple  and  friend  of 
Paul  at  Troas,  2  Tim.  4:13. 

CAR'RIAGE,  the  baggage  which  formed 
the  burden  of  a  manor  beast,  i  Sam.  17:22; 
Acts  21:15.  Once  or  twice  it  seems  to  in- 
dicate a  circular  trench  or  rampart  of  bag- 
gage, etc.,  around  a  camp,  i  Sam.  17:20; 
26:5,  7. 

CARTS  or  WAGONS.  The  roads  in  Pales- 
tine are  now  generally  impassable  by  any 


CAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CED 


wheeled  vehicle  ;  and  the  chief  use  of  the 
cart  drawn  by  cattle,  2  Sam.  6:6,  was  on  a 
limited  scale  for  agricultural  purposes,  such 
as  forcing  the  ripe  grain  out  of  the  ear. 


A    MODERN   SYRIAN    CART. 

bruising  the  straw,  removing  the  produce 
ofthe  fields,  etc.,  Isa.  5:18;  28:27,28.  Wag- 
ons were  used  to  carry  Israel  into  Egypt, 
and  for  the  conveyance  of  the  ark,  Gen. 
45:27;  Num.  7:3-9.  They  were  often  drawn 
by  heifers,  etc.,  i  Sam.  6:7,  and  were  usu- 
ally low,  and  on  solid  wooden  wheels,  some- 
times iron-shod. 

CASE'MENT,  Prov.  7:6.     See  L.\ttice. 

CASIPH'IA,  the  home  of  many  of  the  ex- 
iled Jews,  was  probably  in  the  direction  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  from  Babylon,  Ezra  8:17. 

CAS'LUHIM,  descendants  of  Mizraim, 
See  Caphtorim. 

CAS'SIA,  the  bark  of  an  odoriferous  tree, 
from  which  came  one  ingredient  of  the 
holy  oil  or  ointment,  Exod.  30:24;  Psa. 
45:8  ;   Ezek.  27: 19. 

CAST'AWAY,  worthless,  like  the  dross 
of  metals,  i  Cor.  9:27.  In  heathen  coun- 
tries infants  are  often  exposed  and  left  to 
perish,  Ezek.  16:5. 

CAS'TLE,  Acts  21:34,  the  Tower  of  An- 
tonia,  a  fortress  in  Jerusalem.  See  Tem- 
ple. 

CAS'TOR  and  POL'LUX,  twin  sons  of 
Jupiter  and  Leda,  and  guardians  of  sea- 
men, according  to  Greek  and  Roman  my- 
thology. Ships  often  had  their  images  on 
the  prow,  and  bore  their  names.  Acts  28:11. 

CAT'ERPILLAR,  some  locust-like  insect, 
now  undistinguishable,  Deut.  28.38;  i  Kin. 
8:37;  Psa.  78:46;  105:34;  Isa.  33:4.  See 
Locust. 

CATH'OLIC.  This  term  is  Greek,  sig- 
nifying universal.  The  true  church  of 
Christ  is  called  catholic,  because  it  extends 
throughout  the  world,  and  during  all  time. 
In  modern  times  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
usurped  this  title,  improperly  applying  it 
exclusively  to  itself. 

The  "  Catholic  epistles  "  are  5,  so  called 
because  they  were  addressed  to  the  church 
in  general,  and  not  to  any  particular 
church.  They  are,  i  epistle  of  James,  2  of 
Peter,  i  of  John,  and  i  of  Jude. 
5 


CAT'TLE.  See  Goat,  Ox,  Sheep,  Ass, 
Camel,  Horse. 

CAUL,  Lev.  3:4,  10,  14;  4:9,  a  lobe  of 
the  liver;  in  Hos.  13:8,  the  membrane  in- 
closing the  heart ;  in  Isa.  3: 18,  network  for 
the  hair. 

CAUSE' WAY.  I  Chr.  26:16,  18,  supposed 
to  be  the  "ascent,"  2  Chr.  9:4,  by  which 
men  went  from  Zion  to  the  west  side  of  the 
temple  area.  If  it  was  first  of  wood,  "  ter- 
races," 2  Chr.  9:11 ;  the  later  structure  was 
stone.     See  Walls. 

CAVE.  Judaea,  a  limestone  country, 
abounds  with  subterranean  caverns  of  va- 
rious dimensions,  often  giving  rise  to  small 
rivulets.  These  were  used  as  dwellings, 
places  of  refuge  for  men  and  cattle,  and 
tombs.  It  was  in  a  cave  that  Lot  resided 
after  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  Gen.  19:30. 
Petra,  in  Idumaea,  was  a  city  of  caves,  and 
its  early  inhabitants,  expelled  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  were  a  troglodite  race,  called  Hor- 
ITES,  or  cave-men,  Num.  24:21 ;  Song  2: 14  ; 
Jer.  49:16;  Obad.  3.  In  the  vicinity  of  He- 
bron, the  poor  still  live  in  caves  while  pas- 
turing their  flocks.  Natural  cavities  were 
sometimes  enlarged,  and  artificial  ones 
made  for  refuge   and   defence,  Judg.  6:2; 

1  Sam.  13:6;  Isa.  2:19;  Jer.  41:9.  The 
caves  of  Machpelah,  of  Adullam,  of  Enge- 
di,  of  Carmel,  and  of  Arbela  still  exist.  See 
Sela,  Sepulchre. 

CE'DAR  of  Lebanon,  a  noble  evergreen- 
tree  greatly  celebrated  in  the  Scriptures, 
Psa.  92:12;  Ezek.  31:3-6.  These  trees 
are  remarkably  thick  and  tall ;  some  have 
trunks  from  35  to  40  feet  in  girth,  and  90 
feet  in  height.  The  cedar-tree  shoots  out 
branches  at  10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground, 
large  and  almost  horizontal ;  its  leaves  are 
an  inch  long,  slender  and  straight,  growing 
in  tufts.  The  tree  bears  a  small  cone,  like 
that  of  the  pine.  This  celebrated  tree  is 
not  peculiar  to  Mount  Lebanon,  but  grows 
upon  Mounts  Amanus  and  Taurus  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Levant, 
but  does  not  elsewhere  reach  the  size  and 
height  of  those  on  Lebanon.  It  has  also 
been  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Europe; 

2  are  at  Chiswick  in  England,  i  in  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  in  Paris,  and  there  are 
possibly  more  young  cedars  in  England 
than  in  Palestine.  The  beauty  of  the  cedar 
consists  in  the  proportion  and  symmetry 
of  its  wide-spreading  branches  and  cone- 
like top.  The  gum,  which  exudes  both 
from  the  trunk  and  the  cones  or  fruit,  is 
soft  like  balsam ;  its  fragrance  is  like  that 
of  the  balsam  of  Mecca.    Everything  about 

97 


CED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CEN 


THK   CKDAR   OF    LEBANON:   CEDRUS    LIBANI. 


the  tree  has  a  strong  balsamic  odor ;  and 
hence  the  whole  grove  is  so  pleasant  and 
fragrant  that  it  is  delightful  to  walk  in  it, 
Song  4:11;  Hos.  14:6.  The  wood  is  ex- 
ceedingly durable,  Psa.  92:12;  not  subject 
to  decay,  nor  to  be  eaten  of  worms ;  hence 
it  was  much  used  for  rafters,  and  for  boards 
with  which  to  cover  houses  and  form  the 
floors  and  ceilings  of  rooms.  It  was  of  a 
red  color,  beautiful,  solid,  and  free  from 
knots.  The  palace  of  Persepolis,  the  tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem,  and  Solomon's  palace 
were  all  partly  built  with  cedar  ;  and  "  the 
house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon"  was  per- 
haps so  called  from  the  quantity  of  this 
wood  used  in  its  construction,  i  Kin.  7:2; 
10: 17. 

Of  the  forests  of  cedars  which  once  cov- 
ered Lebanon,  comparatively  few  are  now 
left,  Isa.  2:13;  10:19,  though  there  are  still 
many  scattered  trees  and  groves  in  various 
parts.  Rev.  H.  H.  Jessup,  American  mis- 
sionary, and  Dr.  Post,  visited  ii  different 
groves,  2  of  them  numbering  thousands  of 
genuine  cedars.  Tlie  largest  and  most  an- 
cient trees,  formerly  thought  to  be  the  only 
ones,  are  found  in  a  grove,  lying  a  little  off 
from  the  road  which  crosses  Mount  Leba- 
non from  Baalbek  to  Tripoli,  6,400  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  3,000  feet  below  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  on  the  western  side, 
at  the  foot  indeed  of  the  highest  summit  or 
98 


ridge  of  Lebanon.  This  grove  consists  of 
a  few  very  old  trees,  perhaps  as  old  as  the 
time  of  Christ,  intermingled  with  400  or  500 
j'ounger  ones.     See  Lkbanon. 

Besides  the  true  cedar  of  Lebanon,  the 
word  cedar  in  the  Bible  appears  to  mean 
sometimes  the  juniper,  Lev.  14:4,  6,  49-52; 
Num.  19:6;  and  sometimes  the  pine,  Ezek. 
27:5,  and  perhaps  i  Kin.  5;  6;  7;  9:11;  and 
the  yew. 

CE'DRON.     See  KiDRON. 

CEIL'ING.  The  ancients  took  great 
pains  toornami.-nt  the  ceilings  of  their  best 
apartments :  making  them  sometimes  of  a 
sort  of  wainscoting,  in  squares  or  complica- 
ted figures :  and  sometimes  of  a  fine  plaster 
with  beautiful  mouldings,  tinted  and  re- 
lieved by  gilding,  small  mirrors,  etc.,  i  Kin. 
6:15;  2  Chr.  3:5;  Jer.  22: 14.  Hence  "ceiled 
houses,"  Hag.  1:4.  Such  ceilings  were 
used,  according  to  Layard,  in  the  palaces 
and  temples  of  Nineveh  ;  and  are  found  at 
this  day  in  the  houses  of  Damascus. 

CEN'CHRE.ffi,  a  port  of  Corinth,  now 
named  Kenkries,  whence  Paul  sailed  for 
Ephesus,  Acts  18:  iS.  It  was  a  place  of  some 
commercial  note,  and  the  seat  of  an  early 
church,  Rom.  16:1.  It  was  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  isthmus,  8  or  9  miles 
east  of  the  city,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf.  The 
other  port,  on  the  western  side  of  the  isth- 
mus, was  Lechaeum. 


CEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHA 


CEN'SER,  2  Chr.  26:16,  19,  a  vessel  in 
which  fire  and  incense  were  carried,  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Hebrew  worship.  Little 
is  known  of  its  form.     The  censer  for  the 


daily  offering  was  at  first  made  of  copper, 
Num.  16:39.  That  used  on  the  great  day 
of  Atonement  was  made  of  pure  gold,  i  Kin. 
7:50;  Heb.  9:4.  In  the  daily  offering,  the 
,^.„ , .  censer  was  filled  with 
coals  from  the  perpetual 
fire,  and  placed  on  the 
altar  of  incense  where 
the  incense,  was  sprin- 
kled on  the  coals,  and 
burning  diffused  its  fra- 
grance far  and  wide, 
Exod.  30:1,  7-10.  On 
the  day  of  Atonement,  in 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  the 
censer  must  have  been 
held  in  the  hand,  and  probably  by  a  han- 
dle. Lev.  16:12,  13. 

The  censers  of  the  Egyptians  had  long 
handles,  like  a  human  arm  and  hand,  upon 
the  palm  of  which  the  incense-cup  stood. 
Those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had 
chains,  by  which  they  were  carried,  like 
those  now  used  in  the  Romish  service. 

The  golden  "  vials  "  full  of  odors.  Rev. 
5:8,  were  censers,  or  vessels  of  incense. 

CEN'SUS.  There  are  4  formal  number- 
ings  of  the  Jews  reported  in  the  Bible:  one 
at  Mount  Sinai,  Exod.  38:26,  when  the  num- 
ber of  men  over  20  years  old  was  603,550 ; 
one  in  the  2d  year  after  the  exodus.  Num. 
1-3;  one  just  before  their  entrance  into 
Canaan,  Num.  26 ;  and  one  in  David's 
reign,  2  Sam.  24:1-9;  i  Chr.  21:5;  27:24, 
when  the  men  numbered  at  least  1,300,000. 
Comparing  with  this  the  vast  armies  raised 
by  subsequent  kings,  2  Chr.  13:3,  17;  14:8, 
9;  17:14-19;  25:5,  6,  and  adding  3  times 
these  numbers  for  the  women  and  children, 
we  learn  that  the  population  of  the  Holy 
Land  in  its  prime  was  more  dense  than  in 
most  thickly  settled  countries  of  our  own 
day ;  and  the  statements  of  Josephus  are 
of  the  same  purport. 

CENTU'RION,    a    Roman    officer    com- 


manding a  hundred  soldiers ;  similar  to 
"  captain  "  in  modern  times.  Several  cen- 
turions are  mentioned  with  honor  in  the 
New  Testament,  Mark  15:39;  Luke  7:1- 
10;  Acts  27:1,  3,  43;  and  the  first  fruit  to 
Christ  from  the  Gentiles  was  the  generous 
and  devout  Cornelius,  Acts  10. 

CE'PHAS,  a  rock,  a  Syriac  or  later  He- 
brew name  given  to  Peter  by  Christ,  John 
1:42.  The  Greek  Petros  and  the  Latin 
Petrus  have  the  same  meaning.  See  Pe- 
ter. 

CE'SAR.     See  C^SAR. 

CH,  in  words  derived  from  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  usually  proper  names,  is  to  be  pro- 
nounced like  K.  As  in  Chaldaea,  Chloe, 
Archippus  ;  pronounced  Kalde'a,  Klo'e,  Ar- 
kip'pus.  In  Cher'ubim  and  Rachel,  how- 
ever, it  is  pronounced  as  in  chest,  chief. 

CHAFF.     See  Threshing. 

CHAINS,  of  iron  or  brass,  were  either 
fetters  or  handcuffs,  Judg.  16:21;  2  Sam. 
3:34;  2  Kin.  25:7;  Acts  12:6,  7.  Chains  of 
gold  were  worn  as  ornaments  by  women, 
Song  1:10;  4:9;  and  by  men  also.  Num. 
31:50;  Prov.  1:9;  but  especially  as  official 
badges  of  honor.  Gen.  41:42;  Dan.  5:16; 
Ezek.  16:11.  They  were  a  part  of  the  tem- 
ple furnishing  and  the  priestly  dress,  Exod. 
28  ;  2  Chr.  3. 

CHALCED'ONY,  a  precious  stone,  resem- 
bling the  agate  ;  of  various  colors,  but  often 
a  light  brown  or  blue.  Rev.  21:19.  It  is 
named  after  Chalcedon,  in  Bithynia,  oppo- 
site Constantinople,  and  is  much  used  as 
a  material  for  cups,  vases,  and  other  arti- 
cles of  taste. 

CHALD.ffi'A,  a  country  in  Asia,  the  capi- 
tal of  which,  in  its  widest  extent,  was  Bab- 
3'lon.  It  was  originally  of  small  extent ; 
but  the  empire  being  afterwards  very  much 
enlarged,  the  name  is  generally  taken  in  a 
more  extensive  sense,  and  includes  Baby- 
lonia, which  see. 

CHALDiE'ANS.  This  name  is  taken,  i. 
for  the  people  of  Chaldaea,  and  the  subjects 
of  that  empire  generally;  2.  for  philoso- 
phers, naturalists,  or  soothsayers,  whose 
principal  employment  was  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  astrology,  by  which  they 
pretended  to  foretell  the  destiny  of  men 
born  under  certain  constellations. 

The  Chaldaeans  were  originally  a  war- 
like people,  apparently  Cushite  in  origin 
and  language,  dwelling  in  the  south  part  of 
the  plain  of  Shinar,  Job  1:17.  As  the  As- 
syrian monarchs  extended  their  conquests 
towards  the  west,  the  Chaldaeans  also  came 
under  their  dominion.     A  very  vivid  and 

99 


CHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHA 


graphic  description  of  the  Chaldaean  war- 
riors is  given  by  the  prophet  Habakkuk, 
who  probably  lived  about  the  time  when 
they  first  made  incursions  into  Palestine 
or  the  adjacent  regions,  Hab.  i:6-ii.  In 
the  reign  of  king  Hezekiah,  B.  C.  713,  a 
king  of  Babylon  is  mentioned,  the  first  of 
whom  we  read  after  Nimrod  and  Amra- 
phel.  About  100  years  later  we  find  the 
Chaldaeans  in  possession  of  the  kingdom 
of  Babylon.  The  first  sovereign  in  the 
new  line  appearing  in  history  was  Nabo- 
polassar.  His  son  Nebuchadnezzar  inva- 
ded Palestine,  as  foretold  by  Jeremiah  and 
Habakkuk,  Ezra  5:12;  Jer.  39:5.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  2  Kin. 
25 :  27 ;  Jer.  52 :  31 .  After  him  came,  in  quick 
succession,  Xeriglissar,  Laborosoarchod, 
and  Nabonnedus  with  Belshazzar,  under 
whom  this  empire  was  absorbed  in  the 
Medo-Persian.  The  Chaldieo-Babylonian 
dynasty  continued  probably  less  than  200 
years.     See  Babylon. 

The  ancient  Chaldaeans  seem  to  have  re- 
tained their  old  Cushite  language  for  scien- 
tific uses,  and  to  have  been  the  learned 
and  jjriestly  class  when  merged  with  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  As  such  thej- 
are  spoken  of  in  Dan.  1:4;  2:2-12. 

CHALDEE  Language.    See  Language. 

CHAMBER.  See  House.  Chambers 
sometimes  denotes  constellations  or  re- 
gions in  the  heavens.  Job  9:9;  Psa.  104:3, 
13.  For  "chambers  of  imagery,"  Ezek. 
8:12,  see  Nineveh. 

CHAM'BERING,     licentiousness,     Rom. 

CHAM'BERLAIN,  2  Kin.  23:11.  an  officer 
who  had  charge  of  a  king's  lodgings  and 
wardrobe.  In  Eastern  courts  eunuchs  were 
generally  employed  in  this  office,  Esth.  i :  10, 
12,  15.  in  Acts  12:20,  an  officer  high  in  the 
king's  confidence.  This  title  in  Rom.  16:23 
probably  denotes  the  steward  or  treasurer 
of  the  city. 

CHAME'LEON.     See  below. 

CHAM'OIS,  not  the  well-known  moun- 
tain goat  of  Southern  Europe,  but  proba- 
bly a  variety  of  wild  sheep,  resembling  a 
goat,  found  in  Arabia  Petrtea  and  on  Egyp- 
tian monuments,  Deut.  14:5. 

CHAME'LEON,  Lev.  11:30,  a  kind  of  liz- 
ard, with  a  shagreened  skin.  Its  body  is 
about  6  inches  long ;  its  feet  have  5  toes 
each,  arranged  like  2  thumbs  opposite  to  3 
fingers ;  its  eyes  turn  backwards  or  for- 
wards independently  of  each  other.  It 
feeds  upon  flies,  which  it  catches  by  dart- 
ing out  its  long,  viscous  tongue.  It  has  the 
100 


faculty  of  inflating  itself  at  pleasure  with 
air,  and  thus  changing  its  color  from   its 


ordinary  gray  to  green,  purple,  and  even 
black  when  enraged. 

CHAMPAIGN',  Deut.  11:30,  a  plain  or 
open  region. 

CHAP'ITER,  the  capital,  or  upper  portion 
of  a  i)illar,  E.\od.  38: 17,  19,  or  of  a  laver  or 
other  work  of  art,  perhaps  a  carved  scroll, 
I  Kin.  7: 16-31. 

CHAP'MEN,  travelling  merchants,  2  Chr. 
9:14. 

CHAP'TER.    See  Bible. 

CHAR'GER,  or  PLATTER,  a  large,  shallow 
dish,  Num.  7:13;   Ezra  1:9;  IMatt.  14:8,  11. 

CHAR'GES,  Acts  21 :24.  "  Be  at  charges 
with  ( for )  tiicm,"  means,  "  Pay  the  expenses 
of  their  rites  and  offerings." 


CHAR'IOTS.  Scripture  speaks  of  2  sorts 
of  these,  two-wheeled,  and  botli  drawn  by 
horses :  one  for  princes  and  generals  to 
ride  in.  Gen.  41:43;  46:29;  2  Kin.  5:9; 
Acts  8:28;  or  dedicated  to  idols,  2  Kin. 
23:11;  the  other  to  break  an  enemy's  bat- 
talions, by  rushing  in  among  them,  being 


CHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHE 


"chariots  of  iron,"  that  is,  armed  with 
iron  scythes  or  hooks,  projecting  from  the 
ends  of  the  axletrees.  These  made  terri- 
ble havoc.  The  Canaanites  whom  Joshua 
engaged  at  the  waters  of  Merom  had  horse- 
men, and  a  multitude  of  chariots,  Josh. 
11:4;  Judg.  1:19.  Sisera,  general  of  Jabin 
king  of  Hazor,  had  900  chariots  of  iron, 
Judg.  4:3;  and  Solomon  raised  1,400,  i  Kin. 
10:26,  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  in  Deut. 
17:16;  I  Sam.  8:11,  12.  The  later  kings 
also  cultivated  this  arm  of  military  power, 
Isa.  31:1.  Elijah  was  called  the  chariot 
and  horsemen  of  Israel,  as  being  their 
chief  defender,  2  Kin.  2:12.  In  Song  3:9, 
chariot  seems  to  mean  a  portable  sedan  or 
palanquin.     See  Litter. 

CHAR'ITY  in  Scripture  does  not  mean 
almsgiving  alone,  nor  a  lenient  judgment 
of  others,  but  that  loving  of  men  as  we  love 
ourselves,  which  springs  from  supreme 
love  to  God,  and  shows  itself  in  all  good 
works,  I  Cor.  13.     See  Love. 


INDIAN  SERPENT-CHARMERS. 

CHARM'ERS,  Psa.  58:4,  5;  Eccl.  io:ii; 
Jer.  8:17,  persons  very  common  through- 
out India  and  Egypt,  who  claim  to  have 
the  faculty  of  catching,  taming,  and  con- 
trolling serpents,  even  the  most  venomous. 

CHARMS.     See  Amulets. 

CHAR'RAN.     See  Haran. 

CHE'BAR,  length,  commonly  believed  to 
be  a  river  which  rises  in  the  northern  part 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  flows  first  southeast, 
then  south  and  southwest,  into  the  Euphra- 


tes. It  was  called  Chaboras  by  the  Greeks  ; 
now  Khabour.  On  its  fertile  banks  Nebu- 
chadnezzar located  a  part  of  the  captive 
Jews,  and  here  the  sublime  visions  of  Eze- 
kiel  took  place,  Ezek.  1:3;  3:15;  10:15; 
43:3.  Rawlinson  thinks  this  river  is  too  far 
north  for  the  limits  of  Chaldaea,  and  identi- 
fies the  Chebar  with  a  large  canal  near  Bab- 
ylon excavated  under  Nebuchadnezzar. 

CHEDORLAO'MER,  haiidful  of  sheaves, 
king  of  Elam,  in  Persia,  in  the  time  of 
Abraham.  He  made  the  cities  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  Dead  Sea  his  tributaries ;  and 
on  their  rebelling,  he  came  with  4  allied 
kings  and  overran  the  whole  country  south 
and  east  of  the  Jordan.  Lot  was  among 
his  captives,  but  was  rescued  by  Abraham 
with  his  own  dependents  and  his  neigh- 
bors. Gen.  14: 1-24.  Compare  Psa.  no.  His 
name  is  found  on  Chaldaean  bricks  recent- 
ly discovered. 

CHEESE,  several  times  alluded  to  in 
Scripture,  and  still  an  important  article  of 
food  in  the  East,  i  Sam.  17:18; 
2  Sam.  17:29.  It  is  usually  white 
and  very  salt ;  soft,  when  new,  but 
soon  becoming  hard  and  dry.  The 
cheese  was  like  a  small  saucer  in 
size,  Job  10:10.  The  "cheese-ma- 
kers' valley "  in  Jerusalem,  Tyro- 
poeon,  lay  between  Mounts  Zion  and 
Moriah. 

CHEM'ARIM,  occurring  once  only 
in  the  English  version,  Zeph.  1:4, 
but  frequently  in  the  Hebrew,  trans- 
lated "idolatrous  priests,"  2  Kin. 
23:5;  Hos.  10:5. 

CHE'MOSH,  subdiier,  the  national 
god  of  the  Moabites  and  of  the  Am- 
monites, worshipped  also  under  Sol- 
omon at  Jerusalem,  Num.  21:29; 
Judg.  11:24;  I  Kin.  11:7;  2  Kin. 
23: 13  ;  Jer.  48:7.  Some  erroneously 
identify  Chemosh  with  Molech,  an- 
other god  of  the  Ammonites. 

CHER'ETHITES,  or  Cher'ethim, 
I.,  a  portion  of  the  Philistines,  sup- 
posed by  many  to  have  originated  in 
Crete,  i  Sam.  30: 14;  Ezek.  25:16;  Zeph.  2:5. 
II.  A  portion  of  David's  body-guard,  al- 
ways mentioned  with  the  Pelethites,  2  Sam. 
8:18;    15:18;    20:7;    I   Chr.   18:17.     Some 
suppose  that  they  were  foreigners,  whom 
David  took  into  his  service  while  among 
the    Philistines.      The    Gittites    mentioned 
with  them  in  2  Sam.   15:18,  were  plainly 
such.     Others  think  they  had  their  name 
from  their  office — executioners    and   run- 
ners.   See  Pelethites. 

lOI 


CHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHI 


CHE'RITH,  a  cutting,  a  small  brook  flow- 
ing into  the  Jordan,  to  whicli  Elijah  oiice 
withdrew,  and  where  ravens  brought  him 
supplies  of  bread  and  flesh,  i  Kin.  17:3-5. 
Robinson  suggests  that  it  may  be  the  pres- 
ent VV'ady  Kelt,  which  drains  the  hills  west 
of  Jericho,  and  flows  near  that  town  on  its 
way  to  the  Jordan.  This  brook  is  dry  in 
summer.  It  is  in  a  deep  and  wild  ravine, 
and  the  lofty  sides  are  pierced  by  many  cav- 
erns where  ravens  and  eagles  still  dwell. 

CHER'UB,  plural  Chkr'uhi.m,  an  order 
of  celestial  beings  or  symbolical  represen- 
tations often  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  in  the  book  of  Revelation.  The 
cherubim  are  variously  represented  as  liv- 
ing creatures,  Gen.  3:24;  Ezek.  1;  Rev. 
4 ;  or  as  images  wrought  in  tapestry,  gold, 
or  wood,  Exod.  36:35;  2,7:7;  Ezek.  41:25; 
as  having  i,  2,  or  4  faces,  Exod.  25:20; 
Ezek.  10:14;  41:18;  as  having  2,  4,  or  6 
wings,  I  Kin.  6:27;  Ezek.  1:6;  Rev.  4:8; 
in  the  simplest  form,  as  in  the  golden  fig- 
ures above  the  ark  of  the  covenant ;  or  in 
the  most  complex  and  sublime  form,  as  in 
Ezekiel's  wonderful  visions  of  the  glory  of 
fjod— discerning  and  ruling  all  things,  and 
executing  irresistibly  and  with  the  speed  of 
thought  all  his  wise  and  just  decrees,  Ezek. 
I  ;  10.  The  fullest  of  these  descriptions 
represents  the  cherub  as  a  winged  figure, 
like  a  man  in  form,  full  of  eyes,  and  with 
a  fourfold  head— of  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox, 
and  an  eagle — with  wheels  turning  every 
way,  and  speed  like  the  lightning :  pre- 
senting the  highest  earthly  forms  and  pow- 
ers of  creation  in  harmonious  and  perfect 
union,  Ezek.  i;  10;  41;  Rev.  4.  Usually 
also  the  cherubim  stand  in  a  special  near- 
ness to  God  ;  they  are  engaged  in  the  lofti- 
est adoration  and  service,  moving  in  in- 
stant accordance  with  his  will,  Psa.  18:10; 
Ezek.  1:26;  10:20:  Rev.  4;  they  are  seen 
in  the  temple  inseparably  associated  with 
the  mercy-seal,  "  the  cherubim  of  glory," 
Heb.  9:5 — made  of  the  same  mass  of  pure 
gold,  Exod.  25: 19,  bending  reverently  over 
the  place  of  God's  j^resence,  Psa.  99:1, 
where  he  met  his  people,  Num.  7:89,  ac- 
cepted the  blood  of  atonement.  Lev.  16: 14- 
16,  and  shone  forth  as  their  Saviour,  Psa. 
80: 1  ;  Isa.  37:  i6. 

CHESTNUT-TREE,  Gen.  30:37.  The  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Vulgate  here  read,  the  plane- 
tree,  with  which  most  modern  expositors 
agree.  The  plane-tree  is  akin  to  the 
American  button-wood-tree,  and  lias  a  tall 
and  stately  trunk,  with  smooth  bark,  and 
Ijranches  spreading  in  every  direction, 
102 


covered  with  a  profusion  of  glossy  green 
leaves.  It  is  nowhere  more  abundant  and 
noble  than  in  the  plains  of  Assyria,  Ezek. 
31:8. 

CHESUL'LOTH,  a  town  on  the  border  of 
Issachar,  named  between  Jezreel  and  Shu- 
nem,  but  possibly  the  same  as  Chisloth- 
TABOK,  on  the  border  of  Zebulun,  about  3 
miles  west  of  Mount  Tabor ;  the  village 
called  Iksal  now  marks  its  site,  together 
with  numerous  excavated  tombs.  Josh. 
19:12,  18,  22,  with  1  Chr.  6:72.     See  D.\bk- 

K.\TH. 

CHE'ZIB,  Gen.  38:5,  probably  Achzib,  II. 

CHIL'DREN.  A  numerous  offspring  was 
regarded  as  a  signal  blessing,  Psa.  127:3-5, 
and  childless  wives  sought  various  means 
to  escape  the  reproach  of  barrenness,  which 
was  deprecated  in  the  blessing  given  to  a 
newly  married  couple,  Ruth  4:11.  The 
pangs  of  childbirth,  in  their  suddenness 
and  sharpness,  are  often  alluded  to  in 
Scripture.  The  apostle  Paul  speaks  of 
them  as  fruits  and  evidences  of  the  fall ; 
but  assures  those  who  abide  in  faith  that, 
amid  all  the  suffering  that  reminds  them 
that  woman  was  first  in  the  transgression. 
Gen.  3:16,  they  may  yet  look  trustfully  to 
Christ,  "  the  seed  of  the  woman,"  for  ac- 
ceptance and  salvation,  1  Tim.  2:15. 

A  new-born  child  was  washed,  rubbed 
with  salt,  and  wrapped  in  swaddling 
clothes,  Ezek.  16:4;  Luke  2:7-11.  On  the 
8th  day  a  son  was  circumcised  and  named. 
At  his  weaning  a  feast  was  often  made. 
Gen.  21:8,  when  the  child  was  about  3 
years  old.  Young  children  are  still  car- 
ried by  Arab  mothers  astride  of  the  hip  or 
the  shoulder,  as  was  a  custom  in  the  time 
of  Isaiah,  ch.  49:22;  66:12.  At  the  age  of 
5,  sons  were  brought  more  into  the  father's 
care  than  before,  to  be  taught  the  arts  and 
duties  of  life.  The  nurse  of  a  female  child 
often  attended  her  through  life,  Gen.  24:  59; 
35:8.  Children  were  to  be  instructed  with 
great  diligence  and  care,  Deut.  6:20-23. 
They  were  required  to  honor  and  obey 
their  parents,  and  were  subject  to  the  fa- 
ther's control  in  all  things.  Gen.  22:21; 
Num.  30:5;  they  were  even  liable  to  be 
sold  into  tem])orary  bondage  for  his  debts, 
Lev.  25:39-41;  2  Kin.  4:1  ;  Matt.  18:25. 

The  firstborn  son  received,  besides  other 
privileges  (see  Birthright),  2  portions  of 
his  father's  estate ;  the  other  sons  i  por- 
tion each.  The  sons  of  concubines  re- 
ceived presents,  and  sometimes  an  equal 
portion  with  the  others,  Gen.  21 :8-2i ;  25: 1- 
6;  49:1-27;  Judg.  11:1-7.     The  daughters 


CHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


CHR 


received  no  portion,  except  in  cases  pro- 
vided for  in  Num.  27:1-11. 

The  term  child  or  children,  by  a  Hebrew 
idiom,  is  used  to  express  a  great  variety  of 
relations:  the  good  are  called  children  of 
God,  of  light,  of  the  kingdom,  etc. ;  the  bad 
are  named  children  of  the  devil,  of  wrath, 
of  disobedience,  etc.  A  strong  man  is  called 
a  son  of  strength ;  an  impious  man,  a  son 
of  Belial ;  an  arrow,  the  son  of  a  bow ;  and 
a  branch,  the  son  of  a  tree.  The  posterity 
of  a  man  are  his  "  sons,"  for  many  genera- 
tions. True  wisdom  may  make  a  child 
wiser  than  100  years  of  life,  Isa.  65:20. 

CHIM'HAM,  probably  a  son  of  Barzillai, 
2  Sam.  19:37;  I  Kin.  2:7.  He  may  have 
received  from  David  the  place  near  Beth- 
lehem called  Chimham,  Jer.  41:17.  B.  C. 
1023. 

CHIN'NERETH,  or  CiNNEROTH,  a  town 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
Num.  34:11;  Deut.  3:17;  Josh.  11:2;  12:3; 
19:35;  I  Kin.  15:20.  It  was  a  "fenced 
city  "  of  Naphtali,  and  gave  its  name  to  the 
lake.  Tiberias  is  supposed  by  Jerome  to 
have  afterwards  occupied  its  site. 

CHI'OS,  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Archi- 
pelago, between  Lesbos  and  Samos,  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor ;  now  called  Scio.  It 
is  30  miles  long  and  10  wide,  and  has  al- 
ways been  famous  for  its  beauty  and  fertil- 
ity, and  in  modern  times  for  the  massacre 
of  its  inhabitants  by  the  Turks  in  1822. 
Paul  passed  this  way  as  he  sailed  south- 
ward from  Mitylene  to  Samos,  Acts  20:15. 

CHIS'LEU,  the  9th  month  of  the  He- 
brews, beginning  with  the  new  moon  near- 
est to  the  ist  day  of  December,  Neh.  1:1  ; 
Zech.  7:1. 

CHIS'LOTH-TABOR.    See  Chesulloth. 

CHIT'TIM,  or  KiTTiM,  descendants  of 
Javan,  son  of  Japheth ;  and  the  land  set- 
tled by  them.  Gen.  10:4.  Chittim  seems 
to  denote  primarily  the  island  of  Cyprus ; 
and  also  to  be  employed,  in  a  wider  sense, 
to  designate  other  islands  and  countries 
adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean,  Isa.  23:1, 
12;  Jer.  2:10;  Ezek.  27:6;  as,  for  instance, 
Macedonia,  Dan.  11:30,  and  Rome,  Num. 
24:24. 

CHI'UN,  an  idol  worshipped  by  the  Isra- 
elites in  the  desert,  Amos  5:26;  Acts  7:43; 
representing  probably  the  planet  Saturn, 
worshipped  by  Eastern  nations  as  an  evil 
spirit  to  be  propitiated  by  sacrifices.  See 
Remphan. 

CHORA'ZIN,  a  town  in  Galilee,  near  Ca- 
pernaum and  Bethsaida,  on  the  northwest 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.    Jerome  says 


it  was  2  miles  from  Capernaum.  Robin- 
son locates  it  at  the  modern  Tell-Hiim  ;  Dr. 
Wm.  M.  Thomson  found  more  extensive 
ruins,  named  Kherazeh,  2  miles  northwest 
of  Tell-Hum,  and  this  site  is  approved  by 
Wilson  and  other  recent  explorers.  It  was 
upbraided  by  Christ  for  its  impenitence, 
Matt.  21:21;  Luke  10:13. 

CHRIST,  anointed,  a  Greek  word,  equiv- 
alent to  the  Hebrew  Messiah,  the  conse- 
crated or  anointed  one,  and  given  preemi- 
nently to  our  blessed  Lord  and  Saviour. 
See  Messiah  and  Jesus. 

The  ancient  Hebrews,  being  instructed 
by  the  prophets,  had  clear  notions  of  the 
Messiah;  but  these  became  gradually  de- 
praved, so  that  when  Jesus  appeared  in 
Judcea,  the  Jews  entertained  a  false  con- 
ception of  the  Messiah,  expecting  a  tem- 
poral monarch  and  conqueror,  who  should 
remove  the  Roman  yoke  and  subdue  the 
whole  world.  Hence  they  were  scandal- 
ized at  the  outward  appearance,  the  humil- 
ity, and  seeming  weakness  of  our  Saviour. 
The  modern  Jews,  indulging  still  greater 
mistakes,  form  to  themselves  ideas  of  the 
Messiah  utterly  unknown  to  their  fore- 
fathers. 

The  ancient  prophets  had  foretold  that 
the  Messiah  should  be  God,  and  man ;  ex- 
alted, and  abased ;  master,  and  servant ; 
priest,  and  victim;  prince,  and  subject; 
sinless,  and  yet  punished  as  a  criminal ; 
involved  in  death,  yet  victor  over  death ; 
rich,  and  poor;  a  king,  a  conqueror,  glori- 
ous— a  man  of  griefs,  exposed  to  infirmi- 
ties, unknown,  in  a  state  of  abjectness  and 
humiliation.  All  these  contrarieties  were 
to  be  reconciled  in  the  person  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;  as  they  really  were  in  the  person  of 
Jesus. 

It  is  not  recorded  that  Christ  ever  re- 
ceived any  external  official  unction.  The 
unction  that  the  prophets  and  the  apostles 
speak  of  is  the  spiritual  and  internal  unc- 
tion of  grace  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Luke 
4:18;  Acts  10:38,  of  which  the  outward 
unction,  with  which  kings,  priests,  and 
prophets  were  anciently  anointed,  was  but 
the  figure  and  symbol. 

The  name  Christ  is  the  official  title  of 
the  Redeemer,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  mere  appellative,  to  distinguish  our 
Lord  from  other  persons  named  Jesus, 
The  force  of  many  passages  of  Scripture 
is  greatly  weakened  by  overlooking  this. 
We  may  get  the  true  sense  of  such  passa- 
ges by  substituting  for  "Christ,"  "the  An- 
ointed," and  where  Jews  were  addressed, 

103 


CHR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHR 


"  THE  Messiah."  Thus  in  Matt.  2:4,  Her- 
od "  demanded  of  them,"  the  priests  and 
scribes,  "  where  the  Christ  should  be  born," 
that  is,  the  Old  Testament  Messiah.  Peter 
confessed,  "  Thou  art  the  Messiah,"  Matt. 
16: 16.  The  devils  did  the  same,  Luke  4:41. 
See  also  Matt.  22:42;  Acts  17:3;  18:5.  In 
later  times  the  name  Jesus  was  compara- 
•  tively  disused;  and  Christ,  as  a  proper 
name,  was  used  instead  of  Jesus,  as  in  the 
epistles. 

When  we  consider  the  relation  of  Christ's 
person,  as  God  and  man,  to  his  official 
work  as  our  Prophet,  Priest,  and  King, 
and  to  his  states  of  humiliation  and  glory ; 
when  we  consider  how  God  is  in  and  with 
him — how  all  the  perfections  of  God  are 
displayed,  and  all  the  truths  of  God  e-xem- 
plified  in  him  ;  when  we  consider  his  vari- 
ous relations  to  the  purposes,  covenants, 
word,  and  ordinances  of  God,  and  to  the 
privileges,  duties,  and  services  of  saints, 
in  time  and  to  eternity,  we  have  a  delight- 
ful view  of  him  as  all  and  in  all.  Col. 
3:11.  And  we  can  understand  that  "No 
man  can  say  that  Jesus  is  the  Lord" — cor- 
dially believe  in  and  accept  him  as  the 
Messiah  described  in  the  Bible— "but  by 
the  Holy  Ghost,"  i  Cor.  12:3.  Compare 
Matt.  16:16,  17  ;  I  John  5: 1. 

CHRIS'TIANS,  a  name  given  at  Antioch 
in  Syria  to  those  who  believed  Jesus  to  be 
the  Messiah,  A.  D.  42,  Acts  11:26.  It  seems 
to  have  been  given  to  them  bj-  the  men  of 
Antioch  as  a  term  of  convenience  rather 
than  of  ridicule,  to  designate  the  new  sect 
more  perfectly  than  any  other  word  could 
do,  and  occurs  in  only  2  other  places  in 
the  Bible,  Acts  26:28;  i  Pet.  4:16.  They 
generally  called  each  other  "  brethren," 
"the  faithful,"  "saints,"  "believers;"  and 
were  named  by  the  Jews,  Nazarenes  and 
Galileans.  The  term  is  sometimes  used 
now  to  distinguish  nominally  Christian 
nations  or  individuals  from  idolaters,  Mo- 
hammedans, or  infidels,  and  sometimes  to 
denote  church  members  only.  Nominal 
Christian  nations,  including  Roman-catho- 
lics 195,000,000,  Greek  and  Oriental  Chris- 
tians 76,000,000,  and  Protestants  gj,cnx>,ooo, 
fdrm  barely  four-tenths  of  the  human  fam- 
ily in  numbers ;  but  in  influence  Christ- 
endom, and  especially  Protestantism,  is 
largely  in  the  ascendant  above  all  others — 
including  idolaters  766,000,000,  Mohamme- 
dans 161,000,000,  and  Jews  6,000,000.  He 
only  is  a  real  Christian  who  heartily  accepts 
Christ  as  his  teacher,  guide,  and  master, 
the  source  of  his  highest  life,  strength,  and 
104 


joy,  his  only  Redeemer  from  sin  and  hell, 
his  Lord  and  his  God.  They  who  rightly 
bear  Christ's  name  and  partake  of  his  na- 
ture, and  they  only,  will  finally  share  in 
his  glorj'. 

CHRISTS,  FALSE.  Our  Saviour  predict- 
ed that  many  pretended  Messiahs  would 
come,  Matt.  24:24,  and  his  word  has  been 
abundantly  fulfilled.  Twenty-four  differ- 
ent men  have  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah. 
One  of  them  named  Coziba,  usually  known 
as  Bar-cocheba,  son  0/  the  star,  lived  with- 
in 100  years  of  Christ,  had  many  followers, 
and  is  said  to  have  occasioned  the  death  of 
more  than  half  a  million  of  Jews.  Others 
have  continued  to  appear,  even  down  to 
modern  times,  1682. 

CHRON'ICLES,  the  name  of  2  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  author  of 
which  is  not  known,  though  the  general 
opinion  ascribes  them  to  Ezra,  B.  C.  457, 
and  this  opinion  is  established  by  the 
searching  inquiries  and  discussions  of 
modern  criticism.  They  originally  formed 
a  single  book.  The  inspired  penman  made 
use,  not  only  of  the  earlier  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, but  of  numerous  other  public  annals, 
now  lost,  1  Chr.  29:29;  2  Chr.  9:29;  16:11; 
20:34;  27:7.  The  ist  book  contains  a  re- 
capitulation of  sacred  history,  by  genealo- 
gies, from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to 
the  time  of  David,  and  more  fully  the  life, 
reign,  and  death  of  David.  The  2d  book 
contains  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Judah, 
without  those  of  Israel,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Solomon  only,  to  the  return 
from  the  captivity  of  Babylon.  In  this  re- 
spect it  diflers  from  the  books  of  Kings, 
which  give  the  history  of  the  kings  of  both 
Judah  and  Israel.  In  many  places,  where 
the  history  of  the  same  kings  is  related,  the 
narrative  in  Chronicles  is  almost  a  copy 
of  that  in  Kings ;  in  other  places,  the  one 
serves  as  a  supplement  to  the  other.  In 
the  Septuagint,  these  hooks  are  called  Pa- 
raleipomena,  that  is,  things  omitted.  The 
2  books  of  Chronicles,  written  after  the 
restoration  from  Babylon  and  during  the 
reestablishment  of  the  Hebrew  state  and 
church,  seem  intended  primarily  to  aid  in 
this  work;  they  give  full  genealogical  rec- 
ords, by  which  the  lands  were  to  be  re- 
assigned, the  temple  service  reorganized, 
etc. ;  they  dwell  more  on  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters than  the  books  of  Kings  ;  they  enlarge 
upon  the  ordinances  of  public  worship  :  and 
detail  minutely  the  preparations  of  David 
for  the  building  of  the  temple,  and  its  erec- 
tion and  dedication  by  Solomon ;  the  histo- 


CHR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CIL 


ries  of  the  other  kings  also  are  specially 
full  in  respect  to  their  religious  character 
and  acts,  i  Chr.  13:8-11;  2  Chr.  11:13; 
19:8-11;  26  :  16-19,  etc.  The  Chronicles 
should  be  read  in  connection  with  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  the  Kings ;  treating 
of  the  same  periods,  they  illustrate  each 
other,  with  some  apparent  but  unessential 
discrepancies,  and  form  a  continuous  and 
instructive  history,  showing  that  religion 
is  the  main  source  of  national  prosperity, 
and  ungodliness  of  adversity,  Prov.  14:34. 
The  details  of  these  books  may  be  studied 
with  interest,  in  view  of  their  bearing  upon 
the  coming  and  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  The  whole  period  treated  of 
in  the  Chronicles  is  about  3,500  years.  See 
Numbers. 

CHRYS'OLITE,  supposed  to  be  the  Ori- 
ental topaz  of  modern  times,  a  transparent 
precious  stone,  having  the  color  of  gold 
with  a  mi.xture  of  green,  and  a  fine  lustre. 
Rev.  21 :20. 

CHRYSOP'RASUS,  the  loth  precious 
stone  in  the  foundation  of  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem,  as  seen  by  John.  Its  color  was 
green,  inclining  to  gold,  as  its  name  im- 
ports. Rev.  21 :20. 

CHUB,  Ezek.  30:5,  some  unknown  peo- 
ple of  North  Africa,  in  alliance  with  Egypt 
and  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

CHUN,  I  Chr.  i8:8,  elsewhere  called  Be- 
ROTH.A.1,  which  see. 

CHURCH.  The  Greek  word  ecclesia, 
translated  church,  signifies  generally  an 
assembly,  either  common  or  religious ;  and 
it  is  sometimes  so  translated,  as  in  Acts 
19-32,  39-  In  the  New  Testament  it  usu- 
ally means  a  congregation  of  religious 
worshippers,  either  Jewish,  as  Acts  7:38, 
or  Christian,  as  Matt.  18:17;  i  Cor.  6:4. 
The  latter  sense  is  the  more  common  one ; 
and  it  is  thus  used  in  a  twofold  manner, 
denoting, 

1.  The  universal  Christian  church:  either 
the  invisible  church,  consisting  of  all  saved 
souls,  whom  God  knows,  but  whom  we  can- 
not infallibly  know,  Heb.  12:23  ;  or  the  vis- 
ible church,  made  up  of  the  professed  fol- 
lowers of  Christ.  Col.  1:24;  i  Tim.  3:5,  15. 

2.  A  particular  church  or  body  of  pro- 
fessing believers,  who  meet  and  worship 
together  in  one  place ;  as  the  churches  of 
Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  Philippi,  etc.,  to 
which  Paul  addressed  epistles. 

In  Matt.  16: 18,  19,  it  seems  to  mean  more 
than  the  mere  body  of  Christ's  redeemed 
people,  including  the  doctrines,  endow- 
ments, institutions,  and  hopes  he  has  given 


them — the  gospel  in  the  full  development 
and  accomplishment  of  its  designs.  The 
expression  commonly  used  by  Christ  him- 
self is,  "the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  or  of  God. 
See  Kingdom. 

CHURL,  Isa.  32:5,  7,  a  deceiver.  Churl- 
ish, in  I  Sam.  25:3,  coarse  and  rude. 

CHURN,  Prov.  30:33.    See  Butter. 

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM,  a  king  of 
Mesopotamia,  probably  between  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Chebar,  who  oppressed  the 
Israelites  8  years,  A.  M.  2591-9,  but.  was 
defeated  by  Othniel,  Caleb's  nephew,  Judg. 
3:8-10.  This  was  centuries  before  the  rise 
of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

CHU'ZA,   a  seer.     See  Joanna. 

CILI'CIA.     See  below. 


CINNAMON  :    LAL'RL'S  CINNAMONUM. 

CIN'NAMON,  an  ingredient  in  the  per- 
fumed oil  with  which  the  tabernacle  and 
its  vessels  were  anointed,  Exod.  30:23; 
Prov.  7:17;  Song  4:14.  It  is  the  inner 
bark  of  a  tree  of  the  laurel  family,  grow- 
ing about  20  feet  high,  and  being  peeled 
off  in  thin  strips,  curls  as  it  is  found  in 
market.  It  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  of  a 
poignant  taste,  aromatic,  and  very  agreea- 
ble. That  of  the  finest  quality  comes  from 
Ceylon,  and  reached  the  Jews  by  the  way 
of  Babylon,  Rev.  18:13. 

CILI'CIA,  the  southeastern  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  bv  the  Taurus 
range,  separating  it  from  Cappadocia,  Ly- 
caonia,  and  Isauria,  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, east  by  Syria,  and  west  by  Pam- 
phylia.  The  western  part  had  the  appel- 
lation of  Aspera,  or  rough  ;  while  the  east- 
ern was  called  Campestris,  or  level.  This 
country  was  the  province  of  Cicero  when 
proconsul,  B.  C.  52 ;  and  its  chief  town,  Tar- 

105 


CIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CIS 


sus,  was  the  birthplace  of  the  apostle  Paul> 
Acts  6:9.  Many  Jews  dwelt  in  Cilicia,  and 
maintained  frequent  intercourse  with  Jeru- 
salem, where  they  had  a  synagogue,  and 
joined  the  other  Jews  in  opposing  the  prog- 
ress of  Christianity.  Paul  himself  may 
have  taken  part  in  the  public  discussion 
with  Stephen,  Acts  6:9;  7:58.  After  his 
conversion  he  visited  his  native  province. 
Acts  9:30;  Gal.  i:2i,  and  established 
churches,  which  were  addressed  in  the  let- 
ter of  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  15:23. 
The  apostle  once  afterwards  made  a  mis- 
sionary tour  among  these  churches,  his 
heart  yearning  to  behold  and  to  increase 
their  prosperity,  Acts  15:36,  41.  Christian- 
ity flourished  in  Cilicia  until  it  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  Turks  in  the  8th  century. 
CIN'NEROTH,  I   Kin.  15:20.     See  Chin- 

NEKKTH. 

CIRCUMCIS'ION,  a  cutting  around,  be- 
cause in  this  rite  the  foreskin  was  cut 
away.  It  was  significant  of  consecration 
to  God,  and  of  purification.  God  com- 
manded Abraham  to  use  circumcision,  as 
a  sign  of  his  covenant;  and  so  the  patri- 
arch, at  99  years  of  age,  was  circumcised, 
also  his  son  Ishmael,  and  all  the  males  of 
his  household.  Gen.  17:10-12.  God  repeat- 
ed the  precept  to  Moses,  and  ordered  that 
all  who  intended  to  partake  of  the  jjaschal 
sacrifice  should  receive  circumcision  ;  and 
that  this  rite  should  be  performed  on  chil- 
dren on  the  8th  day  after  their  birth,  Exod. 
12:44;  Lev.  12:3:  John  7:22;  the  giving  of 
a  name  accompanying  the  act,  Luke  1:59; 
2:21.  In  it  as  a  religious  rite  of  the  cove- 
nant, the  males  represented  also  the  females 
of  the  household.  The  Jews  have  always 
been  very  exact  in  observing  this  ceremo- 
ny, and  it  appears  that  they  did  not  neglect 
it  when  in  Egypt,  Exod.  4:24-26;  Josh.  5:1- 
9;  though  while  wandering  in  the  desert 
under  God's  displeasure  it  was  suspended. 
It  was  required  of  slaves,  Gen.  17:12,  13, 
and  of  proselytes  to  Judaism,  Acts  16:3; 
and  being  a  painful  rite,  fien.  34:25,  was 
one  of  the  burdens  from  which  the  gospel 
relieved  the  Jewish  converts. 

All  the  other  nations  that  sprung  from 
Abraham  besides  the  Hebrews,  as  the  Ish- 
maelites,  the  Arabians,  etc.,  also  retained 
the  practice  of  circumcision.  At  the  pres- 
ent day  it  is  an  essential  rite  of  the  Moham- 
medan religion,  and  though  not  enjoined 
in  the  Koran,  prevails  wherever  this  reli- 
gion is  found.  It  is  also  practised  in  some 
form  among  the  Abyssinians,  and  various 
tribes  of  South  Africa,  as  it  was  by  the  an- 
106 


cient  Egyptians.  But  there  is  no  proof 
that  it  was  practised  upon  infants,  or  be- 
came a  general,  national,  or  religious  cus- 
tom, before  God  enjoined  it  upon  Abraham. 

Most  of  the  nations  around  Judaea  were 
uncircumcised — as  the  Hivites,  Gen.  34, 
and  the  Philistines,  who  are  often  called 
"the  uncircumcised,"  Judg.  14:3;  whence 
the  occurrence  in  i  Sam.  18:25-27.  The 
Jews  esteemed  uncircumcision  as  a  very 
great  impurity ;  and  the  greatest  offence 
they  could  receive  was  to  be  called  "  uncir- 
cumcised." Paul  frequently  mentions  the 
Gentiles  under  this  term,  not  opprobrious- 
ly,  Rom.  2:26;  4:9,  but  in  distinction  from 
the  Jews,  whom  he  names  "  the  circum- 
cision," etc. 

Disputes  as  to  the  observance  of  this  rite 
by  the  converts  from  heathenism  to  Chris- 
tianity occasioned  much  trouble  in  the 
early  church.  Acts  15;  and  it  was  long  be- 
fore it  was  well  understood  that  "  in  Christ 
Jesus  neither  circumcision  availeth  any- 
thing, nor  uncircumcision,  but  a  new  crea- 
ture," Gal.  5:2,  3;  6: 15. 

The  true  circumcision  is  that  of  the  heart, 
Rom.  2:29;  and  those  are  "  uncircumcised 
in  heart  and  ears,"  Acts  7:51,  who  will  not 
obey  the  law  of  God  nor  embrace  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ. 

CIS'TERNS  and  reservoirs  were  very 
common  in  Palestine,  both  in  the  country 
and  in  cities.  During  nearly  half  the  year 
no  rain  falls,  and  never-failing  streams 
and  sjjrings  are  rare  indeed.  TJie  main 
dependence  of  a  large  portion  of  the  pop- 
ulation was  upon  the  water  which  fell  in 
the  rainy  season  and  was  preserved  in  cis- 
terns, 2  Sam.  17:18.  Dr.  Robinson  alludes 
to  immense  reservoirs  within  and  under 
the  area  of  the  temple,  supplied  by  rain- 
water and  by  the  aqueduct  from  Solomon's 
pools,  and  says,  "  These  of  themselves,  in 
case  of  a  siege,  would  furnish  a  tolerable 
supply.  But  in  addition  to  these,  almost 
every  house  in  Jerusalem,  of  any  size,  is 
understood  to  have  at  least  one  or  more 
cisterns,  excavated  in  the  soft  limestone 
rock  on  which  the  city  is  built.  The  house 
of  Mr.  Lanneau,  in  w^hich  we  resided,  had 
no  less  than  4  cisterns ;  and  as  these  are 
but  a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which  all 
the  better  class  of  houses  are  supplied,  I 
subjoin  here  the  dimensions: 

LENGTH      BREADTH.      DEPTH. 

I.  15  feet.  8  feet.  12  feet. 

II.  8  "  4  "  15  " 

III.  10  "  10  "  15  " 

IV.  30  "  30  "  20  " 


CIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CLA 


The  water  is  conducted  into  them  during 
the  rainy  season,  and  with  proper  care  re- 
mains pure  and  sweet  during  the  whole 
summer  and  autumn."  When  dry,  they 
might  be  used  as  a  prison.  Gen.  37: 22;  Jer. 
38:6,  or  a  granary,  as  at  this  day;  and  to 
drink  water  only  from  one's  own  domestic 
cistern  means,  to  content  one's  self  with  the 
lawful  enjoyments  of  his  own  home,  Prov. 
5:15.  Such  cisterns,  and  others  more  pi-op- 
erly  called  tanks  and  pools,  were  provided 
in  the  fields  for  irrigation,  and  at  intervals 
along  the  highways,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  travellers,  Psa.  84:6,  and  "broken 
cisterns "  of  high  antiquity  may  still  be 
seen  at  intervals  along  the  old  highways. 
Such  uncertain  reservoirs  of  earthly  pleas- 
ure are  contrasted  with  the  perennial  foun- 
tain of  God's  love,  Jer.  2:13.  The  same 
causes  led  to  the  erection,  near  all  the 
chief  cities,  of  large  open  reservoirs  for 
public  use.  These  were  built  of  massive 
stones,  and  in  places  where  the  winter 
rains  could  be  easily  conducted  into  them. 
Many  such  reservoirs,  and  ruins  of  others, 
yet  remain.  See  Bethesda,  Silo.^m,  Sol- 
omon's Pools. 

CIT'IZENSHIP,  in  the  New  Testament 
the  privilege  of  native  Romans,  and  of 
Jews,  etc.,  who  acquired  it  by  purchase, 
Acts  22:28,  by  military  or  other  services, 
by  manumission,  etc.  It  secured  to  its  pos- 
sessor and  his  children  all  the  rights  left 
them  by  the  emperors ;  among  others,  ex- 
emption from  scourging,  or  imprisonment 
without  trial.  Acts  16:37;  22:24-29,  and  the 
right  of  appeal  to  the  emperor.  Acts  25: 11. 

CITY.  The  towns  and  cities  of  Palestine 
were  commonly  built  on  heights,  for  bet- 
ter security  against  robbers  or  invaders. 
These  heights,  surrounded  by  walls,  some- 
times formed  the  entire  city.  In  other 
cases,  the  citadel  alone  crowned  the  hill, 
around  and  at  the  base  of  which  the  town 
was  built ;  and  in  time  of  danger  the  sur- 
rounding population  all  took  refuge  in  the 
fortified  place.  Larger  towns  and  cities 
were  often  not  only  defended  by  strong 
outer  walls,  with  towers  and  gates,  but  by 
a  citadel  or  castle  within  these  limits — a 
last  resort  when  the  rest  of  the  city  was 
taken,  Judg.  9:46,51.  "Cities"  are  men- 
tioned very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  Gen.  4:17;  10:10-12,  19;  11:3-9; 
19: 1-29.  The  "  fenced  cities  "  of  the  Jews, 
Deut.  3:5,  were  of  various  sizes  and  de- 
grees of  strength ;  some  being  surround- 
ed by  high  and  thick  stone  walls,  and 
others  by  feebler  ramparts,  often  of  clay  or 


sun-dried  bricks,  and  sometimes  combus- 
tible, Isa.  9:10;  Amos  1:7-14.  They  were 
also  provided  with  watchmen,  Psa.  127:1; 
Song  5:7.  The  streets  of  ancient  towns 
were  usually  narrow,  with  scarcely  room 
for  two  loaded  camels  to  pass  each  other, 
and  often  unpaved,  almost  always  unlight- 
ed.  There  were  sometimes  open  places, 
especially  the  forum  or  market-place,  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  gates.  Some  cities  were 
adorned  with  vast  parks  and  gardens  ;  this 
was  the  case  with  Babylon,  which  embraced 
an  immense  space  within  its  walls.  It  is 
impossible  at  this  day  to  form  any  reliable 
estimate  of  the  population  of  the  cities  of 
Jud£ea.  Jerusalem  is  said  by  Josephus  to 
have  had  150,000  inhabitants,  and  to  have 
contained,  at  the  time  of  its  siege  by  the 
Romans,  more  than  i,ooj,ooo  of  persons 
crowded  in  its  circuit  of  4  miles  of  wall. 
See  Gate,  Refuge,  Watchmen. 

City  of  David,  Mount  Zion,  the  south- 
west section  of  Jerusalem,  which  David 
took  from  the  Jebusites,  and  occupied  by  a 
palace  and  called  by  his  own  name.  In 
Luke  2:11,  Bethlehem  his  native  city  is 
meant. 

City  OF  God,  Deut.  12:5;  Psa.  46:4,  and 
The  Holy  City,  Neh.  xi  :i,  names  of  Jeru- 
salem. Its  modern  name  is  El-Kuds,  the 
Holy. 

CLAU'DA,  a  small  island  near  the  south- 
west shore  of  Crete,  approached  by  Paul 
in  his  voyage  to  Rome,  Acts  27: 16.  A  gale 
from  the  east-northeast  came  down  on  the 
ship  from  Crete,  and  being  driven  before 
it  under  the  lee  of  Clauda,  they  were  ena- 
bled to  take  the  precautions  described  in 
ver.  16,  17.  Clauda  is  now  called  Gozzo, 
and  is  occupied  by  about  30  families. 

CLAU'DIA,  lame,  a  Christian  woman, 
probably  a  convert  of  Paul  at  Rome, 
2  Tim.  4:21. 

CLAU'DIUS  Cffi'SAR,  5th  emperor  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Caius  Caligula,  A.  D.  41, 
and  was  followed  by  Nero,  after  a  reign  of 
13  years.  He  endowed  Agrippa  with  royal 
authority  over  Judaea,  which  on  the  death 
of  Agrippa  again  became  a  province  of 
Rome,  A.  D.  45.  About  this  time  probably 
occurred  the  famine  foretold  by  Agabus, 
Acts  11:28.  About  the  9th  year  of  his 
reign,  he  banished  all  Jews  from  Rome, 
Acts  18:2,  including  Jewish  Christians. 
The  Roman  historian  Suetonius  says,  "  He 
banished  the  Jews  from  Rome  on  account 
of  the  continual  disturbances  they  made  at 
the  instigation  of  Chrestus  " — having  heard 
of  Christ  and  of  disputes  between  Chris- 

107 


CLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COA 


tians  and  Jews,  but  knowing  nothing  of 
the  merits  of  the  case.  In  A.  D.  43-^44, 
Claudius  made  a  military  expedition  to 
Britain.  His  death  was  caused  by  poison, 
from  the  hand  of  his  wife  and  niece,  Agrip- 
pina. 

CLAU'DIUS  FE'LIX.     See  Felix. 

CLAU'DIUS  LYS'IAS.     See  LVSIAS. 

CLAY  designed  for  earthenware  was 
trodden  by  the  feet  to  mix  it  well,  Isa. 
41:25,  was  moulded  on  a  wheel,  and  then 
baked  in  a  kiln,  Jer.  18:3;  43:9.  The  pot- 
ter's art  is  referred  to  in  Scripture  to  illus- 
trate man's  dependence  upon  God,  Isa. 
64:8;  Rom.  9:21.  See  Potter.  Clay 
seems  to  have  been  also  used  in  sealing, 
as  wax  is  with  us.  Job  38:14.  The  bricks 
of  Babylon  are  found  marked  with  a  large 
seal  or  stamp ;  and  modern  travellers  find 
the  locks  of  doors  in  Eastern  khans,  gran- 
aries, and  mummy-pits  sealed  on  the  out- 
side with  clay. 

CLEAN  and  UNCLEAN,  terms  often  used 
in  the  Bible  in  a  ceremonial  sense ;  as- 
signed to  certain  animals,  and  to  men  in 
certain  cases,  by  the  law  of  Moses,  Lev. 
11-15;  Num.  19;  Deut.  14.  A  distinction 
between  clean  and  unclean  animals  exist- 
ed before  the  deluge.  Gen.  7:2.  The  Mo- 
saic law  was  not  arbitrary,  but  grounded 
on  reasons  connected  with  animal  sacrifi- 
ces, with  health,  with  the  separation  of  the 
Jews  from  other  nations,  and  their  practice 
of  moral  purity.  Lev.  11:43-45;  20:24-26; 
Deut.  14:2,  3,  21.  To  eat  with  Gentiles  was 
one  of  the  worst  forms  of  association  with 
them.  Matt.  9:11;  Acts  11:3.  The  ritual 
law  was  still  observed  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
but  under  the  gospel  is  annulled,  Acts  10:9- 
16;  Heb.  9:9-14. 

Ceremonial  uncleanness  was  contracted 
by  the  Jews  in  various  ways,  voluntarily 
and  involuntarily.  It  was  removed,  usu- 
ally at  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  by 
bathing.  In  other  cases  a  week,  or  even 
40  or  50  days,  and  some  sacrificial  oflTer- 
ings,  were  required. 

CLEM'ENT,  mild,  a  Christian  of  Philippi, 
mentioned  in  Phil.  4:3.  It  is  conjectured, 
though  without  evidence,  that  this  is  the 
same  Clement  who  was  afterwards  a  pas- 
tor at  Rome,  commonly  called  Clemens 
Romanus. 

CLE'OPHAS,  rather  Ct,o'p.\s,  the  hus- 
band of  Mary,  John  19:26,  called  also  Ai,- 
PH^us,  which  see.  The  Cleopas  men- 
tioned in  Luke  24:18  probably  was  a  dif- 
ferent person. 

CLOAK,  CLOTHES.     See  GARMENTS. 
loS 


CLOS'ET.     See  House. 

CLOUD,  Pillar  of,  the  miraculous  to- 
ken of  the  divine  presence  and  care,  Exod. 
14:24;  16:10;  Num.  12:5,  which  guided  the 
Israelites  in  the  desert,  resting  over  the 
tabernacle,  and  moving  along  majestically 
above  the  ark  when  on  the  way;  it  was  a 
means  of  protection  and  perhaps  of  shade 
by  day,  and  gave  them  light  by  night,  Exod. 
13:21,  22;  14:19,  20.  By  it  God  directed 
their  movements.  Num.  9:15-23;  14:14; 
Deut.  1:33.  See  the  beautiful  application 
of  the  image  to  the  future  church  in  Isa. 
4:5- 

CLOUDS,  in  the  summer  season  of  Pal- 
estine, were  an  unlooked-for  phenomenon, 
I  Sam.  12:17,  18,  and  rising  from  off  the 
Mediterranean,  betokened  rain,  i  Kin. 
18:44;  Luke  12:54.  They  are  emblems  of 
transitoriness,  Hos.  6:4,  and  of  whatever 
shuts  men  off  from  God's  favor.  Lam.  2:1 ; 
3:44.  Clouds  are  the  sj-mbols  of  armies 
and  multitudes,  probably  by  their  grand 
and  majestic  movements,  Isa.  60:8;  Jer. 
4:13;  Heb.  12:1.  They  betokened  the 
presence  of  Jehovah,  as  on  Mount  Sinai, 
Exod.  19:9;  24:12-18;  in  the  temple,  E.\od. 
40:34;  I  Kin.  8: 10;  in  the  cloudy  pillar,  and 
on  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration.  They 
are  found  in  many  representations  of  the 
majesty  of  God,  Psa.  18:11,  12;  97:2,  and 
of  Christ,  Matt.  24:30;  Rev.  14:14-16. 

CLOUTS,  pieces  of  old  garments,  Jer. 
38:11.  "Clouted"  clothes  were  old  and 
patched, Josh.  9:5. 

CLO'VEN,  divided.     See  Tongues. 

CNI'DUS,  a  city  and  peninsula  of  Doris 
in  Caria,  jutting  out  from  the  southwest 
corner  of  Asia  .Minor,  between  the  islands 
of  Rhodes  and  Cos.  It  had  a  fine  harbor, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  Ve- 
nus. Paul  passed  by  it  in  his  voj'age  to 
Rome,  Acts  27:7. 

COAL,  usually  in  Scripture,  charcoal,  or 
the  embers  of  fire,  often  in  a  chafing-dish 
or  brazier,  John  iS:i8.  Mineral  coal  is 
now  procured  in  Mount  Lebanon,  8  hours 
from  Beirut ;  but  we  have  no  evidence  that 
it  was  known  and  used  by  the  Jews.  The 
following  passages  are  those  which  most 
strongly  suggest  this  substance,  2  Sam. 
22:9,  13;  Job  41:21.  To  "quench  one's 
coal  "  meant  to  destroy  his  last  living  child, 
2  Sam.  14:7.  In  Rom.  12:20,  the  idea  is,  to 
melt  an  enemy  into  kindness. 

COAST  is  often  used  in  the  Bible  for  an 
inland  border  of  a  country,  not  always  for 
a  sea-coast,  Judg.  11:20;  Matt.  8:34. 

COAT.    See  Garments. 


COA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CON 


COAT  OF  MAIL.  See  ARMS  and  Haber- 
geon. 

COCK'ATRICE,  an  old  English  word  of 
obscure  origin,  used  by  our  translators  to 
designate  the  Hebrevv  Tzepha,  or  Tsipho- 
ni,  a  serpent  of  a  highly  venomous  charac- 
ter, Prov.  23:32;  Isa.  11:8;  14:29;  59:5; 
Jer.  8:17.     See  Serpent. 

COCK'-CROW^ING,  the  3d  watch  of  the 
night,  in  the  time  of  Christ.     See  Hours. 

COCK'LE,  a  plant  growing  among  wheat, 
Job  31:40.  The  Hebrew  word  seems  to 
denote  some  noisome  weed  which  infests 
cultivated  grounds. 

COF'FIN,  in  Gen.  50:26,  a  sarcophagus 
or  mummy-chest,  hollowed  out  of  stone, 
or  made  of  sycamore-wood.  Such  coffins 
were  used  in  the  burial  of  some  persons  of 
distinction,  but  for  few  even  of  these  among 
the  Jews.     See  Burial. 

COL'LEGE,  2  Kin.  22:14,  not  ^  home  of 
learning,  but  Mishneh,  the  second,  as  trans- 
lated in  Zeph.  i :  10,  A.  V.,  the  name  of  some 
locality  in  Jerusalem,  perhaps  in  the  "  low- 
er city." 

COL'ONY,  Acts  16:12.     See  Philippi. 

COLOS'SE,  or  rather  Colos's^,  a  city  of 
Phrygia,  on  a  hill  near  the  junction  of  the 
Lycus  with  the  Meander,  and  not  far  from 
the  cities  Hierapolis  and  Laodicea,  Col. 
2:1 ;  4:13,  15.  With  these  cities  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  the  loth  year 
of  Nero,  about  A.  D.  65,  while  Paul  was 
yet  living.  It  was  soon  rebuilt.  The 
church  of  Christians  in  this  city,  to  whom 
Paul  wrote,  seems  to  have  been  gathered 
by  Epaphras,  Col.  1:2.  Compare  1:7,  8,  9, 
and  4:12,  13.  Philemon  and  Onesimus 
lived  here,  also  Archippus.  Its  ruins  are 
near  a  place  called  Chonas. 

COLOS'SIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  Paul  from  Rome  during  his  first 
detention  there,  A.  D.  62.  The  occasion  of 
the  letter  was  the  intelligence  brought  him 
by  Epaphras,  Col.  i:6-8,  respecting  the 
internal  state  of  the  church,  which  appar- 
ently he  himself  had  not  yet  visited.  Col. 
2:1,  though  familiar  with  their  historv  and 
affairs,  Acts  16:6;  18:23.  Some  Jewish 
philosopher  professing  Christianity,  but 
mingling  with  it  a  superstitious  regard  for 
the  law  and  other  errors,  seems  to  have 
gained  a  dangerous  ascendancy  in  the 
church.  Paul  shows  that  all  our  hope  of 
salvation  is  in  Christ  the  only  Mediator,  in 
whom  all  fulness  dwells ;  he  cautions  the 
Colossians  against  the  errors  introduced 
among  them,  as  inconsistent  with  the  gos- 
pel, and  incites  them  by  most  persuasive 


arguments  to  a  temper  and  conduct  worthy 
of  their  Christian  character.  The  epistle 
was  written  at  the  same  time  with  that  to 
the  Ephesians,  and  was  sent  by  the  same 
bearers.  The  two  closely  resemble  each 
other,  and  should  be  studied  together. 

COM'FORTER,  Greek  Paracle'tos,  an 
advocate,  teacher,  or  consoler.  This  title 
is  given  to  our  Saviour;  "  We  have  an  ad- 
vocate [par'aclele)  with  the  Father,  Jesus 
Christ  the  righteous,"  i  John  2:1.  But 
more  frequently  it  designates  the  Holy 
Spirit.  He  is  the  "  other  Comforter,"  suc- 
ceeding Christ,  the  great  promised  bless- 
ing of  the  Christian  church,  John  14:16,  17, 
26;  15:26;  Luke  24:49;  Acts  1:4.  The 
English  word  Comforter  does  not  ade- 
quately describe  the  office  of  the  Paraclete, 
who  was  not  only  to  console,  but  to  aid 
and  direct  them,  as  Christ  had  done.  The 
disciples  found  the  promise  fulfilled  to 
them.  The  Comforter  aided  them  when 
called  before  councils ;  guided  them  into 
all  truth  respecting  the  plan  of  salvation; 
brought  to  their  remembrance  the  words 
and  deeds  of  Christ ;  and  revealed  to  them 
things  to  come.  His  presence  was  accom- 
panied by  signal  triumphs  of  grace,  and 
made  amends  for  the  absence  of  Christ. 
The  church  is  still  under  the  dispensation 
of  the  Comforter,  and  still  he  convinces  the 
world  of  sin,  of  righteousness,  and  of  the 
judgment  to  come.     See  Holy  Spirit. 

COM'FORTLESS,  John  14:18,  literally 
orphans. 

COMING  OF  CHRIST.     See  THOUSAND. 

COM'MERCE.     See  Merch.ant. 

COM'MON,  profane,  ceremoniall_v  un- 
clean, Mark  7:2,  5;  Acts  10:14,  15;  Rom. 
14:14.     See  Cle.-vn. 

COM'PASS ;  "  to  fetch  a  compass "  is, 
"  to  make  a  circuit,"  or  "  go  round,"  2  Sam. 
5:23;  Acts  28:13. 

COMPEL',  Luke  14:23,  vehemently  urge. 
The  Greek  word  thus  translated  in  Matt. 
5:41  refers  to  the  custom  of  Persian  and 
Roman  couriers  for  government,  who  had 
power  to  press  men  and  horses  into  their 
service  for  the  time. 

CONCIS'ION,  cutting  off,  Phil.  3:2,  a  term 
of  reproof  for  certain  teachers  who  exag- 
gerated the  value  of  mere  circumcision, 
and  required  it  for  Gentile  converts ;  in 
contrast  with  the  true  "  circumcision,"  those 
who  were  created  anew  in  Christ  Jesus 
unto  righteousness  and  true  holiness. 

CON'CUBINE,  a  woman  who,  without 
being  married  to  a  man,  lives  with  him  like 
a  wife ;  but  in  the  Bible  the  word  concubine 

109 


CON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CON 


means  a  lawful  wife,  but  of  a  secondary 
rank.  She  differed  from  a  proper  wife  in 
that  she  was  not  married  by  solemn  stipu- 
lation, but  only  betrothed;  she  brought  no 
dowry  with  her,  and  had  no  share  in  the 
government  of  the  family.  She  was  liable 
to  be  repudiated,  or  sent  away  with  a  gift, 
Gen.  21 :  14,  and  her  children  might  be 
treated  in  the  same  way,  and  not  share  in 
their  father's  inheritance,  Gen.  25:6.  One 
cause  of  concubinage  is  shown  in  the  his- 
tory of  Abraham  and  Jacob,  Gen.  16;  30; 
it  was  the  barrenness  of  the  lawful  wife, 
and  the  special  urgency  of  desire  to  be 
favored  with  children;  and  the  children  of 
such  concubines  had  no  stain  of  illegiti- 
macy, but  were  often  adopted  as  children 
of  the  wife  proper.  Gen.  30:6.  Concubi- 
nage, however,  became  a  general  custom, 
and  the  law  of  Moses  restricted  its  abuses, 
E.\od.  21:7-9;  Deut.  21:10-14,  but  never 
sanctionecl  it.  The  gospel  has  restored  the 
original  law  of  marriage,  Gen.  2:24;  Matt. 
19:5;  I  Cor.  7:2,  and  concubinage,  always 
an  evil,  is  now  ranked  with  fornication  and 
adultery. 

CON'DUIT.    See  GiHO.N  and  Solomon's 

POOLli. 


CO'NEY,  an  old  English  name  for  the 
rabbit;  in  Scripture,  the  Hebrew  shaphan, 
which  agrees  with  the  Ashkoko  or  Syrian 
Hyrax,  Lev.  11:5;  Deut.  14:7;  Psa.  104:18; 
Prov.  30:26.  This  animal  is  externally  of 
the  size  and  form  of  the  rabbit,  and  of  a 
brownish  color.  It  is,  however,  much  clum- 
sier in  its  structure,  almost  without  tail,  and 
having  long  bristly  hairs  scattered  through 
the  fur.  The  feet  are  naked  below,  and 
the  nails  flat  and  rovmded,  except  those  on 
the  inner  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  which  are 
long  and  awl-shaped.  They  cannot  dig, 
but  reside  in  the  clefts  of  rocks.  They  are 
called  by  Solomon  "wise,"  and  "a  feeble 
1 10 


folk;"  they  are  quiet  and  gregarious  in 
their  habits,  and  so  timid  that  they  start  at 
the  shadow  of  a  passing  bird.  The  name 
of  Spain  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  it  by 
Phcenician  voyagers,  who  seeing  its  west- 
ern coast  overrun  with  animals  resembling 
the  shaphan,  called  it  Hispania,  or  Coney- 
land. 

CONGREGA'TION,  the  general  assem- 
blage of  the  Jews  under  the  Theocracy,  in 
eluding  either  all  the  adult  males,  or  their 
representatives  by  families  and  tribes.  Josh. 
9:15, 18.  They  were  summoned  before  "the 
tabernacle  of  the  congregation  "  by  2  sil- 
ver trumpets,  to  commune  with  God,  Num. 
10:3;  25:6,  to  act  judicially,  declare  war, 
or  perform  any  important  national  act, 
Judg.  20:  i-ii ;  I  Sam.  10: 17-25  ;  2  Sam.  5:  i. 
In  later  periods  the  Sanhedrin  represented 
the  congregation.  The  word  "  clmrch  "  in 
Acts  7:38  means  this  holy  congregation  of 
Israelites  at  Sinai. 

CONI'AH.     See  Jehoiachin. 

CON'SCIENCE  is  that  faculty  common  to 
all  free  moral  agents,  Rom.  2:13-15,  in  vir- 
tue of  which  we  discern  between  right  and 
wrong,  and  are  promjjted  to  choose  tlie 
former  and  refuse  the  latter.  Its  appoint- 
ed sphere  is  in  the  regulation,  according  to 
the  will  of  God  revealed  in  nature  and  the 
Bible,  of  all  our  being  and  actions  so  far  as 
these  have  a  moral  ctiaracter.  The  e.xist- 
ence  of  this  faculty  proves  the  soul  ac- 
countable at  the  bar  of  its  Creator,  and  its 
voice  is  in  an  important  sense  the  voice  of 
God.  We  feel  that  when  pure  and  fully 
informed,  it  is  an  uiierring  guide  to  duty, 
and  that  no  imperious  sway  of  wrong  affec- 
tions, no  possible  arra\'  of  inducements, 
can  justify  us  in  disregarding  it.  In  man, 
however,  though  this  conviction  that  we 
must  do  what  is  right  never  fails,  yet  the 
value  of  conscience  is  greatly  impaired  by 
its  inhering  in  a  depraved  soul,  whose  evil 
tendencies  warp  and  pervert  our  judg- 
ments on  all  subjects.  Thus  Saul  verily 
thought  that  he  ought  to  persecute  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  Acts  26:9.  His  sin  was 
in  his  culpable  neglect  to  enlighten  his 
conscience  by  all  the  means  in  his  power, 
and  to  purify  it  by  divine  grace.  A  terri- 
ble array  of  conscientious  errors  and  per- 
secutions, which  have  infested  and  afflicted 
the  church  in  all  ages,  warns  us  of  our  in- 
dividual need  of  perfect  light  and  sancti- 
fyi'iR  grace.  A  "good  "  and  "pure  "  con- 
science, I  Tim.  1:5;  3:9,  is  sprinkled  with 
Christ's  blood,  clearly  discerns  the  will  of 
God,  and  urges  us  to  obey  it  from  gospel 


CON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


motives ;  in  proportion  as  we  thus  obey  it, 
it  is  "  void  of  offence,"  Acts  24:16,  and  its 
approbation  is  one  of  the  most  essential 
elements  of  happiness.  A  "  weak,"  or  ir- 
resolute and  blind  conscience,  i  Cor.  8:7; 
a  "  defiled"  conscience,  the  slave  of  a  cor- 
rupt heart.  Tit.  1:15;  Heb.  10:22;  and  a 
"seared  "  conscience,  i  Tim.  4:2,  hardened 
against  the  law  and  the  gospel  alike,  unless 
changed  by  grace,  will  at  length  become  an 
avenging  conscience,  the  instrument  of  a 
fearful  and  eternal  remorse.  The  case  of 
Judas  shows  its  terrific  power.  No  bodily 
tortures  can  equal  the  agony  it  inflicts  ;  and 
though  it  may  slumber  here,  it  will  here- 
after be  like  the  worm  that  never  dies  and 
the  fir*  that  never  can  be  quenched. 

CON'SECRATE,  to  devote  to  God's  ser- 
vice or  sacred  purposes,  as  the  Jewish 
priests,  temple  furniture,  and  offerings, 
E.xod.  28:3;  29:31  ;  2  Chr.  26: 18;  31 : 6. 

CONVEN'IENT,  suitable  and  right,  Prov. 
30:8;  Rom.  1:28;   Eph.  5:4. 

CONVERSA'TION,  in  the  Bible,  the  whole 
tenor  of  one's  life,  in  intercourse  with  his 
fellow-men.  Gal.  1:13;  Eph.  4:22;  i  Pet. 
1 :  15.  But  another  word  is  employed  in 
Phil.  1:27;  3:20,  which  means  citizenship. 
For  conversation  in  the  modern  sense  of 
discourse  face  to  face,  the  English  version 
generally  has  communication,  2  Kin.  9:11  ; 
Matt.  5:37;  Eph.  4:29,  etc. 

CONVER'SION,  the  "turning"  of  a  sin- 
ner to  holiness  and  God.  The  term  is 
scriptural,  being  used  of  the  Gentiles  in 
Acts  15:3,  and  elsewhere,  Luke  1:16;  Acts 
26: 18.  In  the  case  of  infidels  and  heathen, 
the  term  sometimes  denotes  merely  their 
abandonment  of  infidelity  and  idolatrj^  to 
embrace  Christianity,  though  their  regen- 
eration is  also  usually  implied.  In  the 
case  of  Peter,  Luke  22:32,  his  recovery 
from  a  fall  to  a  more  secure  and  vigorous 
faith  is  meant.  In  common  usage,  it  means 
the  whole  work  by  which  a  sinner  becomes 
a  child  of  God,  including  the  regenerating 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  but  there  is  a 
valid  and  important  reason  for  a  distinc- 
tion in  terms  between  that  almighty  and 
gracious  work  of  the  Spirit  by  which  a  soul 
is  "born  again,"  and  the  act  of  the  soul 
itself,  thus  made  willing  in  the  day  of 
God's  power,  freely  and  heartily  accepting 
Christ  and  forsaking  sin. 

CO'OS,  R.  V.  Cos,  a  small  island  of  the 
Grecian  archipelago,  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  southwest  point  of  Asia  Minor. 
Paul  passed  it  in  his  voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  21:1.     It  is  now  called  Stanchio,  and 


has  a  population  of  8,000,  most  of 'them 
Greek  Christians. 

COP'PER,  one  of  the  primitive  metals, 
and  the  most  ductile  and  malleable  after 
gold  and  silver.  Of  this  metal  and  zinc  is 
made  brass,  which  is  a  modern  invention. 
There  is  little  doubt  but  that  copper  is  in- 
tended in  those  passages  of  our  translation 
of  the  Bible  which  speak  of  brass.  Cop- 
per was  known  prior  to  the  flood,  and  was 
wrought  by  Tubal-cain,  Gen.  4:22.  Hiram 
of  Tyre  was  a  celebrated  worker  in  cop- 
per, I  Kin.  7:14.  Palestine  abounded  in  it, 
Deut.  8:9,  and  David  amassed  great  quan- 
tities to  be  employed  in  building  the  tem- 
ple, I  Chr.  22:3,  14.  The  great  "brazen 
laver  "  or  "sea"  was  made  of  it,  the  pil- 
lars Jachin  and  Boaz,  and  many  other  arti- 
cles for  the  temple  and  its  services,  i  Kin. 
7:15-39.  In  Ezra  8:27,  2  vessels  are  men- 
tioned "of  fine  copper,  precious  as  gold." 
This  was  probably  a  metal  compounded  of 
copper  with  gold  or  silver,  or  both.  It  was 
e.xtoUed  for  its  beauty,  solidity,  and  rarity, 
and  for  some  uses  was  preferred  to  gold 
itself.  Compare  i  Kin.  7:45;  Dan.  10:6. 
Some  compound  of  this  kind  may  have 
been  used  for  the  small  mirrors  mentioned 
in  E.xod.  38:8;  Job  37:18;  and  for  the 
"bows  of  steel"  Job  20:24;  Psa.  18:34. 
The  same  word  is  used  in  Jer.  15:12,  and 
this  compound  with  copper  is  spoken  of  as 
harder  than  iron,  like  the  "  northern  iron," 
that  is,  steel:  the  art  of  making  which  was 
known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Mexi- 
cans.    See  Br.\ss  and  Sea. 

COR,  Ezek.  45:14.  See  Table  of  Meas- 
ures in  the  Appendix,  and  Measures. 


COR'AL,  a  hard,  calcareous,  marine  pro- 
duction, produced  by  the  labors  of  millions 
of  minute  polypous  animals,  and  often  re- 

III 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


sembling  in  figure  the  stem  of  a  plant  divi- 
ded into  branches.  It  is  of  various  colors, 
black,  white,  and  red.  The  latter  is  the 
mjst  valuable.  It  is  ranked  by  Job,  28: 18, 
and  Ezekiel,  27: 16,  among  precious  stones. 
It  abounds  in  the  Red  Sea;  and  the  islands 
of  the  South  Seas  are  often  coral  reefs, 
covered  over  with  earth.  The  word  "  ru- 
bies "  in  Frov.  3: 15 ;  8:11;  20: 15  ;  31 :  10,  is 
thought  by  many  to  mean  ornaments  of 
red  coral. 

COR'BAN,  a  sacred  gift,  a  present  devo- 
ted to  God,  or  to  his  temple.  Matt.  23:18. 
Our  Saviour  reproaches  the  Jews  with  cru- 
elty towards  their  needy  parents,  in  making 
a  corbaii  of  what  should  have  been  appro- 
priated to  their  use:  "  I  have  already  de- 
voted to  (iod  that  which  you  request  of 
me,"  Mark  7:11;  and  the  traditionary 
teachings  of  the  Jewish  doctors  would  en- 
force such  a  vow,  although  it  was  contrary 
to  nature  and  to  reason,  and  made  void 
the  law  of  God  as  to  honoring  parents, 


Matt.  15:3-9;  and  although  the  property  so 
"  devoted  "  was  never  actually  transferred 
from  the  owner  to  God's  service,  nor  even 
intended  to  be.  The  Pharisees,  and  the 
Talmudists  their  successors,  permitted 
even  debtors  to  defraud  their  creditors  by 
consecrating  their  debt  to  God;  as  if  the 
property  were  their  own,  and  not  rather 
the  right  of  their  creditors.  God  himself  is 
the  guardian  of  our  relatives  and  credi- 
tors, and  despises  an  offering  or  a  charity 
which  we  procure  at  the  cost  of  their  right- 
ful claims. 

CO'RE,  Jude  II,  A.  V.     See  Korah. 

CORIAN'DER,  a  small  round  seed  of  an 
aromatic  j)lant.  The  plant  is  a  native  of 
China,  and  is  now  widely  dift'used.-  Its 
seeds  are  planted  in  March.  They  are  em- 
ployed as  a  spice,  and  are  much  used  by 
druggists  and  confectioners.  The  manna 
which  fell  in  the  wilderness  was  like  cori- 
ander-seed in  form  and  color,  E.xod.  16:31 ; 
Num.  11:17.    See  Manna. 


MODERN  CORINTH. 


COR'INTH,  the  capital  of  Achaia,  on  the 
istlinius  which  separates  the  Ionian  Sea 
from  the  ^Egean,  and  hence  called  bimaris, 
"on  2  seas."  The  city  itself  stood  a  little 
inland ;  but  it  had  2  ports,  Lechaeum  on  the 
west,  and  Cenchrea  on  the  east.  Its  posi- 
tion gave  it  great  commercial  and  military 
importance  ;  for  while  the  traffic  of  the  east 
and  west  jjoured  through  its  gates,  as  over 
112 


the  Isthmus  of  Darien  the  commerce  of  2 
oceans,  it  was  also  at  the  gate  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  was  the  highway  between 
Northern  and  Southern  Greece.  Its  de- 
fence, besides  the  city  walls,  was  in  the 
Acro-corinth,  a  mass  of  rock  rising  2,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  with  precipitous  sides, 
and  with  room  for  a  town  upon  its  summit. 
Corinth  thus  became  one  of  the  most  pop- 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


ulous  and  wealthy  cities  of  Greece ;  but  its 
riches  produced  pride,  ostentation,  effemi- 
nacy, and  all  the  vices  generally  conse- 
■quent  on  plenty.  Lasciviousness,  particu- 
larly, was  not  only  tolerated,  but  consecra- 
ted here,  by  the  worship  of  Venus,  and  the 
notorious  prostitution  of  numerous  attend- 
ants devoted  to  her.  Corinth  was  destroyed 
by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  146.  A  century  later 
it  was  restored  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  plant- 
ed in  it  a  Roman  colony ;  but  though  it  soon 
iregained  its.  ancient  splendor,  it  also  re- 
lapsed into  all  its  former  dissipation  and 
licentiousness.  Paul  arrived  at  Corinth, 
A.  D.  52,  Acts  18: 1,  and  lodged  with  Aquila 
.and  Priscilla,  who,  as  well  as  himself,  were 
tent-makers.  Supporting  himself  by  this 
labor,  he  remained  at  Corinth  a  year  and 
a  half,  preaching  the  gospel  at  first  to  the 
Jews,  and  afterwards  more  successfully  to 
the  Gentiles,  i  Cor.  12:2.  See  Gallic. 
During  this  time  he  wrote  the  Epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians ;  and  in  a  subsequent 
visit,  A.  D.  57,  Acts  20:2,  3,  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  Some  suppose  he  made  a 
short  intervening  visit,  not  narrated  in  the 
Bible.  Compare  2  Cor.  13:1  with  2  Cor. 
1:15;  2:1;  12:14,  21;  13:2.  ApoUos  fol- 
lowed him  in  his  labors  at  Corinth,  and 
Aquila  and  Sosthenes  were  also  among  its 
■early  ministers,  Acts  18:1;  i  Cor.  1:1; 
16:19.  Its  site  is  now  unhealthy  and  al- 
most deserted,  with  few  vestiges  of  its 
former  greatness. 

CORIN'THIANS,  EpiSTLE  I.  This  was 
written  by  Paul  at  Ephesus,  about  A.  D. 
57,  upon  the  receipt  of  intelligence  respect- 
ing the  Corinthian  church,  conveyed  by 
members  of  the  family  of  Chloe,  ch.  i:ii, 
and  by  a  letter  from  the  church  requesting 
advice,  ch.  7:1,  probably  brohght  by  Ste- 
phanas, etc.,  ch.  16:17.  Certain  factions 
had  arisen  in  the  church,  using  his  name 
and  those  of  Peter,  Apollos,  and  of  Christ 
himself,  in  bitter  partisan  contentions.  In 
the  first  part  of  this  letter  he  endeavors  to 
restore  harmony  among  them,  by  reuniting 
them  to  the  great  and  sole  Head  of  the 
church.  He  then  takes  occasion  to  put 
them  on  their  guard  against  teachers  of 
false  philosophy,  and  resting  their  faith  on 
the  wisdom  of  men  instead  of  the  simple 
but  mighty  word  of  God.  He  proceeds,  in 
ch.  5,  to  reprove  them  for  certain  gross  im- 
moralities tolerated  among  thern,  such  as 
they  had  formerly  practised  like  all  around 
them,  but  which  he  charges  them  to  banish 
from  the  church  of  Christ.  He  replies  to 
their  queries  respecting  celibacy  and  mar- 

8 


riage,  and  the  eating  of  food  offered  to 
idols ;  and  meets  several  errors  and  sins 
prevalent  in  the  church  by  timely  instruc- 
tions as  to  disputes  among  brethren,  deco- 
rum in  public  assemblies,  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, the  resurrection  of  believers,  true 
charity,  and  the  right  use  of  spiritual  gifts, 
in  which  the  Corinthian  Christians  ex- 
celled, but  not  without  a  mixture  of  osten- 
tation and  disorder.  He  directs  them  as 
to  the  best  method  of  Christian  benefi- 
cence, and  closes  with  friendly  greetings. 

Epistle  II.  This  was  occasioned  by  in- 
telligence received  through  Titus,  at  Phi- 
lippi.  Paul  learned  of  the  favorable  recep- 
tion of  his  former  letter,  and  the  good 
effects  produced,  and  yet  that  a  party  re- 
mained opposed  to  him — accusing  him  of 
fickleness  in  not  fulfilling  his  promise  to 
visit  them;  blaming  his  severity  towards 
the  incestuous  person;  and  charging  him 
with  an  arrogance  and  assumption  unsuit- 
ed  to  his  true  authority  and  his  personal 
appearance.  In  the  course  of  his  reply  he 
answers  all  these  objections ;  he  enlarges 
upon  the  excellence  of  the  new  covenant, 
and  the  duties  and  rewards  of  its  minis- 
ters, and  on  the  duty  of  the  Corinthian 
Christians  as  to  charitable  collections.  He 
then  vindicates  his  own  course,  his  dignity 
and  authority  as  an  apostle,  against  those 
who  assailed  him.  His  last  words  invite 
them  to  penitence,  peace,  and  brotherly 
love.  This  epistle  seems  to  have  been 
written  a  few  months  after  the  first. 

COR'MORANT,  Lev.  11:17;  Deut.  14:17, 
some  bird  like  the  cormorant — which  is  a 
water-bird  about  the  size  of  a  goose.  It 
lives  on  fish,  which  it  catches  with  great 
dexterity ;  and  is  so  voracious  and  greedy 
that  its  name  has  passed  into  a  kind  of 
proverbial  use.  Another  Hebrew  word, 
translated  "cormorant"  in  Isa.  34:11; 
Zeph.  2:14,  should  rather  be  translated,  as 
it  is  in  other  passages,  "pelican." 

CORN,  in  the  Bible,  is  the  general  word 
for  grain  of  all  kinds,  including  various 
seeds,  peas,  and  beans.  It  never  means, 
as  in  America,  maize,  or  Indian  corn.  Pal- 
estine was  anciently  very  fertile  in  grain, 
which  furnished  in  a  great  measure  the 
support  of  the  inhabitants,  Gen.  27 :  28. 
"  Corn,  wine,  and  olive-oil  "  were  the  sta- 
ple products,  and  wheat  and  barley  still 
grow  there  luxuriantly,  when  cultivated; 
also  spelt,  rye,  millet,  fitches,  and  oats. 
The  disciples  ate  wheat  in  the  field,  the 
ripe  ear  being  simply  rubbed  in  the  hands 
to  separate  the  kernels,  Deut.  23 :  25 ;  Matt. 

113 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


12:1.  Parched  wheat  was  a  part  of  the 
ordinary  foud  of  the  Israelites,  as  it  still  is 
of  the  Arabs,  Ruth  2:14;  2  Sam.  17:28,  29. 
Their  method  of  preparing  grain  for  the 
manufacture  of  bread  was  the  following : 
The  threshing  was  done  either  by  the  staff 
or  the  flail,  Isa.  28:27,  28;  by  the  feet  of 
cattle,  Deut.  25:4;  or  by  "a  sharp  thresh- 
ing instrument  having  teetii,"  Isa.  41:15, 
which  was  something  resembling  a  cart, 
drawn  over  the  corn  by  means  of  horses  or 
oxen.  See  THRiiSHiNc.  When  the  grain 
was  threshed,  it  was  separated  from  the 
chaff  and  dust  by  throwing  it  forward 
across  the  wind,  by  means  of  a  winnowing 
fan  or  shovel,  Matt.  3:12;  after  which  the 
grain  was  sifted,  to  separate  all  impurities 
from  it,  Amos  9:9;  Luke  22:31.  Hence  we 
see  that  the  threshing-floors  were  in  the 
open  air,  and  if  possible  on  high  ground, 
as  travellers  still  find  them  in  actual  use, 
Judg.  6:11  ;  2  Sam.  24:18.  The  grain  thus 
obtained  was  sometimes  pounded  in  a  mor- 
tar, Num.  11:8;  Rev.  18:22,  but  was  com- 
monly reduced  to  meal  by  the  hand-mill. 


>_-T-V      .i=l?r= 


This  consisted  of  a  lower  millstone,  the 
upper  side  of  which  was  slightly  concave, 
and  an  upper  millstone,  the  lower  surface 
of  which  was  convex.  These  stones  were 
each  about  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  half  a 
foot  thick ;  and  were  called  "  the  nether 
millstone  "  and  the  rider.  Job  41 :  24 ;  Judg. 
9:53;  2  Sam.  11:21.  The  hole  for  receiving 
the  corn  was  in  the  centre  of  the  upper 
millstone;  and  in  the  operation  of  grind- 
ing, the  lower  was  fixed,  and  the  upper 
made  to  move  round  upon  it  with  consid- 
erable velocity  by  means  of  a  handle.  The 
meal  came  out  at  the  edges,  and  was  re- 
ceived on  a  cloth  spread  under  the  mill  on 
114 


the  ground.  Each  family  possessed  a  milU 
and  the  law  forbade  its  being  taken  in 
pledge,  Deut.  24:6;  one  among  innumera- 
ble examples  of  the  humanity  of  the  Mosaic 
legislation.  These  mills  are  still  in  use  in 
the  East,  and  in  some  parts  of  Scotland. 
Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  says,  "  In  the  island  of 
Cyprus  I  observed  upon  the  ground  the 
sort  of  stones  used  for  grinding  corn,  called 
querns  in  Scotland,  common  also  in  Lap- 
land, and  in  all  parts  of  Palestine."  The 
employment  of  grinding  with  these  mills 
is  confined  solely  to  females,  who  sit  on  the 
ground  with  the  mill  before  them,  and  thus 
maj"  be  said  to  be  "  behind  the  mill,"  Exod. 
11:5.  See  Matt.  24:41.  To  this  feminine 
occupation  Samson  was  degraded,  Judg. 
16:21.  The  women  always  accompany  the 
grating  noise  of  the  stones  with  their  voi- 
ces ;  and  when  10  or  a  dozen  are  thus  em- 
ployed at  daybreak,  the  noise  is  heard  all 
over  the  city.  The  Scriptures  mention  the 
want  of  this  noise  as  a  mark  of  desolation, 
Jer.  25:10;  Rev.  18:22. 

CORNE'LIUS,  a  Roman  centurion,  sta- 
tioned at  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  supposed 
to  have  been  of  a  distinguisiied  family  in 
Rome.  He  was  the  ist  Gentile  convert 
under  Peter ;  and  the  story  of  his  recep- 
tion of  the  gospel  and  acceptance  by  Jew- 
ish Christians  shows  how  God  broke  down 
the  partition-wall  between  Jews  and  (Jen- 
tiles.  When  first  mentioned,  Acts  10:1,  he 
had  evidently  been  led  by  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  renounce  idolatry,  to  worship  the  true 
God,  and  to  lead,  in  the  midst  of  profli- 
gacy, a  devout  and  beneficent  life ;  he  was- 
prepared  to  receive  the  Saviour,  and  God 
did  not  fail  to  reveal  Him.  Cornelius  was 
miraculously  directed  to  send  for  Peter, 
who  was  also  miraculously  prepared  to 
attend  the  summons.  He  went  from  Joppa 
to  Caesarea,  35  miles,  preached  the  gospel 
to  Cornelius  and  his  friends,  and  saw  with 
wonder  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Spirit 
poured  uikmi  them  all.  Providence  thus 
explained  his  recent  vision  in  the  trance ; 
he  nobly  discarded  his  Jewish  prejudices, 
and  at  once  began  his  great  work  as  apos- 
tle to  the  Gentiles  by  receiving  into  the 
church  of  Christ  those  whom  Christ  had  so 
manifestly  accepted,  Acts  10;   11. 

COR'NER-STONE,  a  massive  stone,  usu- 
ally distinct  from  tiic  foundation,  Jer.  51 :26, 
and  so  placed  at  the  corner  of  the  building 
as  to  bind  together  the  2  walls  meeting 
upon  it.  Such  a  stone  is  foimd  at  Baalbek, 
28  feet  long,  6'2  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  thick. 

Our  Lord  is  compared  in  the  New  Tes- 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COV 


tament  to  a  corner-stone  in  3  different 
points  of  view.  First,  as  this  stone  lies  at 
the  foundation,  and  serves  to  give  support 
and  strength  to  the  building,  so  Christ,  or 
the  doctrine  of  a  Saviour,  is  called  the  chief 
corner-stone,  Eph.  2:20,  because  this  doc- 
trine is  the  most  important  feature  of  the 
Christian  religion — as  a  system  of  truths, 
and  as  a  living  power  in  the  souls  of  men. 
Further,  as  the  corner-stone  occupies  an 
important  and  conspicuous  place,  Jesus  is 
compared  to  it,  i  Pet.  2:6,  because  God  has 
given  him,  as  the  Mediator,  a  dignity  and 
conspicuousness  above  all  others.  Lastly, 
since  men  often  stumble  against  a  project- 
ing corner-stone,  Christ  is  so  called.  Matt. 
21 :42,  because  his  gospel  will  be  the  cause 
of  aggravated  condemnation  to  those  who 
reject  it. 

COR'NET,  a  wind  instrument  of  music, 
of  a  curved  form,  i  Chr.  15:28;  Dan.  3:5,  7. 
See  Music. 

CORRUP'TION,  Mount  OF.    See  Olives. 

COS.     See  Coos. 

COTES,  inclosures  for  the  safe  keeping 
of  sheep,  2  Chr.  32:28.     See  Sheep. 

COT'TAGE,  a  rustic  tent  or  booth,  made 
often  of  boughs,  Isa.  1:8;  Zeph.  2:6.  In 
Isa.  24:20  it  denotes  a  sort  of  hammock  or 
elevated  couch  for  a  garden  watchman. 


COT'TON  was  a  native  product  of  India, 
and  perhaps  of  Egypt,  and  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  intended  in  some  of  the  passa- 
ges where  the  English  version  has  "fine 
linen."  But  minute  e.xamination  of  the 
cloths  in  which  Egyptian  mummies  were 
wrapped  seems  to  establish  the  fact  that 
linen,  sometimes  of  extraordinary  fineness, 
was  the  only  material  thus  used.  See  Flax 
and  Linen. 


COUCH.     See  Bed. 

COUN'CIL  is  occasionally  taken  for  any 
kind  of  assembly  for  deliberation.  Matt. 
12:14;  in  Acts  25:12,  the  advisers  of  Fes- 
tus  the  Roman  governor.  In  Matt.  5:22; 
Mark  13:9,  the  minor  Jewish  courts,  of 
which  each  town  had  one,  seem  meant ; 
but  more  frequently  the  Sanhedrin.  The 
name  is  applied  in  later  times  to  certain 
general,  or  at  times  partial,  conventions  of 
the  official  representatives  of  churches,  to 
deliberate  on  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Thus 
the  assembly  of  the  "  apostles,  elders,  and 
brethren,"  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  15,  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  yoke  of  the  law  should 
be  imposed  on  Gentile  converts,  is  com- 
monly reputed  to  be  the  ist  general  coun- 
cil of  the  Christian  church.  See  Sanhe- 
drin. 

COUR'SES,  the  order  in  which  the  priests 
were  on  duty  at  the  temple.     See  Abia. 

COURT,  an  inclosed  space  or  yard  within 
the  limits  of  an  Oriental  house,  2  Sara. 
17:18.  For  the  courts  of  the  temple,  see 
Temple.  The  tabernacle  also  had  a  court. 
All  Oriental  houses  are  built  in  the  form 
of  a  hollow  square  around  a  court.  See 
House. 

COVENANT.  The  word  testamentum  is 
often  used  in  Latin  to  e.xpress  the  He- 
brew word  berilh,  which  signifies  cove- 
nant ;  whence  the  titles.  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, are  used  to  denote  the  old  and 
new  covenants.     See  Testament. 

A  covenant  is  properly  an  agreement 
between  2  parties,  ratified  among  the  an- 
cients by  an  oath,  appealing  to  God  as  wit- 
ness. Gen.  21:31;  31:50,  and  by  eating  or 
taking  salt  together,  as  did  Jacob  and  La- 
ban,  Gen.  31:46;  Lev.  2:13;  Num.  18:19; 
or  dividing  animals  in  two  and  passing 
between  the  parts.  Gen.  15;  Jer.  34:18,  19. 
Where  one  of  the  parties  is  infinitely  supe- 
rior to  the  other,  as  in  a  covenant  between 
God  and  man,  God's  covenant  assumes  the 
nature  of  a  promise,  Isa.  59:21;  Jer.  31:33, 
34;  Gal.  3:15-18;  but  this  promise  is  often 
limited  by  certain  conditions  on  the  part  of 
man,  as  circumcision.  Gen.  17:10,  14;  Acts 
7:8  ;  obedience  to  the  commandments,  etc., 
Exod.  34:27,  28;  Lev.  18:5.  God's  ist  cov- 
enant with  the  Hebrews  was  made  when 
the  Lord  chose  Abraham  and  his  posterity 
for  his  people ;  a  2d  covenant,  or  a  solemn 
renewal  of  the  former,  was  made  at  Sinai, 
comprehending  all  who  observe  the  law  of 
Moses.  The  "  new  covenant,"  of  which 
Christ  is  the  Mediator  and  Author,  and 
which  was  confirmed  by  his  blood,  com- 

115 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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prehends  all  who  believe  in  him  and  are 
born  again,  Gal.  4:24;  Heb.  7:22;  8:6-13; 
9- 15-23;  12:24.  The  divine  covenants 
were  ratified  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  victim, 
to  show  that  without  an  atonement  there 
could  be  no  communication  of  blessing  and 
salvation  from  God  to  man,  Gen.  15:1-18; 
Exod.  24:6-8;  Heb.  9:6.  Eminent  believ- 
ers among  the  covenant  people  of  God 
were  favored  by  the  establishment  of  par- 
ticular covenants,  in  which  he  promised 
them  certain  temporal  favors;  but  these 
were  only  renewals  to  individuals  of  the 
*' everlasting  covenant,"  with  temporal 
types  and  pledges  of  its  fulfilment.  Thus 
God  covenanted  with  Noah,  Abraham,  and 
David,  Gen.  9:8,  9;  17:4,  5;  Psa.  89:3,  4, 
etc.,  and  gave  them  faith  in  the  Saviour 
afterwards  to  be  revealed,  Rom.  3 125;  Heb. 
Seis- 
in common  discourse  we  usually  speak 
of  the  old  and  new  testaments,  or  cove- 
nants—the covenant  between  God  and  the 
posterity  of  Abraham,  and  that  which  he 
has  made  with  believers  by  Jesus  Christ ; 
because  these  2  covenants  contain  emi- 
nently all  the  rest,  which  are  consequen- 
ces, branches,  or  explanations  of  them. 
The  most  solemn  and  perfect  of  the  cove- 
nants of  God  with  men  is  that  made 
through  the  mediation  of  our  Redeemer, 
which  must  subsist  to  the  end  of  time. 
The  Son  of  God  is  the  guarantee  of  it ;  it 
is  confirmed  with  his  blood ;  th^  end  and 
object  of  it  is  eternal  life,  and  its  constitu- 
tion and  laws  are  more  exalted  than  those 
of  the  former  covenant. 

Theologians  use  the  phrase  "  covenant 
of  works "  to  denote  the  constitution  es- 
tablished by  God  with  man  before  the  fall, 
the  promise  of  which  was  eternal  life  on 
condition  of  obedience,  Hos.  6:7;  Rom. 
3:27;  Gal.  2:19.  They  also  use  the  phrase 
"covenant  of  grace  or  redemption"  to  de- 
note the  arrangement  made  in  the  coun- 
sels of  eternity,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Father  forgives  and  saves  sinful  men  re- 
deemed by  the  death  of  the  Son. 

COVET,  to  ardently  long  for.  The  de- 
sire may  be  right,  as  in  i  Cor.  12:31  ;  or 
wrong,  as  in  Exod.  20:17.  Covetousness 
is  a  gross  form  of  selfishness,  very  offen- 
sive to  God,  Luke  12:15-21;  Col.  3:5; 
I  Tim.  6:9,  10. 

CRACK'NELS,  a  sort  of  hard,  brittle, 
punctured  cakes,  i  Kin.  14:3. 

CRAFT,  trade  or  occu|)ation,  Acts  18:3. 
After  the   Captivity,  Jewish  boys,  even  of 
rich  parents,  had  to  learn  some  useful  craft, 
116 


manual  labor  not  being  regarded  as  unfit 
for  free  citizens.  It  was  a  Rabbinical  say- 
ing that  he  who  did  not  give  his  son  a  trade 
fitted  him  to  steal.  The  Bible  contains 
many  notices  of  a  great  variety  of  trades 
common  in  the  East.  All  were  not,  how- 
ever, equally  honorable,  nor  were  they 
necessarily  hereditary,  though  Jesus  adopt- 
ed the  trade  of  Joseph,  Matt.  13:55;  Mark 
6:3.  Tradesmen  of  one  craft,  then  as  now 
congregated  in  one  locality  in  a  city. 


THE    NUMIDIAN   CRANE  :    GRUS   VIRGO. 

CRANE.  In  isa.  38: 14,  and  Jer.  8:7,  two 
birds  are  mentioned,  the  sus  and  the  agtir, 
the  ist  rendered  in  our  version  crane,  and 
the  2d  swallow.  Bochart  says  the  sus,  or 
sis,  is  the  swallow  ;  the  a^jir,  the  crane. 
The  Numidian  crane,  supposed  to  be  re- 
ferred to,  is  about  3  feet  in  length,  is  blu- 
ish-gray, with  the  cheeks,  throat,  breast, 
and  tips  of  the  long  hinder  feathers  black, 
with  a  tuft  of  white  feathers  behind  each 
eye.  "  Like  a  crane,  or  a  swallow,  so  did 
I  chatter:"  there  is  peculiar  force  and 
beauty  in  the  comparison  here  made  be- 
tween the  dying  believer  and  migratory 
birds  about  to  take  their  departure  to  a 
distant  but  more  genial  clime.  They  lin- 
ger in  the  scenes  which  they  have  fre- 
quented, but  instinct  compels  them  to  re- 
move. 

CREA'TION,  (I)  the  act  by  which  God 
calls  into  existence  things  not  previously 
in  being— material  or  spiritual,  visible  or 


CRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRE 


invisible,  Psa.  148:5;  Rev.  4:11;  (2)  the 
moulding  or  reconstituting  things,  the  ele- 
ments of  which  previously  existed ;  and 
(3)  the  things  thus  "created  and  made," 
2  Pet.  3:4;  Rev.  3:14;  5:13-  ^t  is  in  the 
first  of  these  senses  the  word  "  created  "  is 
to  be  understood  in  Gen.  1:1;  and  the  idea 
of  the  eternity  of  matter  is  to  be  rejected, 
as  contrary  to  sound  reason  and  to  the 
teachings  of  Scripture,  Prov.  8:22-31 ;  John 
1:1-3;  Heb.  11:3. 

Creation  is  exclusively  the  work  of  God. 
The  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit  are  each 
in  turn  named  as  its  author,  Isa.  40 :  28  ;  Col. 
1:16;  Gen.  2:2.  It  is  a  work  the  myster- 
ies of  which  no  finite  mind  can  apprehend  ; 
and  yet,  as  it  reveals  to  us  the  invisible 
things  of  God,  Rom.  i :  20,  we  may  and 
ought  to  learn  what  he  reveals  respecting 
it  not  only  in  revelation,  but  in  his  works. 
These  2  volumes  are  from  the  same  divine 
hand,  and  cannot  but  harmonize  with  each 
other.  The  Bible  opens  with  an  account 
of  the  creation  unspeakably  majestic  and 
sublime.  The  6  days  there  spoken  of  have 
usually  been  taken  for  our  present  natural 
days;  but  modern  geological  researches 
have  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  "day" 
here  denotes  a  longer  period.  The  differ- 
ent rocks  of  our  globe  lie  in  distinct  layers, 
the  comparative  age  of  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  ascertained.  Only  the  most 
recent  have  been  found  to  contain  human 
remains.  Older  layers  present  in  turn 
different  fossil  remains  of  animals  and 
plants,  many  of  them  supposed  to  be  now 
e.xtinct.  These  layers  are  deeply  imbed- 
ded beneath  the  present  soil,  and  yet  ap- 
pear to  be  formed  of  matter  washed  into 
the  bed  of  some  primeval  sea,  and  hard- 
ened into  rock.  Above  this  may  lie  nu- 
merous other  strata  of  different  materials, 
but  which  appear  to  have  been  deposited 
in  the  same  manner,  in  the  slow  lapse  of 
time.  These  layers  are  also  thrown  up 
and  penetrated  all  over  the  world  by  rocks 
of  still  earlier  formations,  apparently  once 
in  a  melted  state. 

There  are  several  modes  of  reconciling 
these  geological  discoveries  with  the  state- 
ments of  Scripture  :  First,  that  the  6  days 
of  Gen.  I  denote  6  long  epochs — periods  of 
alternate  progressive  formation  and  revo- 
lution on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  To  the 
Lord  "a  thousand  years  are  as  one  day," 
Psa.  90:2,  4;  2  Pet.  3:5-10;  Rev.  20.  Sec- 
ondly, that  the  long  epochs  indicated  in 
the  geological  structure  of  the  globe  oc- 
curred before  the  Bible  account  commen- 


ces, or  rather  in  the  interval  between  the 
ist  and  2d  verses  of  Gen.  i.  According  to 
this  interpretation,  verse  2  describes  the 
state  of  the  earth  at  the  close  of  the  last 
revolution  it  e.vperienced,  preparatory  to 
God's  fitting  it  up  for  the  abode  of  man  as 
described  in  the  verses  following.  Thirdly, 
that  God  compressed  the  work  of  those  un- 
told ages  into  6  short  days,  and  created  the 
world  as  he  did  Adam,  in  a  state  of  matu- 
rity, embodying  in  its  rocks  and  fossils 
those  rudimental  forms  of  animal  and  veg- 
etable life  which  seem  naturally  to  lead  up 
to  the  e.xisting  forms. 

According  to  the  ist  of  these  3  modes  of 
interpretation,  the  latest  theory  of  the  cre- 
ation may  be  stated  somewhat  as  follows : 
In  verse  i  is  indicated  the  original  creation 
of  matter,  in  a  gaseous  form,  universally 
diffused,  "without  form  and  void."  On 
the  ist  day  light  was  formed,  by  the  chem- 
ical union  of  gaseous  particles.  On  the 
2d  day  the  "firmament"  was  made,  the 
gas  condensing  into  countless  spheres  of 
nebulous  matter,  that  "  under  the  firma- 
ment "  forming  the  earth.  On  the  3d  day 
came  the  condensation  of  this  nebulous 
matter  of  the  earth  into  a  melted  mineral 
mass,  gradually  cooling  on  the  surface,  the 
water  separating  from  the  land,  and  vege- 
tation commencing.  On  the  4th  day  fol- 
lowed the  organization  of  the  solar  system, 
with  day  and  night,  seasons,  climates,  etc. 
On  the  5th  day  came  the  creation  of  the 
lower  orders  of  animal  life,  the  water  ani- 
mals, reptiles,  and  birds.  On  the  6th  day 
the  higher  orders  of  animals  were  created, 
and  finally  man.  The  ist  of  these  geo- 
logic days  are  supposed  to  have  been 
epochs  of  prodigious  duration,  and  each  of 
the  6  longer  than  its  immediate  successor. 
The  7th  day,  on  which  God  rested  from 
creation,  is  still  in  progress. 

The  Bible  account  of  the  creation  of  yuan 
is  utterly  irreconcilable  both  with  the  athe- 
istic theory  of  an  eternal  series  of  like  races, 
or  of  evolution  upwards  from  the  simplest 
elements  of  primordial  matter  through  a 
long  series  of  animals  into  man,  and  with 
the  modern  infidel  theory  that  several  dis- 
tinct races  of  men  were  created,  and  not  one 
alone.  The  Bible  unequivocally  teaches 
the  unity  of  the  whole  human  race,  and  its 
origin  in  Adam,  Mai.  2: 10;  Acts  17:26;  and 
no  one  who  accepts  it  as  the  word  of  God 
can  doubt  these  statements.  They  come 
forth  also  from  the  sharp  investigations  of 
modern  science  confirmed  with  new  evi- 
dences.     The    anatomy   of   men's    bodies 

117 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRO 


and  the  analysis  of  their  mental  and  spir- 
itual faculties,  prove  their  essential  unity  as 
one  species;  their  various  languages  bear 
traces  of  the  one  primeval  tongue ;  and 
their  power  of  adaptation  to  every  climate 
also  agrees  with  the  Bible  statement.  The 
scriptural  date  of  man's  creation  is  con- 
firmed by  the  traditions  of  many  ancient 
nations,  by  critical  examination  of  the 
world's  progress  in  arts,  sciences,  and  lan- 
guages; and  by  the  fact  that  no  human 
remains  are  found  except  in  superficial 
and  recent  deposits. 

The  accounts  of  creation  on  the  stone 
tablets  of  ancient  Assyrian  libraries  re- 
cently disinterred  are  fragmentary  and 
obscure  traditions,  but  go  to  confirm  the 
Bible  history,  and  not  the  theories  of  ma- 
terialists. 

The  "  creature  "  and  "  the  whole  crea- 
tion," in  Rom.  8:19-22,  may  denote  the 
irrational  and  inferior  creation,  which  shall 
be  released  from  the  curse,  and  share  in 
the  glorious  liberty  of  the  sons  of  God, 
Isa.  11:6;  35:1;  2  Pet.  3:7-13.  The  bodies 
of  believers,  now  subject  to  vanity,  are 
secure  of  full  deliverance  at  the  resurrec- 
tion— "  tile  redemption  of  our  bodv,"  Rom. 
8:23. 

CRES'CENS,  ffrowing,  an  assistant  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  probably  one  of  the  70 
disciples ;  supposed  to  have  exercised  his 
ministry  in  Galatia,  2  Tim.  4:10. 

CRETE,  a  large  island,  150  miles  long,  6 
to  35  wide,  now  called  Candia,  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, originally  peopled  probablj'  by 
a  branch  of  the  Caphtorim.  It  is  rugged 
and  mountainous,  but  has  many  fertile 
plains  and  valleys,  and  is  celebrated  by 
Homer  for  its  100  cities.  Its  inhabitants 
were  excellent  sailors,  and  visited  all 
coasts.  They  were  also  famous  for  arch- 
ery, which  they  practised  from  their  in- 
fancy. Crete  was  one  of  the  3  K's  against 
whose  unfaithfulness  the  Grecian  prov- 
erb cautioned — Kappadocia,  Kilicia,  and 
Krete ;  and  this  agrees  with  the  character 
which  the  apostle  has  given  of  the  Cretans, 
that  they  were  "always  liars,"  brutes,  and 
gormandizers,  as  Epimenides,  a  Cretan 
poet,  described  them.  Tit.  1:12,  13. 

Crete  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
legislator  Minos ;  and  for  its  connection 
with  the  voyage  of  Paul  to  Rome,  Acts  27. 
The  ship  first  made  Salmone,  the  eastern 
promontory  of  liie  island,  and  took  shelter 
at  Fair  Havens,  a  roadstead  on  the  south 
side,  east  of  Cape  Matala.  After  some 
time,  and  against  Paul's  warning,  they  set 
118 


sail  for  Phoenix,  a  more  commodious  har- 
bor on  the  western  part  of  the  island ;  but 
were  overtaken  by  a  fierce  wind  from  the 
east-northeast,  which  compelled  them  to 
lie  to,  and  drifted  them  to  Malta.  Paul  is 
supjjosed  to  have  visited  Crete  afterwards, 
in  connection  with  one  of  his  visits  to  Asia 
Minor,  after  his  ist  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
I  Tim.  1:3;  Phile.  22.  Here  he  established 
gospel  institutions,  and  left  Titus  in  pas- 
toral charge,  Tit.  1:5.     See  also  Acts  2:11. 

CRIB,  a  feeding-trough  for  cattle,  often 
of  stones  and  mortar,  a  fixture  in  the  sta- 
ble. Each  ox  and  ass  knows  its  crib,  Isa. 
1:3;  and  Dr.  Thomson,  watching  the  droves 
of  cattle  and  donkeys  coming  down  at 
nightfall  from  the  heights  back  of  Tiberias, 
saw  them  separate  on  entering  the  city  and 
each  one  thread  the  narrow  and  crooked 
alleys  straight  to  its  own  home  and  its  own 
special  crib.     See  M.^nc;ek. 

CRIM'SON,  2   Chr.  2:7-14;   3:14.      See 

PURIT.i:. 

CRISP'ING-PINS,  Isa.  3:22,  rather,  reti- 
cules; rendered  "bags"  in  2  Kin.  5:23. 

CRIS'PUS,  curled,  president  of  the  Jew- 
ish synagogue  at  Corinth,  converted  under 
the  preaching  of  Paul,  Acts  18:8,  and  bap- 
tized by  him,  i  Cor.  i :  14. 


.JL, 


CROSS,  a  kind  of  gibbet  made  of  2  pie- 
ces of  wood  placed  transversely,  in  one  of 
the  above  3  forms.  Death  by  the  cross 
was  a  punishment  of  the  meanest  slaves, 
and  was  a  mark  of  infamy,  Deut.  21:23; 
Gal.  3: 13.  This  punishment  was  practised 
among  many  ancient  nations,  but  proba- 
bly not  by  the  early  Jews.  It  was  so  com- 
mon among  the  Romans  that  pains,  aflflic- 
tions,  trovibles,  etc.,  were  called  by  them 
"  crosses."  Our  Saviour  says  that  his  dis- 
ciples must  "  take  up  the  cross  and  follow  " 
him.  Though  the  cross  is  the  sign  of  igno- 
miny and  suflTering,  yet  it  is  the  badge  and 
glory  of  the  Christian.  Paul  gloried  in  the 
cross  of  Christ,  CJal.  6:14,  that  is,  in  his 
wonderful  love  in  dying  to  atone  for  our 
sins,  and  in  the  glorious  consequences 
which  result  from  it,  i  Cor.   i :  18,  22,  23 ; 


CRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRO 


12 : 2 ;  but  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross,  with 
the  idea  of  any  efficacy  in  it,  is  supersti- 
tious and  childish;  to  adore  the  crucifix, 
•or  image  of  Christ  on  a  cross,  is  idolatrous. 

The  common  way  of  crucifying  was  by 
fastening  the  criminal  with  nails,  one 
through  each  hand,  and  one  through  both 
his  feet,  or  through  each  foot.  Sometimes 
they  were  bound  with  cords,  which,  though 
it  seems  gentler,  was  really  more  cruel, 
because  the  sufferer  was  hereby  made  to 
languish  longer.  Sometimes  they  used 
both  nails  and  cords  for  fastenings;  and 
when  this  was  the  case,  there  was  no  diffi- 
•culty  in  lifting  up  the  person,  together  with 
his  cross,  he  being  sufficiently  supported 
by  the  cords;  near  the  middle  of  the  cross 
-also  there  was  a  wooden  projection,  which 
partially  supported  the  body  of  the  suf- 
ferer. Before  they  nailed  him  to  the  cross, 
they  generally  scourged  him  with  whips  or 
leathern  thongs,  which  was  thought  more 
severe  and  more  infamous  than  scourging 
with  cords.  Christ's  scourging  preceded 
his  condemnation,  Luke  23:22;  John  19:1. 
See  Scourging.  Slaves  who  had  been 
guilty  of  great  crimes  were  fastened  to  a 
gibbet  or  cross,  and  were  thus  led  about 
the  city,  and  beaten.  Isaac  was  laden  with 
the  wood^for  his  own  sacrifice.  Gen.  22:6. 
•Our  Saviour  too  was  loaded  with  his  cross ; 
•and  as  he  sank  under  the  burden,  Simon 
the  Cyrenian  was  constrained  to  bear  it 
-after  him  and  with  him,  Mark  15:21.  Our 
Lord  was  crucified  between  2  malefactors, 
.as  was  predicted,  Isa.  53:12;  and  his  feet 
as  well  as  his  hands  were  nailed  to  the 
•cross,  Luke  24:39,  40;  Psa.  22:16. 

After  the  person  had  been  stripped  of 
all  his  clothing  and  bound  or  nailed  to  the 
•cross,  a  stupefying  draught  was  sometimes 
administered,  in  order  to  render  him  less 
sensible  to  pain,  Prov.  31:6,  an  alleviation 
which  our  Saviour  did  not  accept.  Matt. 
27:34;  Mark  15:23;  though  beseems  after- 
wards to  have  taken  a  little  of  the  common 
beverage  of  the  soldiers,  Mati.  27:48  ;  John 
19:29.  Sent  by  the  Father  to  bear  the 
heavy  load  of  penal  suffering  for  a  lost 
race,  he  felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  the  pal- 
liatives resorted  to  in  ordinary  cases,  and 
perfectly  lawful  except  in  his  own.  "  The 
cup  which  my  Father  hath  given  me,  shall 
I  not  drink  it  ?"  John  18:11.  He  drank  it, 
and  to  the  very  dregs.  The  cross  being 
erected  under  the  burning  sun,  the  wounds 
made  by  the  scourge  and  the  nails  soon 
■occasioned  a  general  fever  and  an  intoler- 
able thirst.     The  blood,  interrupted  in  its 


regular  flow,  accumulated  in  various  parts 
of  the  body,  and  caused  painful  conges- 
tions. Every  slight  writhing  of  the  sufferer 
increased  his  anguish,  which  found  no  re- 
lief but  in  final  mortification  and  death. 
Those  who  were  fastened  upon  the  cross 
sometimes  lived  in  that  condition  3  or  4 
days;  and  in  exceptional  cases  on  record, 
even  as  long  as  a  week  and  more.  Hence 
Pilate  was  amazed  at  our  Saviour's  dying 
so  soon,  because  naturally  he  must  have 
lived  longer,  Mark  15:44.  The  death  of 
our  blessed  Redeemer  was  hastened  by  his 
previous  terrible  agony  in  the  garden,  and 
by  the  crushing  burden  upon  his  soul  of 
the  world's  sin.  The  immediate  cause  of 
death  is  thought  to  have  been  a  rupture  of 
the  heart ;  and  the  blood  being  released 
into  the  cavity  around  the  heart,  separated 
into  serum  and  crassamenlum,  the  "  water 
and  blood  "  which  flowed  forth  when  the 
side  was  pierced  by  the  soldier's  spear. 
The  legs  of  the  2  thieves  were  broken  to 
hasten  their  death,  that  their  bodies  might 
not  remain  on  the  cross  on  the  Sabbath 
day,  Deut.  21:23;  Josh.  8:29;  but  the  cru- 
cified were  usually  left  hanging,  under  the 
eye  of  guards,  till  their  bodies  fell  to  the 
ground,  or  were  devoured  by  birds  and 
beasts  of  prey. 


ANTIQUE   GARLANDS,   DIADEMS,  AND   CROWNS. 

CROWN.  There  are  2  distinct  classes 
of  Hebrew  terms  rendered  crown  in  the 
Bible.  The  one  represents  such  head- 
dresses as  we  should  designate  coronet, 
band,  mitre,  tiara,  garland,  etc.  The  other 
is  generally  applied  to  the  head-dresses  of 

119 


CRU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CUP 


kings.  The  former  was  a  simple  fillet  or 
diadem  around  the  head,  variously  orna- 
mented. Newly-married  persons  of  both 
sexes  wore  crowns  on  their  wedding-day, 
Song  3:11;  Ezek.  16:12.  The  crowns  of 
kings  were  sometimes  white  fillets,  bound 
round  the  forehead,  the  ends  falling  back 
on  the  neck  ;  or  were  made  of  gold  tissue  or 
open  work,  or  a  gold  band  which  was  the 
basis  of  ornamental  raised  work,  adorned 
with  jewels.  That  of  the  Jewish  high-priest 
was  a  fillet,  or  diadem,  tied  with  a  ribbon  of 
a  hyacinth  color,  E.\od.  28:36;  39:30.  Occa- 
sionally the  crown  was  of  pure  gold,  and 
was  worn  by  kings  on  all  state  occasions, 
2  Chr.  23:  II,  sometimes  when  they  went  to 
battle,  2  Sam.  1:10;  12:30.  It  was  also 
worn  by  queens,  Esth.  2:17.  The  crown 
is  a  symbol  of  honor,  power,  and  eternal 
life,  Prov.  12:4;  Lam.  5:16;  i  Pet.  5:4. 
Crowns  or  garlands  were  given  to  the  suc- 
cessful competitors  at  the  Grecian  games, 
to  which  frequent  allusion  is  made  in  the 
Epistles,  2  Tim.  4:7,  8.  These  wreaths 
were  of  laurel,  parsley,  pine,  and  oak 
leaves — highly  prized,  but  soon  perishing ; 
a  fact  which  adds  force  to  the  contrast  im- 
plied when  the  apostles  speak  of  the  "  in- 
corruptible "  "crown  of  glory,  that  fadeth 
not  away,"  Jas.  1:12;  i  Pet.  5:4;  Rev.  2:10. 
See  Thistles. 
CRUCIFIX'ION.    See  Cross. 


CRUSE,  a  small  vessel  for  holding  water 
and  other  liquids,  i  Sam.  26:11;  i  Kin. 
17:12;  19:6.  The  above  cut  rejiresents 
various  antique  cups,  travelling  flasks,  and 
cruses,  like  those  still  used  in  the  East. 

CRYS'TAL.     The  same  Hebrew  word  is 

rendered  by  our  translators,  crystal,  Ezek. 

1:22;  frost.  Gen.  31:40;  and  ice.  Job  6:16. 

The  word   primarily  denotes   ice,  and   is 

120 


also  applied  to  glass,  and  to  a  perfectly^ 
transparent  and  glass-like  gem,  from  their 
resemblance  to  this  substance,  Job  28:17; 
Rev.  4:6 ;  21:11. 

CU'BIT,  a  measure  widely  used  among 
the  ancients,  originally  the  distance  from, 
the  elbow  to  the  wrist,  as  some  say,  or 
rather  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  fin- 
ger, which  is  the  fourth  part  of  a  man's- 
stature.  The  Hebrew  cubit,  according  tO' 
most  authorities,  is  21K  inches;  but  others, 
fix  it  at  18.  The  Talmudists  observe  that 
the  Hebrew  cubit  was  larger  by  one  quar- 
ter than  the  Roman,  which  would  give  a 
length  of  22  inches.  This  nearly  corre- 
sponds with  the  Egyptian  sacred  cubit, 
which  was  21%  inches,  while  their  common 
cubit  was  20K  • 

CUCKOO,  Lev.  11:16;  Deut.  14:15,  prob- 
ably one  of  the  larger  sort  of  petrels,  sea- 
birds  which  are  often  sold  in  the  Arab- 
markets  on  the  sea-coast  of  Syria. 

CU'CUMBER,  a  vegetable  very  plentiful 
in  the  East,  especially  in  Egypt,  Num. 
11:5,  where  they  are  esteemed  delicacies, 
and  are  much  used  by  the  lower  class  of 
people,  especially  during  the  hot  months. 
The  Egyptian  cucumber  is  described  by 
Hasselquist  as  greener,  smoother,  softer, 
sweeter,  and  more  digestible  than  our  cu- 
cumber. 

CUM'MIN,  an  umbellate  plant  much  like 
fennel.  Its  seeds  yield  an  aromatic  oil,  of 
a  warm,  stimulating  nature,  Isa.  28:25-27. 
The  Pharisees  scrupulously  paid  tithes  of 
mint,  anise,  and  cummin,  and  yet  neglect- 
ed good  works  and  obedience  to  God's  law,. 
Matt.  23:23. 

CUN'NING,  skilful,  expert,  rather  than 
crafty.  Gen.  25:27;  Exod.  28:15;  38:23; 
Psa.  137:5;  2  Pet.  1:16. 

CUP.  This  word  is  taken  in  Scripture 
both  in  a  proper  and  in  a  figurative  sense. 
In  a  proper  sense,  it  signifies  a  conmion 
cup,  of  horn,  earthenware,  or  some  precious 
metal.  Gen.  40:13;  44:2;  i  Kin.  7:26,  such 
as  is  used  for  drinking  out  of  at  meals;  or 
a  cup  of  ceremony,  used  at  solemn  and 
religious  meals — as  at  the  Passover,  when 
the  father  of  the  family  pronounced  certain 
blessings  over  the  cup,  and  having  tasted 
the  wine,  passed  it  round  to  the  company 
and  his  whole  family,  who  partook  of  it, 
I  Cor.  10:16.  In  a  figurative  sense,  a  cup 
is  spoken  of  as  filled  with  the  portion  given 
to  one  by  divine  Providence,  Psa.  11:6; 
16:5;  with  the  blessings  of  life  and  of 
grace,  Psa.  23:5;  with  a  thank-oflTering  to- 
God,  Exod.  29:40;  Psa.  116:13;  with  liquor 


CUP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CYM 


used  at  idolatrous  feasts,  i  Cor.  10:21 ;  with 
love-potions,  Rev.  17:4;  with  sore  afflic- 
tions, Psa.  65:8;  Isa.  51:17;  and  with  the 


EGYPTIAN  CUPS  (alabaster). 

bitter  draught  of  death,  which  was  often 
caused  by  a  cup  of  hemlock  or  some  other 
poison,  Psa.  75:8.  See  Matt.  16:28;  Luke 
22:42  ;  John  i8:ii.     See  Cruse. 

Those  who  insist  on  the  literal  meaning 
instead  of  the  real  intent  of  Christ's  words, 
"  This  is  my  body,"  must  also  turn  the 
'V?</)'— not  the  wine  it  contains — into  his 
blood:  "this  cup  is  my  blood."- 

CUP-BEARER.    See  Butler. 

CURIOUS  ARTS,  Acts  19:19.  See  En- 
chantment. 

CURSE,  a  malediction,  a  passionate  im- 
precation of  evil  on  a  supposed  enemy, 
E.xod.  21:17;  22:18;  Lev.  19:14.  In  all 
ages  superstitious  people  have  ascribed  a 
fearful  power  to  the  curses  of  certain  pre- 
tenders. Num.  22:6.  But  a  divine  curse, 
like  that  on  the  serpent,  on  Cain,  or  on  Ca- 
naan, Gen.  3:14;  4:11;  9:25,  is  devoid  of 
selfish  passion,  and  carries  with  it  the  idea 
of  God's  holiness  and  justice,  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  its  fulfilment,  Deut.  27:15-26.  In 
the  Hebrew  it  is  a  different  word.  The 
curses  pronounced  by  holy  men  at  God's 
command  were  not  mere  bursts  of  anger, 
but  predictions.  Gen.  49:7;  Josh.  6:26. 
Christ  redeems  his  people  from  the  curse 
of  the  law.  Gal.  3:10,  13.  The  follower  of 
Christ  is  to  return  blessings  for  maledic- 
tions, Matt.  5:44;  Rom.  12:14.  SeeANATH- 
EiMA,  Blasphemy,  and  Oath. 

CUSH,  black,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham, 
and  father  of  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Raa- 
mah,  and  Sabtecha,  most  of  whom  settled 
in  Arabia  Felix,  Gen.  10:6-8.    See  Nimrod. 

II.  The   countries   peopled    by  the   de- 


scendants of  Cush,  and  generally  called  ia 
the  English  Bible  Ethiopia,  though  not  al- 
ways.    But  under  this  name  there  seem  to 

be  included  not  less  than  3  different 

countries: 

1.  The  Oriental  Cush,  compre- 
hending the  regions  of  Persis,  Chu- 
sistan,  and  Susiana  in  Persia.  It  lay 
chiefly  to  the  north  and  south  of  the 
Tigris,  Isa.  II :  II ;  Ezek.  38:5.  Hith- 
er we  may  refer  the  river  Gihon,. 
Gen.  2:13;  Zeph.  3:10.     See  Eden. 

2.  The  Hebrews  also,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  many,  used  Cush  and  Cushan, 
Hab.  y."],  to  designate  the  southern 
parts  of  Arabia,  and  the  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea,  2  Chr.  21:16.  From  this 
country  originated  Nimrod,  who  es- 
tablished himself  in  Mesopotamia,. 
Gen.  10:8.  The  "  Ethiopian  woman," 
too,  whom  Moses  married  during  the 
march  of  the  Israelites  through  the 

desert,  came  probably  from  this  Cush,, 
Num.  12: 1.     See  Zipporah. 

3.  But,  more  commonly,  Cush  signifies. 
Ethiopia  proper,  lying  south  and  southeast 
of  Egypt,  Psa.  68:31,  and  now  called  Abys- 
sinia, Isa.  18:1;  20:3-5;  Jsr-  13:23;  46:9; 
Ezek.  29:10;  Dan.  11:43.  See  Ethio- 
pia. 

CUS'TOM.  See  Tribute.  In  Acts  16:21 
"customs"  means  a  new  religion;  a  new 
object  of  worship  and  new  forms. 

CUTH'ITES,  a  people  who  dwelt  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  and  were  thence  trans- 
planted into  Samaria,  in  place  of  the  Isra- 
elites who  had  before  inhabited  it,  2  Kin. 
17:24,  30.  Cutha  seems  to  have  recently 
come  to  light,  15  miles  northeast  of  Baby- 
lon, where  the  name  is  found  on  the  bricks- 
e.xhumed  from  ruins  of  Nebuchadnezzar's, 
time. 

CUT'TINGS  and  Marks  on  the  body  for 
the  dead  seem  to  have  been  practised  in 
ancient  times,  Jer.  16:5,  7;  41:5;  but  some 
kinds  at  least  were  forbidden  to  the  Jews, 
Lev.  19:28;  21:5,  either  as  barbarous  or  as 
idolatrous,  i  Kin.  18:28.  The  prohibition 
might  also  apply  to  tattooing,  which  is  stilt 
practised  in  Arabia  and  India,  and  may  be 
referred  to  in  Ezek.  9:4;  Rev.  13:16;  19:20, 
etc. 

CYM'BAL,  a  musical  instrument  consist- 
ing of  2  broad  plates  of  brass,  of  a  convex 
form,  which  being  struck  together  produce 
a  shrill,  piercing  clangor.  P'rom  Psa.  150:5,. 
it  would  appear  that  both  hand-cymbals 
and  finger-cymbals,  or  castagnets,  were 
used.     They  were  used  in  the  temple,  and 

121 


CYP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CYR 


upon  occasions  of  public  rejoicings,  i  Chr. 
13:8;  16:5,  as  they  are  by  the  Armenians 


HAND  AND    FINGER   CYMBALS,    AND  TAMBOURINE. 

at  the  present  day.  In  i  Cor.  13:1,  "tink- 
ling" cymbals  are  better  rendered  clang- 
ing or  clattering  cymbals.     See  Music. 

CY'PRESS,  an  evergreen  tree,  resembling 
in  form  and  size  the  Lombardy  poplar.  Its 
wood  is  exceedingly  durable,  and  seems  to 
have  been  used  for  making  idols,  Isa.  44: 14. 
The  cypress  is  thought  to  be  intended  in 
some  of  the  passages  where  "  fir-tree  "  oc- 
curs, 2  Sam.  6:5,  etc. 

CY'PRUS,  a  large  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, situated  in  the  northeast  part  of 
that  sea  between  Cilicia  and  Syria,  with 
Mounts  Lebanon  and  Taurus  both  in  view. 
It  is  about  140  miles  long,  and  varies  from 
5  to  50  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  especially  sig- 
nified among  "  the  isles  of  Chittim,"  Ezek. 
27:6,  etc.  Its  inhabitants  were  plunged  in 
all  manner  of  luxury  and  debauchery. 
Their  principal  deity  was  Venus,  who  had 
a  celebrated  temple  at  Paphos.  The  island 
was  extremely  fertile,  and  abounded  in 
wine,  oil,  honey,  wool,  copper,  agate,  and 
a  beautiful  species  of  rock  crystal.  There 
were  also  large  forests  of  cypress-trees. 
Of  the  cities  in  the  island,  Paphos  on  the 
western  coast,  and  Salamis  at  the  opposite 
end,  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  gospel  was  preached  there  at  an  early 
day.  Acts  11 :  19,  Barnabas  and  Mnason,  and 
other  eminent  Christians,  having  been  na- 
tives of  the  island.  Acts  11 :2o;  21 :  16.  The 
apostles  Paul  and  Barnabas  made  a  mis- 
sionary tour  through  it,  A.  D.  48,  Acts  13:4- 
13.     See  also  Acts  15:39;  27:4. 

CYRE'NE,  a  province  of  Libya,  west  of 
Egypt,  between  the  Great  Syrtis  and  the 
Mareotis,  now  called  Cairoan,  in  the  prov- 
122 


ince  of  Barca.  It  was  sometimes  called 
Pentapolis,  from  the  5  principal  cities 
which  it  contained — Cyrene,  Apollonia,  Ar-- 
sinoe,  Berenice,  and  Ptolemais.  Cj-rene 
the  city  was  colonized  by  Greeks  about  631 
B.  C,  and  falling  after  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great  into  the  hands' of  the  Egyp- 
tians, was  afterwards  yielded  by  them  to 
the  Romans,  75  B.  C.  From  this  city  came 
"Simon  the  Cyrenian,'  father  of  Alexan- 
der and  Rufus,  on  whom  the  Roman  sol- 
diers laid  a  part  of  our  Saviour's  cross, 
Matt.  27:32;  Luke  23:26.  It  is  now  in 
ruins.  There  were  many  Jews  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Cyrene,  a  great  part  of  whom  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion,  though  others 
opposed  it  with  much  obstinacy,  Acts  11 :  20 ; 
13: 1.     Also  Acts  2:  lo;  6:9. 

CYRE'NIUS,  rather  Publius  Sulpitius 
QuiRiNUS,  according  to  his  Latin  appella- 
tion, governor  of  Syria.  According  to  his- 
tory, Quirinus  was  not  properly  governor 
of  Syria  till  A.  D.  6,  some  years  after  the 
date  of  Luke  2:2;  and  the  only  census  of 
that  time  mentioned  by  secular  historians 
took  place  when  Christ  was  8  or  10  years 
old.  Compare  Acts  5:37.  Recent  critical 
researches,  however,  by  Zumpt,  show  a 
strong  probability  that  Quirinus  was  twice 
governor  of  Syria,  the  first  time  from  B.  C. 
4  to  I ;  and  the  census  of  Luke  2:2  may 
have  been  less  known  and  memorable  than 
the  second,  which  seems  to  have  been  a 
resumption  and  completion  of  the  first.  It 
was  a  Roman  census,  but  made  according 
to  the  Jewish  modes. 


TOMB   OF  CVRIS   A  I     lASAK 


CY'RUS,  the  sun,  son  of  Cambyses,  a 
prince  of  Elam ;  his  mother,  or  perhaps 
adopted  mother,  was  Mandane,  daughter 
of  Astyages,  king  of  the  Medes.     His  re- 


DAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAM 


markable  bravery  and  ability  soon  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  army ;  and 
heading  a  revolt  against  Astyages,  he  de- 
throned him,  and  became  king  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  B.  C.  559.  With  their  joint 
forces  he  began  a  career  of  conquest.  With 
"  Darius  the  Mede,"  probably  his  uncle 
Cyaxares,  nominal  "  king  of  the  Medes," 
he  conquered  the  Lydians,  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  Susiana,  captured  Baby- 
lon, and  overran  the  Assyrian  empire. 
Syria  and  Palestine  came  under  his  power, 
and  he  made  some  attempts  on  Egypt  and 
on  India,  and  was  slain  in  a  war  against 
the  Massagetae  on  the  river  laxartes,  B.  C. 
529.  Cyrus  was  foretold  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  44:28;  45:1-7,  as  the  deliverer  and 
restorer  of  Judah,  as  he  proved  to  be,  2  Chr. 
36:22,  23  ;  Ezra  i :  1-4.  The  prophet  Daniel 
was  his  favorite  minister,  Dan.  6:28,  and 
great  was  the  influence  of  these  2  remark- 
able men  on  the  countrymen  of  both.  Cy- 
rus appears  to  have  revered  Jehovah  as  the 
true  God,  Ezra  1:2,3;  Isa.  41:2;  and  this 
hero  of  Persian  history,  this  conqueror  re- 
nowned in  classic  annals,  we  find  in  Scrip- 
ture recognizing  and  obeying  the  King  of 
heaven. 

D, 

DAB'ERATH,  pasture,  a  Levitical  town 
in  the  borders  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar, 
Josh.  19:12;  21:28;  I  Chr.  6:72;  probably 
Deburieh,  a  small  village  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Tabor  on  the  northwest. 


DA'GON,yf.j/«,  a  national  idol  of  the  Phil- 
istines, with  temples  at  Gaza,  Ashdod,  etc., 
1  Chr.  10:10.  That  at  Gaza  was  destroyed 
by  Samson,  Judg.    16:21-30.      In  that  at 


Ashdod,  Dagon  twice  miraculously  fell 
down  before  the  ark  of  God  ;  and  in  the  2d 
fall  his  head  and  hands  were  broken  off, 
leaving  only  the  body,  which  was  in  the 
form  of  a  large  fish  with  a  human  head, 

1  Sam.  5:1-9.  See  Josh.  15:41;  19:27. 
There  were  other  idols  of  like  form  among 
the  ancients,  particularly  the  goddess  Der- 
ceto  or  Atergatis ;  and  a  similar  form  or 
"incarnation"  of  Vishnu  is  at  this  day 
much  worshipped  in  India,  and  like  Dagon 
is  destined  to  be  prostrated  in  the  dust  be- 
fore the  true  God. 

DALMANU'THA,  a  town  or  village  on 
the  west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  north 
of  Tiberias,  Mark  S:io.  Compare  Matt. 
15:39,  probably  at  'Ain-el-Barideh,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  glen  1  mile  south  of  Magdala. 

DALMA'TIA,  a  province  of  Europe  on 
the  east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  forming 
part  of  Illyricum,  and  contiguous  to  Mace- 
donia.    Hither    Titus   was   sent   by   Paul, 

2  Tim.  4:10.     See  also  Rom.  15:19. 
DAM'ARIS,  a  heifer,  an  Athenian  lady, 

distinguished  as  one  of  the  few  who  em- 
braced Christianity  at  Athens  under  the 
preaching  of  Paul,  Acts  17:34. 

DAMAS'CUS,  metropolis  of  Syria,  first 
mentioned  in  Gen.  14:15;  15:2,  and  now 
probably  the  oldest  city  on  the  globe.  It 
stands  on  the  river  Barada,  the  ancient 
Chrysorrhoas,  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
plain  on  the  southeast  of  Anti-Lebanon, 
about  140  miles  north  by  east  from  Jerusa- 
lem, and  2,300  feet  above  the  Mediterra- 
nean. See  Abana.  This  plain  is  about  70 
miles  in  circumference ;  it  is  open  to  the 
desert  of  Arabia  on  the  southeast,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  other  sides  by  the  moun- 
tains. The  region  around  and  north  of 
Damascus,  including  the  valley  betvveen 
the  ridges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon, 
is  called  in  the  Scriptures  "  Sj-ria  of  Da- 
mascus," 2  Sam.  8:5,  and  by  Strabo,  Coele- 
Syria.  This  city,  which  at  first  had  its  own 
kings,  was  taken  by  David,  2  Sam.  8:5,  6, 
and  by  Jeroboam  II.,  2  Kin.  14:28.  Its  his- 
tory at  this  period  is  to  be  found  in  the 
accounts  given  of  Naaman,  Ben-hadad, 
Hazael,  and  Rezin.  It  was  subdued  by 
Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kin.  16:9;  and  was  after- 
wards subject  to  the  Assyrians,  Babyloni- 
ans, Persians,  Seleucidae,  and  Romans;  its 
history  having  been  in  part  foretold  by 
Isaiah,  7:4;  10:9;  \-] \  also  by  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Amos.  In  the  days  of  Paul 
it  appears  to  have  been  held,  for  a  time  at 
least,  by  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petra^a 
under  the   Romans,  and  father-in-law  of 

123 


DAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAN 


rkiyeh 


M'Mettn* 


BaLret 

U^\  el 

);  Kiblijeh. 


B  alir  e  t 
'  H  i  j  a.  n  e  K 


DAMASCUS:   WITH   PLAIN  AND   LAKES. 


Herod  Antipas,  2  Cor.  11:32,  2;^.  At  this 
period  the  city  was  so  much  thronged  by 
the  Jews,  that,  according  tojosephus,  10,000 
of  them,  by  command  of  Nero,  were  put  to 
death  at  once.  It  is  memorable  to  Chris- 
tians as  the  scene  of  the  miraculous  con- 
version of  that  most  illustrious  "  servant  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  the  apostle  Paul, 
Acts  9:1-27;  22:1-16.  Since  1516,  Damas- 
cus has  been  held  by  the  Turks ;  it  is  the 
metropolis  of  "the  Pashalic  of  Damas- 
cus," and  has  a  population  of  about  150,000, 
chiefly  Mohammedans,  and  very  bigoted. 
In  i860,  some  6,000  nominal  Christians  were 
slaughtered  here  and  around  here.  The 
Arabs  call  it  Esh-sham.  It  is  still  cele- 
brated, with  the  surrounding  country,  by 
all  travellers,  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  lu.xuriant  regions  in  the  world.  The 
Orientals  themselves  call  it  the  "  Paradise 
on  earth,"  and  it  is  pretended  that  Mo- 
hammed refused  to  enter  it,  lest  he  should 
thereby  forfeit  his  heavenly  Paradise.  The 
plain  around  the  city  is  well  watered  and 
of  e.xuberant  fertility,  and  the  eye  of  the 
traveller  is  fascinated  by  the  sight;  but  a 
nearer  view  discloses  much  that  is  offen- 
sive to  the  senses  as  well  as  to  the  sjiirit. 
It  is  the  most  purely  Oriental  city  yet  re- 
maining of  all  that  are  named  in  the  Bible. 
124 


Its  public  buildings  and  bazaars  are  fine ; 
and  many  private  dwellings,  though  out- 
wardly mean,  are  decorated  within  in  a 
style  of  costly  luxury.  Its  position  has 
made  it  from  the  first  a  commercial  city, 
Ezek.  27:18.  The  cloth  called  Damask  is 
supposed  to  have  originated  here,  and  Da- 
mascus steel  was  long  unequalled.  It  still 
carries  on  an  e.xtensive  traffic  in  woven 
stuffs  of  silk  and  cotton,  in  fine  inlaid  cab- 
inet work,  in  leather,  fruits,  sweetmeats, 
etc.  For  this  purpose  huge  caravans  as- 
semble here  at  intervals,  and  traverse,  just 
as  of  old,  the  desert  routes  to  remote  cities. 
Here,  too,  is  a  chief  gathering-place  of  pil- 
grims to  Mecca.  People  from  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  East  resort  to  Damascus,  a  fact 
which  shows  its  imjiortance  as  a  mission- 
ary station.  An  encouraging  commence- 
ment has  been  made  by  English  Christians, 
and  the  fierce  and  bigoted  intolerance  of 
its  Mussulman  population  has  begun  to 
give  way.  A  street  called  by  the  guides 
"  Straight,"  perhaps  the  same  referred  to 
in  Acts  9:11,  runs  through  the  city  from 
the  eastern  gate. 

DAMNA'TION,  judgment  and  condem- 
nation, Mark  16:16;  Rom.  13:2;  14:23; 
I  Cor.  1 1 :  29. 

DAN,  a  judge,  I.,  a  son  of  Jacob  by  Bil- 


DAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAN 


liah,  Gen.  30:3;  35:25.  The  tribe  of  Dan 
was  second  only  to  that  of  Judah  in  num- 
bers before  entering  Canaan,  Num.  1:39; 
26:43.  A  portion  was  assigned  to  Dan 
•extending  southeast  from  the  sea-coast 
near  Joppa.  It  bordered  on  the  land  of 
the  Philistines,  with  whom  the  tribe  of  Dan 
had  much  to  do,  Judg.  13-16.  Their  terri- 
tory was  fertile,  but  small,  and  the  natives 
were  powerful.  A  part  of  the  tribe  there- 
fore sought  and  conquered  another  home, 
Josh.  19 ;  Judg.  18.  Its  name  does  not  ap- 
pear in  the  chronicles  in  i  Chr.  2-12,  nor 
among  those  sealed  by  the  angel  in  John's 
vision,  Rev.  7:5-7;  and  the  reason  may 
perhaps  be  found  in  their  association  with 
the  Philistines,  and  their  partial  removal 
from  the  territory  assigned  to  them  by  God 
to  Laish,  and  the  idolatry  into  which  they 
there  fell.     See  Dan,  II. 

II.  A  city  originally  called  Laish,  Judg. 
18:29,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Israel, 
in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  "  From  Dan  to 
Beer-sheba "  denotes  the  whole  extent  of 
the  land  of  promise,  Dan  being  the  north- 
ern city,  and  Beer-sheba  the  southern  one, 
Judg.  20: 1.  Dan  was  seated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Hermon,  4  miles  west  of  Paneas, 
near  one  source  of  the  Jordan,  on  a  hill 
now  called  Tell-el-Kady.  Laish  at  one 
time  belonged  to  Zidon,  and  received  the 
name  of  Dan  from  a  portion  of  that  tribe 
who  conquered  and  rebuilt  it,  Judg.  18.  It 
was  an  idolatrous  city  even  then,  ver.  30, 
.31,  and  was  afterwards  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
golden  calves  of  Jeroboam,  i  Kin.  12:28; 
Amos  8 :  14.  Though  once  and  again  a  very 
prosperous  city,  Judg.  18:10;  Ezek.  27:19, 
•only  slight  remains  of  it  now  exist. 


EGYPTIAN   DANCE. 

DANCING.  The  Hebrew  word  signified 
"to  leap  for  joy,"  Psa.  30:11 ;  and  the  ac- 
tion of  the  lame  man  healed  by  Peter  and 
John,  Acts  3:8,  more  nearly  resembled  the 
Hebrew  dancing  than  the  measured  arti- 
ficial steps  of  modern  times  do.  The  Jew- 
ish dances  were  usually  extemporaneous 


expressions  of  religious  joy  and  gratitude. 
Sometimes  they  were  in  honor  of  a  con- 
queror, as  in  the  case  of  David,  i  Sam. 
18:6,  7;  when  he  had  slain  the  Philistine 
giant,  "  the  women  came  out  of  all  the  cit- 
ies of  Israel  singing  and  dancing;"  and 
sometimes  on  occasions  of  domestic  joy, 
as  at  the  prodigal  son's  return.  In  the 
religious  dance,  the  timbrel  was  used  to 
direct  the  ceremony,  and  some  one  led, 
whom  the  rest  followed  with  measured 
step  and  devotional  songs ;  thus  Miriam 
led  the  women  of  Israel,  Exod.  15:20,  21, 
and  king  David  the  men,  2  Sam.  6:14,  21. 
See  also  Judg.  21 :  19-23;  i  Chr.  13:8;  15:29. 
Several  important  conclusions  have  been 
drawn  from  a  careful  comparison  of  the 
portions  of  Scripture  in  which  there  is  allu- 
sion to  dancing.  It  was  usually  religious 
in  its  character;  practised  exclusively  on 
joyous  occasions ;  only  by  one  of  the  sexes ; 
usually  in  the  daytime,  and  in  the  open  air; 
no  instances  are  on  record  in  which  the  two 
sexes  united  in  the  exercise  ;  and  it  was  not 
practised  for  amusement.  The  exceptions 
to  this  latter  assertion  are  the  "  vain  fel- 
lows" alluded  to  by  Michal,  2  Sam.  6:20, 
the  ungodly  rich  families  referred  to  by 
Job,  21:11,  and  the  daughter  of  Herodias, 
Mark  6:22.  Other  passages  occur  where 
dancing  is  condemned  by  its  association 
with  idolatrous  worship  and  with  lewdness, 
as  Exod.  32:19,  25;  Isa.  3:16;  i  Cor.  10:7, 
and  with  drunkenness  and  revelry,  i  Sam. 
30:16.  Promiscuous  dancing  is  thus  une- 
quivocally condemned  by  Scripture,  as  well 
as  by  the  best  men  of  all  times.  It  is  a  pow- 
erful stimulus  to  immodesty  and  licentious- 
ness. Its  more  innocent  forms  are  insep- 
arably linked  with  its  grosser,  into  which 
they  are  perpetually  sliding.  Its  votaries 
sport  in  the  edge  of  a  whirlpool  in  whose 
depths  of  moral  and  spiritual  death  too 
many  of  them  are  sure  to  be  lost.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  dancing  was  a 
common  pastime,  resorted  to  in  order  to 
enliven  feasts,  and  also  on  occasions  of 
domestic  joy.  Still  Cicero  says,  "  No  one 
dances,  unless  he  is  either  drunk  or  mad  ;" 
and  these  words  express  the  prevailing 
sense  as  to  the  impropriety  of  respectable 
people  taking  part  in  the  amusement. 
Hence  the  gay  circles  of  Rome,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  East  at  the  present  time,  de- 
rived their  entertainment  from  the  per- 
formances of  professional  dancers.  These 
were  women  of  abandoned  character;  and 
their  dances,  like  those  in  heathen  temples, 
were  often  grossly  indecent  Isa.  23 :  16. 

125 


DAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAN 


In  Psa.  150:4,  the  Hebrew  word  transla- 
ted dance  is  supposed  to  mean  a  musical 
instrument. 

DAN'IEL,  God  is  my  judge,  I.,  called 
Belteshazzar  by  the  Chaldaeans,  a  prophet, 
Matt.  24: 15,  descended  from  the  royal  fam- 
ily of  David,  Dan.  1:3;  who  was  carried 
captive  to  Babylon,  when  very  young,  in 
the  3d  year  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah, 
B.  C.  606.  Compare  Isa.  39:7.  He  was 
chosen,  with  his  3  companions,  Hananiah, 
Mishael,  and  Azariah,  to  reside  at  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's court,  where  he  found  favor, 
like  Joseph  in  Egypt,  and  made  great  pro- 
gress in  all  the  sciences  of  the  Chaldaeans, 
as  well  as  in  the  sacred  language,  but  de- 
clined to  pollute  himself  by  eating  provis- 
ions from  the  king's  table,  which  would 
often  be  ceremonially  unclean  to  a  Jew,  or 
defiled  by  some  connection  with  idol-wor- 
ship. At  the  end  of  their  3  years'  educa- 
tion, Daniel  and  his  companions  e.xcelled 
all  others,  and  received  honorable  appoint- 
ments in  the  royal  service.  Here  Daniel 
soon  displayed  his  prophetic  gifts  in  inter- 
preting a  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  by 
whom  he  was  made  governor  of  Babylon, 
and  head  of  the  learned  and  priestly  class. 
Compare  the  similar  history  of  Joseph.  He 
seems  to  have  been  absent,  perhaps  on 
some  foreign  embassy,  when  his  3  compan- 
ions were  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace.  At  a 
later  period  he  interpreted  another  dream 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  afterwards  the 
celebrated  vision  of  Belshazzar — one  of 
whose  last  works  was  to  promote  Daniel  to 
an  office  much  higher  than  he  had  previ- 
ously held  during  his  reign,  Dan.  5:29; 
8:27. 

After  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  Darius  the  iMede,  who  "took 
the  kingdom"  after  Belshazzar,  made  him 
"first  president"  of  his  120  princes;  their 
envy  designed  the  plot  to  have  him  cast 
into  the  lions'  den,  an  act  which  recoiled 
on  tliem  to  their  own  destruction,  Dan.  6. 
Subsequently  Daniel  was  continued  in  all 
his  high  employments,  and  enjoyed  the 
favor  of  Cyrus  until  his  death.  During 
this  period  he  earnestly  labored,  by  fasting 
and  prayer,  as  well  as  by  counsel,  to  se- 
cure the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
land,  the  promised  time  having  come, 
Dan.  9.  He  lived  to  see  the  decree  issued, 
and  many  of  his  people  restored  ;  but  it  is 
not  known  that  he  ever  revisited  Jerusa- 
lem, being  now,  536  B.  C,  over  80  years 
old.  In  the  3d  year  of  Cyrus,  he  had  a 
series  of  visions  disclosing  the  state  of  the 
126 


Jews  till  the  coming  of  the  promised  Re- 
deemer ;  and  at  last  we  see  him  calmly 
awaiting  the  peaceful  close  of  a  well-spent 
life,  and  the  gracious  resurrection  of  the 
just.    See  SHUSH.4.V. 

Daniel  was  one  of  the  most  spotless  char- 
acters upon  record.  His  youth  and  his 
age  were  alike  devoted  to  God.  He  main- 
tained his  integrity,  in  the  most  difficult 
circumstances,  and  amid  the  fascinations 
of  an  Eastern  court  he  was  pure  and  up- 
right. He  confessed  the  name  of  God 
before  idolatrous  princes ;  and  would  have 
been  a  martyr,  but  for  the  miracle  which 
rescued  him  from  death.  His  history  de- 
serves the  careful  and  prayerful  study  of 
the  young,  and  the  lessons  which  it  incul- 
cates are  weighty  and  rich  in  instruction. 
See  Cyrus. 

II.  The  2d  son  of  David,  also  called  Chi- 
leab,  I  Chr.  3:1:2  Sam.  3:3. 

III.  A  descendant  of  Ithamar,  the  4th  son 
of  Aaron.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  who 
accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon  to  Judaea, 
and  afterwards  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  reformation  of  the  people,  Ezra  8:2; 
Neh.  10:6. 

DAN'IEL,  Book  of.  This  is  a  mixture 
of  history  and  prophecy.  The  first  6  chap- 
ters are  chiefly  historical,  and  the  remain- 
der prophetical.  It  was  completed  about 
B.  C.  534.  The  wonders  related  are  of  a 
peculiar  and  striking  character,  and  were 
designed  to  show  the  people  of  God  that, 
amid  their  degeneracy,  the  Lord's  hand 
was  not  shortened  that  it  could  not  save ; 
and  also  to  e.vhibit  to  their  enemies  that 
there  was  an  essential  difference  between 
Jehovah  and  idols,  between  the  people  of 
God  and  the  world.  The  prophecies  con- 
tained in  the  latter  part  of  the  book  extend 
from  the  days  of  Daniel  to  the  general  res- 
urrection. According  to  some  interpreters 
the  4  kingdoms  are  the  Babylonian,  Me- 
dian, Persian,  and  Greek;  but  this  first 
fulfilment  of  the  vision  was  but  ])relimi- 
nary  to  one  or  more  additional  fulfilments 
in  later  and  Christian  times.  According 
to  the  general  interpretation,  however,  the 
Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Grecian,  and  the 
Roman  empires  are  here  described  under 
ajjpropriate  imagery.  The  precise  time  of 
Christ's  coming  is  told  ;  the  rise  and  fall  of 
antichrist,  and  tlie  duration  of  his  power, 
are  accurately  determined  ;  the  victory  of 
Christ  over  his  enemies,  and  the  universal 
prevalence  of  his  religion,  are  clearly  point- 
ed out.  The  book  is  filled  with  the  most 
exalted   sentiments   of  piety   and    devout 


DAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAU 


gratitude.  Its  style  is  simple,  clear,  and 
concise,  and  many  of  the  prophecies  are 
delivered  in  language  so  plain  and  circum- 
stantial that  some  infidels  have  asserted 
that  they  were  written  after  the  events  they 
describe  had  taken  place.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton regards  Daniel  as  the  most  distinct  and 
plain  of  all  the  prophets,  and  most  easy 
to  be  understood ;  and  therefore  considers 
that  in  things  relating  to  the  last  times  he 
is  to  be  regarded  as  the  key  to  the  other 
prophets. 

With  respect  to  the  genuineness  and  au- 
thenticity of  the  book,  there  is  the  strong- 
est evidence,  both  internal  and  external. 
We  have  the  testimony  of  Christ  himself. 
Matt.  24:15;  of  John  and  of  Paul,  who 
have  copied  his  prophecies  ;  of  the  Jewish 
Church  and  nation,  who  have  constantly 
received  this  book  as  canonical ;  of  Jose- 
phus,  who  recommends  him  as  the  greatest 
of  the  prophets ;  and  of  the  Jewish  Tar- 
gums  and  Talmuds,  which  frequently  cite 
his  authority.  As  to  the  internal  evidence, 
the  style,  the  language,  the  manner  of  wri- 
ting, perfectly  agree  with  the  age;  and 
especially,  he  is  proved  to  have  been  a 
prophet  by  the  exact  fulfilment  of  his  pre- 
dictions. This  book,  like  that  of  Ezra,  is 
written  partly  in  Hebrew  and  partly  in 
Chaldee,  the  prevailing  language  of  the 
Babylonians.     See  Alexander,  I. 

I.  DARI'US  THE  MEDE,  Dan.  6:1;  9:1; 
11: 1,  was  probably  Cyaxares  II.,  son  of 
Astyages  king  of  the  Medes,  and  brother 
of  Mandane  mother  of  Cyrus,  and  of  Amyit 
the  mother  of  Evil-merodach  and  grand- 
mother of  Belshazzar :  thus  he  was  uncle, 
by  the  mother's  side,  to  Evil-merodach  and 
to  Cyrus.  The  Septuagint  calls  him  Arta- 
xerxes;  Xenophon,  Cyaxeres  ;  and  the  He- 
brew, "  Darius  the  son  of  Ahasuerus  of 
the  seed  of  the  Medes."  With  Cyrus  his 
nephew,  and  as  nominally  "king  of  the 
Medes,"  he  captured  Babylon  and  slew 
Belshazzar  king  of  the  Chaldaeans,  being 
then  62  years  old,  Dan.  5:31.  He  made 
Daniel  the  highest  oflScer  in  the  empire; 
and  after  the  prophet's  enemies  had  taken 
his  place  in  the  lions'  den,  he  made  a  de- 
cree that  all  his  subjects  should  adore  the 
God  of  Daniel,  ch.  6.  His  reign  at  Babylon 
was  short,  ending  in  his  death  in  the  2d 
year,  when  the  government  passed  directly 
into  the  hands  of  Cyrus. 

II.  DARI'US    SON    OF    HySTAS'PES,    SpO- 

ken  of  in  Ezra  4-7,  Haggai,  and  Zechariah, 
as  the  king  who  renewed  the  permission 
to  rebuild  the  temple,  given  to  the  Jews  by 


Cyrus  and  afterwards  recalled.  He  over- 
threw Smerdis,  the  Magian  usurper  of  the 
Persian  throne,  to  which  Darius  was  the 
rightful  heir,  B.  C.  521,  and  reigned  36 
years.  He  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Susa,  whereupon  Babylon  rebelled 
against  him;  but  he  subdued  the  rebellion 
and  broke  down  the  walls  of  Babylon,  as 
was  predicted,  Jer.  51:58. 

III.  DARI'US  CODOMA'NUS,  Neh.  12:22, 
was  one  of  the  most  brave  and  generous  of 
the  Persian  kings.  Alexander  the  Great 
defeated  him  several  times,  and  at  length 
subverted  the  Persian  monarchy,  after  it 
had  been  established  206  years.  Darius 
was  killed  by  his  own  generals,  after  a 
short  reign  of  6  years.  Thus  were  verified 
the  prophecies  of  Daniel,  ch.  8. 

DARK'NESS,  the  absence  of  natural  light, 
Gen.  1:4,  and  hence  figurativeh'  a  state  of 
misery  and  adversity.  Job  18:6;  Psa.  107:10; 
Isa.  8:22;  9:1  ;  of  ignorance  and  unbelief, 
John  1:5;  3:19,  and  of  death.  Job  10:21,  22; 
also  the  absence  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and 
hence  the  fall  of  chief  men  and  national 
convulsions,  Isa.  13 :  10 ;  Acts  2 :  20.  "  Works 
of  darkness "  are  the  impure  mysteries 
practised  in  heathen  worship,  Eph.  5:11; 
Ezek.  8:12.  "Outer  darkness  "  illustrates 
the  gloom  of  those  on  whom  the  gates  of 
heaven  are  closed,  Matt.  8:12.  The  dark- 
ness in  Egypt,  Exod.  10:21-23,  was  mirac- 
ulous; also  that  which  covered  "all  the 
land"  of  Judaea  with  sympathetic  gloom  at 
the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  Luke  23 :  43.  This 
could  not  have  been  caused  by  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun ;  for  at  the  Passover  the  moon 
was  full,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun.  There  are  allusions 
to  eclipses  in  Joel  2:10,  31;  3:15;  Amos 
8:9;  Mic.  3:6;  Zech.  14:6;  and  total  eclip- 
ses of  the  sun  occurred  in  the  time  of 
Amos,  B.  C.  784,  and  of  Micah,  B.  C.  716. 

DATES.     See  Palm. 

DA'THAN,  a  Reubenite,  one  of  the  reb- 
els, in  company  with  Korah,  against  the 
authority  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  Num.  16; 
26:9  ;  Psa.  106: 17. 

DAUGH'TER,  in  Heb.  bath,  is  used  in 
the  Bible  not  only  literally,  but,  like  son, 
in  other  derived  meanings.  Sometimes  it 
may  denote  any  female  descendant.  Gen. 
28:6,  or  a  native  or  resident  of  a  place,  as 
the  "daughters  of  Zion "  or  Jerusalem, 
Isa.  3:16.  Tyre  is  called  a  daughter  of 
Zidon,  that  is,  a  colony,  Isa.  23:12,  and  Sa- 
rah is  called  in  the  Hebrew  of  Gen.  17:17, 
the  daughter  of  90  years.  See  Son.  The 
young  women  of  the  richest  families,  and 

127 


DAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAV 


even  princes'  daughters,  in  ancient  times 
were  accustomed  to  domestic  services  and 
to  an  active  and  useful  life. 

DA'VID,  beloved,  the  youngest  son  of 
Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  born  in  Beth- 
lehem B.  C.  1085;  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able men  in  either  sacred  or  secular  his- 
tory. His  life  is  fully  recorded  in  i  Sam. 
16  to  I  Kin.  2,  and  his  spiritual  life  in  the 
Psalms,  by  his  own  pen.  He  was  "the 
Lord's  anointed,"  chosen  by  God  to  be 
king  of  Israel  instead  of  Saul,  and  conse- 
crated to  that  office  by  the  venerable  proph- 
et Samuel  long  before  he  actually  came  to 
the  throne,  i  Sam.  16:1-13,  for  which  God 
prepared  him  by  the  gift  of  his  Spirit,  and 
a  long  course  of  vicissitudes  and  dangers. 
In  his  early  pastoral  life  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  boldness,  fidelity,  and  faith 
in  God ;  and  while  yet  a  youth  was  sum- 
moned to  court,  as  one  expert  in  music, 
valiant,  prudent  in  behavior,  and  comely  in 
person.  He  succeeded  in  relieving  from 
time  to  time  the  mind  of  king  Saul,  op- 
pressed by  a  spirit  of  melancholy  and 
remorse,  and  became  a  favorite  attendant, 
ver.  21  ;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  war 
with  the  Philistines  he  seems  to  have  been 
released,  and  to  have  returned  to  take  care 
of  his  father's  flock.  Providence  soon  led 
him  to  visit  the  camp,  and  gave  to  his  no- 
ble valor  and  faith  the  victory  over  the 
giant  champion  Goliath.  He  returned  to 
court  crowned  with  honor,  received  a  com- 
mand in  the  army,  and  the  king's  daughter 
Michal  for  wife,  acquitted  himself  well  on 
all  occasions,  and  rapidly  gained  the  con- 
fidence and  love  of  the  people.  The  jeal- 
ousy of  Saul,  however,  at  length  drove  him 
to  seek  refuge  in  the  wilderness  of  Judaea, 
where  he  soon  gathered  a  band  of  600  men, 
Avhom  he  kept  in  perfect  control  and  em- 
ployed only  against  the  enemies  of  the  land. 
He  was  still  pursued  by  Saul  with  impla- 
cable hostility  ;  and  as  he  would  not  lift  his 
hand  against  his  king,  though  he  often  had 
him  in  his  power,  he  at  length  judged  it 
best  to  retire  into  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines. See  Jesse.  Here  he  was  gener- 
ously received  ;  but  had  found  the  difficul- 
ties of  his  position  such  as  he  could  not 
honorably  meet,  when  the  death  of  Saul 
and  Jonathan  opened  the  way  for  him  to 
the  promised  throne. 

He  was  at  once  chosen  king  over  the 
house  of  Judah,  at  Hebron;  and  after 
about  7  years  of  hostilities  was  unanimous- 
ly chosen  king  by  all  the  tribes  of  Israel, 
and  established  himself  at  Jerusalem — the 
128 


founder  of  a  royal  family  which  continued 
till  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  state.  His 
character  as  a  monarch  is  remarkable  for 
fidelity  to  God  and  to  the  great  purposes 
for  which  he  was  called  to  so  responsible  a 
position.  The  ark  of  God  he  conveyed  to 
the  Holy  City  with  the  highest  demonstra- 
tions of  honor  and  of  joy.  The  ordinances 
of  worship  were  remodelled  and  provided 
for  with  the  greatest  care.  He  adminis- 
tered justice  to  the  peoi)le  with  impartial- 
ity, and  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  tlie  gen- 
eral prosperity  of  the  nation.  His  wisdom 
and  energy  consolidated  the  Jewish  king- 
dom ;  and  his  organization  of  the  army 
and  his  warlike  skill  enabled  him  not  only 
to  resist  with  success  the  assaults  of  inva- 
ders, but  to  extend  the  bounds  of  the  king- 
dom over  the  whole  territory  promised  in 
prophecy — from  the  Red  Sea  and  Egypt  to 
the  Euphrates,  Gen.  15:18;  Josh,  i  :3.  With 
the  spoils  he  took  in  war  he  enriched  his 
people,  and  provided  abundant  materials 
for  the  magnificent  temple  he  purposed  to 
build  in  honor  of  Jehovah,  but  which  it  was 
Solomon's  ])rivilege  to  erect. 

David  did  not  wholly  escajie  the  demor> 
alizing  influences  of  prosperity  and  unre- 
stricted power.  His  temptations  were  nu- 
merous  and  strong ;  and  tliough  his  general 
course  was  in  striking  contrast  with  that  ol 
the  kings  around  him,  he  fell  into  grievous 
sins.  Like  others  in  those  days,  he  had 
numerous  wives,  and  his  later  years  were 
imbittered  by  the  evil  results  of  polygamy. 
His  crimes  in  the  case  of  l^riah  and  Bath- 
sheba  were  heinous  indeed ;  but  on  awa- 
king from  his  dream  of  folly,  he  repented 
in  dust  and  ashes,  meekly  submitted  to 
reproof  and  punishment,  and  sought  and 
found  mercy  from  God.  Thenceforth  fre- 
quent afflictions  reminded  him  to  be  hum- 
ble and  self-distrustful.  There  were  dis- 
cords, profligacy,  and  murder  in  his  own 
household,  2  Sam.  12:10.  The  histories  of 
Tamar,  Amnon,  and  Absalom  show  what 
anguish  must  have  rent  their  father's  heart. 
The  rebellions  of  Absalom,  Sheba,  and 
Adonijah,  the  famine  and  plague  that  afflict- 
ed his  people,  the  crimes  of  Joab,  etc.,  led 
him  to  cry  out,  "  Oh,  that  I  had  wings,  like 
a  dove;  then  would  I  fly  away  and  be  at 
rest."  Yet  his  trials  bore  good  fruit.  His 
firmness  and  decision  of  character,  his  hu- 
mility, nobleness,  and  piety  shine  in  his 
last  acts,  on  the  occasion  of  Adonijah's 
rebellion.  His  charge  to  Solomon  respect- 
ing the  forfeited  lives  of  Joab  and  Shimei 
was  the  voice  of  justice  and  not  of  revenge. 


DAY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEA 


His  preparations  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  and  the  public  service  in  which  he 
devoted  all  to  Jehovah,  and  called  on  all 
the  people  to  bless  the  Lord  God  of  their 
fathers,  crown  with  singular  beauty  and 
glory  the  life  of  this  eminent  servant  of 
God.  After  a  reign  of  40  years,  he  died  at 
the  age  of  71,  and  was  buried  "  in  the  city 
of  David,"  on  Mount  Zion,  where  his 
tomb  is  now  shown. 

The  mental  abilities  and  acquirements 
of  David  were  of  a  high  order ;  his  gen- 
eral conduct  was  marked  by  generosity, 
integrity,  fortitude,  activity,  and  perseve- 
rance; gentleness  and  fire  combined  in  his 
temperament,  and  his  religious  character 
was  eminently  adorned  by  sincere,  fervent, 
and  exalted  piety.  He  was  statesman, 
warrior,  and  poet  all  in  one.  In  his  Psalms 
he  frankly  reveals  his  whole  heart.  They 
are  inspired  poems,  full  of  penitence  and 
trust  in  God  and  delightful  communion 
with  him,  containing  many  prophetic  pas- 
sages, and  wonderfully  fitted  to  guide  the 
devotions  of  the  people  of  God  so  long  as 
he  has  a  church  on  earth.  Though  first 
sung  by  Hebrew  tongues  in  the  vales  of 
Bethlehem  and  on  the  heights  of  Zion,  they 
sound  as  sweetly  in  languages  then  un- 
known, and  are  dear  to  Christian  hearts  all 
round  the  world.  In  introducing  them  into 
the  temple  service,  David  added  an  impor- 
tant means  of  instruction  and  edification 
to  the  former  ritual. 

In  his  kingly  character,  David  was  a  re- 
markable type  of  Christ;  and  his  conquests 
foreshadowed  those  of  Christ's  kingdom. 
His  royal  race  was  spiritually  revived  in 
the  person  of  our  Saviour,  who  was  de- 
scended from  him  after  the  flesh,  and  who 
is  therefore  called  "  the  Son  of  David,"  and 
is  said  to  sit  upon  his  throne. 

DAY.  The  word  "  day  "  is  used  in  many 
different  senses.  The  scientific  day  is  one 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The 
civil  day  is  that  the  beginning  and  end  of 
which  are  determined  by  the  custom  of  any 
nation.  The  Hebrews  began  their  day  in 
the  evening.  Lev.  23:32  ;  the  Babylonians  at 
sunrise;  and  we  begin  at  midnight.  The 
ordinary  day  is  the  time  of  the  sun's  con- 
tinuance above  the  horizon,  which  is  un- 
equal at  different  latitudes  and  seasons,  on 
account  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eq  uator.  The 
sacred  writers  generally  divide  this  day 
into  12  hours.  The  6th  hour  always  ends 
at  noon  throughout  the  year;  and  the  12th 
hour  is  the  last  hour  before  sunset.  But 
in  summer,  all  the  hours  of  the  day  were 


longer  than  in  winter,  while  those  of  night 
were  shorter.     See  Hour,  and  Three. 

The  word  day  is  also  often  put  for  an 
indeterminate  period,  see  Creation;  for 
the  time  of  Christ's  coming  in  the  flesh,  and 
of  his  2d  coming  to  judgment,  Isa.  2:12; 
Ezek.  13:5;  John  11:24;  iThess.  5:2.  The 
prophetic  "  day  "  usually  has  been  under- 
stood as  I  year,  and  the  prophetic  "  year  " 
or  "time"  as  360  years,  Ezek.  4:6.  Com- 
pare the  35'i  years  of  Dan.  7:25  with  the  42 
months  and  1,260  days  of  Rev.  11:2,  3. 

DAY'S  JOUR'NEY.     See  JOURNEY. 

DAYS'MAN,  Job  9:33,  umpire,  one  to 
arbitrate  at  an  appointed  day. 

DEA'CON,  an  attendant,  assistant,  or 
helper,  sometimes  translated  minister,  as 
in  Matt.  20:26;  2  Cor.  6:4;  Eph.  3:7.  Dea- 
cons are  first  mentioned  as  officers  in  the 
Christian  church  in  Acts  6 ;  their  duty  was 
to  collect  the  alms  of  the  church,  and  dis- 
tribute them  to  such  as  had  a  claim  upon 
them,  visiting  the  poor  and  sick,  widows, 
orphans,  and  sufferers  under  persecution, 
and  administering  all  necessary  and  pro- 
per relief.  Of  the  7  there  named,  Philip 
and  Stephen  are  afterwards  found  labor- 
ing as  evangelists.  The  qualifications  of 
deacons  are  specified  in  i  Tim.  3:8-12,  and 
those  of  bishops  in  the  preceding  verses. 

DEA'CONESS.  At  an  early  period  of 
the  Christian  church,  if  not  in  the  apostolic 
age,  such  women  were  called  deaconesses 
as  served  the  church  in  those  offices  in 
which  the  deacons  could  not  with  propriety 
engage ;  such  as  keeping  the  doors  of  that 
part  of  the  church  where  the  women  sat, 
privately  instructing  those  of  their  own 
sex,  and  visiting  the  sick  and  those  impris- 
oned for  the  faith.  In  Rom.  16:1,  Phoebe 
is  said  to  be  a  deaconess  of  the  church  at 
Cenchrea.     See  also  i  Tim.  5: 9-16. 

DEAD.  Two  Hebrew  words  are  trans- 
lated "the  dead"  in  Scripture,  one  ex- 
pressing merely  the  fact  that  they  have 
ceased  to  live  on  earth ;  the  other  entirely 
different,  denoting  disembodied  spirits. 
This  term  is  important  as  necessarily  im- 
plying the  undying  nature  of  the  human 
spirit.     See  Rephaim. 

DEAD  SEA.    See  Sea. 

DEAL,  part ;  as  "a  great  deal."  See 
Tenth-deal. 

DEATH  is  taken  in  Scripture,  First,  for 
the  separation  of  body  and  soul,  the  ist 
death,  Gen.  25:11 ;  secondly,  for  alienation 
from  God,  and  exposure  to  his  wrath,  i  John 
3:14,  etc. ;  thirdly,  for  the  2d  death,  that  of 
eternal  damnation.    Death  in  all  3  of  these 

129 


DEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEC 


senses  was  the  penalty  affixed  to  Adam's 
transgression,  Gen.  2:17;  3:19;  and  all  his 
posterity  are  transgressors  with  him,  and 
share  the  curse  inflicted  upon  him.  Christ 
is  "  our  life."  All  believers  share  his  life, 
spiritually  and  eternally;  and  though  sin 
and  bodily  death  remain  to  afflict  them 
here,  their  sting  is  taken  away,  and  in  the 
resurrection  the  last  enemy  shall  be  tram- 
pled under  f»ot,  Rom.  5:12-21 ;  i  Cor.  15. 

Natural  death  is  described  as  a  yielding 
up  of  the  breath,  or  spirit,  expiring,  Psa. 
104:29;  as  a  return  to  our  original  dust. 
Gen.  3:19;  Eccl.  12:7;  as  the  soul's  laying 
oft"  the  body — its  clothing,  2  Cor.  5:3,  4,  or 
the  tent  in  which  it  has  dwelt,  2  Cor.  5:1 ; 
2  Pet.  1 :  13,  14.  Death  nowhere  means  an- 
nihilaiioii.  The  body  is  not  annihilated, 
but  changed  into  other  forms;  and  the  soul 
that  dies  is  not  annihilated,  but  consigned 
to  everlasting  woe.  The  deatii  of  the  be- 
liever is  a  departure,  a  going  home,  a  fall- 
ing asleep  in  Jesus,  Phil,  i  :23;  Matt.  26:24; 
John   11: II.      See   Immortality,  Saddu- 

CEES. 

The  term  death  is  also  sometimes  used 
for  any  great  calamity,  or  imminent  dan- 
ger threatening  life,  as  persecution,  2  Cor. 
1:10.  "The  gates  of  death,"  Job  38:17, 
signify  the  unseen  world  occupied  by  de- 
parted spirits.  Death  is  also  figurativelj' 
used  to  denote  the  insensibility  of  Chris- 
tians to  the  temptations  of  a  sinful  world, 
Col.  3:3. 

DEBATE',  Rom.  1:29,  strife. 

DE'BIR,  a  sanctuary,  or  oracle,  Judg. 
i:ii,  a  place  called  also  Kirjath-sepher, 
a  city  of  books;  and  Kirjath-sannah,  a 
city  of  palm-leaf.  Josh.  15:15,  49.  Judging 
from  the  names,  it  appears  to  have  been 
some  sacred  place  among  the  Canaanites, 
and  a  repository  of  their  records.  It  was  a 
royal  city  in  Judah,  lying  11  or  12  miles 
southwest  of  Hebron,  conquered  from  the 
Anakim  by  Joshua,  but  recaptured  by  the 
Canaanites,  and  resubdued  by  Othniel,  and 
afterwards  given  to  the  priests.  Josh.  10:38, 
39;  15:15-17;  21:15.  It  is  now  DhSheriyeh. 
There  was  another  Debir  in  Gad,  and  a 
3d  on  the  border  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  13:26; 
15:7.  For  Debir,  king  of  Eglon,  see  Josh. 
10:3,  23-26. 

DEB'ORAH,  a  bee,  I.,  the  nurse  of  Rebe- 
kah,  whom  she  accompanied  from  Aram 
into  Canaan,  Gen.  24:59.  At  her  death, 
near  Bethel,  she  was  buried  with  honora- 
ble marks  of  affection,  under  the  famous 
oak  which  was  then  named  Allon-bachuth, 
the  oak  of  weeping,  Gen.  35:8.  B.  C.  1732. 
130 


She  was  in  Jacob's  household  at  the  time, 
Rebekah  doubtless  being  now  dead,  and 
was  about  sixscore  years  old.  There  is 
something  very  beautiful  in  this  simple 
record,  which  would  scarcely  fmd  a  place 
in  our  grand  histories  of  kings,  statesmen, 
and  renowned  warriors.  They  seldom 
take  the  trouble  of  erecting  a  memorial  to 
obscure  worth  and  a  long  life  of  humble 
usefulness. 

II.  A  prophetess,  and  wife  of  Lapidoth, 
judged  the  Israelites,  and  dwelt  under  a 
noted  and  jjerhaps  solitary  jjalm-tree  be- 
tween Ramah  and  Bethel,  Judg.  4:4,  5. 
When  the  Jews,  especially  the  northern 
tribes,  were  suffering  under  the  tyranny  of 
Jabin,  1296  B.  C,  as  a  prophetess  she  la- 
bored to  rouse  them  from  their  desponden- 
cy ;  and  sending  for  Barak,  directed  him 
to  attack  Sisera,  and  promised  him  victory. 
Barak,  however,  refused  to  go  unless  she 
accompanied  him,  which  she  did,  but  told 
him  that  the  success  of  the  expedition 
would  be  imputed  to  a  woman  and  not  to 
him.  After  the  victory,  Deborah  composed 
a  splendid  triumphal  song,  which  is  pre- 
served in  Judg.  5. 

DEBT'OR,  one  under  obligations,  wheth- 
er pecuniary  or  moral,  Matt.  23:16;  Rom. 
1:14;  Gal.  5:3.  If  the  house,  cattle,  or 
goods  of  a  Hebrew  would  not  meet  his 
debts,  his  land  might  be  appropriated  for 
this  purpose  until  the  year  of  Jubilee,  or  he 
might  be  reduced  into  servitude  till  he  had 
paid  his  debt  by  his  labor,  or  till  the  year 
of  Jubilee,  which  terminated  Hebrew  bond- 
age in  all  cases.  Lev  25:29-41;  2  Kin.  4:1 ; 
Neh.  5:3-5.  See  also  limitations  to  the 
creditor's  power  in  Deut.  24:6,  10-13.  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  imprisonment  for  debt 
had  become  customary.  Matt.  18:34. 

DECALOGUE,  the  10  principal  com- 
mandments, Exod.  20:3-17,  from  the  Greek 
words  dcka,  ten,  and  logos,  word.  The 
Jews  call  these  precepts.  The  Ten  Words. 
The  usual  division  of  the  10  command- 
ments among  Protestants  is  that  which  Jo- 
sephus  tells  us  was  employed  by  the  Jews 
in  his  day.  Rome  makes  a  different  divis- 
ion, losing  the  2d  in  the  ist— practically 
dropping  it,  in  catechisms — and  making  2 
of  the  loth.  The  10  commandments  are  a 
summary  of  human  duties  to  God  and  to 
man  so  comprehensive,  wise,  just,  and 
good  as  to  demonstrate  their  divine  ori- 
gin, and  command  the  admiration  of  the 
world.  Each  one  is  grounded  in  the  sound- 
est reason,  and  both  fitted  for  and  meant 
for  the  whole   race  of  man   in  all   ages. 


DEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEF 


They  are  not  national  and  temporary,  like 
the  details  of  the  Jewish  civil  and  ceremo- 
nial laws,  which  have  passed  away,  while 
their  spirit  is  included  in  the  gospel;  "it 
is  easier  for  heaven  and  earth  to  pass,  than 
■one  tittle  of  the  law  to  fail,"  Luke  i6 :  17. 
The  Saviour  himself  realTirms  them  all, 
and  to  annul  any  one  of  them,  as  some  do 
the  4th  commandment,  is  a  defiance  of  the 
malediction  in  Rev.  22:18,  19. 

DECAP'OLIS  (from  the  Greek  words, 
deka,  ten,  and  polis,  a  city),  a  country  in 
North  Palestine,  which  contained  10  prin- 
cipal cities,  chiefly  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan,  Matt.  4:25;  Mark  5:20;  7:31.  Ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  they  were  Scythopolis, 
Philadelphia,  Raphanae,  Gadara,  Hippos, 
Dios,  Pella,  Gerasa,  Canatha,  and  Damas- 
cus. Josephus  inserts  Otopos  instead  of 
Canatha.  Though  within  the  limits  of  Is- 
rael, the  Decapolis  was  inhabited  by  many 
foreigners,  and  hence  it  retained  a  foreign 
appellation.  This  may  also  account  for  the 
numerous  herds  of  swine  kept  in  the  dis- 
trict. Matt.  8:20;  a  practice  which  was  for- 
bidden by  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is  now  com- 
paratively uninhabited. 

DECEIVED',  Jer.  20:7,  R.V.  mar.  enticed. 

DE'DAN,  I.,  the  grandson  of  Gush,  Gen. 
10:7;  and  II.,  the  son  of  Jokshan,  Abra- 
ham's son  by  Keturah,  Gen.  25:3.  Both 
were  founders  of  tribes  frequently  named 
in  Scripture.  The  descendants  of  the 
Cushite  Dedan  are  supposed  to  have  set- 
tled in  Southern  Arabia,  near  the  Persian 
Gulf,  in  which  there  is  an  island  called  by 
the  Arabs  Daden.  The  descendants  of  the 
Abrahamite  Dedan  lived  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Idumaea,  Jer.  49:8.  It  is  not  clear, 
in  all  cases  where  the  name  occurs,  which 
of  the  tribes  is  intended.  It  was  probably 
the  Cushite  tribe  which  wa?  employed  in 
trade.  The  "  travelling  companies  "  of 
Dedan  are  mentioned  by  Isaiah,  21:13. 
They  are  also  named  with  the  merchants 
•of  Tarshish  by  Ezekiel,  38:13,  and  were 
celebrated  on  account  of  their  trade  with 
the  Phoenicians. 

DEDICA'TION,  a  religious  ceremony  by 
which  any  person,  place,  or  thing  was  de- 
voted to  a  holy  purpose.  Thus  the  taber- 
nacle and  the  ist  and  2d  temples  were  ded- 
icated to  God,  Exod.  40;  I  Kin.  8  ;  Ezra  6. 
The  Jews  also  practised  a  certain  dedica- 
tion of  walls,  houses,  etc.,  Deut.  20:5;  Neh. 
12:27.  The  "  feast  of  the  dedication,"  on 
the  25th  of  Chisleu,  was  a  yearly  commem- 
oration of  the  cleansing  and  rededication 
of  the  temple,  after  it  had  been  polluted 


by  Antiochus    Epiphanes,  B.  C.  167,  John 
10:22. 

DEEP  and  DEPTHS.  The  deep,  or  the 
great  deep,  signifies  in  Scripture,  hell,  the 
place  of  punishment,  the  bottomless  pit, 
Luke  8:31,  compare  Rev.  9:1;  11:7;  20:1; 
the  under-world,  Psa.  71:20;  Rom.  10:7; 
the  deepest  parts  of  the  sea,  Psa.  69:15; 
107 :  26 ;  chaos  in  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
Gen.  1:2.     See  Hell. 


THE   FALLOW-DEER. 


DEER,  a  wild  quadruped,  of  a  middle 
size  between  the  stag  and  the  roebuck ;  its 
horns  turn  inward,  and  are  large  and  flat. 
The  fallow-deer  is  naturally  very  timorous; 
it  was  reputed  clean,  and  good  for  food. 
Deut.  14:5;  I  Kin.  4:23.  There  are  2  spe- 
cies, now  known  as  the  Barbary  stag  and 
the  Persian  stag,  bearing  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  fallow-deer,  and  which  were 
doubtless  known  to  the  Jews.  Young  deer 
are  noticed  in  Proverbs,  Songs,  and  Isaiah, 
as  beautiful  creatures,  and  very  swift,  Prov. 
5:19.     See  Hind. 

DEFILE',  DEFILE'MENT.  Many  were 
the  blemishes  of  person  and  conduct  which, 
under  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law,  were  es- 
teemed defilements:  some  were  voluntary, 
some  involuntary;  some  were  inevitable, 
being  defects  of  nature,  others  the  conse- 
quences of  personal  transgression.  Under 
the  gospel,  defilements  are  those  of  the 
heart,  of  the  mind,  the  temper,  the  conduct. 
Moral  defilements  are  as  numerous,  and 
as  strongly  prohibited  under  the  gospel,  as 
ever,  though  ceremonial  defilements  have 
ceased,  Matt.  15:18;  Rom.  1:24.  See  Clean. 

131 


DEG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEL 


In  I  Cor.  3:17,  "defile,"  A.  V.,  and  "  de- 
stro_v,"  are  the  same  word  in  Greek,  and 
both  should  be  translated  "  destroy." 

DEGREE',  I  Tim.  3:13.  "A  good  de- 
gree "  is,  a  step  in  advance  in  spiritual 
life. 

DEGREES',  Psalms  of,  is  the  title  pre- 
fixed to  15  Psalms,  from  Psa.  120  to  Psa. 
134  inclusive.  Uf  this  title  commentators 
have  proposed  a  variety  of  explanations. 
The  most  probable  are  the  following:  First, 
pilgrim  songs,  sung  by  the  Israelites  while 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  worship  ;  com- 
pare Psa.  122:4;  Ijut  to  this  explanation  the 
contents  of  only  a  few  of  these  Psalms  are 
appropriate,  as,  for  instance,  of  Psa.  122. 
Secondly,  songs  of  llie  steps,  meaning  the 
15  steps  leading  from  the  court  of  the  wo- 
men in  the  temple  area  to  that  of  the  men, 
on  each  of  which  steps  some  Jewish  au- 
thors stale  that  one  of  these  Psalms  was 
chanted.  But,  thirdl\%  Gesenius  and  some 
others  suppose  the  title  to  refer  to  a  species 
of  rhythm  in  these  Psalms,  by  which  the 
sense  ascends,  one  member  or  clause  fre- 
quently repeating  the  words  with  which 
the  preceding  member  closes.  Thus  in 
Psa.  121, 

1.  I  wUl  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills, 
From  whence  cometh  my  help. 

2.  My  help  Cometh  from  the  Lord, 
Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 

3.  He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved  ; 
Thy  keeper  will  not  slumber. 

4.  Lo,  not  slumber  nor  sleep  will  the  keeper  of 

Israel. 

Yet  even  this  solution  does  not  well  apply 
to  all  these  Psalms. 

DEGREES',  Sh.\dow  OF.    See  Dial. 

DEHA'VITES,  a  peof)le  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates, who  furnished  colonists  for  Sama- 
ria, 2  Kin.  17:24;  Ezra  4:9;  supposed  to  be 
the  Dahae,  on  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  under  the  Persian  government. 

DELI'LAH,  /anguishing,  a  Philistine  wo- 
man in  the  valley  of  Sorek,  whom  Samson 
loved,  and  who  betrayed  him  to  the  ene- 
mies of  Israel  for  5,500  silver  shekels, 
Judg.  16. 

DEL'UGE,  that  universal  flood  which  was 
sent  upon  the  earth  in  the  time  of  Noah, 
and  from  which  there  were  but  8  persons 
saved.  Moses'  account  of  this  event  is  re- 
corded in  Gen.  6-8.  See  Ark  of  Noah. 
The  sins  of  mankind  were  the  cause  of  the 
deluge ;  and  most  commentators  place  it 
A.  M.  1656,  B.  C.  2348.  After  the  door  of 
the  ark  had  been  closed  upon  those  that 
132 


were  to  be  saved,  the  deluge  commenced : 
it  rained  40  days;  "the  fountains  of  the 
great  deep  were  broken  up,  and  the  win- 
dows of  heaven  were  opened."  All  men 
and  all  creatures  living  on  the  land  per- 
ished, except  Noah  and  those  with  him. 
For  5  months  the  waters  continued  to  rise, 
and  reached  15  cubits  above  the  highest 
summits  to  which  any  could  fly  for  refuge ; 
"a  shoreless  ocean  tumbled  round  the 
world."  At  length  the  waters  began  to 
abate;  the  highest  land  appeared,  and  the 
ark  touched  ground  upon  Mount  Ararat. 
In  3  months  more  the  hills  began  to  ap- 
pear. Forty  days  after,  Noah  tested  the 
state  of  the  earth's  surface  by  sending  out 
a  raven ;  and  then  thrice,  at  intervals  of  a 
week,  a  dove.  At  length  he  removed  the 
covering  of  the  ark,  and  found  the  flood 
had  disappeared:  he  came  forth  from  the 
ark,  reared  an  altar,  and  ofiered  sacrifices 
to  God,  who  appointed  the  rainbow  as  a 
pledge  that  he  would  no  more  destroy  man- 
kind with  a  flood.     See  Noah. 

Much  labor  has  been  expended  in  search- 
ing for  natural  causes  adequate  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  deluge ;  but  we  should  beware 
of  endeavoring  to  account  on  natural  prin- 
ciples for  that  which  the  Bible  represents 
as  miraculous.  It  is  indeed  true  that  mod- 
ern science  discovers  many  reasons  for 
doubting  the  universality  of  the  deluge — 
such  as  the  apparent  impossibility  of  find- 
ing room  and  food  in  the  ark  for  the  im- 
mense number  of  different  animals  now 
known  to  exist;  the  apparent  certainty  that 
all  fresh  water  fishes  would  have  perished 
in  the  ocean,  and  with  them  the  numerous 
species  of  marine  animals  which  cannot 
live  except  along  shore ;  also  that  the  sea 
water  would  have  destroyed  all  vegetable 
life.  And  many  of  the  real  friends  of  the 
Bible  believe  that  the  flood  covered  only 
that  portion  of  the  globe  then  occupied  by 
man.  There  is,  however,  no  proof  of  this; 
the  requisite  miracles,  however  many  and 
great,  were  equally  easy  to  God  with  those 
known  to  have  been  effected ;  and  some 
excellent  interpreters  adhere  to  the  natu- 
ral sense  of  the  inspired  narrative.  In  the 
New  Testament,  the  deluge  is  spoken  of  as 
a  stupendous  exhibition  of  divine  power, 
like  the  creation  and  the  final  burning  of 
the  world.  It  is  applied  to  illustrate  the 
longsuffering  of  God,  and  assure  us  of  his 
judgment  on  sin,  2  Pet.  3:5-7,  and  of  the 
2d  coming  of  Christ,  Matt.  24:38. 

Since  all  nations  have  descended  from 
the  family  then  preserved  in  the  ark,  it  is 


DEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEU 


natural  that  the  memory  of  such  an  event 
should  be  perpetuated  in  various  national 
tradition's.  Such  is  indeed  the  fact.  These 
traditions  have  been  found  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Chaldaeans,  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Hin- 
doos, Chinese,  Japanese,  Scythians,  and 
Celts,  and  in  the  western  hemisphere  among 
the  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  and  South  Sea 
islanders. 

DE'MAS,  a  fellow-laborer  with  Paul  and 
companion  in  his  ist  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  who  after  a  while  deserted  him, 
either  discouraged  by  the  hardships  of  the 
work,  or  allured  by  the  love  of  the  world. 
Col.  4:14;  2  Tim.  4:10;  Phile.  24.  We 
may  hope  that  his  forsaking  of  Paul  and  of 
Christ  was  not  final  apostasy ;  but  the  Bible 
leaves  his  case  under  a  gloomy  cloud — a 
serious  warning  to  us.  "  This  present 
world  "  tempting  us  not  to  follow  Christ, 
is  always  a  curse,  and  may  be  our  ruin. 

DEME'TRIUS,  I.,  a  silversmith  of  Ephe- 
sus,  who  made  silver  models  of  the  famous 
temple  of  Diana,  which  he  sold  to  foreign- 
ers, Acts  19:24-41.  Observing  the  progress 
of  the  gospel,  not  in  Ephesus  only,  but  in 
the  regions  around,  he  assembled  his  fel- 
low-craftsmen, and  represented  that,  by 
this  new  doctrine,  not  only  their  trade 
would  suffer,  but  the  worship  of  the  great 
Diana  of  Ephesus  was  in  danger  of  being 
entirely  forsaken.  This  produced  an  up- 
roar and  riot  in  the  city,  which  the  town- 
clerk  with  difficulty  appeased  by  firmness 
and  persuasion. 

II.  A  disciple,  and  probably  a  minister 
of  high  repute,  3  John  12.  He  may  have 
been  formerly  the  silversmith  of  Ephesus  ; 
but  this  can  be  neither  proved  nor  dis- 
proved. 

DEP'UTY,  a  pasha  or  governor,  i  Kin. 
22:47;  Esth.  8:9;  9:3.  The  Greek  word 
translated  "deputy"  in  Acts  13:7,  8,  12; 
18: 12;  19:38,  was  the  "  proconsul,"  the  reg- 
ular title  of  the  governor  of  a  Roman  prov- 
ince when  appointed  by  the  Senate.  Its 
use  in  the  above  passages,  instead  of  some 
vague  or  general  title,  is  one  of  a  multitude 
of  undesigned  evidences  of  the  truthfulness 
of  the  sacred  narrative. 

DER'BE,  a  small  town  of  Lycaonia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  to  which  Paul  and  Barnabas 
fled  from  Lystra,  A.  D.  41,  Acts  14:20.  It 
lay  north  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  16  or 
20  miles  east  of  Lystra,  and  not  far  from 
the  well-known  pass  called  "the  Cilician 
Gates."  The  two  missionaries  gained  many 
disciples  here,  and  among  them  perhaps 
Gains,  who  afterwards  labored  with  Paul, 


Acts  14:21;  20:4.  Paul  revisited  Derbe  on 
his  2d  tour,  and  perhaps  on  the  3d,  Acts 
16:1-4;  18:23;  19:1. 

DES'ERT.  The  Scriptures,  by  "  desert," 
generally  mean  an  uncultivated  place,  a 
wilderness,  or  grazing  tract.  Some  des- 
erts were  entirely  dry  and  barren ;  others 
were  beautiful,  and  had  good  pastures,  Joel 
2:22.  David  speaks  of  the  beauty  of  the 
desert,  Psa.  65:12,  13.  Scripture  names 
several  deserts  in  the  Holy  Land.  In 
Ezek.  47 : 8,  the  Jordan  valley  is  meant.  See 
Arabah.  Other  deserts  particularly  men- 
tioned are  "  that  great  and  terrible  wilder- 
ness "  in  Arabia  Petrsea,  south  of  Canaan, 
Deut.  8:15,  in  passing  through  which  for 
40  years  the  Israelites  took  with  them 
flocks  and  herds,  Exod.  12:38;  Num.  11:22; 
32: 1 ;  also  the  region  between  Canaan  and 
the  Euphrates,  Exod.  23:31;  Deut.  11:24. 
The  pastures  of  these  "wildernesses"  are 
clothed  in  winter  and  spring  with  rich  and 
tender  herbage ;  but  the  heat  of  summer 
soon  burns  this  up,  and  the  Arabs  are  driv- 
en to  seek  pasturage  elsewhere.  Similar 
uninhabited  spots  lay  near  many  of  the 
towns  in  Palestine  itself:  as  "  the  wilder- 
ness of  Ziph,"  of  Maon,  Gibeon,  etc.  The 
"  wilderness  of  Judah  "  was  the  mountain- 
ous tract  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  i  Sam. 
17:28;  Matt.  2,:2,.  See  also  Luke  15:4; 
Acts  8:26. 

DESTRUCTION,  CiTY  OF,  Isa.  19:18. 
See  Heres. 

DEUTERON'OMY,  second  law,  or  the  rep- 
etition of  the  law,  the  5th  book  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch; so  called  by  the  Greeks,  because 
in  it  Moses  recapitulates  what  he  had  or- 
dained in  the  preceding  books,  Deut.  i :  i- 
6;  29:1;  31:1;  T,2,-  This  book  contains  the 
history  of  what  passed  in  the  wilderness 
from  the  beginning  of  the  nth  month  to 
the  7th  day  of  the  12th  month,  in  the  40th 
year  after  the  Israelites'  departure  from 
Egypt,  that  is,  about  6  weeks,  B.  C.  1451. 
That  part  which  mentions  the  death  of  Mo- 
ses was  added  afterwards,  very  probably 
by  Joshua. 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  the  sublime 
and  precious  valedictory  address  of  the  in- 
spired "  man  of  God,"  now  venerable  for 
his  age  and  experience,  and  standing  al- 
most in  the  gate  of  heaven.  He  gives  the 
people  of  God  his  fatherly  counsel  and 
blessing,  and  then  goes  up  into  Mount  Pis- 
gah  alone  to  die.  He  recounts  the  deal- 
ings of  God  with  them,  chs.  1-4 ;  recapitu- 
lates His  laws,  chs.  5-26 ;  shows  them  why 
they  should  love  Him,  and  how  they  should 

133 


DEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEV 


serve  Him,  chs.  27-34.  ^^  's  full  of  tender 
solicitude,  wise  instruction,  faithful  warn- 
ing, and  the  zealous  love  of  a  patriot  and 
a  prophet  for  the  people  of  God,  whom  he 
had  borne  on  his  heart  so  long.  It  is  often 
quoted  by  later  inspired  writers,  and  by 
our  Lord,  Matt.  4:4,  7,  10. 

DEVIL,  1.,  a  fallen  angel;  and  particu- 
larly the  chief  of  them,  /Jw  dez'il,  or  Satan. 
He  is  the  great  leader  of  evil  in  the  world; 
and  it  is  his  grand  object  to  counteract  the 
good  which  God  desires  to  do.  He  e.\erts 
himself,  especially  with  his  angels,  to  draw 
away  the  souls  of  men  from  embracing  sal- 
vation through  Jesus  Christ. 

His  name,  from  the  Greek  diabolos,  sig- 
nifies the  false  accuser — slandering  God  to 
men,  as  in  Gen.  3,  and  men,  especially  good 
men,  to  God,  Job  1:9,  10;  Zech.  3:1;  Rev. 
12: 10;  as  the  Hebrew  Satan  means  the  ad- 
versary— of  God  and  man.  But  the  Scrip- 
tures give  him  various  other  appellations 
descriptive  of  his  character.  He  is  called, 
"The  prince  of  this  world,"  John  12:31; 
"  The  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air,"  Eph. 
2:2;  "  The  god  of  this  world,"  2  Cor.  4:4; 
"  The  dragon,  that  old  serpent,"  Rev.  20:2  ; 
"That  wicked  one,"  i  John  5:18;  "A  roar- 
ing lion,"  I  Pet.  5:8;  "A  murderer,"  "a 
liar,"  John  8:44;  "Beelzebub,"  Matt.  12:24; 
"Belial,"  2  Cor.  6:15.  He  is  everywhere 
shown  to  be  full  of  malignity,  cruelty,  and 
deceit,  hating  God  and  man.  He  is  cease- 
less in  his  efforts  to  destroy  souls,  and  uses 
innumerable  devices  to  adapt  his  tempta- 
tions to  the  varying  characters  and  condi- 
tions of  men,  enticing  wicked  men,  and 
even  good  men,  as  well  as  his  own  angels, 
to  aid  in  his  work.  Almost  the  whole 
world  has  been  under  his  sway.  But  he  is 
a  doomed  foe.  Christ  "  shall  bruise  the 
serpent's  head;"  shall  dispossess  him  from 
the  world,  as  He  has  done  from  individu- 
als, and  at  length  confine  him  for  ever  in 
the  place  prepared  for  him  and  his  angels. 
Matt.  25:41. 

IL  The  word  "  devils  "  in  the  gospels  is 
the  translation  of  a  different  Greek  w-ord 
from  that  used  to  denote  the  devil,  and 
might  be  rendered  "demons."  See  Idols. 
The  Bible  speaks  of  "  the  devil,  and  his 
angels,"  Matt.  25:41;  Rev.  12:7,  9,  and  of 
Satan  as  "  the  prince  of  the  devils,"  Mark 
3:22-30,  representing  the  latter  as  like  their 
leader  in  nature  and  actions — fallen  an- 
gels, Luke  10:17,  18.  In  the  gospels  they 
are  "  unclean  "  spirits,  full  of  active  malig- 
nity; they  believe  and  tremble,  Jas.  2:19; 
they  confess  the  deity  of  Christ,  yield  to 
134 


his  authority,  and  dread  his  coming  judg- 
ment, Matt.  8:29;  Luke  4:41;  Acts  19:15. 
See  also  Eph.  6:12;  Rev.  12: 7-9.  The  word 
"  devil  "  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  idols, 
intimating  the  special  interest  of  evil  spir- 
its in  the  "  lying  wonders"  and  abomina- 
tions of  idol-worship,  Deut.  32:17;  i  Cor. 
10:20,  31 ;  Rev.  9:20. 

There  are  manj^  examples  in  the  New 
Testament  of  persons  possessed  bj'  demons. 
These  men  are  often  called  demoniacs^ 
Some  have  argued  that  these  were  afflicted 
by  natural  diseases,  such  as  epilepsy,  in- 
sanity, etc.,  and  were  not  possessed  by 
evil  spirits.  But  the  demoniacs  are  clearly 
distinguished  from  those  afflicted  with  epi- 
lepsy or  any  other  disease,  Matt.  4:24; 
Mark  1:32;  16:17,  18;  Luke  6:17,  18;  and 
our  Saviour  speaks  to  and  commands  the 
demons  who  actuated  the  possessed,  which 
demons  answered  with  superhuman  knowl- 
edge, recognized  the  Son  of  God,  obeyed 
his  commands,  and  gave  proofs  of  their 
presence  by  tormenting  those  whom  they 
were  obliged  to  quit.  Christ  alleges,  as 
proof  of  his  mission,  that  the  demons  are 
cast  out ;  he  promises  his  apostles  the  same 
power  that  he  himself  exercised  against 
those  wicked  spirits.  Matt.  10:1.  8;  Luke 
9:1;  and  his  conversations  with  the  Jews, 
and  with  his  disciples  when  alone  with 
him,  imply  the  agency  of  evil  spirits  in  the 
demoniacs.  Matt.  12:22-29;  17:18-21.  No 
one  therefore  can  deny  this  fact  without 
denying  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  and 
the  honesty  of  Christ. 

No  cases  of  the  same  nature  occur  in  our 
day.  They  were  suffered  to  occur  in 
Christ's  time,  since  he  came  to  save  both 
the  bodies  and  the  souls  of  men  and  "  to 
destroy  the  works  of  the  devil,"  and  had 
need  to  exhibit  his  saving  power  by  heal- 
ing diseases,  forgiving  sins,  and  casting 
out  devils.  Matt.  12:28;  Luke  10:17,  18; 
I  John  3:8.  The  possessed  had  probably 
invited  the  evil  spirits  by  their  vices  and 
crimes,  which  had  also  brought  upon  them 
the  diseases  which  in  so  many  cases  were 
found  with  the  demoniacal  possession. 

In  all  New  Testament  passages  where 
"devils"  occurs,  in  the  plural,  the  Greek 
denotes  "demons;"  also  in  the  following 
passages  where  "  devil  "  occurs,  in  the  sin- 
gular: Matt.  9:32,  33;  11:18;  12:22;  15:22; 
17: 18;  Mark  5: 15,  16,  18;  7:26,  29,30;  Luke 
4:33.  35;  7:33;  8:29;  9:42;  11:14;  John 
7:20;  8:48,49,52;  10:20,21. 

In  all  other  passages  where  "  devil  "  oc- 
curs in  the  singular,  Satan,  diabolos,  is  de- 


DEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DIA 


noted  in  the  original,  viz.,  Matt.  4:1,  5,  8,  11 ; 
13:39;  25:41;  Luke  4:2,  3,  5,  6,  13;  8:12; 
John  6:70;  8:44 ;  :3:2;  Acts  10:38;  13:10; 
Eph.  4:27;  6:11;  I  Tim.  3 : 6,  7  ;  2  Tim.  2 :  26 ; 
Heb.  2:14;  Jas.  4:7;  i  Pet.  5:8;  i  John  3:8, 
10;  Jude  9;  Rev.  2:10;  12:9,  12;  20:2,  10. 

DEVO'TIONS,  in  Acts  17:23,  objects  of 
worship. 

DE'W.  The  dews  in  Palestine  and  some 
other  Oriental  countries  are  very  copious, 
and  serve  very  greatly  to  sustain  and  pro- 
mote vegetation  in  seasons  when  little  or 
no  rain  falls.  Maundrell  tells  us  that  the 
tents  of  his  company,  when  pitched  on  Ta- 
bor and  Hermon,  "  were  as  wet  with  dew 
as  if  it  had  rained  on  them  all  night,"  Judg. 
6 :  38  ;  Song  5:2.  Dew  was  especially  heavy 
near  the  mountains,  and  just  before  and 
after  the  rainy  season  ;  and  did  not  fall  in 
the  midsummer.  It  was  prized  as  a  pre- 
cious boon  of  Providence,  Gen.  27 :  28 ;  Deut. 
33:28;  I  Kin.  17:1;  Job  29:19;  Hag.  1:10; 
Zech.  8:12.  The  dew  furnishes  the  sacred 
penmen  with  many  beautiful  allusions, 
Deut.  32:2;  2  Sam.  17:12;  Psa.  110:3;  Prov. 
19:12;  Hos.  6:4;  14:5;  Mic.  5:7. 

DI'ADEM,  in  the  New  Testament,  the 
crown  of  kings,  in  distinction  from  con- 
querors, etc.,  Rev.  12:3;  13:1;  19:12. 


-ANTIQUE   STONE   SUN-DIAL. 

DI'AL,  an  instrument  much  used  before 
the  invention  of  clocks,  to  tell  the  time  of 
day  by  the  progress  of  the  sun's  shadow. 
The  dial  of  Ahaz,  2  Kin.  20 : 1 1 ;  Isa.  38 : 1-9, 
seems  to  have  been  peculiar  either  in  struc- 
ture or  size,  and  was  perhaps  borrowed 
from  Babylon  or  Damascus,  2  Kin.  16:10. 
The  sun-dial  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian 
tablets.  The  term  "  degrees,"  or  steps,  sug- 
gests its  probable  form,  as  that  of  a  pair  of 
stairs,  with  a  gnomon  or  column  casting  its 
shadow  on  more  or  fewer  of  them  as  the 


sun  was  low  or  high.  Compare  the  many- 
storied  temples  of  Babel.  The  causing  the 
shadow  upon  it  to  go  back  10  degrees,  to 
assure  king  Hezekiah  of  his  recovery  from 
sickness,  was  probably  effected  not  by  ar- 
resting and  turning  backwards  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  earth,  but  by  a  miraculous  re- 
fraction of  the  sun's  rays,  observed  only  in 
Judaea,  though  the  fame  of  it  reached  Bab- 
ylon, 2  Chr.  32:31. 

DI'AMOND,  the  hardest  and  most  bril- 
liant of  gems,  very  rare  and  costly,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  unknown  to  the  Jews. 
Diamonds  are  used  not  only  for  ornaments, 
but  for  cutting  and  graving  hard  substan- 
ces, Jer.  17:  i.  The  Hebrew  word  .y/iawiV, 
here  used,  is  called  "adamant"  in  Ezek. 
3:9;  Zech.  7: 12.  See  Adam.^nt.  There  is 
another  Hebrew  word,  vaha/om,  also  trans- 
lated "diamond,"  E.xod.  28:18;  39:11; 
Ezek.  28: 13,  and  thought  by  some  to  mean 
the  topaz. 


DIANA:    FROM    STATUE    IN    NAPLES    MUSEUM. 

DIA'NA,  or  Ar'temis,  a  celebrated  god- 
dess of  the  Romans  and  Greeks,  and  one 
of  their  12  superior  deities.  The  Diana  of 
Ephesus,  however,  was  a  very  different 
deity  from  the  fair  and  chaste  huntress  of 
the  Greeks ;  she  was  like  the  Syrian  god- 
dess Ashtoreth,  and  appears  to  have  been 
worshipped  with  impure  rites  and  magical 
mysteries.  Acts  19:19.     Her  image,  fabled 

135 


DIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DIS 


to  have  fallen  down  from  Jupiter  in  heav- 
en, seems  to  have  been  a  block  of  wood 
tapering  to  the  foot,  with  a  female  bust 
above  covered  with  many  breasts,  the  head 
crowned  with  turrets,  and  each  hand  rest- 
ing on  a  staff'.  It  was  of  great  antiquity, 
and  highly  venerated. 

The  temple  of  this  goddess  was  the  pride 
and  glory  of  Ephesus.  It  was  425  feet  long, 
and  220  broad,  and  had  127  graceful  Ionic 
columns  of  white  marble,  each  60  feet  high. 
Its  treasures  were  of  immense  value.  It 
was  220  years  in  building,  and  was  one  of 
the  7  wonders  of  the  world.  In  the  year 
when  Alexander  the  (ireat  was  born,  B.  C. 
356,  an  earlier  temple  had  been  burned 
down  by  one  Herostratus,  in  order  to  im- 
mortalize his  name,  but  was  afterwards 
rebuilt,  as  above  described,  with  even 
greater  splendor.  Compare  i  Cor.  3:9-17, 
written  there  ;  and  Eph.  2 :  19-22.  The  "  sil- 
ver slirines  for  Diana,"  made  by  Demetrius 
and  others,  were  probably  small  models  of 
the  temple  for  domestic  use,  and  for  sale 
to  travellers  and  visitors.  Ancient  coins  of 
Ephesus  represent  the  shrine  and  statue  of 
Diana,  with  a  Greek  inscription,  "of  the 
Ephesians,"  Acts  19:28,  34,  35.  Others 
bear  the  same  words  which  Luke  employs, 
translated  "  deputy  "  and  "  worshipper  "  of 
Diana ;  and  some,  with  the  name  and  head 
of  Nero,  were  struck  perhaps  while  Paul 
was  there. 

DIB'LATH,  Ezek.  6:14,  probably  Rib- 
LAH,  which  see. 

DI'BON,  pining,  I.,  Di'mon,  Isa.  15:9, 
and  Di'bo.n-gad',  Num.  33:45,  46,  a  town 
of  Gad,  Num.  32:34,  but  afterwards  of  Reu- 
ben, Josh.  13:17.  It  lay  in  a  plain  just 
north  of  the  Arnon,  and  was  the  ist  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  upon  crossing 
that  river.  Later  we  find  it  in  the  hands  of 
the  Moabites,  Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  48:22.  Traces 
of  it  remain  at  a  place  now  called  Diban. 
See  Mesha. 

II.  .\  town  in  Judah,  Neh.  11:25,  called 
Dimonah  in  Josh.  15:22. 

DID'YMUS,  a  twin.    See  Thomas. 

DIG'GING   THROUGH    HOUSES,  Job  24:16. 

See  Houses. 

DIK'LAH,  a  tribe  descended  from  Jok- 
tan,  Gen.  10:27,  and  dwelling  in  Southern 
Arabia,  or  perhaps  near  the  head  of  the 
Persian  (kilf,  i  Chr.  1:21. 

DI'MON,  Isa.  15:9.     See  DinoN. 

DI'NAH,  judged,  daughter  of  Jacob  by 
Leah,  Gen.  30:21,  his  only  daughter  named 
in  Scripture.  While  the  family  were  so- 
journing near  Shalem,  she  heedlessly  asso- 
136 


ciated  with  the  Canaanitish  maidens,  and 
fell  a  victim  to  the  seductive  arts  of  She- 
chem,  a  young  prince  of  the  land  ;  but  was 
perfidiously  and  savagely  avenged  by  Sim- 
e<5n  and  Levi,  her  full  brothers,  to  the  great 
grief  of  Jacob  their  father.  Gen.  34;  49:5,  7. 
Her  fall  furnishes  one  of  myriads  of  warn- 
ings not  to  associate  with  the  irreligious 
and  dissolute.  She  seems  to  have  gone 
with  the  family  to  Egypt,  Gen.  46:15. 

DIONYS'IUS,  devotee  of  Bacchus,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  court  of  the  Areopagus  at  Ath- 
ens, converted  under  the  preaching  of  Paul, 
Acts  17:34.  See  Akkoi-agus.  Tradition 
says  that  he  was  eminent  for  learning,  that 
he  was  ordained  by  Paul  at  Athens,  and 
after  many  labors  and  trials,  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom by  fire.  The  works  ascribed  to 
him  are  spurious,  being  the  product  of 
some  unknown  writer  in  the  5th  or  6th  cen- 
tury. 

DIOT'REPHES,  nourished  by  Jupiler,  an 
influential  member,  perhaps  minister,  of 
some  early  church,  censured  by  John  for 
his  jealous  ambition  and  his  violent  rejec- 
tion of  the  best  Christians,  3  John  9,  10. 

DIP'PING  IN  THE  DISH,  Matt.  26:23.  See 
Eating. 

DISCERN'ING  OF  SPIRITS,  I  Cor.  i2:io, 
a  miraculous  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
certain  of  the  early  church,  empowering 
them  to  judge  of  the  real  character  of  those 
who  professed  to  love  Christ  and  to  be  in- 
spired to  teach  in  his  name,  i  John  4:1; 
2  John  7.  Compare  Acts  5:1-10;  8:21; 
13:6-12. 

DISCIPLE,  a  scholar.  Matt.  10:24.  In 
the  New  Testament  it  is  applied  princi- 
pally to  the  followers  of  Christ ;  sometimes 
to  those  of  John  the  Baptist,  Matt.  9: 14,  and 
of  the  Pharisees,  Matt.  22:16.  It  is  used  in 
a  special  manner  to  point  out  the  twelve, 
Matt.  II  :i;  20:17.  A  disciple  of  Christ 
may  now  be  defined  as  one  who  believes 
his  doctrine,  rests  upon  his  sacrifice,  im- 
bibes his  spirit,  imitates  his  example,  and 
lives  to  do  liis  work. 

DIS'CIPLINE,  Job  36:10,  instruction. 

DISCOVER,  Mic.  i;6,  to  uncover,  or  lay 
bare,  Deut.  22:30;  2  Sam.  22: 16. 

DISEAS'ES  were  introduced  into  the 
world  by  sin,  and  are  greatly  promoted  by 
corrupt,  indolent,  and  lu.xurious  habits. 
Besides  the  natural  causes  of  diseases,  evil 
sprits  were  charged  with  producing  them 
among  the  Hebrews,  Job  2:7;  Mark  9:17; 
Luke  13:16;  2  Cor.  12:7.  The  pious  Jews 
recognized  the  hand  of  God  in  sending 
them,  Psa.  39:9-11;  90:3-12;  and  in  many 


DIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DOE 


cases  special  diseases  were  sent  in  punish- 
ment of  particular  sins:  to  Abimelech,  Ge- 
hazi,  Jehoram,  Uzziah,  Miriam,  Herod,  the 
Philistines,  etc.,  and  those  who  partook  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  unworthily,  i  Cor.  11:30. 
Christ  manifested  his  divine  goodness  and 
power  by  healing  every  form  of  disease ; 
and  in  these  cases,  as  in  that  of  king  Asa, 
2  Chr.  16: 12,  it  is  shown  that  all  the  skill  of 
physicians  is  in  vain  without  God's  bless- 
ing. The  prevalent  diseases  in  Bible  lands 
were  malignant  fevers,  cutaneous  diseases, 
palsy,  dysentery,  and  ophthalmia.  Almost 
every  form  of  bodily  disease  has  a  coun- 
terpart in  the  maladies  of  the  soul,  and  the 
Great  Physician  of  souls  has  demonstrated 
his  perfect  ability  to  cure  them  all,  Luke 
5:24.     See  Devil,  IL 

DISPENSA'TION,  the  charge  of  proclaim- 
ing the  gospel  of  Christ,  i  Cor.  9: 17 ;  Eph. 
3:2.  Also  the  scheme  or  plan  of  God's 
dealings  with  men.  In  the  Patriarchal, 
Mosaic,  and  Christian  dispensations,  God 
has  commenced,  enlarged,  and  perfected 
his  revelation  of  himself  and  his  grace  to 
this  world,  Eph.  1:10;  Col.  i :  25.  The  whole 
development  of  his  great  plan  has  been 
gradual,  and  adapted  at  every  stage  to  the 
existing  state  of  the  human  family. 

DISPER'SION,  Jas.  1:1.  See  C.A.PTIVITY. 
The  exiled  Jews  were  not  in  Babylonia 
only,  but  in  all  lands  around  Palestine,  far 
and  near,  Acts  2:9-11 ;  and  furnished  many 
converts  to  the  gospel  who  contributed 
greatly  to  its  rapid  spread,  John  7:35. 

DISPOSI'TION,  Acts  7:53,  A.  V.,  ordi- 
nance or  ministration. 

DITCH,  a  pit  or  pool,  Job  9:31  ;  Isa.  22:11 ; 
Luke  6:39. 

DIVINA'TION.  The  Eastern  people  were 
fond  of  magic,  and  the  pretended  art  of  in- 
terpreting dreams  and  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  futurity.  When  Moses  published 
the  law,  to  correct  the  Israelites'  inclination 
to  consult  diviners,  wizards,  fortune-tellers, 
and  interpreters  of  dreams,  it  was  forbid- 
den them  under  very  severe  penalties,  and 
the  true  spirit  of  prophecy  was  promised 
to  them  as  infinitely  superior,  Exod.  22: 18 ; 
Lev.  19:26,  31 ;  20:27.  When  this  was  for- 
feited by  disobedience,  and  sorcery  em- 
ployed instead,  as  by  king  Saul,  ruin  was 
not  far  off,  i  Sam.  28.  See  Acts  8 ;  13  ;  16  ; 
19.  Those  were  to  be  stoned  who  pre- 
tended to  have  a  "  familiar  spirit,"  or  the 
"spirit  of  divination,"  Deut.  18:9-12;  and 
the  prophecies  are  full  of  invectives  against 
the  Israelites  who  consulted  such,  as  well 
as  against  false  prophets,  who  seduced  the 


people,  Isa.  8:19;  47:11-14;  Ezek.  13:6-9. 
A  fresh  impulse  to  these  superstitions  was 
gained  from  intercourse  with  the  Chaldae- 
ans,  during  the  reign  of  the  later  kings  of 
Judah  and  the  captivities  in  Babylon,  2  Kin. 
21:6;  2  Chr.  33:6.    See  Magic,  Sorcerers. 

Divination  was  of  several  kinds:  by  wa- 
ter, fire,  earth,  air ;  by  the  flight  of  birds, 
and  their  singing ;  by  lots,  dreams,  arrows, 
clouds,  entrails  of  sacrifices,  pretended  com- 
munication with  spirits,  etc.,  Ezek.  21:21. 
The  art  of  divination  was  nothing  but  an 
imposing  jugglery,  having  no  basis  but  the 
credulity  and  superstitious  fears  of  its 
dupes,  and  making  an  adroit  use  of  some 
secret  machinery  or  of  scientific  facts  un- 
known to  the  mass.  It  was  usually  in  the 
hands  of  a  priestly  caste.  Gen.  41:8;  Isa. 
47: 13  ;  Dan.  2:2,  and  gave  them  vast  social 
and  political  power.  In  reference  to  his 
cup,  Joseph  spoke  as  a  supposed  Egyptian, 
Gen.  44:5. 

DIVORCE'  was  tolerated  by  Moses  for 
sufficient  reasons,  Deut.  24:1-4;  but  our 
Lord  has  limited  it  to  the  single  case  of 
adultery.  Matt.  5:31,  32;  19:3-9.  Where  for 
other  causes  a  separation  of  husband  and 
wife  occurs,  and  they  live  asunder,  neither 
is  at  liberty  to  marry  another.  Paul  in 
I  Cor.  7:10-17  applies  the  law  of  Christ  to 
cases  where  a  Christian  convert  has  a  wife 
still  an  unbeliever :  he  is  not  to  separate 
from  her  if  she  will  remain  with  him;  if 
she  will  depart,  he  is  not  bound  to  insist 
on  her  remaining  with  him,  but  cannot 
marry  another. 

DOCTOR,  teacher.  A  Doctor  of  the 
LAW  may  perhaps  be  distinguished  from  a 
SCRIBE,  as  rather  teaching  orally  than  giv- 
ing written  opinions,  Luke  2:46.  It  implies 
one  learned  in  the  divine  law.  Doctors  of 
the  law  were  mostly  of  the  sect  of  the  Phar- 
isees, but  are  distinguished  from  that  sect 
in  Luke  5:17,  where  it  appears  that  the 
novelty  of  our  Saviour's  teaching  drew  to- 
gether a  great  company  both  of  Pharisees 
and  doctors  of  the  law.  See  Rab  and 
Scribes. 

DOCTRINE,  teaching,  its  method  and  its 
substance,  Matt.  7:28;  Mark  4:2. 

DOD'ANIM,  or  Rod'anim,  I  Chr.  1:7,  a 
people  descended  from  Japhet  through  Ja- 
van,  Gen.  10:4.  They  are  associated,  by 
the  above  passage,  and  by  dim  etymologi- 
cal inferences,  with  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

HO' E-G,  fearful,  an  Edomite,  overseer  of 
Saul's  flocks.  At  Nob  he  witnessed  the 
relief  kindly  furnished  to  David  when  flee- 
ing   from   Saul,   by   Ahimelech   the    high- 

137 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DOV 


priest,  and  carried  a  malicious  and  distort- 
ed report  of  it  to  his  master.  The  king 
gladly  seized  the  opportunitj*  to  wreak  his 
passion  on  a  helpless  victim  ;  and  when  the 
Jews  around  him  refused  to  slay  the  priests 
of  God,  infamously  used  the  willing  servi- 
ces of  this  alien  and  heathen.  Doeg  not 
only  slew  Ahimelech  and  84  other  priests, 
but  put  the  town  in  which  they  dwelt  to  the 
sword,  I  Sam.  21  ;  22.  David  forebodes  his 
wretched  fate,  Psa.  52;  120;  140. 


A   PKRSIAN  DOG. 

DOGS  were  held  in  great  contempt  by 
the  Jews,  but  were  worshipped,  as  well  as 
cats,  by  the  Egyptians.  Among  the  Jews, 
to  compare  a  person  to  this  "  unclean  "  an- 
imal. Lev.  11:26,  27;  Isa.  66:3,  was  the 
most  degrading  expression  possible,  i  Sam. 
17:43;  24:14;  2  Sam.  9:8.  The  state  of 
dogs  among  the  Jews  was  the  same  that 
now  prevails  in  the  East,  where,  often  hav- 
ing no  owners,  they  run  about  the  streets 
in  troops,  and  are  fed  by  cliarity  or  caprice, 
or  live  on  such  offal  as  they  can  pick  up. 
As  they  are  often  on  the  jjoint  of  starvation, 
they  devour  corpses,  and  in  the  night  even 
attack  living  men,  Psa.  59:6,  14,  15;  i  Kin. 
14:11;  21:23.  Yet  dogs  were  kept  some- 
times to  guard  flocks  and  houses.  Job  30:  i ; 
Isa.  56:10;  Matt.  15:26,  27.  In  various 
places  in  Scripture  the  epithet  "dogs"  is 
given  to  certain  classes  of  men,  as  express- 
ing their  insolent  rapacity,  Psa.  22 :  16 ;  Matt. 
7:6 ;  Phil.  3:2,  and  their  beastly  vices,  Deut. 
23:18;  2  Pet.  2:22;  Rev.  22:15. 

DOOR.    See  Gates,  House. 

DOR,  a  habitation,  a  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites,  on  the  Mediterranean  between 
Caesarea  and  Mount  Carmel ;  after  the  con- 
quest it  was  assigned  to  Manasseh,  Josh. 
11:2;  12:23;  17:11:  I  Kin.  4:11;  I  Chr. 
7:29.  There  is  now  a  small  port  there,  and 
a  village  with  about  300  inhabitants,  called 
Tantura. 

DOR'CAS  in  Greek,  the  same  as  Tabi- 
THA  in  Svriac,  that  is,  gazelle,  the  name  of 
138 


a  pious  and  charitable  woman  at  Joppa, 
whom  Peter  raised  from  the  dead,  Acts 
9:36-42.  This  miracle  testified  (iod's  spe- 
cial approval  of  a  life  of  practical  and  self- 
denying  piety,  and  was  followed  by  many 
conversions. 

DO'THAN,  or  Dotha'in,  two  wells,  the 
place  where  Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Ish- 
maelites.  Gen.  2,7:17,  and  where  the  Syri- 
ans were  smitten  with  blindness  at  Elisha's 
word,  2  Kin.  6:13.  It  was  on  the  caravan- 
route  from  Syria  to  Egypt,  about  15  miles 
north  of  Shechem,  and  4  or  5  southwest  of 
Engannim,  now  Jenin.  Its  ruins  still  bear 
the  old  name,  Dothan,  though  uninhabited, 
and  are  on  a  large  hill,  2  Kin.  6: 15,  17.  on 
the  south  edge  of  a  very  fertile  plain,  (ien. 
37:16,  17.  Mr.  Tristram  met  there  "a  long 
caravan  of  mules  and  asses  laden,  on  their 
way  from  Damascus  to  Egv|it."' 


THK    KASTKRN   CARRIER    DOVE. 

DOVES  were  clean  according  to  the  Mo- 
saic ritual,  and  were  offered  in  sacrifice, 
especially  by  the  poor,  Gen.  15:9;  Lev.  5:7; 
12:6-8;  Luke  2:24.  Several  kinds  of  doves 
or  pigeons  frequented  the  Holy  Land ;  and 
the  immense  flocks  of  them  sometimes  wit- 
nessed illustrate  a  passage  in  Isaiah,  60:8. 
Their  swift  and  long  flight  and  their  beau- 
tiful plumage  are  alluded  to  in  Psa.  55:6; 
68:13,  their  tender  eyes,  mournful  notes, 
etc.,  in  Song  1 :  15;  2:14;  153.59:11.  They 
are  symbols  of  simplicity,  innocence,  and 
conjugal  fidelity,  Hos.  7:11;  Matt.  10:16. 
The  dove  was  the  chosen  harbinger  of 
God's  returning  favor  after  the  flood.  Gen. 
8,  and  was  honored  as  an  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  Matt.  3 :  16.  See  Turtle- 
dove. 


DOV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DRO 


DOVES'  DUNG.  It  is  said,  2  Kin.  6:25, 
that  during  the  siege  of  Samaria,  "  the 
fourth  part  of  a  cab,"  little  more  than  half 
a  pint,  "of  doves'  dung  was  sold  for  five 
pieces  of  silver,"  about  2^  dollars.  As 
doves'  dung  is  not  a  nourishment  for  man, 
even  in  the  most  extreme  famine,  the  gen- 
eral opinion  is,  that  it  was  a  kind  of  lentil, 
or  tare,  which  has  very  much  the  appear- 
ance of  doves'  dung.  Two  or  three  vegeta- 
ble substances  are  still  so  named  by  the 
Arabs. 

DOWRY.  In  Eastern  countries  the 
bridegroom  was  required  to  pay  the  father 
of  his  betrothed  a  stipulated  portion,  in 
money  or  other  valuables,  proportioned  to 
the  rank  and  station  of  the  family  to  which 
she  belonged;  this  was  the  dowry.  Jacob 
purchased  his  wives  by  his  services  to  their 
father.  Gen.  29:18-27;  34:12;  E.xod.  22:16, 
17;  I  Sam.  18:25;  Hos.  3:2.  Sometimes 
the  father  gave  presents  to  his  daughter, 
Judg.  1:15;  I  Kin.  9:16. 

DRACH'MA,  Luke  15:8,  9.     See  Penny. 

DRAG,  Hab.  1:15,  16;  John  21:8,  a  net 
suspended  and  drawn  near  the  bottom  of 
the  water. 

DRAG'ON  answers,  in  the  English  Bible, 
to  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  sea- 
monster,  huge  serpent,  etc.;  in  Gen.  1:21, 
"  whales."  Thus  in  Deut.  32:33;  Jer.  51 :34; 
Psa.  91:13;  and  Rev.  12,  it  evidently  im- 
plies a  huge  serpent;  in  Isa.  27:1;  51:9; 
Ezek.  29:3;  32:2,  it  may  mean  the  croco- 
dile, or  any  large  sea-monster.  A  distinct 
Hebrew  word  is  used  in  Job  30:29;  Isa. 
13:22;  34:13;  43:20;  Jer.  9:11 ;  10:22;  14:6  ; 
49  •■  33;  51:37;  Lam.  4:3;  Mic.  1:8,  and 
seems  to  refer  to  some  wild  animal  of  the 
desert,  probably  the  wolf  or  the  jackal. 
The  animal  known  to  modern  naturalists 
under  the  name  of  dragon  is  a  harmless  spe- 
cies of  lizard,  in  Asia  and  Africa.  It  may  be 
that  some  of  the  monstrous  reptiles  whose 
remains  are  from  time  to  time  unearthed, 
were  known  by  Adam  and  his  early  de- 
scendants. The  application  of  the  term  to 
Satan  is  a  metaphor  easily  understood. 

DRAG'ON- WELL,  Neh.  2:13,  probably 
the  fountain  of  Gihon,  on  the  west  side  of 
Jerusalem.     See  Gihon. 

DRAM,  Ezra  2:69;  Neh.  7:70,  a  gold  coin 
of  Persia,  worth  about  I5. 

DRAUGHT,  a  cesspool,  privy,  or  recepta- 
cle for  filth,  2  Kin.  10:27;  Matt.  15:17.  Also, 
all  the  fishes  taken  at  one  drawing  of  a  net, 
Luke  5:9. 

DREAM,  The  Orientals  greatly  regard- 
ed dreams,  and  applied  for  their  interpre- 


tation to  those  who  claimed  power  to  ex- 
plain them.  VV'e  see  the  antiquity  of  this 
custom  in  Job  4:13-15;  7:14;  33:15-17,  and 
in  the  history  of  Pharaoh's  butler  and  ba- 
ker, and  Pharaoh  himself,  Gen.  40;  41.  God 
expressly  forbade  his  people  to  observe 
dreams,  and  to  consult  heathen  explainers 
of  them.  He  condemned  to  death  all  who 
falsely  pretended  to  have  prophetic  dreams, 
even  though  what  they  foretold  came  to 
pass,  if  they  had  any  tendency  to  promote 
idolatry,  Deut.  13:1-3.  But  the  Jews  were 
not  forbidden,  when  they  thought  they  had 
a  significant  dream,  to  address  the  prophets 
of  the  Lord,  or  the  high-priest  in  his  ephod, 
to  have  it  explained.  The  Lord  frequently 
made  known  his  will  in  dreams,  and  ena- 
bled persons  to  explain  them;  as  in  the 
cases  of  Abimelech,  Jacob,  and  Laban, 
Gen.  20:3-7;  28:12-15;  31:24;  of  the  Mid- 
ianite,  Judg.  7:13;  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Dan.  2  and  4;  of  Joseph,  the  Magi,  Pilate's 
wife,  and  Paul,  Matt.  1:20;  2:12;  27:19; 
Acts  27:23.  Supernatural  dreams  are  dis- 
tinguished from  visions,  in  that  the  former 
occurred  during  sleep,  and  the  latter  when 
the  person  was  awake.  God  spoke  to 
Abimelech  in  a  dream,  but  to  Abraham  by 
vision.  In  both  cases  he  left  on  the  mind 
an  assurance  of  the  certainty  of  whatever 
he  revealed.  Both  are  now  superseded  by 
the  Bible,  our  sure  and  sufificient  guide 
through  earth  to  heaven. 

DREGS.    In  Isa.  51 :  17,  R.  V.,  "  bowl." 

DRESS'ES.     See  Garments. 

DRINK,  Strong.     See  Wine. 

DRINK'-OFFERING,  a  small  quantity  of 
wine,  part  of  which  was  to  be  poured  on 
the  sacrifice  or  meat-offering,  and  the  resi- 
due given  to  the  priests,  Exod.  29:40;  Lev. 
23:18;  Num.  15:5,  7.  It  may  have  been 
appointed  as  an  acknowledgment  that  all 
the  blessings  of  the  earth  are  from  God, 
Gen.  35:14.  In  heathen  drink-offerings, 
blood  was  sometimes  mingled  with  wine  in 
making  some  fearful  vow,  Psa.  16:4. 

DROM'EDARY.  See  Camel.  The  He- 
brew word  used  in  i  Kin.  4: 28;  Esth.  8:10, 
14;  Mic.  1:13,  is  thought  to  mean  swift 
horses. 

DROP'PING,  Continual.    See  House. 

DROUGHT  was  an  evil  to  which  Pales- 
tine was  naturally  subject,  as  no  rain  fell 
from  May  to  September.  During  these 
months  of  summer,  the  ground  became 
parched  and  cleft,  the  streams  and  springs 
became  dry,  and  vegetation  was  kept  from 
extinction  by  the  dews  of  night  and  by 
artificial  irrigation.     If  rain  did  not  come 

139 


DRU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DUS 


in  its  season  and  abundantly,  the  distress 
was  general  and  dreadful.  A  drought, 
therefore,  is  threatened  as  one  of  God's 
sorest  judgments.  Job  24:19;  Jer.  50:38; 
Joel  1:10-20;  Hag.  i:ii;  and  there  are 
manj-  allusions  to  its  horrors  in  Scripture, 
Deut.  28:23;  Psa.  32:4;  102:4. 

DRUNK'ENNESS  is  referred  to  in  the 
Bible  both  in  single  instances  and  as  a 
habit.  Its  folly  is  often  illustrated,  Psa. 
107:27;  Isa.  19:14;  24:20;  28:7,  8,  its  guilt 
denounced,  Isa.  5:22,  its  ill  results  traced, 

1  Sam.  25:36;  I  Kin.  16:9;  20:16,  and  its 
doom  shown,  i  Cor.  6:9,  10.  It  is  produced 
b\'  wine.  Gen.  9:21;  19:33;  Jer.  23:9;  Eph. 
5:18,  as  well  as  by  "strong  drink,"  i  Sam. 
1:13-15;  Isa.  5:11.  Hence  the  use  of  these 
was  forbidden  to  the  priests  at  the  altar, 
Lev.  10:9;  and  all  are  cautioned  to  avoid 
them,  Prov.  20:1;  23:30.  To  tempt  others 
to  drunkenness  is  a  sin  accursed  of  God, 

2  Sam.  11:13;  Hab.  2:15,  16.  Its  preva- 
lence in  a  community  is  inseparable  from 
the  habitual  use  of  any  inebriating  liquor. 
Hence  the  efforts  made  by  the  wise  and 
good  to  secure  abstinence  from  all  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  i  Cor.  8:13.     See  Wink. 

DRUSIL'LA,  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.,  and  sister  of  the  younger 
Agrippa  and  Bernice,  celebrated  for  her 
beauty.  She  was  first  given  in  marriage 
by  her  brother  to  Azizus  king  of  Emessa. 
When  Felix  came  as  governor  of  Judaea, 
he  persuaded  her  to  abandon  her  husband 
and  her  religion  and  become  his  wife. 
Paul  bore  testimony  before  them  to  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion,  Acts  24:24. 
She  and  Felix  had  a  son  Agrippa,  who  after- 
wards jjerished  in  an  eruption  of  \'esuvius. 

DUKE.  In  Gen.  36:15-43,  is  a  long  list 
of  "dukes"  of  Edom,  Exod.  15:15;  Josh. 
13:21;  but  the  word  duke,  from  the  Latin 
du.v,  merely  signifies  a  leader,  and  not  an 
order  of  nobility,  i  Chr.  1:51. 

DUL'CIMER,  Dan.  3:5,  lo,  an  instrument 
of  music,  which  the  rabbins  describe  as  a 
sort  of  bagpipe,  composed  of  2  pipes  con- 
nected with  a  leathern  sack,  and  of  a  harsh, 
screaming  sound.  Tlie  modern  dulcimer 
is  an  instrumentof  a  triangular  form,  strung 
with  about  50  wires,  and  struck  with  2  light 
and  slender  hammers.     See  Mrsic. 

DU'MAH,  silence,  I.,  a  tribe  and  country 
of  the  Ishmaelites  in  Arabia,  Gen.  25:14; 
I  Chr.  1:30;  Isa.  21:11;  doubtless  the  same 
which  is  still  called  by  the  Arabs  "  Duma 
of  the  great  stones  "  and  "  the  Syrian  Du- 
ma," situated  on  the  confines  of  the  Ara- 
bian and  Syrian  desert,  with  a  fortress. 
140 


II.  A  town  of  Judah,  a  little  southwest  of 
Hebron,  Josh.  15:52. 

DUNG.  In  Bible  lands  the  dung  of  ani- 
mals was  and  is  used  not  only  for  manure, 
but,  when  dried,  for  fuel.  In  districts 
where  wood  is  scarce,  the  inhabitants  are  , 
very  careful  in  collecting  the  dung  of  cam- 
els or  asses;  it  is  mixed  with  chopped 
straw,  and  dried.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see 
a  whole  village  with  portions  of  this  mate- 
rial adhering  to  the  walls  of  the  cottages  to 
dry ;  and  in  autumn  it  is  piled  in  conical 
heaps  on  the  roof.  It  is  employed  in  heat- 
ing ovens,  and  for  other  similar  purposes, 
Ezek.  4:12-16.  The  use  of  dung  for  ma- 
nure is  intimated  in  Isa.  25:10.  Hence 
"dung-gate,"  Neh.  2:13.  To  sit  upon  a 
dunghill  was  a  sign  of  deep  humiliation 
and  misery,  i  Sam.  2:8;  Psa.  113:7;  Lam. 
4:5.  See  also  Exod.  29:14;  Deut.  23:12; 
2  Kin.  10:27:  Dan.  2:5. 

DU'RA,  the  plain  at  Babylon  where  Neb- 
uchadnezzar set  up  his  golden  image,  Dan. 
3:1.  M.  Oppert  finds  it  at  a  mound  called 
Duair,  southeast  of  Babylon,  where  also  he 
discovered  what  he  took  for  the  pedestal 
of  a  colossal  statue. 

DUST,  Josh.  7:6.  Dust  or  ashes  put 
upon  the  head  was  a  sign  of  mourning; 
sitting  in  the  dust,  a  sign  of  affliction,  Lam. 
3:29;  Isa.  47:1'.  "  Dust  "  is  also  put  for  the 
grave,  Gen.  3:19;  Job  7:21.  It  signifies  a 
multitude.  Gen.  13:16,  and  a  low  and  mean 
condition,  i  Sam.  2:8.  To  lick  or  kiss  the 
dust  expresses  abject  submission,  Psa.  72:9. 
We  have  2  remarkable  instances  of  casting 
dust  recorded  in  Scripture,  and  they  illus- 
trate a  practice  common  in  Asia:  those  who 
demanded  justice  against  a  criminal  were 
accustomed  to  throw  dust  ujjon  him,  signi- 
fying that  he  deserved  to  be  cast  into  the 
grave.  Shimei  cast  dust  upon  David  when 
he  fled  from  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  16: 13.  The 
Jews  treated  the  apostle  Paul  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  same  city.  Acts  22:22-24. 
To  shake  off  the  dust  of  the  feet  against 
another  was  expressive  of  entire  renuncia- 
tion. Matt.  10:14;  Mark  6:11;  Acts  13:51. 
The  threatening  of  God  recorded  in  Deut. 
28:24,  "The  Lord  shall  make  the  rain  of 
thy  land  powder  and  dust:  from  heaven 
shall  it  come  down  upon  thee,  until  thou 
be  destroyed.  '  means  that  instead  of  fertil- 
izing rains,  clouds  of  fine  dust,  raised  from 
the  parched  ground  and  driven  by  fierce 
and  burning  winds,  shall  fill  the  air.  See 
Wind.  The  dust  of  Egypt  was  turned  into 
gnats  at  Moses'  word,  Exod.  8:16.  See 
Lice. 


EAG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAR 


E. 

EA'GLE,  Job  39:27-30,  a  large  and  very 
powerful  bird  of  prey,  hence  called  the 
king  of  birds.  Four  species  of  eagles  have 
been  observed  in  Palestine.  The  "golden 
eagle  "  measures  8  feet  4  inches  from  wing 
to  wing ;  and  from  the  tip  of  his  tail  to  the 


point  of  his  beak,  when  dead,  4  feet  7 
inches.  In  many  passages  the  Griffon  Vul- 
ture is  probably  intended. 

Of  all  known  birds,  the  eagle  flies  not 
only  the  highest,  Prov.  23:5;  Jer.  49:16; 
Obad.  4,  but  also  with  the  greatest  rapid- 
ity. To  this  circumstance  there  are  stri- 
king allusions  in  2  Sam.  1:23;  Job  9:26; 
Lam.  4: 19.  Among  the  evils  threatened  to 
the  Israelites  for  disobedience  were  ene- 
mies coming  "  as  swift  as  the  eagle  flieth," 
Deut.  28:49;  Jer.  4:13;  48:40;  49:22;  Hos. 
8:1.  This  bird  was  a  national  emblem  on 
Persian,  Assyrian,  and  Roman  standards, 
as  it  now  is  on  United  States  coins. 

The  eagle  lives  to  a  great  age,  and,  like 
other  birds  of  prey,  sheds  his  feathers  in 
spring,  and  thus  assumes  the  appearance  of 
youth,  Psa.  103:5;  Isa.  40:31.  The  careful 
pains  of  the  eagle  in  teaching  its  young  to 
fly,  beautifully  illustrate  God's  providential 
care  over  Israel,  Exod.  19:4;  Deut.  32: 11, 12. 

The  eagle  is  remarkable  for  its  keen 
sight  and  scent.  Job  39:29.  It  builds  its 
nest  on  lofty  crags,  Prov.  23:5;  Jer.  49:16; 
and  often  prefers  to  rob  other  birds  of  their 
prey  rather  than  hunt  for  itself.  Job  9:26. 
The  vulture  feeds  on  dead  bodies,  and  is 
the  chief  scavenger  in  the  East,  Job  39:30; 
Matt.  24:28.  Its  flesh,  like  that  of  all  birds 
of  prey,  was  unclean  to  the  Jews,  and  is 
never  eaten  unless  in  cases  of  necessity, 
Luke  17:37. 


EAR'ING,  an  old  agricultural  term  for 
ploughing.  Gen.  45:6;  Exod.  34:21;  Deut. 
21:4;   iSam.  S:i2;  Isa.  30:24. 

EAR'NEST,  a  part  of  a  debt,  paid  in  as- 
surance of  the  payment  of  the  whole;  or 
part  of  the  price  paid  down  to  confirm  a 
bargain ;  or  part  of  a  servant's  wages,  paid 
at  the  time  of  hiring,  to  ratify  the  engage- 
ment. It  differs  from  a  mere  "  pledge," 
since  it  is  identical  in  kind  with  the  thing 
promised,  while  a  pledge  may  be  some- 
thing altogether  different.  It  describes  the 
gifts  of  God  to  his  people  here,  as  the  assu- 
rance and  commencement  of  the  far  supe- 
rior blessings  of  the  life  to  come,  2  Cor. 
1:22;  5:5;  Eph.  1:13,  14. 

EAR'RINGS.     See  Rings,  Amulets. 

EARTH.  In  both  Hebrew  and  Greek 
the  same  word  is  used  to  denote  the  earth, 
as  a  whole,  Gen.  1:1,  and  a  particular  land 
or  spot.  Gen.  21 :32  ;  23: 15  ;  33-3-  The  con- 
text decides  in  which  of  these  senses  it  is 
to  be  taken  in  a  given  passage.  Thus  in 
Matt.  27:45  we  might  render  either  "there 
was  darkness  over  all  the  land,"  or  over 
all  the  "earth,"  as  in  Luke  23:44,  A.  V. 
See  Mark  15:33.  The  R.  V.  has  "  land  "  in 
all  3  passages.  The  expression  "  all  the 
earth"  is  sometimes  used  hyperbolically 
for  a  large  portion  of  it,  Ezra  1:2.  The 
word  is  used  of  the  whole  world,  or  its  sur- 
face, in  distinction  from  the  heavens ;  of 
the  people  who  inhabit  the  world,  etc.  In 
Job  26:7  the  idea  seems  to  be  implied  that 
the  earth  is  freely  suspended  in  space. 
But  in  their  common  language  the  He- 
brews spoke  of  it  as  a  vast  convex  surface 
of  unknown  extent,  with  pillars  and  foun- 
dations. Job  9:6;  38:4,  6;  Psa.  75:3;  104:5; 
with  an  abyss  under  all,  Gen.  49:25;  Psa. 
24:2;  136:6;  and  an  arched  firmament 
above,  in  which  the  stars  were  placed,  and 
through  whose  windows  the  rain  came. 
See  Deep  and  Heavens. 

One  Hebrew  word,  adaniah,  denotes  the 
mould,  dust,  or  arable  land  of  the  world; 
hence  Adam's  name.  Gen.  2:7;  Eccl.  12:7. 
It  is  used  of  Noah,  Gen.  9:20,  as  becoming 
a  "  man  of  the  soil."  And  of  this  material 
altars  were  to  be  composed,  Exod.  20:24; 
2  Kin.  5:17. 

In  a  moral  sense,  earthly  is  opposed  to 
what  is  heavenly,  spiritual,  and  holy,  John 
3:31;  I  Cor.  15:47;  Col.  3:2;  James  3:15. 
"  The  lower  parts  of  the  earth,"  means  the 
unseen  world  of  the  dead,  Psa.  63 : 9 ;  Isa. 
44:23;   Eph.  4:9. 

EARTH'QUAKE,  Scripture  speaks  of 
several  earthquakes,  Num.  16;  i  Kin.  19:11, 

141 


EAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAT 


12.  One  occurred  in  the  27th  year  of  Uz- 
ziah,  and  is  mentioned  in  Amos  1:1;  Zech. 
14:5;  and  Josephus  connects  it  with  the 
crimes  of  Uzziah,  2  Chr.  26:16-20,  and  al- 
ludes to  a  shaking  down  of  a  part  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives  at  the  time.  Compare  Jer. 
51 125.  A  very  memorable  earthquake  was 
that  at  our  Saviour's  death,  Matt.  27:51, 
which  some  suppose  extended  throughout 
the  world.  Palestine  has  been  often  vis- 
ited by  earthquakes.  So  late  as  1837  one 
occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee, by  which  about  a  third  part  of  Tibe- 
rias was  destroyed,  and  thousands  of  peo- 
ple perished.  The  subsidence  of  the  south 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea  shore  was  probably 
connected  with  an  earthquake.  Earth- 
quakes were  among  the  calamities  foretold 
as  connected  with  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, Matt.  24:7;  and  history  proves  the 
truth  of  the  prediction. 

The  word  earthquake  is  also  used  figu- 
ratively to  denote  God's  power  and  wrath, 
as  in  Psa.  18:7;  46:2;  104:32,  etc.,  and  as 
an  emblem  of  a  great  civil  or  national  ca- 
tastrophe. Matt.  24:7,  29;   Rev.  16:18,  19. 

EAST.  The  Hebrews,  in  speaking  of  the 
different  quarters  of  the  heaven,  always 
suppose  the  face  to  be  turned  towards  the 
east.  Hence  "before,"  or  "forwards," 
means  the  east;  "behind"  is  the  west, 
the  right-hand  is  south,  and  the  left-hand, 
north.  Besides  the  ordinary  meanings  of 
the  word  east,  Josh.  4:19;  Psa.  103:12,  the 
Jews  often  used  it  to  designate  a  large  re- 
gion lying  northeast  and  southeast  as  well 
as  east  of  Palestine,  including  Syria  and 
Arabia  near  at  hand,  and  Babylonia,  As- 
syria, etc.,  with  the  whole  region  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  Gen. 
10:30;  29:1;  Num.  23:7;  Judg.  6:3;  7:12; 
8:10.  Job  was  great  among  the  children 
of  the  East,  Job  1:3.  In  Jer.  49:28,  29; 
Ezek.  25 : 4,  the  Bedouin-like  tribes  of  North- 
ern Arabia  are  meant.  The  wise  men  who 
visited  the  infant  Saviour  dwelt  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  and  being  "  in  the  east," 
saw  his  star — not  saw  his  star  east  of  them. 
It  guided  them  westerly  to  Jerusalem,  Matt. 
2:1,  2.     See  I  Kin.  4:30. 

EAST'ER  is  improperly  put  for  P.\ssover 
in  Acts  12:4,  for  Herod  and  the  Jews  did 
not  celebrate  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 
Easter,  a  word  of  uncertain  derivation,  is 
the  modern  name  of  a  Christian  festival,  in 
commemoration  of  Christ's  resurrection 
and  the  events  of  Passover-week,  and  fixed 
at  the  same  period  of  the  year. 

EAST  WIND.    See  Wind. 
142 


EAT'ING.  The  Jews  would  have  consid- 
ered themselves  jiolluted  by  eating  with 
people  of  another  religion,  or  with  any  who 
were  ceremonially  unclean  or  disreputa- 
ble— as  with  Samaritans,  John  4:9,  publi- 
cans. Matt.  9:11,  or  Gentiles,  Acts  10:28; 
Gal.  2:12.  "Eating  and  drinking,"  Matt. 
11:19,  means  freely  mingling  with  society. 
Eating  together  was  an  established  token 
of  mutual  confidence,  a  pledge  of  friendlj-^ 
relations  between  families,  which  their  chil- 
dren were  expected  to  perpetuate.  The 
rites  of  hospitality  were  held  sacred ;  and 
to  this  day,  among  the  Arabs,  a  fugitive  is 
safe  for  the  time  if  he  gains  the  shelter  of 
even  an  enemy's  tent.  The  abuse  of  hos- 
pitality was  a  great  crime,  Psa.  41:9. 

To  "  eat  "  a  book,  is  to  make  its  precepts, 
promises,  and  sjiirit  one's  own,  Jer.  1,5:16; 
Ezek.  3:1;  John  4:14;  Rev.  10:9.  So  to 
eat  Christ's  flesh  and  drink  his  blood,  is  to 
receive  him  as  a  Saviour,  and  by  a  living 
faith  to  be  imbued  with  his  truth,  his  Spir- 
it, and  his  heavenly  life,  John  6:32-58. 

Eating,  Mode  of.  The  Hebrews  an- 
ciently sat  at  their  meals.  Gen.  43 :  33 ; 
I  Sam.  9:22;  20:25;  Psa.  128:3;  but  after- 
wards adopted  the  practice  of  reclining  on 
table-beds  or  divans,  like  the  Persians, 
Chaldajans,  Romans,  etc.,  Amos  6:4.  The 
accompanying  engraving  of  a  Roman  tri- 
clinium, three  beds,  will  illustrate  several 
points  obscure  to  the  modern  reader  of  the 
Bible.  It  will  be  seen  that  3  low  tables  are 
so  placed  as  to  form  3  sides  of  a  hollow 
square  accessible  to  the  waiters.  Around 
these  tables  are  placed,  not  seats,  but 
couches,  or  beds,  one  to  each  table,  formed 
of  mattresses  stuffed,  and  often  highly  or- 
namented, Esth.  1:6;  7:1,  8.  The  guests 
reclined  with  their  heads  to  the  table,  each 
one  leaning  on  his  left  elbow,  and  therefore 
using  principally  his  right  hand  in  taking 
food.  Observe  also  that  the  feet  of  the  per- 
son reclining  were  readily  reached  by  any 
one  passing,  Luke  7:36-50;  John  12:3. 

Thus  it  was  easy  for  our  Lord  to  wash 
the  feet  of  his  disciples  at  the  last  supper, 
John  13:5-12,  and  "wipe  them  with  the 
towel  wherewith  he  was  girded."  This 
also  explains  the  position  of  John  at  the 
same  supper;  for  if  he  reclined  next  in 
front  of  the  Saviour,  he  lay  as  it  were  in 
his  bosom,  John  13:23,  25,  and  might  read- 
ily lean  back  his  head  upon  the  Saviour's 
breast,  a  posture  expressive  of  intimacy, 
friendship,  and  love,  Luke  16:22;  John 
1:18. 
It  is  unknown,  however,  how  far  or  how 


EAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAT 


long  this  custom  displaced  the  primitive 
Eastern  mode  still  prevalent  in  Palestine 
and  vicinity.  The  ordinary  table  was  no 
more  than  a  circular  skin  or  carpet  spread 
upon  the  floor,  around  which  the  family  sat 
on  the  floor,  or  on  rugs  or  cushions.  Some- 
times there  was  a  small  table  in  the  cen- 
tre, raising  the  principal  dish  a  little  above 
the  floor. 

The  meals  of  the  Jews  were  generally  2, 
loosely  distinguished  as  dinner  and  sup- 
per, Luke  14: 12  ;  John  21 :  12.  The  ist  meal 
was  usually  light,  consisting  of  milk,  cheese, 
bread,  or  fruits,  and  eaten  at  various  hours 
from  early  morning  to  the  middle  of  the 
forenoon.  In  the  early  history  of  the  He- 
brews, the  principal  meal,  corresponding 
with  our  dinner,  was  eaten  about  noon, 
Gen.  43:25;  I  Kin.  20:16.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod, at  least-  on  festive  occasions,  it  was 
taken  after  the  heat  of  the  day  was  over. 
This  was  the  "  supper."  The  Jews  were 
wont  to  wash  their  hands  before  eating,  a 
custom  rendered  necessary  by  their  mode 
of  eating,  but  made  by  the  Pharisees  a  test 
of  piety,  Mark  7:2,  3;  Luke  11:38.  Devout 
Jews,  not  only  in  their  sacred  feasts,  but  in 
their  daily  enjoyments  at  the  family  meal, 
recognized  the  Giver  of  all  good,  and  im- 
plored his  blessing  on  their  food,  i  Sam. 
9:13;  Matt.  14:19;  15:36;  26:26;  Luke  9: 16; 
John  6:11;  I  Tim.  4:3.  Some  families  re- 
peated the  23d  Psalm  as  they  seated  them- 
selves at  meals.  The  food  consisted  of 
flesh,  fish,  or  fowls,  butter,  honey,  bread, 


and  fruits.  See  Food.  Animal  food  was 
often  cut  into  small  pieces,  or  stewed,  and 
served  up  in  one  large  dish  with  melted 
butter,  vegetables,  etc.  Knives,  forks,  and 
spoons  were  unknown  as  table-furniture; 
and  the  food  was  conveyed  to  the  mouth 
by  the  right  hand,  Prov.  19:24.  Each  per- 
son took  a  portion  from  the  dish  either 
with  his  thumb  and  fingers,  or  with  the 
help  of  a  small  piece  of  thin  bread      Sev- 


MODERN   SYRIANS   AT    DINNER. 

eral  hands  were  occasionally  plunged  into 
the  same  dish  at  once,  John  13:26.  The 
head  of  the  family  was  wont  to  send  a  dou- 
ble portion  of  food  to  a  stranger,  as  an 
honor,  and  to  furnish  him  a  greater  vari- 
ety. Gen.  43:31;  I  Sam.  1:4;  9:22-24;  and 

143 


EBA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EBE 


often  would  select  the  choicest  morsels  and 
present  them  to  his  guest  with  his  own  fin- 
gers. Compare  Ruth  2: 14,  and  John  13:26. 
This  is  still  customary  in  the  East.  After 
eating,  the  hands  were  again  cleansed  by 
pouring  water  upon  them,  2  Kin.  3:11.  See 
Feast,  \Va.shinc;. 

E'BAL,  ba7-e  mount,  Deut.  27 ;  28 ;  a  moun- 
tain in  Ephraim,  over  against  Mount  Geri- 
zim,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  valley 
about  500  yards  wide  and  3  miles  long,  in 


which  stands  the  town  of  Shechem.  Both 
mountains  are  much  alike  in  length,  height, 
and  form,  and  some  800  feet  from  the  level 
of  the  valley.  As  you  journey  north  from 
Jerusalem,  and  turn  to  pass  into  the  valley 
west-northwest  to  Shechem,  Ebal  is  on  the 
right  hand  and  Gerizim  on  the  left.  Some 
have  described  the  mount  of  cursing  as 
sterile  and  desolate,  and  Gerizim  as  smi- 
ling and  fertile,  Deut.  11:26-29.  But  at 
present  they  are  alike  steep  and   barren. 


EBAL   ON  THE   RIGHT;   GERIZIM   ON  THE    LEFT;   SHECHEM,  AND  THE    MEDITERRANEAN. 


Mount  Gerizim,  however,  is  said  to  have  a 
more  fertile  background,  and  to  be  a  little 
lower  than  Mount  Ebal — Ebal  being  3,077 
feet,  Gerizim  2,849,  ^"^  Nablfls  about  2,200 
feet  above  the  sea.  They  are  both  ter- 
raced, and  the  base  of  Ebal  is  full  of  sepul- 
chral excavations.  See  Gerizim,  She- 
chem. 

EBED'-MELECH,  kinff's  slave,  an  Ethio- 
pian servant  of  king  Zedekiah,  who  saved 
the,  prophet  Jeremiah  from  famishing  in  a 
filthy  dungeon,  and  was  therefore  pre- 
served when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Neb- 
uzar-adan,  Jer.  38:7-13;  39:15-18.  The 
Lord  knoweth  them  that  are  his,  and  suc- 
cors those  who  succor  his  saints,  Matt. 
10:41. 

EBEN-E'ZER,  stofie  of  help,  the  monu- 
144 


ment  which  Samuel  erected  in  grateful  re- 
membrance of  the  divine  help,  given  in 
answer  to  prayer,  in  a  great  battle  with 
the  Philistines.  The  same  place  had  be- 
fore witnessed  the  defeat  of  Israel  and  the 
capture  of  the  ark,  i  Sam.  4:1;  5:1;  7:5- 
12;  though  it  may  not  have  been  named 
Eben-ezer  then,  its  original  name  having 
been  displaced  by  the  new  one,  at  the  time 
when  the  book  was  written.  It  was  be- 
tween Mizpeh  and  Shen. 

E'BER,  beyond,  I.,  called  Heber  in  Luke 
3:35,  A.  V. ;  son  of  Salah  and  father  of  Pe- 
leg  in  the  patriarchal  line,  B.  C.  2281-1817. 
The  chief  special  interest  in  him  is  that  the 
Hebrews  claim  to  derive  their  name  from 
him.  Gen.  10:21,  24,  25;  Num.  24:24;  i  Chr. 
1:19.    See  Hebrews. 


EBO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGL 


II.  I  Chr.  5:13,  in  A.  V.  Heber,  a  chief 
among  the  children  of  Gad,  in  Bashan. 

III.  I  Chr.  8:12,  a  Benjamite. 

IV.  I  Chr.  8:22,  in  A.  V.  Heber,  a  chief 
in  Benjamin.     B.  C.  about  600. 

EB'ONY,  the  wood  of  various  trees  grow- 
ing in  India  and  Africa.  The  best  ebony 
as  the  heart  of  the  trunk  in  the  Diospyros 
Ebenum,  a  large  tree  of  Ceylon  and  South- 
ern India ;  it  is  black,  hard,  heavy,  and  fine- 
grained, and  receives  a  beautiful  polish.  It 
was  anciently  highly  prized,  Ezek.  27:15, 
and  is  still  much  used  for  musical  instru- 
ments and  fancy  articles. 

EBRO'NAH,  Num.  33:34,  35,  a  resting- 
place  of  the  Israelites  near  Ezion-geber, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 

ECCLESI  AS'TES,  the  preacher,  the  name 
of  a  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  ascribed 
to  Solomon  —  his  personal  legacy  to  his 
son  Rehoboam,  though  many  critics  think 
it  was  the  work  of  some  later  inspired 
writer,  availing  himself  of  Solomon's  une- 
qualled experience,  and  speaking  as  in  his 
person,  Eccl.  1:1.  Compare  i  Kin.  3:12 
and  Eccl.  1:16;  i  Kin.  10:21,  27,  and  Eccl. 
2:4-9;  I  Kin.  11:3,  4,  and  Eccl.  7:26,  28. 
It  appears  to  have  been  written  by  Solo- 
mon in  his  old  age,  when  freed  from  the 
entanglements  of  idolatry,  luxury,  and  lust, 
B.  C.  977.  It  is  a  discourse  upon  the  true 
■wisdom,  with  many  isolated  precepts,  illus- 
trated from  his  own  unexampled  experi- 
•ence  and  from  the  most  sagacious  obser- 
-vation  of  the  course  of  life ;  the  whole 
demonstrating  the  vanity  of  all  earthly 
■good,  and  showing  that  there  is  a  better 
life  to  come;  that  men  should  cheerfully 
■enjoy  the  gifts  of  Providence,  with  deeds 
of  love  and  charity,  and  without  feverish 
longings ;  and  that  the  only  true  wisdom 
is  to  "  fear  God  and  keep  his  command- 
ments." This,  he  says,  is  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter,  Eccl.  12:13.  ^^  read- 
ing this  book,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
■deduce  opinions  from  detached  sentiments, 
but  from  the  general  scope  and  combined 
force  of  the  whole. 

ED,  a  witness,  Josh.  22:34. 

E'DEN,  delight,  I.,  a  province  in  Asia,  in 
which  was  Paradise,  Gen.  2:8.  Its  topog- 
raphy is  thus  described:  "And  a  river 
went  out  of  Eden  to  water  the  garden,  and 
from  thence  it  was  parted,  and  became  into 
four  heads.  The  name  of  the  first  is  Pison," 
etc.  ' 

Such  a  region  exists  in  the  high  lands  of 
Armenia,  west  of  Mount  Ararat  and  5,000 
feet  above  the  sea.     Here,  within  a  circle 


but  a  few  miles  in  diameter,  4  large  rivers 
rise:  the  Euphrates,  and  Tigris,  or  Hidde- 
kel,  flowing  south  into  the  Persian  Gulf; 
the  Araxes,  flowing  northeast  into  the  Cas- 
pian Sea;  and  the  Phasis,  or  the  Halys, 
flowing  northwest  into  the  Black  Sea. 
This  4th  river  may  have  been  the  Pison 
of  Eden ;  and  the  Araxes  may  well  be  the 
Gihon,  since  both  words  mean  the  same, 
and  describe  its  dart-like  swiftness.  This 
elevated  country,  still  beautiful  and  fertile, 
may  have  been  the  land  of  Eden ;  and  in 
its  choicest  portion,  towards  the  east,  the 
garden  may  once  have  smiled. 

Another  location  of  Eden  is  now  pre- 
ferred by  many  interpreters — near  the  spot 
where  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  form  a 
junction  after  their  long  wanderings,  120 
miles  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  where 
the  river  Ulai  flows  in  from  the  northeast. 
Wherever  it  was,  it  is  there  no  more  since 
the  fall  and  the  curse.  The  first  chapters 
of  the  Bible  show  Paradise  withdrawn  from 
man's  view,  and  no  pilgrimage  can  dis- 
cover it  upon  earth.  The  last  chapters  of 
the  Bible  restore  to  our  view  a  more  glori- 
ous and  enduring  Paradise,  secured  to  be- 
lievers by  the  Second  Adam.  "  Blessed  are 
they  that  do  his  commandments,  that  they 
may  have  right  to  the  tree  of  life." 

II.  A  region,  probably  northwest  of  Mes- 
opotamia, alluded  to  as  a  mart  of  Tyre, 
and  as  ravaged  by  the  Assyrians,  2  Kin. 
19:12;  Isa.  37:12;   Ezek.  27:23;  Amos  1:5. 

III.  Two  Levites  in  Hezekiah's  day, 
2  Chr.  29:12;  31:15. 

E'DOM,  red,  a  name  of  Esau,  Isaac's 
eldest  son,  appropriate  on  account  of  his 
complexion,  but  given,  it  would  seem,  from 
the  current  name  of  the  food  for  which  he 
sold  his  birthright — "  that  same  red,"  Gen. 
25:25,  30.     See  Esau  and  Idum^a. 

ED'REI,  strong,  I.,  one  of  the  2  capitals 
of  Bashan,  near  which  Og  and  his  forces 
were  destroyed.  Num.  21 : 33-35 ;  Deut.  1:4; 
3^1-3;  Josh.  12:4.  It  afterwards  fell  with- 
in the  limits  of  Manasseh,  Josh.  13:31.  Its 
ruins,  in  .almost  inaccessible  rocky  fast- 
nesses, cover  a  large  space  ;  it  was  a  place 
of  some  note  in  the  early  ages  of  Christian- 
ity and  in  the  era  of  the  Crusades.  It  is 
now  Edr'a,  and  lies  about  35  miles  east  of 
the  outlet  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

II.  In  Naphtali,  near  Kedesh,  Josh.  19:37. 

EG'LAH,  a  heifer,  one  of  David's  wives 
at  Hebron,  and  mother  of  Ithream,  2  Sam. 
3:5;  I  Chr.  y.2,. 

EG'LAIM,  two  ponds,  Isa.  15:8.     See  En- 

EGLAIM. 

145 


EGL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


EG'LON,  calf-like,  I.,  a  king  of  Moab, 
who,  with  the  help  of  Amnion  and  Ama- 
lek,  subdued  the  southern  and  eastern 
tribes  of  Israel.  He  made  Jericho  his  seat 
of  government,  and  held  his  power  i8 
years,  but  was  then  slain  by  Ehud,  and  his 
people  west  of  the  Jordan  destroyed,  Judg. 
3:12-33. 

II.  A  town  in  the  Shephelah  or  low  coun- 
try of  Judah.one  of  the  5  in  league  against 
Gibeon,  Josh.  10:3-5;  15:39.  It  is  now 
called  Ajlan,  10  miles  from  Eleutheropolis 
and  14  from  Gaza. 

E'GYPT,  a  celebrated  country  in  the 
north  of  Africa,  at  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Hebrews  called 
it  Mizraim,  Gen.  10:6,  and  it  is  now  called 
by  the  Arabs  Misr.  It  is  also  called  in 
Scripture  "the  land  of  Ham,"  Psa.  105:23, 
27;  and  "  Rahab,"  Psa.  87:4.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  named  it  -lEgyptus ;  but  the 
origin  of  this  name  is  unknown. 

The  habitable  land  of  Egypt  is  for  the 
most  part  a  great  valley,  through  which 
the  river  Nile  pours  its  waters,  extending 


in  a  straight  line  some  450  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  skirted  on  the  east  and  west 
b\'  ranges  of  mountains,  which  approach 
and  recede  from  the  river  more  or  less  in 
different  parts.  Where  this  valley  termi- 
nates, towards  the  north,  the  Nile  divides 
itself,  about  70  miles  from  the  sea-coast, 
into  several  arms,  which  inclose  the  so- 
called  Delta,  in  the  form  of  the  Greek  letter 
A,  delta.  The  ancients  numbered  7  arms 
and  mouths  ;  the  eastern  was  that  of  Pelu- 
sium,  now  Tineh ;  and  the  western  that  of 
Canopus,  now  Aboukir.  The  prophet  Eze- 
kiel  describes  Egyi)l  as  extending  from 
Migdol,  that  is,  Magdolum,  not  far  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Pelusian  arm,  to  Syene,  now 
Essuan,  namely,  to  the  border  of  Ethiopia, 
Ezek.  29:10;  30:6,  margin.  Here  the  Nile 
issues  from  the  granite  rocks  of  the  cata- 
racts, and  enters  Egypt  proper.  The  length 
of  the  country,  therefore,  in  a  direct  line  is 
about  500  miles,  and  its  area  about  11,000 
square  miles.  The  breadth  of  the  valley, 
between  P^ssuan  and  the  Delta,  is  very  un- 
equal, varying  from  2  to  12  miles,  averaging 


ANCIENT  STATUES  OF  MEMNON,  IN  THE  PLAIN  OF  THEBES. 


perhaps  7;  in  some  places  the  inundations 
of  the  river  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains; in  other  parts  there  remains  a  strip 
of  a  mile  or  two  in  breadth  which  the  wa- 
ter never  covers,  and  which  is  therefore 
146 


always  dry  and  barren.  There  are  now 
about  5,600  square  miles  fit  for  cultivation, 
to  which  1,500  might  be  added  by  suitable 
effort.  Originally  the  name  Egypt  desig- 
nated only  the  valley  and  the  Delta;  but 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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TEMPLE  OF   ABOO-SIMBKL,   NUBIA,  HALF   BURIED   IN  SAND;    STATUES  SIXTY   FEET    HIGH. 


at  a  later  period  it  came  to  include  also  the 
region  between  this  and  the  Red  Sea  on 
the  east,  and  part  of  the  desert  on  the 
west. 

The  country  around  Syene  and  the  cata- 
racts is  highly  picturesque  ;  the  other  parts 
of  Egypt,  and  especially  the  Delta,  are 
uniform  and  monotonous.  The  prospect, 
however,  is  extremely  different  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  spring,  when  the  harvest  is  over, 
one  sees  nothing  but  a  gray  and  dusty  soil, 
full  of  cracks  and  chasms.  At  the  time  of 
the  autumnal  equinox,  the  country  pre- 
sents nothing  but  an  immeasurable  surface 
of  reddish  or  yellowish  water,  out  of  which 
rise  date-trees,  villages,  and  narrow  dams, 
which  serve  as  a  means  of  communication. 
After  the  waters  have  retreated,  and  they 
usually  remain  only  a  short  time  at  this 
height,  you  see,  till  the  end  of  autumn, 
only  a  black  and  slimy  mud.  But  in  win- 
ter, nature  puts  on  all  her  splendor.  In 
this  season,  the  freshness  and  power  of  the 
new  vegetation,  the  variety  and  abundance 
of  vegetable  productions,  exceed  every- 
thing that  is  known  in  the  most  celebra- 
ted parts  of  the  European  continent ;  and 
Egypt  is  then,  from  one  end  of  the  country 
to  the  other,  like  a  beautiful  garden,  a  ver- 
dant meadow,  a  field  sown  with  flowers,  or 
a  waving  ocean  of  grain  in  the  ear,  all  de- 
pending upon  the  annual  inundations  of 


the  Nile.     Hence  Egypt  was  called  by  He-_ 
rodotus  "the  gift  of  the  Nile."     See  Nile. 

The  sky  is  not  less  uniform  and  monoto- 
nous than  the  earth ;  it  is  constantly  a  pure 
unclouded  arch,  of  a  color  and  light  more 
white  than  azure.  The  atmosphere  has  a 
splendor  which  the  eye  can  scarcely  bear, 
and  a  burning  sun,  whose  glow  is  tem- 
pered by  no  shade,  scorches  through  the 
whole  day  these  vast  and  unprotected 
plains.  The  only  tree  is  the  date-tree, 
which  is  frequent ;  but  with  its  tall,  slen- 
der stem,  and  bunch  of  foliage  on  the  top, 
this  tree  does  very  little  to  keep  off  the 
light,  and  casts  upon  the  earth  only  a  pale 
and  uncertain  shade.  Egypt,  accordingly, 
has  a  very  hot  climate ;  the  thermometer 
in  summer  standing  usually  at  8o"  or  900 
of  Fahrenheit ;  and  in  Upper  Egypt  still 
higher.  The  burning  wind  of  the  desert. 
Simoom  or  Khamsin,  is  also  experienced, 
usually  about  the  time  of  the  vernal  equi- 
nox. 

The  provinces  and  cities  of  Egypt  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  may  be  arranged  under 
these  3  great  divisions: 

I.  Lower  Egypt.  The  northeastern 
point  of  this  was  "the  river  of  Egypt" 
(see  below),  on  the  border  of  Palestine. 
The  desert  between  this  point,  the  Red 
Sea,  and  the  ancient  Pelusium,  seems  to 
have  been  the  desert  of  Shur,  Gen.  20:  r, 
now  El-Djefer.     Sin,  "the  strength  [key] 

147 


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of  Egypt,"  Ezek.  30:15,  was  probably  Pe- 
lusium.  The  land  of  Goshkx  appears  to 
have  lain  between  Pelusium,  its  branch  of 
the  Nile,  and  the  Red  Sea,  having  been 
skirted  on  the  northeast  by  the  desert  of 
Shur;  constituting  perhaps  a  part  of  the 
province  Rameses,  Gen.  47:11.  In  this 
•district,  or  adjacent  to  it,  are  mentioned 
.also  the  cities  Fithom,  Raamses,  Pi-Beseth, 
.and  On  or  Heliopolis.  In  the  proper  Del- 
ta itself  lay  Tahapanes,  that  is,  Taphne  or 
Daphne;  Zoan,  the  Tanis  of  the  Greeks; 
Leontopolis,  alluded  to  perhaps  in  Isa. 
19: 18.     West  of  the  Delta  was  Alexandria. 

2.  Middle  Egypt.  Here  are  mentioned 
Moph  or  Memphis,  and  Hanes,  the  Hera- 
cleopolis  of  the  Greeks. 

3.  Upper  Egypt.    The  southern  part  of 


Egypt  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  called 
Pathros,  Jer.  44:1,  15.  The  Bible  mentions 
here  only  2  cities,  namely,  No,  or  more 
fully  No-Amon,  for  which  the  70  put  Di- 
ospolis,  the  Greek  name  for  Thebes,  the 
most  ancient  capital  of  Egypt  (see  Amon)  ; 
and  Syene,  the  southern  city  and  limit  of 
Egypt. 

The  chief  agricultural  productions  of 
Egypt  are  wheat,  durrah,  or  small  maize, 
Turkish  or  Indian  corn,  rice,  barley,  beans, 
cucumbers,  water-melons,  leeks,  and  on- 
ions; also  sugar,  flax,  and  cotton.  The 
date-tree  and  vine  are  frequent.  The  pa- 
pyrus is  still  found  in  small  quantity.  See 
Book,  Bulrush.  The  animals  of  Egypt, 
besides  the  usual  kinds  of  tame  cattle,  are 
the  wild  ox  or  buffalo  in  great  numbers. 


EGYPTIAN   AGRICULTURE. 


the  ass  and  camel,  dogs  in  multitudes  with- 
out masters,  the  ichneumon,  the  crocodile, 
and  the  hippopotamus — the  last  2  only  in 
the  Upper  Nile.  Vultures  and  kites  abound, 
also  fishes  and  frogs;  and  in  the  desert, 
venomous  serpents.  Swarms  of  locusts  are 
not  rare. 

The  modern  inhabitants  of  Egypt  may 
be  considered  as  including  3  divisions : 
I.  The  Copts,  or  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  2.  The  Fellahs,  or  husband- 
men, who  are  supposed  to  represent  the 
people  in  Scripture  called  Phul.  3.  The 
Arabs,  or  conquerors  of  the  country,  inclu- 
ding the  Turks,  etc.  The  Copts  are  nomi- 
nal Christians,  and  the  clerks  and  account- 
ants of  the  country.  They  have  seen  so 
many  revolutions  in  the  governing  powers 
that  they  concern  themselves  very  little 
about  the  successes  or  misfortunes  of  those 
who  aspire  to  dominion.  The  Fellahs  suffer 
so  much  oppression,  and  are  so  despised 
by  the  Bedouins  or  wandering  Arabs,  and 
by  their  despotic  rulers,  that  they  seldom 
acquire  property,  and  very  rarely  enjoy  it 
in  security;  yet  they  are  an  interesting 
race,  and  devotedly  attached  to  their  na- 
tive country  and  the  Nile.  The  Arabs  hate 
the  Turks ;  yet  the  Turks  enjoy  most  offi- 
ces of  government,  though  they  hold  their 
superiority  by  no  very  certain  tenure.  Of 
late  years  there  has  been  added  a  growing 
element  of  European  and  American  resi- 
dents, occupied  as  missionaries  and  teach- 
ers, in  mercantile  life  and  government  ser- 
148 


vice.  The  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  and  the  innova- 
tions brought  by  railroads  and  steamboats, 
are  fast  Europeanizing  the  land  of  the  Pha- 
raohs; and  by  the  defeat  of  Arabi  Pasha  in 
1881,  it  has  been  brought  into  the  condition 
of  a  virtual  dependency  of  England. 

The  most  extraordinary  monuments  of 
ancient  Egyptian  power  and  industry  were 
the  pyramids,  which  still  subsist,  to  excite 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  world. 
No  work  of  man  now  extant  is  so  ancient 
or  so  vast  as  these  mysterious  structures. 
The  largest  of  them  covers  a  square  area 
of  13  acres,  and  is  still  474  feet  high.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  they  were  erected 
more  than  2,000  years  before  Christ,  as  the 
sepulchres  of  kings. 

But  besides  these  imperishable  monu- 
ments of  kings  long  forgotten,  Egypt 
abounds  in  other  structures  hardly  less 
wonderful ;  on  the  beautiful  islands  above 
the  cataracts,  near  Syene,  and  at  other 
places  in  Upper  Egypt;  and  especially  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  near  Thebes,  inclu- 
ding Carnac,  Luxor,  etc.  The  temples, 
statues,  obelisks,  and  sphinxes  that  cover 
the  ground  astonish  the  beholder  with  their 
colossal  height,  their  massive  grandeur, 
and  their  vast  extent:  while  the  dwellings 
of  the  dead,  tombs  in  the  rock  occupied  by 
myriads  of  mummies,  extend  far  into  the 
adjacent  mountains.  In  1881  a  fresh  dis- 
covery was  made  at  Deir-el-Bahari,  near 
Thebes,   of  a    subterranean    cavern    into 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


which  had  been  gathered  some  40  royal 
mummies  and  mummv-cases  whose  names 


AVENUE  IN  THE  GREAT  HALL  OK  COLUMNS  AT 
CARNAC,  THEBES. 

have  been  identified — among  them  kings 
and  queens  of  the  17th,  i8th,  19th,  and  21st 
dynasties,  including  Thothmes  III.  and 
Rameses  II.,  the  most  famous  of  Egyptian 
monarchs.  Of  these,  29  mummies,  with 
sarcophagi  and  numerous  relics,  are  in  the 
museum  at  Boulak. 

The  huge  columns  of  the  temples  of 
Upper  Egypt,  their  vast  walls,  and  many  of 
the  tombs,  are  covered  with  sculptures  and 
paintings  which  are  exceedingly  valuable 
as  illustrating  the  public  and  the  domestic 
life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  See  Shi- 
SHAK.     With  these  are  mingled  many  hie- 


roglyphic records,  which  have  begun  to 
yield  their  long-concealed  meaning  to  the 
inquisitions  of  modern  science.  Some  of 
these  are  mere  symbols,  comparatively 
easy  to  understand.  But  a  large  portion 
of  them  are  now  found  to  be  written  with 
a  sort  of  pictorial  alphabet — each  symbol 
representing  the  sound  with  which  its  own 
name  commences.  Thus  osir,  the  name 
of  the  Egyptian  god  Osiris,  would  be  rep- 
resented by  the  picture  of  a  reed,  a  child, 
and  a  mouth;  because  the  initial  sounds 
of  the  Coptic  words  for  these  3  objects, 
namely  Oke,  Si,  and  Ro,  make  up  the  name 
OSIR.  There  is,  however,  great  ambiguity 
in  the  interpretation  of  these  records  ;  and 
in  many  cases  the  words,  when  apparently 
made  out,  are  as  yet  unintelligible,  and 
seem  to  be  part  of  a  priestly  dialect  under- 
stood only  by  the  learned.  These  more 
ancient  forms  of  writing  gave  way  many 
years  ago  to  the  later  alphabetic  Coptic,  in 
which  many  Christian  authors  wrote,  and 
which  is  now  obsolete.  To-day  the  preva- 
lent language  is  the  Arabic. 

The  early  history  of  ancient  Egypt  is 
involved  in  great  obscurity.  All  accounts, 
however,  and  the  results  of  all  modern 
researches,  represent  its  culture  and  civil- 
ization as  having  been  of  high  antiquity. 
The  country  in  the  earliest  times  was  pos- 
sessed by  several  contemporary  kings  or 
states,  which  at  length  were  united  into 
one  great  kingdom.  The  historian  Mane- 
tho,  an  Egyptian  priest  280  B.  C,  as  quoted 
variously  by  Africanus  and  Eusebius,  gives 
a  list  of  30  Egyptian  dynasties ;  and  these, 
if  successive,  would  carry  back  the  ist, 
that  of  Menes,  to  a  very  high  antiquity. 
But  the  monumental  inscriptions,  as  they 
are  gradually  deciphered,  and  Manetho 
himself  in  one  place,  seem  to  show  that 
these  dynasties,  especially  the  early  ones, 


EGYPTIAN    HIEROGLYPHICS. 


were  sometimes  contemporaneous,  not  suc- 
cessive. For  the  later  dynasties  see  Pha- 
raoh. 

The  religion  of  ancient  Egypt  consisted 
in  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and 
the  powers  of  nature ;  the  priests  cultiva- 


ted at  the  same  time  astronomy  and  astrol- 
ogy, and  to  these  belong  probably  the  wise 
men,  sorcerers,  and  magicians  mentioned 
in  Exod.  7:11,  22.  They  were  the  most 
honored  and  powerful  of  the  castes  into 
which   the   people  were  divided.      It  was 

149 


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SCULPTURED  TABLET,   ON 

probably  this  wisdom  in  which  Moses  also 
was  learned,  Acts  7:22.  But  the  Egyptian 
religion  ado])ted  living  animals  as  symbols 
of  the  real  objects  of  worship.  Many  spe- 
cies of  animals  were  sacred,  and  might 
not  be  killed  without  the  punishment  of 
death,  and  individual  animals  were  kept 


SACRED   BULL. 

in  temples  and  worshipped  with  sacrifices 
as  gods.  See  Exod.  12:12.  Numerous  pas- 
sages from  the  sacred  "  Books  of  the  Dead," 
written  on  mummy  wrappings  and  recentlj- 
interpreted,  prove  that  at  least  the  better 
class  of  Egyptians  preserved  many  truths 
revealed  by  God  to  mankind  in  the  early 
150 


TEMPLE   IN   UPPER   EGYPT. 

ages:  they  believed  in  one  supreme  God  of 
infinite  attributes,  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  in  future  rewards  and  i)unishments  ; 
and  their  concejition  of  God  as  the  final 
judge  and  the  protector  of  faithful  souls, 
under  the  name  of  Osiris,  was  like  that  of 
Job  in  ch.  19:25-27. 

This  ancient  and  remarkable  land  is 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  A  grand- 
son of  Noah  seems  to  have  given  it  his 
name,  Gen.  10:6.  In  the  day  of  Abraham 
it  was  the  granary  of  the  world,  and  the 
patriarch  himself  resorted  thither  in  a  fam- 
ine, Gen.  12:10.  His  wife  had  an  Egyp- 
tian handmaid,  Hagar  the  mother  of  Ish- 
mael,  who  also  sought  a  wife  in  Egypt,  Gen. 
21:9,  21.  Another  famine,  in  the  days  of 
Isaac,  nearly  drove  him  to  Egypt,  Gen. 
26:2;  and  Jacob  and  all  liis  household  end- 
ed their  days  there,  (len.  39-50.  After  the 
escape  of  Israel  from  their  weary  bondage 
in  Egypt,  we  read  of  little  intercourse  be- 
tween the  2  nations  for  many  years.  In 
the  time  of  David  and  Solomon,  mention  is 
again  made  of  Egypt.  Solomon  married 
an  F^gyptian  princess,  i  Kin.  3:1;  9;  11. 
But  in  the  5th  year  of  his  son  Reiioboam, 
Judah  was  humbled  at  the  feet  of  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  2  Chr.  12;  and  for  man_\- 
generations  afterwards  the  Jews  were  al- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELA 


ternately  in  alliance  and  at  war  with  that 
nation,  until  both  were  subjugated  to  the 
Assyrian  empire,  2  Kin.  17;  18:21;  23:29; 
24;  Jer.  25;  37:5;  44;  46. 

Egypt  was  conquered  by  Cambyses,  and 
became  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire 
about  525  B.  C.  Thus  it  continued  until 
conquered  by  Alexander,  332  B.  C,  after 
whose  death  it  formed,  along  with  Syria, 
Palestine,  Libya,  etc.,  the  kingdom  of  the 
Ptolemies.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  30 
B.  C,  it  became  a  Roman  province.  In  the 
time  of  Christ,  great  numbers  of  Jews  were 
residents  of  Alexandria,  Leontopolis,  and 
other  parts  of  Egypt ;  and  our  Saviour  him- 
self found  an  asylum  there  in  his  infancy, 
Matt.  2:13.  Since  that  time  it  has  ceased 
to  be  an  independent  state,  and  its  historj' 
is  incorporated  with  that  of  its  different 
conquerors  and  possessors.  In  A.  D.  640, 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs;  and  in 
later  periods  has  passed  from  the  hands 
■of  the  caliphs  under  the  power  of  Turks, 
Arabs,  Kurds,  Mamelukes;  and  since  1517 
has  been  governed  as  a  province  of  the 
Turkish  empire.  Thus  have  been  fulfilled 
the  ancient  predictions  recorded  in  God's 
Word,  Ezek.  29:14,  15;  30:7,12,  13;  32:15. 
Its  present  population  is  over  5,000,000. 

"  The  river  of  Egypt,"  Num.  34:5  ;  Josh. 
15:4,  47;  I  Kin.  8:65;  2  Kin.  24:7;  Isa. 
27:12;  Ezek.  47:19;  48:28,  is  generally 
thought  to  designate  the  short-lived  brook 
El-Arish,  emptying  into  the  southeast  cor- 
ner of  the  Mediterranean  at  Rhinocolura. 
In  Gen.  15:18,  a  different  word  is  used, 
signifying  a  permanent  river — the  Nile. 

EGYP'TIAN.  In  Acts  21:38,  the  leader 
of  a  popular  tumult  in  the  time  of  Felix. 
Josephus  mentions  him  as  an  Egyptian  and 
a  juggler,  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  assas- 
sins, with  whom  a  mixed  host  of  thousands 
were  loosely  joined;  part  of  these  were 
apparently  slain  or  captured  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  and  the  rest  fled  to  the  wilder- 
ness. 

E'HUD,  union,  a  Benjamite,  who  deliv- 
ered Israel  from  the  Moabites,  by  first  slay- 
ing Eglon  their  king  at  Jericho,  and  then 
raising  an  army  and  defeating  his  people, 
1336  B.  C.  Jericho  was  in  the  territory  of 
his  tribe.  He  judged  Israel  with  honor  for 
many  years,  Judg.  3: 12-31 ;  4:  i. 

EK'RON,  uprooted,  the  most  northern 
■city  of  the  Philistines,  allotted  to  Judah  by 
Joshua,  15:45,  but  afterwards  given  to  Dan, 
19:43,  though  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
Jews  ever  peaceably  possessed  it.  It  is 
Tnemorable  for  its  connection  with  the  cap- 


tivity of  the  ark  and  its  restoration  to  the 
Jews,  I  Sam.  5:10;  6:1-18.  The  fly-god 
was  worshipped  here,  2  Kin.  1:2.  Its  ruin 
was  foretold,  Amos  1:8;  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech. 
9:5,  7.  Robinson  found  its  site  at  the  Mos- 
lem village  'Akir,  some  12  miles  northeast 
of  Ashdod.     There  are  no  ruins. 

EL,  strength,  one  of  the  names  of  God, 
especially  in  poetry.  In  Gen.  33: 18-20,  El- 
Elohe-Israel  means,  "  The  Mighty  One,  the 
God  of  Israel."  This  name  of  God  is  very 
often  found  in  proper  names,  as  Bethel, 
Daniel,  Elijah,  etc.  Eloi,  like  Eli,  means 
My  God,  Matt.  27:46;  Mark  15:34. 

E'LAH,  oak  or  terebinth,  I.,  a  valley  in 
which  David  slew  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17:2,  3, 
19;  21:9.  It  was  probably  about  16  miles 
southwest  from  Jerusalem,  near  Socoh  and 
Gibeah  ;  now  Wady  Sumt. 

II.  Son  and  successor  of  Baasha,  king  of 
Israel,  B.  C.  926.  After  reigning  less  than 
2  years,  he  was  slain  while  intoxicated,  bj' 
Zimri,  one  of  his  officers,  who  succeeded 
him  as  king.  Zimri  destroyed  all  the  fam- 
ily of  Baasha,  according  to  the  prediction 
of  Jehu,  I  Kin.  16:6-10.  Others  of  this 
name  are  mentioned  in  i  Kin.  4:18;  2  Kin. 
15:30;  I  Chr. 1:52;  4:15;  9:8. 

E'LAM,  age,  the  region  afterwards  called 
Persia,  Gen.  14: 1 ;  Isa.  21:2.  It  was  called 
Elam  after  a  son  of  Shem,  Gen.  10:22; 
I  Chr.  1:17.  It  corresponded  to  the  Ely- 
mais  of  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  which 
comprehended  a  part  of  .Susiana,  now 
Khusistan,  or  more  probably  included  the 
whole  of  Susiana.  The  city  Susa,  or  Shu- 
shan,  was  in  it,  Dan.  8:2  ;  and  thence  it  ex- 
tended southeast  between  Persia  and  the 
Persian  Gulf.  In  Abraham's  day  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  powerful  monarchy.  It  long 
retained  its  own  princes,  but  was  reduced 
to  a  mere  province  of  Babylonia,  and  after- 
wards of  Persia. 

For  other  Elams  and  Sons  of  Elam,  see 
I  Chr.  8:24;  26:3;  Ezra  2:7,  31 ;  8:7;  10:2, 
26;  Neh.  7:12,  34;  10:14.  See  also  Ezra 
4:9;  Acts  2:9. 

E'LATH,  or  E'LOTH,  a  grave,  a  city  of 
Idumaea,  situated  at  the  northern  extrem- 
ity of  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
Elanitic  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 
Ezion-geber  was  also  situated  here,  and 
very  near  Elath,  Deut.  2:8;  1  Kin.  9:26. 
This  gulf,  although  known  to  the  ancients, 
has  been  almost  unknown  to  modern  geog- 
raphers until  the  time  of  Burckhardt.  This 
enterprising  traveller  explored  it,  and  gave 
the  first  full  account  of  it.  The  great  sand 
valley  called  El-Arabah,  and  towards  the 

151 


ELD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELE 


north  El-Ghor,  runs  from  this  gulf  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  Elath  was  annexed  to  Judah 
by  David,  who  established  there  an  exten- 
sive commerce,  2  Sam.  8: 14.    Solomon  also 


Sam.  4:3 ;  8:4; 
I  Kin.  8;  I,  3;  20:7; 
23:1.      In   New  Testa- 


akaba:  entrance  to  the  fort. 

built  ships  there,  2  Chr.  8:17,  18.  In  the 
reign  of  Joram  the  Edomites  recovered  it, 
but  lost  it  again  to  Uzziah,  2  Kin.  8:20; 
14:22;  and  he  to  Rezin,  16:6.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Romans  it  was  a  flourishing 
commercial  town,  named  Elana,  with  the 
ordinances  of  Christianity.  In  630  A.  D.  it 
fell  under  the  power  of  Mohammed,  and  is 
now  in  ruins.  The  fortress  of  Akaba,  near 
by,  now  often  visited  by  travellers  from 
Mount  Sinai  to  Palestine,  serves  for  the 
protection  of  pilgrims  to  Mecca. 

EL'DAD,  Iffved  of  God,  and  ME'DAD, 
loL'e,  2  of  the  70  elders  appointed  to  aid 
Moses  in  governing  the  people.  The  Spirit 
of  God  coming  upon  them,  they  jirophe- 
sied  in  the  camp  at  a  distance  from  Moses. 
Joshua  censured  them  for  this  as  an  irregu- 
larity, but  they  were  nobly  vindicated  by 
Moses,  Num.  1 1 :  24-29. 

EL'DERS  OF  Israel,  the  heads  of  tribes, 
who,  before  the  settlement  of  the  Hebrew 
commonwealth,  had  a  government  and 
authority  over  their  own  families  and  the 
people,  like  the  modern  sheikh,  the  old 
man.  Moses  and  Aaron  treated  the  elders 
as  representatives  of  the  nation,  Exod. 
3:16;  4:29;  12:21.  When  the  law  was 
given,  God  directed  Moses  to  take  the  70 
elders,  as  well  as  Aaron,  and  Nadab  and 
Abihu  his  sons,  that  they  might  be  wit- 
nesses, Exod.  24 : 1 ,  9.  For  some  time  after- 
wards we  find  this  number  of  70,  or  rather, 
72,  elders,  6  from  each  tribe,  but  we  have 
no  certain  information  how  long  this  con- 
152 


tinued.  There  were  always,  however,  el- 
ders in  each  tribe  and  city.  For  instances 
of  their  agency  and  power,  see  Josh.  9:18; 
Judg.  2:7;  Ruth  4: 
30:26; 
2  Kin. 

ment  times  there  were  "  elders- 
of  the  Jews,"  apparently  dis- 
tinct from  the  Sanhedrin,  but 
cooperating  with  it.  Matt.  16:21 ; 
21:23;  26:59;  Luke  22:66;  Acts. 
22:5. 

In  imitation  of  the  Jewish  el- 
ders, the  ordinary  pastors  and 
teachers  of  the  Christian  church 
are  called  elders,  or  presbyters. 
Acts  20:17,  28;  Titus  1:5,  7;. 
1  Pet.  5:1 ;  2  John  i. 
"  Eldest  "  and  "  last,"  in  Johni 
_^  9,  mean  the  highest  and  low- 

j"''  est  in   social    rank.      In   Matt. 

15:2;  Heb.  11:2,  the  men  of  an- 
cient times  are  meant. 

ELEA'LEH,  tlie  ascending  of 
God,  a  town  of  the  Amorites,  near  Hesh- 
bon  their  capital,  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  Num.  32:3,  37,  and  long  after- 
wards threatened  as  a  city  of  Moab,  Isa. 
15:4;  16:9;  Jer.  48:34.  Its  ruins,  now  El- 
A'al,  are  a  mile  or  more  northeast  of  Hesh- 
ban. 

ELEA'ZAR,  help  of  God,  I.,  the  3d  son 
of  Aaron,  and  high-priest  after  him,  Exod. 
6:23;  Num.  20:25-28.  His  mother  Elishe- 
ba  was  daughter  of  Amminadab,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  He  performed  important 
priesth'  duties  both  before  and  after  Aaron's 
death.  Num.  3:32 ;  26:3  ;  27:22 ;  31 :2i ;  Josh. 
14:1.  The  high-priesthood  continued  in 
his  family  7  generations,  till  the  time  of  Eli, 
when  we  find  it  transferred  to  the  line  of 
Ithamar.  In  the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David 
it  was  restored  to  the  line  of  Eleazar,  and 
so  continued  till  after  the  captivity. 

II.  A  son  of  .Abinadab,  honored  with  the 
charge  of  the  ark  while  it  was  in  his  fa- 
ther's house,  I  Sam.  7:1. 

III.  One  of  David's  champions,  2  Sam. 
23:9;  I  Chr.  11: 11-18. 

Three  or  4  others  are  mentioned  in 
I  Chr.  23:21,  22;  Ezra  8:33;  Neh.  12:42; 
Matt.  1:15. 

ELECT',  c//o.y<?«.  Usually  applied  in  the 
New  Testament  to  those  who  are  not  only 
"  called  "  to  come  to  Christ  by  the  offer  of 
free  pardon,  but  who  actually  come  to  him 
and  are  saved.  Matt.  22:14.  They  were 
"chosen"  in  Christ  from  eternity,  Eph. 
1:4,  5,  and  are  beloved  of  God  like  Christ. 


ELH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


-ELI 


himself,  Luke  23:35;  i  Pet.  2:6.  "The 
election  "  is  used  by  Paul  in  Rom.  11:7  for 
"  the  elect."  "  The  elect  lady  "  in  2  John  i 
was  probably  some  woman  eminent  for  her 
Christian  virtues.  But  some  understand 
the  words  to  mean  "The  lady  Electa;" 
and  others  some  Christian  church  personi- 
fied.    Compare  ver.  13. 

ELHA'NAN,  I.,  one  of  David's  heroes, 
who  slew  a  brother  of  Goliath,  2  Sam. 
21:19;  I  Chr.  20:5. 

II.  The  first-named  of  David's  30  mighty 
men,  son  of  Dodo  of  Bethlehem,  i  Sam. 
23:24;  I  Chr.  11:26. 

E'LI,  ascension,  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
the  ist  in  the  line  of  Ithamar,  i  Sam.  2:27- 
36;  2  Sam.  8:17;  I  Chr.  24:3.  He  was  also 
a  judge  of  Israel  40  years,  and  was  emi- 
nent for  piety  and  usefulness,  but  crimi- 
nally negligent  of  family  discipline.  For 
this  the  judgments  of  God  afterwards  fell 
upon  his  house,  1  Sam.  3:11-18.  In  battle 
with  the  Philistines  his  2  sons  were  slain, 
and  Israel  was  defeated ;  but  it  was  the 
capture  of  the  ark  of  God  that  broke  his 
heart,  i  Sam.  4.  He  was  98  years  old.  The 
divine  threatening  was  fully  performed  in 
the  day  of  Abiathar,  which  see.     Also  El. 

ELI'AB,  my  God  is  faiiier,  the  oldest 
brother  of  David,  towards  whom  his  con- 
duct was  passionate  and  jealous,  thus  con- 
firming the  judgment  of  Him  who  looks 
not  on  the  appearance,  but  the  heart,  i  Sam. 
16:6,  7;  17:28.  Five  others  are  named  in 
Num.  1:9;  26:8,  9;  I  Chr.  6:27  ;  12:9;  15:18. 

ELI'AKIM,  raised  Jip  by  God,  I.,  a  king 
of  Judah,  2  Kin.  23:34.     See  Johoiakim. 

II.  A  son  of  Hilkiah ;  an  officer  of  high 
repute  in  king  Hezekiah's  court,  called  by 
God  "my  servant  Eliakim,"  Isa.  22:20,  21 ; 
and  appointed  with  others  to  treat  with 
Rabshakeh,  general  of  the  Assyrian  forces 
then  besieging  Jerusalem,  2  Kin.  18;  19; 
Isa.  36;  37.     See  Sennacherib. 

Eliakim  is  the  name  also  of  3  others 
named  in  Neh.  12:41;  Matt.  1:13;  Luke 
3:30. 

ELI'AS.    See  Elijah. 

ELI'ASHIB,  whom  God  restores,  a  high- 
priest  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah,  who  took 
part  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  3:1;  Ezra  10:6.  The  same  person 
probably  was  afterwards  censured  for  pro- 
faning the  temple,  by  giving  the  use  of  one 
of  its  chambers  to  a  heathen  and  an  Am- 
monite, his  relative,  Deut.  23:3,  4;  Neh. 
12:10;  13:1-9,  28. 

ELIE'ZER,  my  God  is  my  help,  I.,  of  Da- 
mascus, or  Damascus  Eliezer,  the  lawful 
7* 


heir  of  Abraham,  should  he  die  childless^ 
Gen.  15:2.  He  is  generally  assumed  to 
be  the  "eldest  servant,"  who  was  sent,  65 
years  afterwards,  to  obtain  a  wife  for  Isaac,. 
Gen.  24.  "Steward  of  my  house"  and 
"born  in  my  house" — literally  son  of  my 
house.  Gen.  15:2,  3 — may  mean  the  same 
thing,  the  lawful  family  heir. 

II.  Second  son  of  Moses  and  Zipporah; 
his  name  was  a  grateful  memorial  of  deliv- 
erance, Exod.  18 : 1-4.  Some  of  his  posterity 
were  noteworthy,  i  Chr.  23:17;  26:25-28. 

III.  Several  others  of  this  name  are  men- 
tioned, I  Chr.  j-.S]  15:24;  27:16;  2  Chr. 
20:37  ;  Ezra  8: 16  ;  10: 18,  23,  31  ;  Luke  3:29. 

ELI'HU,  God  is  He,  of  the  family  or  city 
of  Buz,  Gen.  22:21,  located  probably  in  or 
near  Edom,  Jer.  25:23.  Compare  also  Jer. 
49:7,  8,  13.  He  came  to  condole  with  Job 
in  his  calamities.  Young,  ardent,  saga- 
cious, and  devout,  he  listened  attentively 
to  the  discourses  of  Job  and  his  3  friends ; 
and  at  length  broke  in,  with  profuse  apolo- 
gies, to  set  them  all  right.  Job  32.  His  ad- 
dress to  Job  is  friendly  and  soothing,  yet 
faithful ;  he  censures  him  for  justifying 
himself,  rather  than  God.  The  adversaries 
of  Job  he  blames  for  condemning  him  as  a 
hypocrite,  in  their  ignorance  of  the  won- 
ders of  God's  disciplinary  providence.  In 
several  sentences  he  beautifully  expresses- 
his  faith  in  the  pardoning  and  restoring 
grace  of  God  towards  sinners.  Job  33:23, 
24,  27-30,  passages  in  this  oldest  book  of 
the  Bible  in  the  very  spirit  of  the  parable 
of  the  prodigal  son. 

Other  Elihus  are  named  in  i  Sam.  1:1; 
I  Chr.  12:20;  26:7;  27:18. 

ELI'JAH,  my  God  is  Jehovah,  the  re- 
nowned prophet,  by  birth  a  highlander  of 
Tishbeh,  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  i  Kin. 
17:1.  He  is  described  as  long-haired  and 
tall,  roughly-robed,  2  Kin.  1:8,  with  a 
sheepskin  girdle  and  mantle,  i  Kin.  18:46; 
19:13;  in  appearance  as  well  as  spirit  a 
type  of  the  true  Hebrew  seer.  His  parent- 
age and  early  history  are  unknown.  Ap- 
pearing suddenly  as  a  stern  witness  for 
God,  when  Israel  had  lapsed  not  only  into 
the  worship  of  the  golden  calves  as  symbols 
of  God,  but  into  the  grosser  idolatry  of  the 
Phoenician  Baal,  his  bold  faithfulness  pro- 
voked the  wrath  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  espe- 
cially when  he  threatened  several  years  of 
drought  and  famine  as  a  punishment  for  the 
national  sins,  B.  C.  908.  By  the  divine  direc- 
tion the  prophet  took  refuge  on  the  bank  of 
the  brook  Cherith,  where  he  was  miracu- 
lously fed  by  ravens.     Thence  he  resorted 

153 


ELI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELI 


to  Zarephath,  in  Phoenicia,  within  the  grasp 
of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  where  one  miracle 
provided  him  with  sustenance,  and  anoth- 
er restored  to  life  the  child  of  his  hostess. 
Returning  to  king  Ahab,  he  procured  the 
great  assembling  at  Mount  Carmel,  where 
God  "  answered  by  fire,"  and  the  prophets 
of  Baal,  450  in  number,  and  of  Ashtoreth 
400,  were  destroyed.  See  Carmel.  Now, 
too,  the  long  and  terrible  drought  was  bro- 
ken, and  a  plentiful  rain  descended  at  the 
prophet's  prayer.  Finding  that  not  even 
these  mighty  works  of  God  would  bring 
the  nation  and  its  rulers  to  repentance,  Eli- 
jah was  almost  in  despair.  He  fled  into  the 
wilderness,  and  was  brought  to  Horeb,  the 
mount  of  God,  where  he  was  comforted  by 
a  majestic  and  significant  vision  of  God's 
power  and  grace.  Three  charges  of  great 
importance  were  here  given  him:  to  sum- 
mon Elisha  to  become  his  successor,  and 
to  anoint  Jehu  king  of  Israel  in  the  place 
of  Ahab,  and  Hazael  king  of  Syria  instead 
of  Ben-hadad.  The  first  of  these  he  did  at 
once,  and  the  others  by  the  agency  of  Eli- 
sha, the  appointed  time  not  arriving  till 
after  his  translation.  Si.v  years  after  his 
visit  he  denounces  Ahab  and  Jezebel  for 
their  crimes  in  the  matter  of  Naboth ;  and 
afterwards  again  is  seen  foretelling  the 
death  of  king  Ahaziah,  and  calling  fire 
from  heaven  upon  2  bands  of  guards  sent 
to  arrest  him.  Being  now  forewarned  of 
the  approach  of  his  removal  from  earth,  he 
gives  his  last  instructions  to  the  school  of 
the  prophets,  crosses  the  Jordan  miracu- 
lously, and  is  borne  to  heaven  in  a  fiery 
chariot  without  tasting  death,  leaving  his 
mantle  and  office  to  Elisha,  i  Kin.  17-19; 
21  ;  2  Kin.  i ;  2. 

His  translation  occurred  about  B.  C.  896. 
Previously,  it  is  supposed,  he  had  written 
the  letter  which,  8  years  afterwards,  an- 
nounced to  king  Jehoram  his  approaching 
sickness  and  death,  2  Chr.  21:12-19.  Oth- 
ers think  Jehoram  had  long  been  joined 
with  his  father  on  the  throne,  2  Kin.  3:7; 
8:16. 

Elijah  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  and 
honored  of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  He  was 
bold,  faithful,  stern,  self-denying,  and  zeal- 
ous for  the  honor  of  God.  His  whole  char- 
acter and  life  are  marked  by  peculiar  moral 
grandeur.  He  bursts  upon  our  view  with- 
out previous  notice;  he  disappears  by  a 
miracle.  He  bears  the  api^earance  of  a 
supernatural  messenger  of  heaven,  who  has 
but  one  work  to  do,  and  whose  mind  is  en- 
grossed in  its  performance.  His  history  is 
154 


one  of  the  most  extraordinary  on  record, 
and  is  fraught  with  instruction.  It  was  a 
high  honor  granted  to  Moses  and  Elijah,  as 
representatives  of  "  all  the  law  and  the 
prophets,"  that  they  alone  should  appear 
on  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration,  many  cen- 
turies after  they  had  gone  into  heaven — to 
bear  witness  of  its  existence,  and  commune 
with  the  Saviour  concerning  his  atoning 
death,  Luke  9:28-35. 

John  the  Baptist  was  foretold  under  the 
name  of  Elias,  or  Elijah,  from  his  resem- 
blance in  character  and  life  to  the  an- 
cient prophet  of  Israel,  Mai.  4:5,  6;  Matt. 
17:10-13. 

E'LIM,  trees,  a  station  of  the  Israelites, 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Mount  Sinai, 
Exod.  15:27;  16:1;  Num.  33:9,  generally- 
taken  to  be  the  present  Wady  Ghurundel, 
a  broad  valley,  the  first  of  4  running  south- 
west to  the  sea,  about  40  miles  southeast 
of  Suez.  Here  are  fountains  and  a  brook, 
many  bushes  and  shrubs,  and  a  few  tama- 
risks and  palms.  Laborde  thinks  it  was 
VVady  Useit,  the  second  of  the  4. 

ELIM'ELECH,  viy  God  is  King,  an  emi- 
nent Bethlehemite,  husband  of  Naomi, 
Ruth  1:2. 

EL'IPHAZ,  God  is  his  strength,  a  native 
of  Tetnan,  and  friend  of  Job,  Job  2:11. 
Compare  Gen.  36 :  10 ;  Jer.  49 :  20.  He  seems 
to  have  been  older  than  Bildad  and  Zophar, 
and  was  the  first  to  address  Job,  chs.  4,  5, 
15.  22. 

ELIS'ABETH,  the  oath  of  God,  a  devout 
woman,  "of  the  daughters  of  Aaron,"  the 
wife  of  Zacharias,  mother  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, and  a  relative  of  Mary  our  Lord's  mo- 
ther, Luke  1:5-25,  36,  39-80. 

ELISE'US,  the  Greek  New  Testament 
form  of  Elish.\,  Luke  4:27. 

ELI'SHA,  God  saves  or  sees,  the  pupil 
and  successor  of  Elijah,  a  prophet  of  Is- 
rael during  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  Jehu, 
Jehoahaz,  and  Joash,  B.  C.  903-838.  He 
was  a  native  of  Abel-meholah,  where  he 
was  at  work  ploughing  when  Elijah  called 
him  to  become  a  prophet,  i  Kin.  19: 16,  first 
following  him  as  his  attendant.  Some  7  or 
8  years  afterwards  he  witnessed  the  mirac- 
ulous ascension  of  Elijah,  divided  the  Jor- 
dan with  his  mantle,  and  took  his  place  at 
the  head  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets. 
The  "  double  portion  "  he  asked  for  seems 
to  have  meant  the  "  firstborn's  share,"  to 
continue  the  sacred  inheritance,  2  Kin.  2:9. 
During  his  long  ministry  he  acted  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  public  affairs  of  Israel. 
Many  miracles  also  were  wrought  at  his 


ELI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EMB 


word ;  some  of  these  were,  healing  the 
waters  of  Jericho ;  supplying  the  widow's 
■cruse  with  oil,  and  the  allied  armies  of  Ju- 
dah,  Israel,  and  Edom  with  water  ;  gaining 
a  son  for  the  woman  of  Shunem,  and  restor- 
ing him  to  life  ;  healing  the  leprosy  of  Naa- 
man  ;  detecting  and  punishing  Gehazi.  His 
history  is  recorded  in  2  Kin.  2-9;  13:14-21. 
He  died  lamented  by  king  Joash  and  the 
people;  and  a  year  afterwards,  a  corpse 
■deposited  in  the  same  sepulchre  was  at 
■once  restored  to  life.  In  2  miracles— heal- 
ing the  leprosy  and  multiplying  barley- 
loaves— he  alone  of  all  the  prophets  antici- 
pated some  of  the  miracles  of  Christ,  whom 
also  he  reminds  us  of  by  the  gentleness 
and  kindness  of  his  disposition.  There  is 
a  marked  contrast  between  Elijah  and  Eli- 
sha  in  the  general  aspect  of  their  charac- 
ter and  history:  the  first  was  the  whirl- 
wind and  the  fire,  the  second  the  still  small 
voice;  Elijah  broke  up  the  fallow  ground 
and  sowed  the  seed,  and  Elisha  garnered 
the  harvest. 

ELI'SHAH,  eldest  son  of  Javan,  Gen. 
10:4.  "  The  isles  of  Elishah,"  which  sent 
purple  and  scarlet  stuffs  to  Tyre,  Ezek. 
27:7,  are  supposed  to  mean  Greece  and 
the  adjacent  islands. 

ELISH'EBA,  the  wife  of  Aaron,  Exod. 
•6:23,  and  sister  of  Nahshon  the  prince  of 
Judah,  Num.  2:3.  Elisabeth  is  the  same 
name  in  Greek,  Luke  1:5. 

ELKA'NAH,  God  provided,  I.,  probably 
a  grandson  of  Korah,  Num.  26:11.  Com- 
pare Exod.  6:24;  I  Chr.  6:22,  23. 

II.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  husband  of  2 
wives,  and  father  of  Samuel  the  prophet ; 
a  man  of  piety  and  of  means,  i  Sam.  i  ;  2. 

III.  Others  are  mentioned  in  i  Chr.  6:26, 
35;  9:16;  12:6;  15:23;  2  Chr.  28:7. 

EL'KOSH,  the  home  of  Nahum,  ch.  1:1, 
probably  a  village  in  Galilee.  Many  Jews 
visit  as  pilgrims  a  place  called  Alkush,  2 
miles  north  of  Mosul,  where  is  a  so-called 
tomb  of  Nahum,  and  a  synagogue. 

EL'LASAR,  Gen.  14:1,  9,  the  home  of 
king  Arioch,  perhaps  the  same  country  as 
Thelassar,  2  Kin.  19:12;  Isa.  37:12.  But 
Rawlinson  locates  it  at  Larsa,  now  Senke- 
reh,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
between  Ur  and  Erech.  Its  ruins  show  its 
very  high  antiquity.  The  Arabic  version 
■calls  it  Armenia. 

ELM,  Hos.  4:13.  The  original  Hebrew 
word  here,  elsewhere  translated  oak,  prob- 
ably denotes  the  terebinth.     See  Oak. 

ELMA'DAM,  A.  V.  Elmodam,  ancestor  of 
Jesus,  Luke  3:28. 


ELNA'THAN,  God  hath  given,  I.,  of  Je- 
rusalem, 2  Kin.  24:8,  a  leader  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim.  He  was  his  agent  in  perse- 
cuting the  •  prophet  Urijah,  but  protested 
against  the  burning  of  Jeremiah's  proph- 
ecy, Jer.  26:20-23;  36:20-25. 

il.  Three  Levites  in  Ezra's  day,  Ezra 
8:16. 

E'LOI.     See  El. 

E'LON,  I.,  Gen.  36:2.     See  Bashemath, 

II.  Second  son  of  Zebulun,  Gen.  46:14; 
Num.  26:26. 

III.  "  The  Zebulunite  "  who  judged  Israel 
10  years,  Judg.  12:11,  12. 

IV.  A  border  town  of  Dan,  Josh.  19:43. 
EXUL,  a  Hebrew  month,  the  12th  of  the 

civil  year,  and  6th  of  the  ecclesiastical, 
Neh.  6:15.  It  included  the  time  from  the 
new  moon  nearest  to  the  ist  day  of  Sep- 
tember to  that  of  October. 

EL'YMAS,  wise,  the  Arabic  name  of  a 
Jewish  sorcerer,  Bar-jesus,  in  the  retinue 
of  Sergius  Paulus,  the  Roman  proconsul 
at  Paphos  in  Cyprus.  He  was  sharply  re- 
proved by  Paul,  and  struck  with  instant 
blindness  for  opposing  the  religious  inqui- 
ries of  the  proconsul,  who  was  abandoning 
idolatry  and  superstition,  and  embracing 
the  gospel.  Acts  13:6-12.  His  blindness 
was  to  continue  "  for  a  season,"  and  may 
have  led  to  his  spiritual  illumination.  In 
spite  of  his  opposition  the  proconsul  was 
converted,  the  island  was  opened  to  the 
gospel,  and  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  wel- 
comed it.  Thus  the  Head  of  the  church 
often  makes  obstacles  in  its  way  the  very 
means  of  advancing  it. 

EMBALM'ING.  The  process  of  embalm- 
ing dead  bodies  among  the  Egyptians  was 
as  follows :  The  embalmers,  who  were 
looked  upon  as  sacred  officers,  drew  the 
brains  through  the  nostrils  with  a  hooked 
piece  of  iron,  and  filled  the  skull  with 
astringent  drugs ;  they  drew  out  all  the 
entrails,  except  the  heart  and  kidneys- 
through  a  hole  cut  in  the  left  side,  washed 
them  in  palm-wine,  and  replaced  them, 
filling  the  cavity  with  astringent  and  pre- 
servative drugs.  The  body  was  anointed 
repeatedly  with  oil  of  cedar,  myrrh,  cinna- 
mon, etc.,  about  30  days,  and  was  then  put 
into  nitre  for  about  40  days  ;  by  which  pro- 
cess it  was  preserved  from  decay,  retain- 
ing at  the  same  time  a  lifelike  appearance. 
When  Moses  says  that  40  days  were  em- 
ployed in  embalming  Jacob,  he  probably 
speaks  of  the  40  days  of  his  continuing  in 
the  salt  of  nitre,  not  including  the  30  days 
spent  in  the  previous  ceremonies ;  so  that, 

155 


EMB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ENC 


in  the  whole,  they  mourned  70  days  for 
him  in  Egypt,  Gen.  50:2,  3. 

The  body  was  afterwards  taken  out  of 
the  salt,  washed,  wrapped  up  in  long  linen 
bandages,  dipped  in  myrrh,  and  closed 
with  gum.  It  was  then  restored  to  the  rel- 
atives, who  inclosed  it  in  a  coffin,  and  kept 


it  in  their  houses,  or  deposited  it  in  a  tomb. 
Thus  the  bod}'  of  Joseph  was  preserved,  to 
be  conveyed  into  the  land  of  promise  after 
nearly  2  centuries,  Gen.  50:26.  Great  num- 
bers of  mummies  are  still  found  in  Egypt, 
in  the  subterraneous  vaults  where  they 
were  deposited  2,000  or  3,000  years  ago. 

The  common  people  of  that  country  were 
embalmed  by  means  of  bitumen,  a  cheap 
material  and  easily  managed.  With  this 
the  corpse  and  its  envelopes  were  smeared, 
with  more  or  less  care  and  diligence.  Sep- 
ulchres have  been  opened  in  which  thou- 
sands of  bodies  had  been  deposited  in  rows, 
one  on  another,  without  coffins,  preserved 
in  this  manner. 

The  usual  embalming  of  the  Jews  was 
less  elaborate  and  effectual.  It  consisted 
mainly  in  wrapping  the  body  in  many  folds 
of  linen,  with  a  profusion  of  aromatic  spi- 
ces— myrrh,  aloes,  etc.  Thus  the  body  of 
the  Saviour  was  embalmed  entire  by  Jo- 
seph and  Nicodemus,  while,  ignorant  of 
this,  the  2  Marys  and  their  friends  were 
prepared  to  render  him  a  similar  honor 
when  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  past,  John 
19:38-40.  The  practice,  even  in  this  form, 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  prevalent 
among  the  Jews.     See  Burial. 

EMBROI'DERY,  and  "needlework"  in 
156 


Exod.  26;  27;  36-39,  are  distinguished  in 
Hebrew  from  "  cunning  work  ;"  both  prob- 
ably denoting  work  with  the  loom,  the  for- 
mer with  various  patterns  and  colors,  the 
latter  with  cherubim  or  other  figures  in 
gold  thread. 

EM'ERALD,  Rev.  4:3;  21:19,  a  precious 
stone  of  a  fine  green  color,  found  anciently 
in  Ethiopia,  but  in  modern  times  only  in 
South  America,  Exod.  28:18;  Ezek.  27:16; 
28: 13.  Josephus  and  the  70  make  it  a  gem 
like  a  burning  coal— the  Indian  ruby,  or 
carbuncle. 

EM'ERODS,  that  is,  hemorrhoids,  the 
name  of  a  ])ainful  disease  occasioned  by 
tumors,  no  doubt  the  piles,  Deut.  28:27; 
I  Sam.  5:12. 

E'MIM,  terrors,  a  gigantic  and  warlike 
race,  who  in  the  time  of  Abraham  occupied 
the  country  beyond  the  Jordan,  afterwards, 
possessed  by  the  Moabites,  Gen.  14:5-7; 
Deut.  2;  10-12,  20-23. 

EMMAN'UEL,  Matt.  1:23,  A.  V.,  better 
as  in  the  Old  Testament,  Im.m.^nuel,  God 
zvilh  us.  It  is  applied  to  the  Messiah,  as- 
having  united  the  divine  with  the  human 
nature,  and  having  come  to  dwell  with 
men,  Isa.  7:14;  8:8. 

EM'MAUS,  ho/  s/>ri/i£'s,  the  village  where- 
our  Lord  revealed  himself  to  2  of  his  dis- 
ciples, on  the  afternoon  of  his  resurrection- 
day.  It  lay  about  7H  miles,  60  furlongs,, 
northwest  from  Jerusalem,  Luke  24:13-33,. 
perhaps  Kubaibeh.  Some  manuscripts,  in- 
cluding the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  read  160  fur- 
longs, instead  of  60;  and  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  locate  Emmaus  at  the  ancient  Ni- 
copolis,  20  miles  north-northwest  of  Jeru- 
salem, where  a  village  called  Amwas  still 
exists.  Dr.  Robinson  inclines  to  this  loca- 
tion, though  its  distance  from  the  city  seems- 
too  great.  The  2  disciples  could  not  return 
to  it  in  less  than  6  or  7  hours,  long  after 
midnight. 

EM'PEROR,  THE,  in  R.  V.  put  for  "Au- 
gustus" in  Acts  25:21,  25,  where  Nero  is 
the  emperor  intended. 

EN,  a  fountain,  see  Ain,  compounded 
with  many  names  of  towns  and  places,  as. 
En-dor,  En-gedi. 

ENA'BLE,  empower  or  authorize,  i  Tim.. 
1 :  12. 

ENCHANT'MENTS,  deceptive  arts,  mut- 
tered spells,  and  charms  practised  by  de- 
signing men,  and  classed  in  the  Bible  with 
sorcery,  magic,  divination,  witchcraft,  and 
necromancy,  or  professed  communication 
with  departed  spirits.  All  these  are  ex- 
pressly forbidden  and  denounced  in  Scrip- 


END 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ENR 


ture,  Exod.  22:18;  Lev.  19:26,  31;  20:27; 
Deut.  18:10,  II.  The  pretended  power  and 
skill  of  enchanters  was  ascribed  to  infernal 
agency,  and  the  art  was  essentially  hostile 
to  true  religion.  Their  seeming  wonders 
were  usually  wrought  by  juggling  tricks  or 
sleight  of  hand,  or  by  mysteries  of  science, 
known  to  but  few.  The  magicians  of  Egypt 
are  said  to  have  done  several  things  "with 
their  enchantments,"  Exod.  7-9;  Acts  19:19. 
See  Divination. 

EN'-DOR,  home  spring-,  a  city  of  Manas- 
seh.  Josh.  17:11,  4  miles  south  of  Mount 
Tabor,  near  Nain,  in  the  way  to  Scythopo- 
lis,  Psa.  83:9,  10.  Here  the  witch  lived 
whom  Saul  consulted,  i  Sam.  28.  The  pre- 
tence of  this  sorceress  that  she  could  call 
up  the  spirits  of  the  dead  from  their  re- 
pose was  evidently  false.  She  was  amazed 
and  appalled  when  the  form  of  Samuel 
really  appeared,  sent  by  God  himself  to 
put  her  to  shame,  and  bring  to  king  Saul 
his  last  warning,  The  ruins  of  a  large  vil- 
lage called  Endur  are  still  found,  on  the 
north  slope  of  Jebel  el-Duhy,  8  miles  north 
of  Gilboa.  Caves  abound  in  the  mountain 
above  it. 

EN-EGLA'IM,yb?<M/  of  two  calves,  Ezek. 
47 :  10,  a  town  on  the  Dead  Sea,  west  of  the 
Jordan's  mouth. 

EN-GAN'NIM,  fount  of  gardens,  I.,  a 
town   in  the  low  country  of  Judah,  Josh. 

15:34- 

II.  A  city  of  the  Levites,  in  Issachar ; 
now  Jenin,  16  miles  south  of  Mount  Tabor, 
Josh.  19:21;  21:29.  The  same  as  Anem, 
I  Chr.  6:73. 

EN-GE'DI,  fouJitain  of  the  kid,  i  Sam. 
24:1,  2;  called  also  Hazezon-Tamar,  that 
is,  the  city  of  palm-trees,  there  being  great 
numbers  of  palm-trees  around  it.  Gen. 
14:7;  2  Chr.  20:1,  2,  and  flocks  of  wild 
goats.  It  stood  near  the  middle  of  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  about  24 
miles  southeast  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  edge 
of  the  loftiest  part  of  the  wilderness  of 
Judaea,  a  region  full  of  rocks  and  caverns, 
I  Sam.  23:29;  Ezek.  47:10.  See  cut  in 
Sea,  III.  Predatory  bands  from  the  east 
still,  as  of  old,  pass  around  the  south  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  up  its  west  shore  to 
Ain  Jidy,  and  there  ascend  to  the  high 
ground.  The  heights  of  En-gedi  are  1,500 
feet  above  the  Dead  Sea.  At  400  feet  from 
the  sea  a  fine  and  copious  fountain,  still 
bearing  its  ancient  name,  flows  down  to 
the  sea,  watering  in  its  course  a  fruitful 
valley  and  a  plain  half  a  mile  square,  in 
both  of  which  ruins  are  found.    The  moun- 


tain-side was  formerly  terraced,  and  the 
whole  spot  was  an  oasis  of  fertility,  the 
only  place  in  Palestine  where  camphire 
now  grows,  Song  i :  14.     See  Ziz. 

EN'GINES,  2  Chr.  26:15.  See  Batter- 
ing-ram and  War. 

ENGRA'VER,  in  Exod.  35:35;  38:23,  a 
carver  on  wood,  stone,  and  gems.  So  in 
Zech.  3:9.  The  fine  graving  of  signets 
and  precious  stones  is  implied  in  Gen. 
38: 18;  41 :42;  Exod.  28:11,  21,  36.  The  art 
was  a  familiar  one  to  all  ancient  nations. 

EN-HAKKO'RE  the  fountain  of  him  that 
called,  opened  at  Samson's  call,  after  his 
exploit  at  Lehi,  Judg.  15:19.     See  Lehi. 

EN-MISH'PAT.     See  Kadesh. 

E'NOCH,  dedicated,  I.,  a  son  of  Cain,  in 
honor  of  whom  the  first  city  named  in  the 
Bible  was  called  Enoch,  Gen.  4:17. 

II.  "  The  seventh  from  Adam,"  a  son  of 
Jared,  and  the  father  of  Methuselah ;  emi- 
nent as  a  patriarch  who  lived  near  to  God, 
through  faith  in  a  Redeemer  to  come,  Heb. 
11:5,  13.  It  was  a  testimony  to  his  rare 
piety  in  an  ungodly  age  that  he  was  trans- 
lated without  seeing  death,  like  Elijah, 
these  2  eminent  men  of  God  being  honored 
in  this  visible  demonstration  of  a  future 
life.  He  had  lived  only  365  years,  A.  M. 
622-987,  Gen.  5:18-24.  Jude,  ver.  14,  15, 
quotes  a  traditionary  prophecy  of  Enoch, 
showing  his  belief  in  a  judgment  to  come. 
There  is  an  apocryphal  book  bearing  the 
name  of  Enoch,  which  quotes  the  same  tra- 
dition. It  was  probably  written  by  some 
devout  believer  of  the  ist  century,  or  per- 
haps shortly  before  the  coming  of  Christ, 
and  is  only  valuable  for  the  light  it  throws 
on  the  beliefs  of  the  time.  It  was  never 
received  as  canonical.  It  was  probably 
written  in  Hebrew;  but  the  original,  and 
the  Greek  version  known  by  the  fathers, 
are  lost.  The  text  has  been  recovered 
from  Ethiopic  versions.  It  is  an  exhibition 
of  the  universal  providence  of  God. 

E'NON,  springs,  the  place  where  John 
baptized,  near  Salim,  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Jordan,  John  1:28;  3:22,26.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  8  or  10  miles 
south  of  Beth-shean  ;  but  is  rather  'Aynun, 
east  of  Nablus  in  Wady  Farah.  See  Sa- 
lim. 

E'NOS,  man,  Heb.  Enosh,  i  Chr.  1:1, 
the  grandson  of  Adam.  He  lived  905 
years,  A.  M.  235-1140.  Adam,  Seth,  and 
Enoch  were  outlived  by  him.  Noah  was 
contemporary  with  him  84  years.  Gen. 
4 :  26 ;  5 : 6-1 1 ;  Luke  3 :  38. 

'EU-'RO'G'E.t.,  fuller's  fountain,  by  many 

157 


ENS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EPH 


believed  to  be  the  "well  of  Nehemiah," 
now  called  Bir  Eyflb,  Job's  well,  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Kidron,  just  below  its  junction 
with  the  valley  of  tlie  son  of  Hinncjm,  on 
the  southeast  corner  of  Jerusalem,  Josh. 
15:7;  18:16.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
in  connection  with  the  consj)iracy  of  Absa- 
lom, 2  Sam.  17:17,  and  afterwards  with 
that  of  Adonijah,  i  Kin.  1:9.  This  well  is 
situated  in  what  is  now  the  prettiest  and 
most  fertile  spot  around  Jerusalem.  It  is 
125  feet  deep,  with  50  feet  of  water,  or  at 


times  full  and  overflowing ;  it  is  walled  up 
with  large  squared  stones,  which  on  one 
side  rise  and  form  an  arch,  and  is  appar- 
ently of  great  antiquity.  Others,  however, 
now  identify  En-rogel  with  the  "  Foun- 
tain of  the  Virgin,"  a  living  spring  near 
the  road  to  Mount  Olivet,  higher  than  the 
King's  garden  which  was  watered  from  it, 
and  still  much  resorted  to  by  the  women  of 
Jerusalem  for  washing. 

EN-SHE'MESH,/«7/«^  of  the  sun,  in  the 
border  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  Josh.  15:7; 
18:17,  located  a  mile  below  Bethany,  to  the 
east. 

EN'SIGN,  a  signal,  or  beacon  on  a  hill- 
top. Num.  21:8,  9;  Isa.  13:2;  30:17;  Ezek. 
27:7.  Another  Hebrew  word,  generally 
translated  standard,  means  a  military  stand- 
ard, as  for  the  4  divisions  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  desert.  Num.  1:52;  2:2.  It  is  not 
supposed  that  these  were  flags,  but  em- 
blematic devices  in  wood  or  metal,  at  the 
top  of  a  pole — as  a  lion  for  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  an  eagle  for  Dan.  See  Abomina- 
tion. 

ENSUE',  follow  and  secure,  i  Pet.  3:11. 

ENTREAT'  is  often  used  in  the  Bible  in- 
158 


stead  of  treat.  Gen.  12:16;  Acts  27:3. 
Sometimes  it  means  prevail  upon,  Isa. 
19:22. 
EN'VY,  sometimes  hatred  or  ill-will. 
EPiE'NETUS,  praisiwortlir,  saluted  by- 
Paul  in  his  epistle  to  Rome,  Rom.  16:5,  and 
called  "  the  firstfruits  of  Achaia,"  that  is, 
one  of  his  first  converts  there.  Many  of 
the  best  manuscripts  and  versions  read 
Asia  instead  of  Achaia,  and  the  revised 
version  has  Asia. 

EP'APHRAS,  supposed  to  have  founded 
the  church  at  Colossae,  and  denominated 
by  Paul  his  "dear  fellow-servant,"  and  "a 
faithful  minister  of  Jesus  Christ,"  Col.  1:7; 
4:12.  He  was  for  a  time  an  inmate  of 
Paul's  house  at  Rome,  Phile.  23,  24. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS,  a  member  of  the 
church  at  Philippi,  charged  with  the  sup- 
plies from  that  church  for  the  relief  of 
Paul  while  imprisoned  at  Rome,  Phil.  2:25; 
4:18.  This  labor  of  love  brought  on  him 
a  serious  illness  at  Rome,  on  which  occa- 
sion we  see  how  much  he  was  esteemed 
and  beloved  both  by  Paul  and  the  Philip- 
pians,  Phil.  2:25-30.  On  his  return  he  was 
the  bearer  of  the  epistle  to  them. 

E'PHAH,  darkness,  I.,  a  measure  of  ca- 
pacity used  among  the  Hebrews,  contain- 
ing 3  pecks  and  3  pints.  The  ephah  was 
a  dry  measure,  as  of  barley,  Ruth  2:17; 
and  meal,  Num.  5:15;  Judg.  6:19;  and 
was  of  the  same  capacity  with  the  bath  in 
liquids.     See  Bath  and  Mk.\sures. 

II.  The  son  of  Midian,  and  grandson  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  25:4,  who  settled  and  gave 
his  name  to  a  region  in  Arabia  supposed  to 
have  been  near  Midian,  Isa.  60:6. 

Two  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  2:46,  47. 

E'PHER,  a  calf,  2d  son  of  Midian,  Gen. 
25:4;  I  Chr.  1:33.  His  location  is  un- 
known. Another  Epher  was  a  son  of  Ezra,, 
and  a  3d  was  head  of  a  family  in  Manas- 
seh,  east  of  Jordan,  i  Chr.  4:17;  5:24. 

E'PHES-DAM'MIM,  cessation  of  blood, 
where  David  slew  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17:1; 
called  Par-dammim  in  i  Chr.  11:13.  See 
Elah,  Socoh. 

EPHE'SIANS,  Epistle  to  the.  This 
epistle  was  written  by  Paul  at  Rome,  Acts 
28:16,  probably  A.  D.  62,  at  the  same  time 
with  that  to  the  Colossians,  which  it  greatly 
resembles,  and  both  being  sent  by  Tychi- 
cus.  Though  written  primarily  for  the 
church  he  himself  had  founded  and  long 
labored  with,  and  which  he  parted  from  so 
tenderly.  Acts  18:19;  19:1-20;  20:18-35, 
this  epistle  seems  to  have  been  intended 


FOUNTAIN  OF  THE  VIRGIN:   JERUSALEM. 


EPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EPH 


also  for  the  neighboring  churches,  and  is 
now  addressed  to  and  intelligible  by  every 
one  who  studies  it.  The  ist  part  of  it  is  a 
grateful  discourse  upon  the  vast  scheme 
of  divine  grace,  and  the  blessings  flowing 
from  it.  The  latter  part  inculcates  Chris- 
tian consistency  and  steadfastness,  and  a 


faithful  discharge  of  all  relative  duties.  It 
is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  valuable  of 
the  epistles,  having  a  singular  fulness  of 
matter,  depth  of  doctrine,  sublimity  of 
style,  and  warmth  of  emotion,  which  ren- 
der it  precious  to  the  Christian  of  every 
land. 


EPHESUS  AND   ITS   ENVIRONS 

I.  Grove  of  Diana.     2.  Temple  of  Diana.    4.  City 

8.  Theatre. 


Port.    5.  Great  Gymnasium.    6,  7.  Market-places. 
9.  Stadium. 


EPH'ESUS,  the  capital  of  Ionia,  a  cele- 
brated city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Cayster,  about  40  miles 
southeast  of  Smyrna.  It  was  celebrated 
for  the  worship  and  temple  of  Diana,  which 
last  was  one  of  the  7  wonders  of  the  world. 
See  Diana.  The  "  Ephesian  letters  "  or 
amulets  are  often  mentioned  by  classical 
writers,  and  the  "  magical  arts "  which 
Luke  also  refers  to,  books  of  magic  to  the 
value  of  $30,000  having  been  burned  by 
penitent  sorcerers.  Paul  first  visited  Eph- 
esus  about  A.  D.  54,  Acts  18:19,  21.  This 
ist  brief  visit  was  followed  by  a  longer  one 
towards  the  close  of  the  same  year,  and 


continuing  through  the  2  following  years, 
Acts  19:10;  20:31.  The  church  thus  early 
established,  enjoyed  the  labors  of  Aquila 
and  Priscilla,  of  Tychicus  and  Timothy. 
It  was  favored  with  one  of  the  best  of 
Paul's  epistles ;  its  elders  had  an  inter- 
view with  him  at  Miletus,  before  he  saw 
Rome,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  visited 
them  after  his  ist  imprisonment.  Among 
his  friends  here  were  Trophimus,  Tychi- 
cus, and  Onesiphorus;  and  his  enemies, 
Sceva,  Hymenaeus  and  Alexander,  Phy- 
gelus  and  Hermogenes.  Here  the  apostle 
John  is  said  to  have  spent  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  and  written  his  gospel  and  epis- 

159 


EPH 


BIBJ.E  DICTIONARY. 


EPH 


SITE   OF    KPHKSUS. 


ties ;  and  having  penned  Christ's  message 
to  them  in  the  isle  of  Patmos,  to  have  re- 
turned and  died  among  them.  Christ  gives 
the  church  at  Ephesus  a  high  degree  of 
praise,  coupled  with  a  solemn  warning, 
Rev.  2:1-5,  vvhich  seems  not  to  have  pre- 
vented its  final  extinction,  though  it  re- 
mained in  existence  600  years.  But  now 
its  candlestick  is  indeed  removed  out  of  its 
place.  The  site  of  that  great  and  opulent 
city  is  desolate.  Its  harbor  has  became  a 
pestilential  marsh ;  the  lovely  and  fertile 
level  ground  south  of  the  Cayster  now  lan- 
guishes under  Turkish  misrule;  and  the 
heights  upon  its  border  bear  only  shape- 
less ruins.  The  outlines  of  the  immense 
theatre.  Acts  19:29,  660  feet  in  diameter, 
yet  remain  in  the  solid  rock,  and  a  few 
remains  of  the  temple  of  Diana  have  been 
unearthed. 

EPH'OD,  an  ornamental  part  of  the  dress 
worn  by  the  Hebrew  priests.  It  was  worn 
above  the  tunic  and  the  robe  (incil),  was 
without  sleeves,  and  open  below  the  arms 
on  each  side,  consisting  of  2  pieces,  one  of 
which  covered  the  front  of  the  body  and 
the  other  the  back,  joined  together  on  the 
shoulders  by  golden  bvicklcs  set  with  gems, 
and  reaching  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
thigh.  A  girdle  was  inwoven  with  it,  by 
which  it  was  fastened  around  the  body, 
Exod.  28:6-12.  There  were  2  kinds  of 
ephod:  one  plain,  of  linen,  for  the  priests, 
I  Sam.  22:18;  another  for  the  high-priest, 
richly  embroidered,  and  with  golden  clasps 
and  rings  to  hold  in  place  the  12-gemmed 
breastplate.  Young  Samuel  wore  an  eph- 
160 


od,  though  only  a  Levite  and  a  child,  i  Sam. 
2:18.  David,  in  transferring  the  ark  to 
Jerusalem,  was  "girt  with  a  linen  ephod," 
2  Sam.  6:14.  The  Jews  had  a  peculiar 
superstitious  regard  for  this  garment,  and 
employed  it  in  connection  with  idolatrous 
worship.  Gideon's  ephod  became  a  snare 
to  Israel ;  and  Micah  made  one,  that  his 
idol  might  be  duly  worshipped,  Judg.  8:27; 
17:5;  18:17. 

EPH'PHATHA,  be  opened,  a  Syro-chal- 
daic  word,  which  our  Saviour  pronounced 
when  he  cured  one  deaf  and  dumb,  Mark 

7:34- 

E'PHRAIM,  double  fruitfulness,  the  2d 
son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath,  born  in  Egypt, 
Gen.  41:52.  Although  the  younger,  he  yet 
had  the  chief  prophetic  blessing  of  his 
grandfather  Jacob,  at  whose  death  he  was 
about  21  years  old;  and  his  tribe  was  al- 
ways more  distinguished  than  that  of  his 
brother  Manasseh,  Gen.  48:8-20;  Num. 
2:18-21.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  no- 
ble Joshua,  who  was  an  Ephraimite,  the 
tribe  rapidly  advanced  in  numbers  and  in- 
fluence. The  portion  of  Ephraim  was  large 
and  central,  and  embraced  some  of  the 
most  fertile  land  in  all  Canaan,  Deut. 33:13- 
17.  It  extended  from  the  Mediterranean 
across  to  the  Jordan,  north  of  the  portions 
of  Dan  and  Benjamin,  and  included  Shi- 
loh,  Shechem,  etc.  A  range  of  mountain- 
ous country  which  runs  through  it,  be- 
tween the  plain  of  Sharon  on  the  west  and 
the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east,  is  called 
"the  mountains  of  Ephraim,"  or  "Mount 
Ephraim."    This  extends  also  farther  south 


EPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EPI 


into  the  portion  of  Judah,  and  is  there 
called  "  the  mountains  of  Judah."  See 
Tribe.  This  ambitious  tribe  took  the  lead 
in  the  revolt  of  the  lo  tribes  froirt  Reho- 
boam,  and  indeed  formed  the  heart  and 
strength  of  the  new  nation  ;  Tirzah  and  Sa- 
maria, the  capitals,  were  within  its  bounds, 
and  the  name  of  Ephraim  was  often  used 
for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Israel,  Isa.  11:13; 
Jer.  31:6;  50:19.  Its  decline  and  fall  are 
most  touchingly  lamented  in  Hos.  11:1-8. 

The  FOREST  of  Ephraim,  where  Absa- 
lom lost  his  life,  was  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Jordan,  near  Mahanaim,  2  Sam.  18:6-8, 
still  a  well-wooded  region. 

The  TOWN  called  Ephraim,  to  which  the 
Saviour  withdrew  from  his  enemies,  John 
11:54,  was  probably  the  same  place  men- 
tioned in  2  Chr.  13:19,  and  called  Ophrah 
in  Josh.  18:23;  I  Sam.  13:17.  See  also 
2  Sam.  13:23.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the 
present  Taiyibeh,  on  a  hill  overlooking  the 
Jordan  valley,  5  miles  northeast  of  Bethel. 

EPH'RATH,  or  Eph'ratah,  frriitful,  I., 
the  2d  wife  of  Caleb,  and  mother  of  Hur, 
I  Chr.  2:19;  supposed  by  some  to  have 
given  her  name  to  the  city  of  Ephrath  or 
Bethlehem,  i  Chr.  2:50,  51 ;  4:4.  But  com- 
pare Gen.  35:16,  19;  48:7.  Elimelech  was 
an  Ephrathite  of  Bethlehem,  Ruth  1:2; 
4:11;  so  also  was  David,  i  Sam.  17:12. 

II.  A  name  of  Ephraim  and  Ephraim- 
ites,  I  Sam.  1:1;   i  Kin.  1 1 :  26 ;   Psa.  132:6. 

EPH'RON,yaze'«Mf,  a  Hittite  at  Hebron 
in  the  time  of  Abraham,  Gen.  23.  The 
charming  account  of  his  transaction  with 
Abraham — as  full  of  Oriental  compliments 
and  ceremony  as  those  of  to-day  in  the 
same  land,  and  much  fuller  of  sincerity — 
together  with  the  subsequent  mention  of 
his  name,  point  him  out  as  a  prince  in  the 
land. 

EPICURE'ANS,  a  celebrated  sect  of  an- 
cient Greek  philosophers.  They  were 
materialists,  and  virtually  atheists — believ- 
ing that  the  atoms  of  nature  existed  from 
eternity,  and  that  from  their  incidental 
union  all  things  are  formed,  both  visible 
and  invisible ;  and  that  the  gods,  wrapped 
in  eternal  repose,  have  nothing  to  do  with 
this  world.  They  denied  a  divine  Provi- 
dence and  man's  immortality,  and  believed 
there  was  no  after-judgment,  and  no  soul 
but  what  was  material,  like  the  body,  and 
perishable  with  it  at  death.  Their  rule  of 
life  was  self-gratification — the  pursuit  of 
pleasure,  properly  regulated  and  governed. 
Vicious  indulgences  were  condemned  only 
inasmuch  as  they  on  the  whole  lessen  one's 
II 


happiness.  Epicurus,  their  founder,  was  a 
learned  and  moral  man,  who  died  at  Ath- 
ens, B.  C.  271,  at  the  age  of  'j^.  His  fol- 
lowers, however,  easily  disregarded  the 
limitations  he  imposed,  and  pursued  pleas- 
ure without  restraint.'  At  Paul's  time  they 
had  become  exceedingly  corrupt,  and  of 
course  their  philosophy  and  their  life  both 
led  them  to  oppose  with  violence  his  great 
truths  concerning  God,  the  resurrection, 
and  the  judgment,  Acts  17:16-34. 

EPIS'TLE,  a  letter,  first  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Uriah,  2  Sam.  11:14;  and  then 
of  Jezebel,  i  Kin.  21:8,  9;  of  Elijah,  Heze- 
kiah,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  etc.  See  Letters. 
But  the  term  is  applied  particularly  to  the 
inspired  letters  in  the  New  Testament, 
written  by  the  apostles  on  various  occa- 
sions, to  approve,  condemn,  or  direct  the 
conduct  of  Christian  churches.  The  Holy 
Spirit  has  thus  provided  that  we  should 
have  the  great  doctrines  of  the  true  gospel 
not  only  historically  stated  by  the  evange- 
lists, but  applied  familiarly  to  the  various 
emergencies  of  daily  life.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  every  note  or  memorandum 
written  by  the  hands  of  the  apostles,  or  by 
their  direction,  was  divinely  inspired,  or 
meant  for  preservation  to  distant  ages. 
Compare  i  Cor.  5:9;  Col.  4:16.  Those 
only  have  been  preserved  by  the  over- 
ruling hand  of  Providence  which  were  so 
inspired,  and  from  which  useful  directions 
had  been  drawn,  and  might  in  after  ages 
be  drawn,  as  from  a  perpetual  directory, 
for  faith  and  practice — always  supposing 
that  similar  circumstances  require  similar 
directions.  In  reading  an  Epistle,  we  ought 
to  consider  the  occasion  of  it,  the  circum- 
stances and  relations  to  each  other  of  the 
writer  and  those  to  whom  it  was  addressed, 
the  time  when  written,  the  general  scope 
and  design  of  it,  as  well  as  the  intention  of 
particular  arguments  and  passages.  We 
ought  also  to  observe  the  style  and  man- 
ner of  the  writer,  his  modes  of  expression, 
the  peculiar  effect  he  designed  to  produce 
on  those  to  whom  he  wrote,  to  whose  tem- 
per, manners,  general  principles,  and  ac- 
tual situation  he  might  address  his  argu- 
ments, etc. 

Of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  21 
are  epistles;  14  of  them  by  Paul,  i  by 
James,  2  by  Peter,  3  by  John,  and  i  by 
Jude.  Being  placed  in  our  canon  without 
reference  to  their  chronological  order,  they 
are  perused  under  considerable  disadvan- 
tages ;  and  it  would  be  well  to  study  them 
occasionally  in   connection  with  what  the 

161 


ER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EST 


history  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  relates 
respecting  the  several  churches  to  which 
they  are  addressed.  This  would  also  give 
us  nearly  their  order  of  time,  which  should 
also  be  considered,  together  with  the  situ- 
ation of  the  writer;  as  it  may  naturally 
be  inferred  that  such  compositions  would 
partake  of  the  writer's  recent  and  present 
feelings.  The  epistles  addressed  to  the 
dispersed  Jews  by  John  and  James,  by 
Peter  and  Jude,  are  very  different  in  their 
style  and  application  from  those  of  Paul 
written  to  the  Gentiles ;  and  those  of  Paul 
no  doubt  contain  expressions  and  allude  to 
facts  much  more  familiar  to  their  original 
readers  than  to  later  ages.     See  P.\ul. 

ER,  watchful,  son  of  Judah  and  a  Ca- 
naanite  woman,  Gen.  38:3,  7,  slain  by  the 
Lord,  I  Chr.  2:3. 

ERAS'TUS,  beloved,  a  Christian  friend 
and  fellow-laborer  of  Paul,  a  Corinthian, 
and  chamberlain — that  is,  steward  or  treas- 
urer— of  the  city.  He  followed  Paul  to 
Ephesus,  and  attended  Timothy  in  a  mis- 
sion to  Macedonia,  Acts  19:22.  He  was  at 
Corinth  when  Paul  wrote  to  the  Romans, 
16:23;  and  remained  there  when  Paul  went 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  2  Tim.  4:20. 

E'RECH,  length,  one  of  Nimrod's  cities 
in  the  plain  of  Shinar,  Gen.  10:10.  Its 
probable  site  is  found  in  the  mounds  of 
primeval  ruins  now  called  Warka,  a  few 
miles  east  of  the  Euphrates,  midway  be- 
tween Babylon  and  the  junction  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

ESA'IAS,  the  Greek  New  Testament  form 
of  Isaiah. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON,  victor,  son  of  Sennach- 
erib, and  his  successor  as  king  of  Assyria, 
2  Kin.  19:37;  Isa.  T)T.2>i,  B.  C.  680-667.  It 
is  only  said  of  him  in  Scripture  that  he  sent 
colonists  to  Samaria,  Ezra  4:2,  but  he  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Assyri- 
an kings.  The  stone-records  state  that  he 
built  a  magnificent  palace  at  Babylon,  and 
made  it  his  joint  capital  with  Nineveh,  and 
hither,  not  to  Nineveh,  though  this  would 
otherwise  have  been  expected  from  an  As- 
syrian king,  his  generals  brought  Manas- 
seh  king  of  Judah  as  a  captive  for  a  time, 
2  Chr.  33:  II ;  also  that  he  captured  Thebes, 
Nah.  3:8-10,  and  all  Western  Asia. 

E'SAU,  hirsute,  the  son  of  Isaac,  and 
twin  brother  of  Jacob,  Gen.  25.  He  was 
the  elder  of  the  two,  and  was  therefore 
legally  the  heir,  but  sold  his  birthright  to 
Jacob.  We  have  an  account  of  his  ill-ad- 
vised marriages.  Gen.  26:34;  6f  his  loss  of 
his  father's  chief  blessing,  and  his  conse- 
162 


quent  anger  against  Jacob,  Gen.  27 ;  of 
their  subsequent  reconciliation.  Gen.  32 ; 
2,T, ;  and  of  his  posterity.  Gen.  36.  He  is 
also  called  Edom  ;  and  settled  in  the  moun- 
tains south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  extending  to 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  where  he  became  very 
powerful.  This  country  was  called  from 
him  the  land  of  Edom,  and  in  Greek  Idu- 
MyE.\,  which  see  ;  also  Jacob. 

ESCHEW,  shun,  Job  1:1,  8;  i  Pet.  3:11. 

ESDRAE'LON,  PLAIN  OF.    See  Jezreel. 

ESH'BAAL,  Baal's  man,  I  Chr.  8:33,  the 
4th  son  of  Saul,  generally  called  Ishbo- 
sheth.  The  word  Baal,  the  name  of  an 
idol,  was  not  pronounced  by  scrupulous 
Jews;  they  substituted  Bosheth,  con/u- 
sion.  For  Meribbaal  they  said  Mephibo- 
sheth,  etc.     See  Ishbosheth. 

ESH'COL,  a  cluster,  I.,  an  Amorite  prince 
near  Hebron,  who  joined  Abraham  in  pur- 
suing the  eastern  host  who  had  ravaged 
Sodom  and  taken  Lot  captive.  Gen.  14:13, 
14. 

II.  The  small  and  well-watered  valley 
from  which  the  Hebrew  spies  obtained  the 
specimen  of  grapes  which  they  suspended 
from  a  staff  borne  by  2  men  for  safe  car- 
riage to  Moses,  Num.  13:22-27;  32:9;  Deut. 
1:24.  This  valley  is  believed  to  be  one 
which  closelj-  adjoins  Hebron  on  the  north, 
and  still  furnishes  the  finest  grapes  in  the 
country,  as  well  as  pomegranates,  figs, 
olives,  etc. 

ESH'TAOL,  a  pass,  a  town  on  the  west- 
ern border  of  Judah,  afterwards  given  to 
Dan,  Josh.  15:33;  19:41-  It  is  named  in 
the  history  of  Samson,  Judg.  13:25;  16:31. 

ESHTEMO'A,  obedience,  a  city  of  the 
priests  in  Judah,  Josh.  15:50;  21:14;  i  Sam. 
30:28;  traced  by  Robinson  in  the  modern 
village  Semua,  9  miles  south  of  Hebron. 

ESPOU'SALS.  See  Betrothing,  Mar- 
riage. 

ESTATE',  or  STATE,  usually  a  settled 
condition  in  life,  i  Chr.  17:17;  Esth.  1:19; 
Luke  1:48;  Rom.  12:16;  Jude  6.  Some- 
times a  special  class  or  official  body  of 
men,  Mark  6:21;  Acts  22:5. 

ES'THER,  star,  a  Persian  name  of  Ha- 
dassah,  myrtle,  a  daughter  of  Abihail,  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  The  family  had 
not  returned  to  Judiea  after  the  permission 
given  by  Cyrus,  and  she  was  born  proba- 
bly beyond  the  Tigris,  and  nearly  500  B.  C. 
Her  parents  being  dead,  Mordecai,  her 
excellent  cousin,  took  care  of  her  educa- 
tion. See  Adoption.  After  Ahasuerus 
had  divorced  Vashti,  he  selected  Esther  as 
queen,  and  married  her  with  royal  mag- 


ETA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ETH 


nificence,  bestowing  largesses  and  remis- 
sions of  tribute  on  his  people.  Slie  was 
thus  in  a  position  which  enabled  her  5 
years  afterwards  to  do  a  signal  favor  to 
her  people,  then  very  numerous  in  Persia. 
Their  deliverance  is  still  celebrated  by  the 
Jews  in  the  yearly  festival  called  Purim, 
which  was  instituted  at  that  time.  The 
husband  of  Esther  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  Xerxes  of  secular  history. 

Esther,  the  book  of,  has  always  been 
esteemed  canonical,  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians,  though  certain  additions  to  it, 
found  in  some  versions  and  manuscripts, 
are  apocryphal.  Who  was  its  writer  is  not 
certainly  known.  It  has  been  ascribed  to 
Ezra,  to  a  high-priest  named  Jehoiakim, 
and  to  Mordecai.  This  last  opinion  is  sup- 
ported by  the  internal  evidence ;  the  book 
having  tvery  appearance  of  having  been 
written  in  Persia,  by  an  eye-witness  of  the 
scenes  it  describes.  It  presents  a  graphic 
picture  of  the  Persian  court  and  customs, 
and  is  intensely  Jewish  in  its  spirit.  The 
-chief  value  of  the  book  is  to  illustrate  the 
wonder-working  providence  of  God,  his 
control  of  human  passions,  his  righteous 
judgment  of  sinners,  and  his  care  for  his 
covenant  people — whom,  even  when  cap- 
tives in  a  strange  land,  he  can  e.xalt  above 
all  their  foes.  Yet  the  name  of  God  is  not 
■once  mentioned  in  it. 

E'TAM,  lair,  I.,  a  town  in  Judah  near 
Bethlehem  and  Tekoa ;  a  favorite  resort  of 
Solomon,  and  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  i  Chr. 
4:3;  2  Chr.  11:6.  Located  at  Urtas,  or 
perhaps  at  'Ain  Atan,  south  of  Solomon's 
Pools.  "The  rock  Etam"  to  which  Sam- 
son withdrew,  Judg.  15:8-19,  may  have 
been  in  this  vicinity,  or  on  the  north  of 
Eshtaol,  where  caverns  and  rock  tunnels 
are  found. 

II.  There  seems  to  have  been  another 
Etam,  I  Chr.  4:32,  in  Simeon. 

ETER'NAL.     See  Everlasting. 

E'THAM,  limit  of  the  sea,  a  station  of  the 
Israelites  on  their  way  out  of  Egypt,  Exod. 
13:20;  Num.  33:6.  It  lay  near  the  head 
of  the  west  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  near  Ismai- 
lia  on  the  Suez  canal,  and  the  wilderness 
east  of  it  was  often  called  by  the  same 
name. 

E'THAN,  constant,  I.,  one  of  4  men  re- 
nowned for  wisdom,  though  excelled  by  Sol- 
omon, I  Kin.  4:31 ;  i  Chr.  2:6.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  son  of  Zerah  or  Ezra,  and 
grandson  of  the  patriarch  Judah,  Psa.  89. 

II.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kishi,  and  one  of  the 
3  masters  of  the  temple  music,  i  Chr.  6:44; 


15: 17-19.  He  would  seem  to  be  the  same 
asjeduthun,  i  Chr.  25:1;  2  Chr.  35:15. 

ETH'ANIM,  constantly  flowing ,  a  month 
so  named  before  the  captivity,  because  the 
autumnal  rains  then  begin  to  fill  the  dry 
river  channels.  It  was  afterwards  called 
Tishri,  and  answers  nearly  to  our  October, 
often  including  part  of  September.  It  was 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  year.  On  this 
month  Solomon's  temple  was  dedicated, 
I  Kin.  8:2.     See  Tishri  and  Expiation. 

ETH'BAAL,  with  Baal,  king  of  Zidon, 
and  usurper  of  the  throne  of  Tyre,  B.  C. 
940-908.     Jezebel  was  his  daughter. 

ETHIO'PIA,  burnt  faces,  one  of  the  great 
kingdoms  in  Africa,  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  Scripture  under  the  name  of  Cush, 
which  see.  Ethiopia  proper  lay  south  of 
Egypt,  on  the  Nile ;  and  was  bounded  north 
by  Egypt,  at  the  cataracts  near  Syene ;  east 
by  the  Red  Sea,  and  perhaps  a  part  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  south  by  the  regions  of  the 
Blue  and  White  Nile ;  and  west  by  Libya 
and  deserts.  It  comprehended  the  modern 
countries  of  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and  Abys- 
sinia. It  chief  city  was  IMeroe,  on  the  isl- 
and or  tract  of  the  same  name,  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Astaboras,  now  the  Tacazze, 
not  far  from  the  modern  Shendi,  Isa.  18 ; 
Zeph.  3: 10. 

The  name  of  Seba  was  given  to  the  north- 
ern part  of  Ethiopia,  afterwards  Meroe,  by 
the  eldest  son  of  Cush,  Gen.  10:7.  This 
country  was  in  some  parts  mountainous, 
and  in  others  sandy ;  but  was  to  a  great 
extent  well-watered  and  fertile.  Ebony, 
ivory,  spices,  gold,  and  precious  stones 
were  among  its  articles  of  traffic.  Its  his- 
tory is  much  involved  with  that  of  Egypt, 
and  the  2  countries  are  often  mentioned 
together  in  the  Bible,  Isa.  20:3-6;  43:3; 
45:14;  Ezek.  30;  Dan.  11:43. 

Zerah  "the  Ethiopian"  who  invaded  Ju- 
dah in  the  reign  of  Asa,  B.  C.  944,  2  Chr. 
14:9-15,  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
an  Egyptian  king  of  an  Ethiopian  dynasty ; 
by  others,  to  have  been  a  king  of  Ethiopia 
on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea ;  that  is,  of 
the  Arabian  as  well  as  African  Cush.  This 
would  explain  how  he  could  obtain  access 
to  the  land  of  Palestine  without  passing 
through  Egypt.  But  the  whole  question  is 
involved  in  uncertainty.  The  Ethiopian 
queen  Candace,  whose  treasurer  is  men- 
tioned in  Acts  8:27,  was  probably  queen 
of  Meroe,  where  a  succession  of  females 
reigned  who  all  bore  this  name.  As  this 
courtier  is  said  to  have  gone  up  to  Jerusa- 
lem "to  worship,"  he  was  probably  a  Jew 

163 


EUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EUP 


by  religion,  if  not  by  birth.  There  appear 
to  have  been  many  Jews  in  that  country. 
The  gospel  gained  adherents  among  them; 
and  early  in  the  4th  centur}-  the  entire  Li- 
ble  was  translated  into  the  ancient  Ethiopic 
language,  from  the  (ireek.    . 

The  Ethiopia  of  (ien.  2:13  is  not  Ethio- 
pia in  Africa,  but  one  of  the  regions  in  the 
East,  called  in  Hebrew  CusH. 

EVBU'I^VS,  pritdenl,  2  Tim.  4:21. 

EU'NICE,  ^ooil  vicioiy,  the  mother  of 
Timothy  and  daughter  of  Lois.  A  Jewess, 
though  her  husband  was  a  Greek,  Acts 
16:1;  2  Tim.  1:5,  she  transmitted  to  her 
son  the  lessons  of  truth  she  herself  had  re- 
ceived from  a  pious  mother. 

EU'NUCH,  bed-kcepcr,  in  charge  of  the 
interior  apartments  of  Eastern  palaces  ; 
often  the  tools  of  their  masters  for  all  sorts 
of  vice  and  crime.  But  the  word  often  de- 
notes merely  a  court  officer.  Such  were 
Potiphar,  Joseph's  master,  Gen.  39:17,  and 
the  treasurer  of  queen  Candace,  Acts  8:27. 
Our  Saviour  speaks  of  some  who  volunta- 
rily abstained  from  marriage,  in  order  more 
effectually  to  labor  for  the  kingdom  of  God, 
Matt.  19:12;  and  the  apostle  Paul  com- 
mends the  same  abstinence  in  certain  ex- 
ceptional cases  in  times  of  persecution, 
I  Cor.  7:26,  27.    See  Gaza. 

'EMO'Ti\K,ffood journey.    See  Syntyche. 

EUPHRA'TES,  copious,  a  famous  river  of 
Asia,  which  has  its  sources  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Armenia,  one  near  Ararat  and  the 
other  near  Erzeroum,  runs  along  the  fron- 
tiers of  Cappadocia,  Syria,  Arabia  Deserta, 
Chaldaea,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  falls  into 
the  Persian  Gulf.  It  re- 
ceives the  Tigris  at  a  place 
called  Kurnah,  the  united 
stream  being  called  Shat- 
el-Arab.  Five  miles  below, 
the  Shat-el-Arab  receives 
from  the  northeast  the  Ker- 
khah,  which  has  a  course 
of  upwards  of  500  miles. 
Sixty-two  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Kerkhah,  an- 
other large  river,  the  Ku- 
ran,  comes  in  from  the  east. 
At  present  it  enters  the 
Shat-el-Arab  40  miles  above 
its  mouth  ;  but  formerly  it 
flowed  into  the  Persian  Gulf 
by  a  separate  channel,  east 
of  the  main  stream.  According  to  the  view 
which  places  the  garden  of  Eden  near  the 
junction  of  the  Tigris  with  the  Euphrates, 
these  might  be  regarded  as  the  4  rivers  of 
164 


Paradise.  Scripture  often  calls  the  Eu- 
phrates simply  "the  river,"  Exod.  23:31; 
Isa.  7:20  ;  8:7;  Jer.  2:18;  or  "  the  great  riv- 
er," and  assigns  it  for  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  that  land  which  God  promised  to 
the  Hebrews,  Deut.  1:7;  Josh.  1:4.  It  over- 
flows in  summer,  when  the  snow  on  the 
mountains  of  Armenia  begins  to  melt.  The 
nearest  springs  of  this  river  and  the  Tigris 
are  but  a  few  miles  apart. 

The  Euphrates  is  a  river  of  consequence 
in  Scripture  geograph\',  being  the  utmost 
limit,  east,  of  the  territory  of  the  Israel- 
ites. It  was  indeed  only  occasionally  that 
the  dominion  of  the  Hebrews  extended  so 
far;  but  it  would  appear  that  even  Egypt, 
under  Pharaoh-necho,  made  conquests  to 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  The 
river  is  about  1,800  miles  long.  Its  general 
direction  is  southeast;  but  in  a  part  of  its 
course  it  runs  westerly,  and  approaches 
the  Mediterranean  near  Cilicia.  It  is  ac- 
companied in  its  general  course  by  the 
Tigris.  There  are  man\'  towns  on  its 
banks,  which  are  in  general  rather  level 
than  mountainous.  The  river  does  not 
appear  to  be  of  very  great  breadth,  vary- 
ing, however,  from  60  to  6o<j  yards.  Its 
ordinary  current,  after  reaching  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia,  is  somewhat  sluggish — 
3^  miles  an  hour — and  in  this  part  of  its 
course  many  canals,  etc.,  were  dug,  to  pre- 
vent injury  and  secure  benefit  from  the 
yearly  overflows.  At  Seleucia,  and  Hilleh 
the  ancient  Babylon,  it  approaches  near  the 
Tigris,  and  some  of  its  waters  are  drawn 
off  by  canals  to  the  latter  river.     Again, 


A  GOAT-SKIN  FLOAT. 


however,  they  diverge,  and  only  unite  in 
the  same  channel  about  120  miles  from  the 
Persian  Gulf.  It  is  not  well  adapted  for 
navigation,  yet  light  vessels  go  up   about 


EUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXC 


1,000  miles,  and  the  modern  steamboat, 
which  now  ascends  from  the  ocean,  meets 
■  the  same  kind  of  goat-skin  floats  on  which 
produce  was  rafted  down  the  river  thou- 
sands of  years  ago. 

EUROC'LYDON,  the  wave-stirring  easi- 
er, R.  V.  EuRAQUiLO,  a  tempestuous  wind 
which  came  down  on  Paul's  ship  on  the 
south  shore  of  Crete,  and  at  length  wrecked 
her  on  Malta,  Acts  27.  Its  course  then  was 
east-northeast.  It  would  now  be  called 
there  a  Levanter. 

EU'TYCHUS,  fortunate,  a  young  man 
who  was  killed  at  Troas  by  falling  from 
the  window  of  a  room  in  the  3d  story, 
where  Paul  was  preaching.  His  life  was 
miraculously  restored.  Acts  20:6-12. 

EVAN'GELIST,  one  who  proclaims  good 
7iews,  either  by  preaching  or  writing.  There 
were  orginally  evangelists  or  preachers 
who,  without  being  fixed  to  any  church, 
preached  wherever  they  were  led  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  like  some  missionaries  in  our 
own  day,  Eph.  4:11.  Such  was  Philip,  Acts 
21 : 8.  Timothy  also  is  exhorted  to  "  do  the 
work  of  an  evangelist,"  2  Tim.  4:5.  We 
commonly  call  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
John  "  the  Evangelists,"  because  they  were 
the  writers  of  the  4  gospels,  which  bring 
to  men  the  glad  tidings  of  eternal  salva- 
tion.    Wickliffe  calls  them  "  gospellers." 

EVE,  liz'i}ig.  Gen.  3:20,  the  first  mother 
of  our  race,  and  the  cause  of  our  fall.  Her 
history  is  so  closely  connected  with  that  of 
Adam  that  the  remarks  made  in  the  arti- 
cle Adam  apply  also  to  her.  She  was  made, 
we  are  told  in  Gen.  2:18-22,  both  /or  man 
and  of  him  ;  subordinate  and  weaker,  and 
yet  to  be  loved  as  his  own  body.  The  his- 
tory of  woman  in  all  ages  has  been  a  stri- 
king fulfilment  of  the  distinct  penalties 
pronounced  upon  her,  Gen.  3:16,  and  of 
the  promises  made  to  her,  Gen.  3:15.  See 
also  2  Cor.  11:3;  i  Tim.  2:13. 

EVE'NING.  The  Hebrews  reckoned  2 
evenings  in  each  day ;  as  in  the  phrase 
"between  the  two  evenings,"  Exod.  12:6; 
Num.  9:3;  28:4,  margin.  In  this  interval 
the  passover  was  to  be  killed,  and  the  daily 
evening  sacrifice  offered,  Exod.  29:39-41, 
Hebrew.  According  to  the  Caraites,  this 
is  the  interval  from  sunset  to  complete 
darkness,  that  is,  the  evening  twilight. 
Compare  Deut.  16:6;  Psa.  59:6.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Pharisees  and  the  rabbins,  the 
first  evening  began  when  the  sun  began  to 
descend  more  rapidly,  that  is,  at  the  9th 
hour;  while  the  second  or  real  evening 
commenced  at  sunset.     See  Day. 


EVERLAST'ING,  ETER'NAL.  The  He- 
brew OLAM,  world,  and  the  Greek  aion, 
age,  in  various  forms  (often  "  for  ever  and 
ever,"  to  the  ages  of  the  ages),  denote  long- 
continued  duration,  usually  without  fixed 
end.  As  applied  to  certain  things  known 
to  be  transitory,  they  do  not  preclude  the 
idea  of  an  end,  though  long  continuance  is 
the  thought  conveyed,  as  in  Gen.  17:13,  19; 
49:26.  But  as  applied  to  God  and  his  attri- 
butes they  imply  absolutely  limitless  dura- 
tion, Psa.  90:2;  145:13;  Isa.  40:28;  Dan. 
4:3,34;  Heb.  1:8;  9:14.  The  phrase  "  for 
ever  and  ever "  is  used  20  times  in  the 
New  Testament.  In  16  of  these  it  is  spo- 
ken of  God  himself,  in  one  case  of  the  fu- 
ture bliss  of  the  redeemed,  and  in  two  of 
the  future  woe  of  the  ungodly — all  alike 
unending.  The  decisions  of  the  judgment 
day  are  final,  in  regard  to  both,  Matt.  25:46; 
I  John  3:15;  5:11. 

E'VIL-MERO'DACH,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon, 
B.  C.  561.  His  friendly  treatment  of  Jehoi- 
achin  the  captive  king  of  Judah,  in  relea- 
sing him  from  prison  and  variously  distin- 
guishing him  above  other  captives,  is  men- 
tioned to  his  praise,  2  Kin.  25:27;  Jer. 
52:31-34.  His  reign  and  life  were  cut  short 
by  a  conspiracy,  headed  by  Neriglissar  his 
sister's  husband,  who  succeeded  him,  B.  C. 

559- 

EXCEED'ING,  EX'CELLENT,  surpassing 
description.  Gen.  15:1;  2  Sam.  8:8;  Job 
37:23  ;   Dan.  2:31  ;  2  Pet.  i  :i7. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION,  an  ecclesiastical 
penalty,  bj'  which  they  who  incur  the  guilt 
of  any  heinous  sin  are  separated  from  the 
church,  and  deprived  of  its  spiritual  ad- 
vantages. Thus  the  Jews  "  put  out  of  the 
synagogue"  those  they  deemed  unwortliy, 
John  9:22;  12:42;  16:2.  There  were  sev- 
eral degrees  of  excommunication  among 
them :  one  a  temporary  and  partial  exclu- 
sion from  ecclesiastical  privileges,  and 
from  society ;  the  last,  a  complete  excision 
from  the  covenant  people  of  God  and  their 
numerous  privileges,  and  abandonment  to 
eternal  perdition.     See  Anathema. 

The  right  and  duty  of  excommunication 
when  necessary  were  recognized  in  the 
Christian  church  by  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles. Matt.  18:15-18;  I  Cor.  5:1-13;  16:22; 
Gal.  5:12;  I  Tim.  1:20;  Titus  3:10.  The 
offender,  found  guilty  and  incorrigible,  was 
to  be  excluded  from  the  Lord's  Supper  and 
cut  off  from  the  body  of  believers.  This 
excision  from  Christian  fellowship  does  not 
release  one  from  any  obligation  to  obey 

165 


EXE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


the  law  of  God  and  the  gospel  of  Christ ; 
nor  exempt  him  from  any  relative  duties, 
as  a  man  or  a  citizen.  The  censure  of  the 
church,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  to  be  ac- 
companied, as  among  papists,  with  enmity, 
curses,  and  persecution.  It  implies  a  with- 
drawal from  those  offices  of  civility  and  fra- 
ternity which  a  man  is  at  liberty  to  pay  or 
to  withhold,  but  not  from  the  indispensable 
duties  of  humanity,  founded  on  nature,  the 
law  of  nations,  and  the  spirit  of  Christian- 
ity, 2  Thess.  3:6,  15;  2  John  10,  11. 

EXECU'TIONER,  Mark  6:27,  soldier  of 
the  guard. 

EX'ODUS,  going  out,  the  name  of  the  2d 
book  of  Moses  and  of  the  Bible,  which  nar- 
rates the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt.  It  continues  the  wonderful  and 
important  history  begun  in  Genesis,  now 
assuming  a  national  rather  than  personal 
or  family  form,  and  rehearsing  the  steps 
which  led  on  the  establishment  of  the  He- 
brew Theocracy.  It  was  evidently  written 
by  an  eye-witness,  and  comprises  a  period 
of  about  145  years,  from  the  death  of  Jo- 
seph to  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  in 
the  desert,  A.  M.  2369-2514.  The  various 
topics  of  the  book  may  be  thus  presented : 
(i.)  The  oppression  of  the  Israelites,  under 
the  change  of  dynasty  which  sprung  up 
after  the  death  of  Joseph.  (2.)  The  youth, 
education,  patriotism,  and  flight  of  Moses, 
ch.  2-6.  (3.)  The  commission  of  Moses, 
the  perversity  of  Pharaoh,  and  the  inflic- 
tion of  the  10  plagues  in  succession,  ch. 
7-1 1.  (4.)  The  institution  of  the  Passover, 
the  sudden  departure  of  the  Israelites,  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  thanksgiv- 
ing of  Moses  and  the  people  on  the  oppo- 
site shore,  after  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh 
and  his  host,  ch.  12-15.  (5-)  The  narration 
of  various  miracles  wrought  in  behalf  of 
the  people  during  their  journeyings  to- 
wards Sinai,  ch.  15-17.  (6.)  The  promul- 
gation of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai.  This 
includes  the  preparation  of  the  people  by 
Moses,  and  the  promulgation,  first  of  the 
moral  law,  then  of  the  judicial  law,  and 
subsequently  of  the  ceremonial  law,  inclu- 
ding the  instructions  for  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle  and  the  completion  of  that  house 
of  God,  ch.  19-40. 

The  scope  of  the  book  is  not  only  to  pre- 
serve the  memorial  of  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt,  but  to  present  to 
view  the  church  of  God  in  her  afllictions 
and  triumphs;  to  point  out  the  providen- 
tial care  of  God  over  her,  and  the  judg- 
ments inflicted  on  her  enemies.  It  clearly 
166 


shows  the  accomplishment  of  the  divine 
promises  and  prophecies  delivered  to  Abra- 
ham :  that  his  posterity  would  be  numer- 
ous. Gen.  15:5;  17:4-6;  46:27;  Num.  1:1-3, 
46;  and  that  they  should  be  afflicted  in  a 
land  not  their  own,  whence  they  should 
depart  in  the  4th  generation  with  great 
substance.  Gen.  15:13-16;  Exod.  12:40,41. 
Their  exodus  in  many  particulars  well  illus- 
trates the  beginning,  progress,  and  end  of 
the  believer's  salvatiini,  and  the  history  of 
Christ's  church  in  the  wilderness  of  this 
world,  until  her  arrival  in  the  heavenly 
Canaan.  See  i  Cor.  10;  and  also  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews.  The  book  of  Exodus 
brings  before  us  many  and  singular  types 
of  Christ:  Moses,  Deut.  18:15;  Aaron,  Heb. 
4:14-16;  5:4,  5;  the  paschal  lamb,  Exod. 
12:46;  John  19:36;  I  Cor.  5:7,  8;  the  man- 
na, Exod.  16:15;  I  Cor.  10:3;  the  rock  in 
Horeb,  Exod.  17:6;  i  Cor.  10:4.;  the  mercy- 
seat,  Exod.  37:6;  Rom.  3:25;  Heb.  4:16; 
the  tabernacle,  Exod.  40,  "  The  Word  tab- 
ernacled among  us,"  John  i :  14. 

This  departure  from  Egypt,  and  the  sub- 
sequent wanderings  of  the  children  of  Is- 
rael in  the  desert,  form  one  of  the  great 
epochs  in  their  history.  They  were  con- 
stantly led  by  Jehovah,  and  the  whole  se- 
ries of  events  is  a  constant  succession  of 
miracles.  From  their  breaking  up  at  Ram- 
eses,  to  their  arrival  on  the  confines  of  the 
promised  land,  there  was  an  interval  of  40 
years,  during  which  one  whole  generation 
passed  away,  and  the  whole  Mosaic  law 
was  given,  and  sanctioned  by  the  thunders 
and  lightnings  of  Sinai.  There  is  no  por- 
tion of  history  extant  which  so  displays 
the  interposition  of  an  overruling  Provi- 
dence in  the  affairs  both  of  nations  and  of 
individuals,  as  that  which  recounts  these 
wanderings  of  Israel. 

The  430  years  referred  to  in  Exod.  12:40, 
date,  according  to  the  received  chronol- 
ogy, from  the  time  when  the  promise  was 
made  to  Abraham,  Gen.  15:13.  From  the 
arrival  of  Jacob  in  Egypt,  to  the  exodus  of 
his  posterity,  was  about  215  years.  The 
75  souls  had  now  become  600,000,  besides 
women,  children,  and  old  men.  They  took 
with  them  great  numbers  of  cattle,  and 
much  Egyinian  spoil.  It  was  only  by  the 
mighty  hand  of  (iod  that  their  deliverance 
was  effected  ;  and  each  of  the  miracles  ex- 
ecuted judgment  on  the  beastly  gods  of  the 
people,  Exod.  12:12,  while  the  death  of  the 
firstborn  in  each  house  must  have  seemed 
to  them  an  avenging  of  their  slaughter  of 
the  Hebrew  infants,  Exod.  12:12. 


EXO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


After  the  loth  and  decisive  plague  had 
been  sent,  the  Israelites  were  dismissed 
from  Egypt  in  haste.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  been  assembled  at  Rameses,  a 
chief  city  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  about  50 
miles  northwest  of  Suez,  on  the  ancient 
canal  which  united  the  Nile  with  the  Red 
Sea.  They  set  off  on  the  15th  day  of  the 
ist  month,  the  day  after  the  Passover,  that 
is,  about  the  middle  of  April.  Their  course 
was  southeast  as  far  as  Etham ;  but  then, 
instead  of  keeping  on  directly  to  Sinai, 
they  turned  to  the  south,  Exod.  14:2,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  they 
reached  3  days  after  starting,  probably 
near  Suez.  Here,  by  means  of  a  strong 
east  wind,  God  miraculously  divided  the 
waters  of  the  sea  in  such  a  way  that  the 
Israelites  passed  over  the  bed  of  it  on  dry 
ground  ;  while  the  Egyptians,  who  attempt- 
ed to  follow  them,  were  drowned  by  the 


returning  waters.  The  arm  of  the  sea  at 
Suez  is  now  only  3  or  4  miles  wide,  and  at 
low  water  may  iDe  forded.  It  is  known  to 
have  been  formerly  wider  and  deeper;  but 
the  drifting  sands  of  ages  have  greatly 
filled  and  altered  it.  The  miracle  here 
wrought  was  an  amazing  one,  and  revealed 
the  hand  of  God  more  signally  than  any  of 
the  10  plagues  had  done.  It  should  here 
be  stated,  also,  that  some  geographers  think 
this  miracle  took  place  below  Mount  Ata- 
kah,  8  or  10  miles  south  of  Suez,  where 
the  sea  is  about  6  miles  wide.  This  opin- 
ion is  liable  to  several  objections,  though 
it  cannot  be  proved  to  be  false.  At  this 
late  day  the  precise  locality  may  be  undis- 
coverable,  like  the  point  of  a  soul's  transi- 
tion from  the  bondage  of  Satan  into  the 
kingdom  of  God;  but  in  both  cases  the 
work  is'  of  God,  and  the  glory  of  it  is  his 
alone. 

167 


EXO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXP 


Having  offered  thanksgiving  to  God  for 
their  wonderful  deliverance,  the  Israelites 
advanced  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  through  the  valleys  and  des- 
ert to  Mount  Sinai.  This  part  of  their  route 
may  be  readily  traced,  and  Marah,  Elini, 
and  the  desert  of  Sin  have  been  with  much 
probability  identified.  They  arrived  at 
Mount  Sinai  in  the  3d  month,  or  June,  prob- 
ably near  the  beginning  of  it,  having  been 
1%  months  on  their  journey.  Here  the  law 
was  given,  and  here  they  abode  during  all 
the  transactions  recorded  in  the  remainder 
of  Exodus,  in  Leviticus,  and  in  the  first  9 
chapters  of  Numbers,  that  is,  until  the  20th 
day  of  the  2d  month  (May)  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  a  period  of  about  11  months. 

Breaking  up  at  this  time  from  Sinai,  they 
marched  northwards  through  the  desert  of 
Paran,  or  perhaps  along  the  eastern  arm  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  north  through  El-Arabah, 
to  Kadesh-barnea,  near  the  southeast  bor- 
der of  Canaan.  Rephidim  near  Mount  Si- 
nai, and  Taberah,  Kibroth-hattaavah,  and 
Hazeroth,  on  their  journey  north,  were  the 
scenes  of  incidents  which  may  be  found 
described  under  their  sevefal  heads.  From 
Kadesh-barnea,  spies  were  sent  out  to  view 
the  promised  land,  and  brought  back  an 
evil  report,  probably  in  August  of  the  same 
year.  The  jieojile  murmured,  and  were  di- 
rected by  Jehovah  to  turn  back  and  wander 
in  the  desert,  until  the  carcasses  of  that 
generation  should  all  fall  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Num.  14:25.  This  they  did,  wander- 
ing from  one  station  to  another  in  the  great 
desert  of  Paran,  lying  south  of  Palestine, 
and  also  in  the  great  sandy  valley  called 
El-Ghor  and  chiefly  El-Arabah,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  fiulf  of 
Akaba,  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea. 
See  JORD.4N.  Where  and  how  these  long 
years  were  spent  we  are  not  informed,  nor 
by  what  routes  they  traversed  the  desert, 
nor  how  they  were  furnished  with  food  ex- 
cept manna.  Moses  says  they  "  compassed 
Mount  Seir  many  days,"  always  imder  the 
guidance  of  the  jiillar  of  fire  and  cloud. 
Num.  9:22;  he  also  gives  a  list  of  17  sta- 
tions, mostly  unknown,  where  they  rested 
or  dwelt  before  reaching  Ezion-geber,  Num. 
33:19-35:  and  then  mentions  their  return 
to  Kadesh,  ver.  36,  37,  in  the  ist  month, 
Num.  20:1,  after  an  interval  of  almost  38 
years.  While  thus  a  second  time  encamjied 
at  Kadesh,  Moses  sent  to  the  king  of  Idu- 
maea,  to  ask  liberty  to  pass  through  his 
dominions,  that  is,  through  the  chain  of 
mountains  (Mount  Seir)  Iving  along  the 
168 


eastern  side  of  the  great  valley  El-Arabah. 
See  Iditm^a.  This  was  refused;  and  Is- 
rael, feeling  too  weak  to  i)enetrate  into  Pal- 
estine from  the  south,  in  face  of  the  power- 
ful tribes  of  Canaanites  dwelling  there, 
was  compelled  to  take  the  southern  pas- 
sage around  Edom,  Num.  21 :4.  Soon  after 
turning  they  came  to  Mount  Hor,  where 
Aaron  died  and  was  buried,  Num.  20:20-28. 
Proceeding  southward  along  the  valley  El- 
Arabah  to  Ezion-geber,  at  the  head  of  the 
eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  they  here 
passed  through  the  eastern  mountains,  and 
then  turned  north  along  the  eastern  desert, 
by  the  route  which  the  great  Syrian  cara- 
van of  Mohammedan  pilgrims  now  passes 
in  going  to  Mecca.  They  arrived  at  the 
brook  Zered,  on  the  southern  border  of 
Moab,  just  40  j'ears  after  their  departure 
from  Egypt. 

See  a  tabular  view  of  the  various  en- 
campments of  the  Israelites,  under  Wan- 
derings. 

EXOR'CISTS,  from  a  Greek  word  signi- 
fying /o  conjure,  to  use  the  name  of  (iod  or 
certain  magical  ceremonies  with  design  to 
expel  devils  from  places  or  bodies  which 
they  possess.  The  apostles  were  enabled 
to  cast  out  evil  spirits  in  Christ's  name. 
Matt.  10:1;  Mark  16:17;  Luke  10:17;  'I'ld 
designing  men,  both  before  and  after  the 
Saviour's  death,  pretended  to  exercise  the 
same  power,  Matt.  12:27;  Mark  9:38;  Luke 
9'49>  50;  Acts  19:13-17.  Exorcists  were 
thought  to  have  gained  this  power  by  secret 
studies  respecting  the  nature  of  demons, 
and  the  powers  of  certain  herbs,  drugs,  and 
stones,  and  were  accustomed  to  use  vari- 
ous forms  of  adjuration  and  incantation  in 
their  inilawful  art ;  but  the  whole  was  de- 
lusion and  imposture,  and  strictly  forbid- 
den.    See  Divination. 

EXPIA'TION,  an  act  by  which  satisfac- 
tion is  made  for  a  crime,  and  the  liability 
to  punishment  for  it  is  cancelled.  It  sup- 
poses penitence  and  faith  on  the  sinner's 
part.  Among  the  Jews,  expiation 'was  ef- 
fected by  a  divinely  appointed  and  typical 
system  of  sacrifices,  all  pointing  to  Christ. 
The  New  Testament  shows  him  to  be  the 
true  sin-offering  for  mankind,  "the  Lamb 
of  God,"  "our  Passover,"  offering  "  his  own 
blood,"  and  putting  away  "  sin  by  the  sac- 
rifice of  himself,"  John  1:29;  i  Cor.  5:7; 
Eph.  1:7;  Heb.  9:26. 

The  day  of  Expiation,  or  atonement. 
was  a  yearly  solemnity,  observed  with  rest 
and  fasting  on  the  loth  day  of  Tishri,  5  days 
before  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Lev.  23 :  27 ; 


EYE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EZE 


25:9;  Num.  29:7.  This  would  now  be  in 
the  early  part  of  October.  The  ceremonies 
of  this  all-important  day  are  minutely  de- 
scribed" in  Lev.  16.  On  this  day  alone  the 
high-priest  entered  the  Most  Holy  Place, 
Heb.  9:7;  but  the  various  rites  of  the  day 
required  him  to  enter  several  times,  robed 
in  white :  first  with  a  golden  censer  and  a 
vessel  filled  with  incense ;  then  with  the 
blood  of  the  bullock,  which  he  had  oftered 
for  his  own  sins  and  those  of  all  the  priests, 
in  which  he  dipped  his  finger,  and  sprin- 
kled it  7  times  below  and  once  above 
the  mercy-seat.  This  done,  he  left  the  ba- 
sin of  blood  behind,  and  withdrew  again. 
The  3d  time  he  entered  with  the  blood  of 
the  ram  which  he  had  offered  for  the  sins 
of  the  nation,  with  which  he  sprinkled  to- 
wards the  veil  of  the  tabernacle  8  times ; 
and  having  mi.xed  it  with  the  blood  of  the 
bullock,  he  sprinkled  again  towards  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  incense  7  times,  and 
once  above  it  towards  the  east ;  after  which, 
having  again  left  the  sanctuary'  and  taken 
with  him  the  basins  of  blood,  he  poured 
out  the  whole  on  the  floor  of  the  altar  of 
burnt-offering.  The  4th  time  he  entered 
to  bring  out  the  censer  and  vessel  of  in- 
cense ;  and  having  returned,  he  washed 
his  hands  and  performed  the  other  servi- 
ces of  the  day.  The  ceremony  of  the  scape- 
goat also  took  place  on  this  day.  Two  goats 
were  set  apart,  one  of  which  was  sacrificed 
to  the  Lord,  while  the  other,  the  goat  "  for 
complete  separation,"  which  was  chosen 
by  lot  to  be  set  at  liberty,  was  sent  into  the 
desert  burdened  with  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple, Num.  29:7-11.  All  these  solemn  rites 
pointed  to  Christ,  and  in  every  age  there 
were  many  believers  who  had  spiritual 
discernment  of  their  sacred  meaning,  Heb. 
9-1 1.  They  looked  unto  Him  whom  they 
had  pierced,  and  mourned.  As  this  daj^  of 
e.xpiation  was  the  great  fast-day  of  the 
Jewish  Church,  so  godly  sorrow  for  sin 
characterizes  the  Christian's  looking  unto 
the  Lamb  of  God,  and  "  the  rapture  of  par- 
don "  is  mingled  with  "  penitent  tears." 

EYE.  The  same  Hebrew  word  means 
both  eye  and  fountain.  Besides  its  com- 
mon use,  to  denote  the  organ  of  sight,  it  is 
often  used  figuratively  in  the  Bible.  Most 
of  these  passages,  however,  require  no  ex- 
planation. The  eyes  of  criminals  or  cap- 
tives are  still  sometimes  put  out  in  the 
East,  as  of  old,  Judg.  16:21;  Jer.  52:11. 
The  expression  in  Psa.  123:2,  is  elucidated 
by  the  fact  that  many  Eastern  servants  are 
taught  to  stand   always  upon  the  watch, 


and  are  in  general  directed  by  a  nod,  a 
wink,  or  some  slight  motion  of  the  fingers 
imperceptible  to  strangers.  Many  Scrip- 
ture phrases  intimate  the  soul-like  nature 
of  the  eye,  quickly  and  truly  expressing 
the  thoughts  of  the  heart:  such  as  "the 
bountiful  eye"  and  the  "evil  eye,"  Prov. 
22:9;  23:6;  "  haughty  eyes  "  and  "  wanton 
eyes,"  Prov.  6;  17  ;  Isa.  3:16.  "  The  lust  of 
the  eyes,"  i  John  2: 16,  expresses  a  craving 
for  any  of  the  gay  vanities  of  this  life. 
The  threatening  against  "the  eye  that 
mocketh  at  his  father,"  Prov.  30:17,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  habit  of  birds  of  prey,  which 
attack  the  eyes  of  a  living  enemy,  and 
quickly  devour  those  of  the  dead.  A  "  sin- 
gle "  eye.  Matt.  6:22,  is  one  which  is  clear, 
and  sees  every  object  as  it  is.  See  Apple. 
Jezebel,  2  Kin.  9:30,  is  said  to  have 
"painted  her  face,"  literally  "put  her  eyes 
in  paint."  This  was  sometimes  done  to 
excess,  Jer.  4:30;  and  was  practised  by 
abandoned  women,  Prov.  6:25,  A  small 
probe  of  wood,  ivory,  or  silver  is  wet  with 
rose-water,  and  dipped  in  an  impalpable 


powder;  this  is  then  draw^n  between  the 
lids  of  the  eye  nearly  closed,  and  leaves  a 
narrow  black  border,  which  is  thought  to 
make  the  eyes  appear  large  and  lustrous. 
The  powder  for  this  purpose,  called  kohl, 
is  deposited  like  lampblack  over  the  flame 
of  a  kind  of  aromatic  resin,  and  sometimes 
is  medicated  by  lead  ore  and  other  sub- 
stances for  the  benefit  of  the  eyes. 

EYE-SER'VICE,  performing  duties  reluc- 
tantly, under  watch,  Eph.  6:6;  Col.  3:22. 

EZE'KIEL,  the  strength  of  God,  son  of 
169 


EZI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FAI 


Buzi,  a  prophet  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, with  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  B.  C. 
598,  and  placed  by  the  river  Chebar.  See 
Nineveh.  He  began  his  ministry  "  in  the 
thirtieth  year  " — of  his  age,  according  to 
the  general  account;  or  rather,  in  the  30th 
year  after  the  covenant  was  renewed  with 
God  in  the  reign  of  Josiali,  Ezek.  1:1,  which 
answers  to  the  5th  year  of  Ezekiel's  captiv- 
ity. The  elders  of  Israel  resorted  to  him 
for  direction,  Ezek.  8:1;  14:  i ;  20:  i ;  33:31. 
He  prophesied  22  years,  B.  C.  595-573,  till 
the  14th  year  after  the  final  captivity  of 
Jerusalem.  During  the  first  8  years  he  was 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah.  Daniel  also 
lived  at  the  same  time,  Ezek.  14:14,  16; 
28:3,  though  most  of  his  predictions  are  of 
a  later  date.  The  manner  in  which  his 
messages  were  received  is  described  in 
ch.  33:30-32.  There  is  wonderful  vehe- 
mence in  his  writings,  and  a  profusion  of 
allegories  and  symbols.  He  was  zealous 
for  the  honor  of  God,  and  ready  for  any 
sacrifice  for  the  good  of  his  people,  ch.  4:4- 
6 ;  24 :  15-18.  He  was  one  of  the  four  "great- 
er prophets,"  so  called,  and  a  priest. 

The  BOOK  OF  Ezekip:l  abounds  with 
sublime  visions  of  the  divine  glory,  and 
awful  denunciations  against  Israel  for  their 
rebellious  spirit  against  God,  and  the  abom- 
inations of  their  idolatry,  ch.  1-24.  It  con- 
tains also  similar  denunciations  against 
Tyre  and  other  hostile  nations,  ch.  25-32. 
The  latter  part  of  the  book  contains  oracles 
respecting  the  return  and  restoration  of  the 
people  of  God,  ch.  33-48,  with  a  symbolical 
description  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  not  in- 
tended to  be  taken  literally. 

EZ'ION-GE'BER,  or  -GA'BER,  a  man's 
spine,  a  city  at  the  northern  e.xtremity  of 
the  Elanitic  or  eastern  fork  of  the  Red  Sea, 
and  close  by  Elath.  The  Israelites  rested 
here  in  the  last  year  of  their  wanderings 
from  Egypt  to  Canaan,  Num.  33:35;  Deut. 
2:8.  At  this  port  Solomon  equipped  his 
fleets  for  the  voyage  to  Ophir,  i  Kin.  9:26. 
A  similar  enterprise  of  Jehoshaphat  failed, 
I  Kin.  22:48;  2  Chr.  20:36.  See  Elath 
and  Exodus. 

EZ'RA,  help,  a  celebrated  priest  and  lead- 
er of  the  Jewish  nation.  He  was  "  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law,"  a  learned,  able,  and 
faithful  man,  and  appears  to  have  enjoyed 
great  consideration  in  the  Persian  court. 
During  the  80  years  embraced  in  his  nar- 
rative, most  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus  passed, 
and  the  whole  reign  of  Cambyses,  Smerdis, 
Darius  Hystaspis,  Xerxes,  and  8  years  of 
170 


Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  From  this  last 
king  he  received  letters,  money,  and  every 
desirable  help,  and  went  at  the  head  of  a 
large  party  of  returning  exiles  to  Jerusa- 
lem, B.  C.  457  ;  Ezra  7.  Here  he  instituted 
many  reforms  in  the  conduct  of  the  people 
and  in  the  public  worship,  establishing 
synagogues,  with  reading  of  Scripture  and 
prayers,  Ezra  8-10;  Neh.  8.  After  this  he 
is  generally  believed  to  have  written  the 
books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  part  of 
Nehemiah ;  and  to  have  collected  and  re- 
vised all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
Scripture  which  form  the  present  canon. 
In  his  work  he  was  aided  by  Nehemiah 
and  probably  by  Malachi. 

The  BOOK  OF  Ezra  contains  a  history, 
written  partly  in  Chaldee,  of  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  time  of  Cyrus,  ch.  1-6; 
then,  60  years  later,  and  comprising  a  sin- 
gle year,  ch.  7-10,  an  account  of  his  own 
subsequent  proceedings,  B.  C.  456.  There 
are  2  apocryphal  books  ascribed  to  him 
under  the  name  of  Esdras,  the  Greek  form 
of  his  name. 

Two  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  4:17;  Neh.  12:1. 

F. 

FA'BLE,  in  the  New  Testament  an  idle, 
groundless,  and  worthless  story,  like  the 
mythological  legends  of  the  heathen  and 
the  vain  traditions  of  the  Jews.  These 
were  often  not  only  false  and  weak,  but 
pernicious,  i  Tim.  1:4;  4:7;  2  Tim.  4:4; 
Titus  1:14;  2  Pet.  1 :  16.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment there  occur  2  fables  in  the  better 
sense  of  the  word  :  that  of  Jotham,  Judg. 
9:8-15,  the  oldest  on  record;  and  that  of 
Jehoash,  2  Kin.  14:9. 

FACE,  and  presence,  expressed  by  the 
same  word  in  Hebrew,  are  often  put  for 
the  person  himself,  Gen.  48:11;  Exod. 
33:14;  Isa.  63:9.  No  man  has  seen  the 
face  of  God,  that  is,  had  a  full  revelation 
of  his  glory,  Exod.  33:20;  John  1:18;  i  Tim. 
6: 16.  To  see  him  "  face  to  face,"  is  to  en- 
joy his  presence.  Gen.  32:30;  Num.  14:14; 
Deut.  5:4,  and  have  a  clear  manifestation 
of  his  nature  and  grace,  i  Cor.  13:12. 
Those  who  rightly  "seek  his  face"  are 
blessed,  i  Chr.  16:11;  2  Chr.  7:14;  Psa. 
24:3-6.  "  Open  face,"  in  2  Cor.  3:18,  A.  V., 
is  properly  "  unveiled  face."  Compare  ver. 
14.  A  similar  word  is  used  in  ch.  4:3,  "if 
our  gospel  is  veiled,  it  is  veiled." 

FAIN,  Job  27:22;  Luke  15:16,  gladly. 

FAIR,  Isa.  54:11,  beautiful.    A  fair  com- 


FAI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FAN 


plexion,  not  darkened  by  exposure  to  the 
sun,  was  highly  prized  not  only  as  a  beauty, 
but  as  a  proof  of  rank.  Gen.  12:11,  14. 
Compare  Song  i  :5,  6,  8. 

FAIR-HA'VENS,  a  roadstead  or  small 
bay,  near  the  town  of  Lasea,  midway  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  where  Paul 
wished  to  winter  when  on  the  voyage  to 
Rome,  Acts  27:8.  This  harbor  is  4  or  5 
miles  east  of  Cape  Matala,  where  the  coast 
turns  to  the  north,  and  Paul's  vessel  on 
passing  it  would  again  encounter  the  north- 
west wind.  The  sailors  preferred  Phenice 
as  safer,  and  were  wrecked  in  consequence. 
Fair -havens  still  retains  its  old  Greek 
name. 

FAIRS,  though  not  intended  by  the  He- 
brew word  so  translated  in  Ezek.  27,  which 
rather  signifies  wares,  were  doubtless  com- 
mon in  the  East  in  ancient  times,  as  now. 

FAITH  is  the  assent  of  the  understand- 
ing to  any  truth.  Religious  faith  is  assent 
to  the  truth  of  divine  revelation  and  of  the 
events  and  doctrines  contained  in  it.  This 
may  be  merely  historical,  without  produ- 
cing any  effect  on  our  lives  and  conversa- 
tion; and  it  is  then  a  dead  faith,  such  as 
even  the  devils  have.  But  a  living  or  sav- 
ing faith  not  only  believes  the  great  doc- 
trines of  religion  as  true,  but  embraces 
them  with  the  heart  and  affections  ;  and  is 
thus  the  source  of  sincere  obedience  to  the 
divine  will,  exhibited  in  the  life  and  conver- 
sation. Faith  in  Christ  is  a  grace  wrought 
in  the  heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we 
receive  Christ  as  our  Saviour,  our  Prophet, 
Priest,  and  King,  and  love  and  obey  him 
as  such.  This  living  faith  in  Christ  is  the 
means  of  salvation — not  meritoriously,  but 
instrumentally.  Without  it  there  can  be 
no  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  no  holiness  of 
life;  and  they  who  are  justified  by  faith, 
live  and  walk  by  faith,  Mark  16:16;  John 
3:15,  16;  Acts  16:31 ;   I  John  5: 10. 

True  faith  is  an  essential  grace,  and  a 
mainspring  of  Christian  life.  By  it  the 
Christian  overcomes  the  world,  the  flesh, 
and  the  devil,  and  receives  the  crown  of 
righteousness,  2  Tim.  4:7,  8.  In  virtue  of 
it,  worthy  men  of  old  wrought  great  won- 
ders, Heb.  11;  Acts  14:9;  I  Cor.  13:2,  being 
sustained  by  Omnipotence  in  doing  what- 
ever God  enjoined,  Matt.  17 :  20 ;  Mark  9 :  23  ; 
11:23,  24.  In  Rom.  1:8,  faith  is  put  for  the 
exhibition  of  faith,  in  the  practice  of  all  the 
duties  implied  in  a  profession  of  faith.  In 
Heb.  10:23,  "profession  of  our  faith" 
should  read,  as  in  R.  V.,  "confession  of 
our  hope." 


FAITH'FUL,  in  many  passages  in  the 
Bible,  means  "  believing."  Thus  in  Gal. 
3:9,  believers  are  said  to  be  blessed  with 
Abraham,  because  of  his  preeminent  dis- 
tinction above  all  men  for  steadfast  faith 
in  God.  This  appellation  is  given  in  Scrip- 
ture to  true  Christians,  to  indicate  not  only 
their  saving  faith  in  Christ,  but  their  trust- 
worthy and  consistent  Christian  character, 
Acts  16 :  15 ;  i  Cor.  4:17;  Eph.  6:21;  Col. 
4:9;  I  Pet.  5:12.  "A  faithful  saying"  is 
one  that  cannot  prove  false,  i  Tim.  i :  15; 
2  Tim.  2:11. 

FAITH'FULNESS  is  an  infinite  attribute 
of  Jehovah  ;  adapted  to  make  perfect  both 
the  confidence  of  those  who  believe  his 
word  and  rely  on  his  promises,  and  the 
despair  of  those  who  doubt  his  word  and 
defy  his  threatenings,  Deut.  28:26;  Num. 
23:19;  Psa.  89:33,34;  Heb.  10:23. 

FAITH'LESS,  means  not   false-hearted, 
but  unbelieving,  Mark  9: 19. 
FAL'LOW-DEER'.      See  ROE. 
FAL'LOW   GROUND,   land  suitable  for 
cultivation,  but  not  sowed,  Hos.  10:12. 

FAME,  rumor,  tidings.  Gen.  45:16;  Mark 
1:28. 

FAMIL'IAR  SPIRIT,  household  sprite  or 
attendant.     See  Divination. 

FAM'INE.  Scripture  records  several 
famines  in  Palestine  and  the  neighboring 
countries.  Gen.  12:10;  26:1;  Ruth  1:1; 
2  Kin.  6 :  25  ;  Acts  11 :  28.  The  most  remark- 
able one  was  that  of  7  years  in  and  around 
Egypt,  while  Joseph  was  governor.  Gen.  41. 
It  was  distinguished  for  its  duration,  ex- 
tent, and  severity;  particularly  as  Egypt  is 
one  of  the  countries  least  subject  to  such  a 
calamity,  by  reason  of  its  general  fertility. 
Famine  is  sometimes  a  natural  effect,  as 
when  the  Nile  does  not  overflow  in  Egypt, 
or  rains  do  not  fall  in  Judaea,  at  the  cus- 
tomary season ;  or  when  caterpillars,  lo- 
custs, or  other  insects  destroy  the  fruits. 
But  all  natural  causes  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  God;  and 
he  often  so  di- 
rects them  as 
to  chastise  the 
rebellious  with 
want,  2  Kin.  8: 1, 
2  ;  Ezek.  6:11 ; 
Matt.  24:7.  The 
worst  famine  is 
a  spiritual  one, 
Amos  8:11. 
FAN,  an  in- 
strument used  for  winnowing  grain.  In 
the  East,  fans  are  of  two  kinds :  one,  a  sort 

171 


FAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FAV 


of  fork,  having  several  prongs,  and  a  han- 
dle 4  feet  long;  with  this  they  throw  up 
the  grain  to  the  wind,  tliat  the  chaff  may 
be  blown  away :  the  other  sort  of  fan  is 
formed  to  produce  wind  when  the  air  is 
calm,  Isa.  30:24.  This  process  illustrates 
the  complete  separation  which  Christ  the 
Judge  will  effect  between  the  righteous 
and  the  wicked,  Jer.  15:7;  Matt.  3:12.  See 
Threshing. 


FARTHING    (ASSARION). 

FAR'THING.  Two  different  Roman 
brass  coins  are  represented  by  this  word: 
one  of  these,  the  assarton,  Matt.  10:29, 
Luke  12:6,  was  worth  a  cent  and  a  half; 
the  other,  the  kodranlcs,  Matt.  5:26,  was 
probably  nearly  4  mills. 

FASH'ION,  Phil.  2:8,  make  or  form. 

FAST'ING  has  in  all  ages,  and  among  all 
nations,  been  practised  in  times  of  sorrow 
and  affliction,  Jonah  3:5.  It  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  dictate  of  nature,  which  under 
these  circumstances  refuses  nourishment, 
suspends  the  cravings  of  hunger,  and 
prompts  to  abstinence  in  other  respects. 
In  the  Bible  no  example  is  mentioned  of 
fasting,  properly  so  called,  before  Moses. 
His  40  days'  fast,  like  that  of  Elijah  and 
of  our  Lord,  was  miraculous,  Deut.  9:9; 
I  Kin.  19:8;  Matt.  4:2.  The  Jews  often  had 
recourse  to  this  practice,  when  they  had 
occasion  to  humble  themselves  before  God, 
to  confess  their  sins  and  deprecate  his  dis- 
pleasure, Judg.  20:26;  I  Sam.  7:6;  2  Sam. 
12:16;  Neh.  9:1;  Jer.  36:9.  Especially  in 
times  of  public  calamity,  they  appointed 
extraordinary  fasts,  and  made  even  chil- 
dren at  the  breast  fast,  Joel  2:16;  but  see 
Dan.  10:2,  3.  They  began  the  observance 
of  their  fasts  at  sunset,  and  remained  with- 
out eating  until  the  same  hour  the  next 
day.  The  great  day  of  expiation  was  prob- 
ably the  only  annual  and  national  fast-day 
among  them,  Acts  27:9;  though  there  were 
several  partial  fasts  in  memory  of  tlie  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  etc.,  Jer.  39:2; 
52:12-14;  Zech.  7:3-5. 

In  New  Testament  times  strict  Jews  fast- 
ed twice  a  week,  on  the  2d  and  5th  days, 
Luke  18:12.  It  does  not  appear  by  his 
own  practice  or  by  his  commands  that  our 
172 


Lord  instituted  any  particular  fast.  On 
one  occasion  he  intimated  that  his  disciples 
would  fast  after  his  death,  Luke  5:34,  35. 
Accordingly,  the  life  of  the  apostles  and 
first  believers  was  a  life  of  self-denials,  suf- 
ferings, and  fastings.  2  Cor.  5:7;  11:27. 
Our  Saviour  recognized  the  custom,  and 
the  apostles  practised  it  as  occasion  re- 
quired. Matt.  6: 16-1S;  Acts  13:3;  yet  they 
did  not  enjoin  it  as  imperative,  Rom.  14:1- 
3;  I  Tim.  4:3,  4.  W'e  should  always  re- 
member that  abstinence  or  entire  fasting 
has  no  virtue  by  itself,  but  is  valuable  only 
as  a  helj)  to  penitence  and  holiness,  Isa. 
58:4-7.  One  mark  of  the  great  apostasy 
is  "  commanding  to  abstain  from  meats," 
I  Tim.  4:3.  The  word  fasting  is  omitted 
in  R.  V.  in  i  Cor.  7:5. 

FAT.  The  fat  portions  of  animals  offered 
in  sacrifice  were  always  to  be  consumed, 
as  being  the  choice  part  and  especially  sa- 
cred to  the  Lord.  The  blood  was  also 
sacred,  as  containing  the  life  of  the  animal. 
The  Jews  w^ere  forbidden  to  eat  either.  Lev. 
3:16,  17;  7:23-27.  This  prohibition  aj)plied 
to  the  fat  lying  in  masses  and  easily  sep- 
arated, not  to  that  intermixed  with  the  lean, 
Neh.  8: 10.  The  "  fat  of  the  wheat,"  "  of  the 
mighty,"  etc.,  denotes  the  choicest.  In  Psa. 
17:10,  a  dull  and  sluggish  heart  is  meant. 

FAT,  or  VAT,  Joel  2:24  ;  3: 13;  Mark  12:1, 
a  receptacle  into  which  the  juice  of  grapes 
flowed  from  the  wine-i)ress. 

FA'THER,  is  often  synonymous  with  an- 
cestor, founder,  or  originator,  as  Gen.  4:20, 
21;  John  8:56;  Rom.  4:16.  Joseph  was  a 
father  to  Pharaoh,  Gen.  45:8,  as  his  coun- 
sellor and  provider.  God  is  the  F.\ther 
of  men,  as  their  Creator,  Deut.  32:6;  Isa. 
63:16;  64:8;  Luke  3:38.  But  as  we  have 
forfeited  the  rights  of  children  by  our  sins, 
it  is  only  through  Christ  that  we  can  call 
God  by  that  endearing  name,  "  our  Fa- 
ther," John  20:17;   Rom.  8:15-17. 

In  patriarchal  times,  a  father  was  master 
and  judge  in  his  own  household,  and  exer- 
cised an  authority  almost  unlimited  over 
his  family.  Filial  disobedience  or  disre- 
spect was  a  high  offence.  Under  the  law, 
certain  acts  of  children  were  capital  crimes, 
Exod.  21:15-17;  Lev.  20:9;  and  the  father 
was  required  to  bring  his  son  to  the  public 
tribunal,  Deut.  21:18-21.  It  is  a  first  duty 
of  parents  to  imbue  their  children  with  re- 
ligious truth  and  train  them  to  the  service 
of  God,  Exod.  12:26,  27;  Deut.  4:9,  10;  6:6, 
7;  11:18,19;  Psa.  78:5-8;  Eph.  6:4,  and  to 
hope  for  success,  Prov.  22 :6.    See  Mother. 

FA'VOR,  usuallj-  grace  or  good-will ;  in 


FEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FEA 


several  passages  literally  face,  or  propi- 
tious countenance,  Psa.  45:12;  119:58; 
Prov.  19:6;  29:26.  The  same  Hebrew 
word  is  rendered  face  in  Gen.  43:3,  5; 
Num.  6:25;  Job  33:26;  Ezek.  39:29. 

FEAR,  Gen.  31:42,  53,  the  being  who  is 
feared,  i.  e.,  worshipped. 

FEAR  OF  GOD  is  of  two  kinds.  In  un- 
renewed men  and  in  devils.  Acts  24:25; 
Jas.  2:19,  it  is  the  sure  consequence  of  sin, 
and  leads  to  no  repentance  or  faith.  The 
heathen  colonists  of  Samaria  "  feared  the 
Lord,"  and  offered  some  forms  of  worship, 
but  "  served  their  own  gods  "  and  sins  also, 
2  Kin.  17:25,  :^2>-  This  fear  mingles  often 
with  the  feelings  of  true  Christians,  Rom. 
8:15;  I  John  4:18,  but  ought  to  be  ban- 
ished. True  filial  fear  is  implanted  by- 
God  himself,  Psa.  86:11;  Jer.  32:40;  re- 
strains from  sin,  Psa.  4:4;  2  Cor.  7:1;  is 
associated  with  love,  Deut.  10:12,  trust, 
Prov.  14:26,  and  obedience,  and  is  often 
spoken  of  as  the  synonym  of  all  true  reli- 
gion. Gen.  22:12 ;  Psa.  25:14;  112:1.  Christ 
himself  was  the  model  in  this  fear,  Isa. 
11:2;  Heb.  5:7;  and  they  who  thus  fear 
God  have  nothing  else  to  fear,  Isa.  51 : 7,  12, 
13 ;  Luke  12:4-7. 

Sinners  ought  indeed  to  tremble  before 
a  just  and  holy  God,  Gen.  3:10;  Matt.  10 :  28, 
and  to  fear  their  inevitable  doom,  Zeph. 
1:12;  Mai.  4:1;  Rev.  6:15-17;  but  this  fear 
is  remorse  and  despair,  and  can  only  be 
"the  beginning  of  wisdom"  when  trans- 
formed by  penitence,  love,  and  trust  in  his 
mercy  through  the  Redeemer,  John  3:16, 
18;  so  that  they  can  serve  him  with  the 
reverence  and  godly  fear  of  his  children, 
Eph.  5:1;  Heb.  12:28,  29. 

FEASTS.  God  appointed  several  festi- 
vals, or  days  of  rest  and  worship,  among 
the  Jews,  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
great  events  :  the  Sabbath  commemorated 
the  creation  of  the  world ;  the  Passover, 
the  departure  out  of  Egypt ;  the  Pentecost, 
as  many  think,  the  law  given  at  Sinai,  etc. 
At  the  3  great  feasts  of  the  year,  the  Pass- 
over, the  Pentecost,  and  that  of  Taberna- 
cles, all  the  males  of  the  nation  were  re- 
quired to  visit  the  temple,  Exod.  23:14-17; 
Deut.  16:16,  17;  and  to  protect  their  bor- 
ders from  invasion  during  their  absence, 
the  shield  of  a  special  providence  was  al- 
ways interposed,  Exod.  34 :  23,  24.  The 
other  festivals  were  New  Moons,  the  Feast 
of  Trumpets,  Purim,  Dedication,  the  Sab- 
bath year,  and  the  year  of  Jubilee.  These 
are  described  elsewhere.  The  observance 
of  these  sacred  festivals  was  adapted  not 


merely  to  freshen  the  remembrance  of  their 
early  historj'  as  a  nation,  but  to  keep  alive 
the  influence  of  religion  and  the  expecta- 
tion of  the  Messiah,  to  deepen  their  joy  in 
God,  to  dispel  animosities  and  jealousies, 
to  promote  beneficence,  and  to  form  new 
associations  between  the  different  tribes 
and  families.     See  also  Day  of  Expiation. 

In  the  Christian  church  we  have  no  fes- 
tival that  clearly  appears  to  have  been  in- 
stituted by  our  Saviour  or  his  apostles;  but 
as  we  commemorate  his  death  as  often  as 
we  celebrate  his  supper,  he  has  hereby 
seemed  to  institute  a  perpetual  feast.  Chris- 
tians have  always  celebrated  the  memory 
of  his  resurrection  by  regarding  the  Sab- 
bath, which  we  see,  from  Rev.  i :  10,  was  in 
John's  time  known  as  "the  Lord's  day." 

Feasts  of  love,  Jude  12,  were  public 
banquets  of  a  frugal  kind,  instituted  by 
the  primitive  Christians,  and  connected  by 
them  with  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  The  provisions  were  contributed 
by  the  more  wealthy,  and  were  common  to 
all  Christians,  whether  rich  or  poor,  who 
chose  to  partake.  Portions  were  also  sent 
to  the  sick  and  absent  members.  These 
love-feasts  were  intended  as  an  exhibition 
of  mutual  Christian  affection;  but  they 
became  subject  to  abuses,  and  were  after- 
wards generally  discontinued,  i  Cor.  11:17- 

34- 

The  Hebrews  were  a  hospitable  people, 
and  were  wont  to  welcome  their  guests 
with  a  feast,  and  dismiss  them  with  anoth- 
er. Gen.  19:3;  31:27;  Judg.  6:19;  2  Sam. 
3:20;  2  Kin.  6:23.  The  returning  prodigal 
was  thus  welcomed,  Luke  15:23.  Many 
joyful  domestic  events  were  observed  with 
feasting:  birthdays,  etc..  Gen.  21:8;  40:20; 
Job  1:4;  Matt.  14:6;  marriages,  when  the 
festival  often  continued  a  week.  Gen.  29:22; 
Judg.  14:10;  John  2:1-10;  sheep-shearing 
and  harvesting,  Judg.  9:27;  i  Sam.  25:2, 
36;  2  Sam.  13:23.  A  feast  was  also  provi- 
ded at  funerals,  2  Sam.  3:35;  Jer.  16:7. 
Those  who  brought  sacrifices  and  offerings 
to  the  temple  were  wont  to  feast  upon  them 
there,  with  joy  and  praise  to  God,  Deut. 
12:6,  7;  I  Sam.  16:5;  2  Sam.  6:19.  They 
were  taught  to  invite  all  the  needy  to  par- 
take with  them,  Deut.  16:11;  and  even  to 
make  special  feasts  for  the  poor,  Deut. 
12:17-19;  14:28,  29;  26:12-15;  a  custom 
which  the  Saviour  specially  commended, 
Luke  14:12-14.  Most  of  these  feasts  were 
not  merely  seasons  of  social  enjoyment, 
but  occasions  hallowed  by  religious  emo- 
tions and  services. 

173 


FEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FES 


The  manner  of  holding  a  feast  was  an- 
ciently marked  with  great  simplicitj-.  But 
at  the  time  of  Christ  many  Roman  customs 
had  been  introduced.  The  feast  or  "sup- 
per" usually  took  place  at  5  or  6  in  the 
afternoon,  and  often  continued  to  a  late 
hour.  The  guests  were  invited  some  time 
in  advance ;  and  those  who  accepted  the 
invitation  were  again  notified  by  servants 
when  the  hour  arrived,  Matt.  22:4-8;  Luke 
14:16-24.  The  door  was  guarded  against 
uninvited  persons;  and  was  at  length 
closed  for  the  day  by  the  hand  of  the  mas- 
ter of  the  house,  Matt.  25:10;  Luke  13:25. 
Sometimes  verj^  large  numbers  were  pres- 
ent, Esth.  1:3,  5;  Luke  14:16-24;  and  on 
such  occasions  a  "  governor  of  the  feast " 
w^as  appointed,  whose  social  qualities,  tact, 
firmness,  and  temperance  fitted  him  to  pre- 
side, John  2:8.  The  guests  were  arranged 
with  a  careful  regard  to  their  claims  to 
honor,  Gen.  43:33  ;  i  Sam.  9:22;  Prov.  25:6, 
7;  Matt.  23:6;  Luke  14:7;  in  which  mat- 
ter the  laws  of  etiquette  are  still  jealously 
enforced  in  the  East.  Sometimes  the  host 
provided  light,  rich,  loose  robes  for  the 
company;  and  if  so,  the  refusing  to  wear 
one  was  a  gross  insult,  Eccl.  9:8;  Matt. 
22:11;  Rev.  3:4,  5.  The  guests  reclined 
around  the  tables ;  water  and  perfumes 
were  served  to  them,  Mark  7:2  ;  Luke  7:44- 
46 ;  and  after  eating,  the  hands  were  again 
washed,  a  servant  pouring  water  over 
them.  See  illustration  in  Bed.  During 
the  repast  and  after  it  various  entertain- 
ments were  provided;  enigmas  were  pro- 
posed, Judg.  14:12;  Eastern  tales  were 
told ;  music  and  hired  dancers,  and  often 
•excessive  drinking,  etc.,  occupied  the  time, 
Isa.  5:12;  24:7-9;  Amos  6:5.  A  mission- 
ary attending  a  wedding  at  Calcutta  once 
saw  an  illustration  in  modern  life  of  Luke 
14:8-11.  While  conversing  with  the  host 
in  the  gallery  reserved  for  the  more  favored 
guests,  she  saw  one  man  removed  from  the 
gallery  who  had  no  claim  to  be  there,  and 
another  in  the  court  below  invited  "  up 
higher."     See  E.\ting,  Food. 

FE'LIX,  happy,  a  Roman  governor  of  Ju- 
daea, originally  a  slave,  but  manumitted  and 
promoted  by  Claudius  Caesar,  from  whom 
he  received  the  name  of  Claudius.  He  is 
described  by  the  historian  Tacitus  as  cruel, 
licentious,  and  base,  and  as  having  harmed 
Judaea  by  his  mismanagement.  In  Judaea 
he  married  Drusilla,  sister  of  the  younger 
Agrippa,  having  enticed  her  from  her  hus- 
band Azizus.  Paul  having  been  sent  by 
Lysias  to  Caesarea,  then  the  seat  of  govern- 
174 


ment,  Felix  gave  him  an  audience,  and  was 
convinced  of  his  innocence.  Nevertheless 
he  kept  him  a  prisoner,  though  with  many 
alleviations,  in  hopes  that  his  friends  would 
purchase  his  liberty  by  a  heavy  bribe. 
Meanwhile  his  wife  Drusilla,  who  was  a 
Jewess,  desired  to  hear  Paul  e.xplain  the 
new  religion ;  and  the  apostle  being  sum- 
moned before  them,  discoursed  with  his 
usual  boldness  on  justice,  chastity,  and  the 
final  judgment.  Feli.x  trembled,  but  hasti- 
ly remanded  Paul  to  confinement,  and  sti- 
fled his  convictions — a  melancholy  instance 
of  the  power  of  lust  and  the  danger  of  de- 
lay. In  rejecting  Paul,  he  rejected  Christ 
and  heaven — it  is  to  be  feared,  for  ever! 
Two  years  after,  A.  D.  60,  he  was  recalled 
to  Rome;  and  left  Paul  in  prison,  in  order 
to  appease  the  Jews.  He  was  brought  to 
trial,  however,  for  maladministration,  found 
guilty,  and  barely  escaped  death  through 
the  intercession  of  his  brother  Pallas,  an- 
other royal  favorite,  Acts  23:26;  24. 

FENCED,  Num.  32:17,  36,  fortified. 

FEN'CES,  for  the  protection  of  vineyards 
and  gardens,  were  often  made  of  stones,  or 
large  cakes  of  sun-dried  earth,  with  the 
addition  in  some  cases  of  a  thorn  hedge, 
Psa.  80:12;  Mic.  7:4.  They  were  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  serpents  and  locusts,  Eccl. 
10:8  ;  Nah.  3: 17. 

FER'RET,  a  sort  of  weasel.  Lev.  11:30. 
The  Hebrew  word  means  rather  a  species 
of  lizard,  the  gecko,  which  Moses  forbids 
as  unclean. 

FES'TUS,  PoRCius,  succeeded  Felix  in 
the  government  of  Judaea,  A.  D.  60.  To 
oblige  the  Jews,  Felix,  when  he  resigned 
his  government,  left  Paul  in  bonds  at  Caesa- 
rea in  Palestine,  Acts  24:27;  and  when 
Festus  arrived,  he  was  entreated  by  the 
principal  Jews  to  condemn  the  apostle,  or 
to  order  him  up  to  Jerusalem — they  having 
conspired  to  assassinate  him  in  the  waj'. 
Festus,  however,  answered  that  it  was  not 
customary  with  the  Romans  to  condemn 
any  man  without  hearing  him  ;  and  prom- 
ised to  hear  their  accusations  at  Caesarea. 
Five  days  after,  on  hearing  Paul  and  learn- 
ing the  nature  of  the  charges  against  him, 
and  wishing  like  Felix  to  conciliate  the 
Jews,  he  projiosed  to  him  to  abide  the  issue 
of  a  trial  before  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin.  But 
Paul  appealed  to  Caesar,  and  so  secured 
himself  from  the  prosecution  of  the  Jews 
and  the  intentions  of  Festus.  The  gover- 
nor gave  him  another  hearing  during  a 
congratulatory  visit  of  king  Agrippa,  in 
order  to  make  out  a  statement  to  be  for- 


FIE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FIR 


warded  with  him  to  Rome.  Finding  how 
greatly  robberies  abounded  in  Judaea,  Fes- 
tus  very  diligently  pursued  the  thieves; 
and  he  also  suppressed  a  magician,  who 
drew  the  people  after  him  into  the  desert. 
Josephus  speaks  well  of  his  brief  adminis- 
tration. He  died  in  Judaea,  A.  D.  62,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Albinus. 

FIELD,  ground  cultivated,  but  not  in- 
closed; contrasted  with  the  wilderness. 
Gen.  33:19;  36:35,  and  with  a  vineyard, 
Num.  22 :  23,  24,  or  a  city,  Deut.  28 : 3,  16. 
Bounds  were  marked  by  stones,  to  remove 
which  was  a  great  crime,  Deut.  27:17. 
Fields  were  often  traversed  by  public 
roads,  Luke  6:1,  and  were  much  e.xposed 
to  straying  cattle,  which  therefore  needed 
constant  watching,  Exod.  22:5. 

FIG.  The  fig-tree  is  common  in  Pales- 
tine and  the  East,  and  flourishes  with  the 
greatest  luxuriance  in  those  barren  and 
stony  situations  where  little  else  will  grow. 
Its  large  size,  and  its  abundance  of  5-lobed 
leaves,  render  it  a  pleasant  shade-tree  ;  and 
its  fruit  furnished  a  wholesome  food,  very 
much  used  in  all  the  lands  of  the  Bible. 
Thus  it  was  a  symbol  of  peace  and  plenty, 
I  Kin.  4:25;  Mic.  4:4;  Zech.  3:10;  John 
1:49-51.  Figs  are  of  2  sorts,  the  "  boc- 
core "  and  the  "kermouse."  The  black 
and  white  boccore,  or  early  fig,  is  pro- 
duced in  June ;  though  the  kermouse,  the 
fig  properly  so  called,  which  is  preserved 
and  made  up  into  cakes,  is  rarely  ripe  be- 
fore August.  There  is  also  a  long  dark- 
colored  kermouse,  that  sometimes  hangs 
upon  the  trees  all  winter. 


The  fruit  of  the  fig-tree  is  one  of  the  del- 
icacies of  the  East,  and  is  very  often  spo- 
ken of  in  Scripture.  The  early  fig  was 
especially  prized,  Isa.  28:4;  Jer.  24:2;  Nah. 


3: 12,  though  the  summer  fig  is  most  abun- 
dant, 2  Kin.  20:7;  Isa.  38:21.  It  is  a  pecu- 
liarity of  the  fig-tree  that  its  fruit  begins 
to  appear  before  the  leaves,  and  without 
any  show  of  blossoms.  It  has,  indeed, 
small  and  hidden  blossoms,  but  the  pas- 
sage in  Hab.  3:17  should  read,  according 
to  the  original  Hebrew,  "Although  the  fig- 
tree  should  not  bear"  instead  of  "  blos- 
som." Its  leaves  come  so  late  in  the  spring 
as  to  justify  the  words  of  Christ,  "  Ye  know 
that  summer  is  nigh,"  Matt.  24:32;  Song 
2: 13.  The  fresh  fruit  is  shaped  like  a  pear. 
The  dried  figs  of  Palestine  were  probably 
like  those  which  are  brought  to  our  own 
country ;  sometimes,  however,  they  are 
dried  on  a  string.  We  likewise  read  of 
"  cakes  of  figs,"  i  Sam.  25:18;  2  Kin.  20:7; 
I  Chr.  12:40.  These  were  probably  formed 
by  pressing  the  fruit  forcibly  into  baskets 
or  other  vessels,  so  as  to  reduce  them  to  a 
solid  cake  or  lump.  In  this  way  dates  are 
still  prepared  in  Arabia. 

The  barren  fig-tree  which  was  withered 
at  our  Saviour's  word,  as  an  awful  warn- 
ing to  unfruitful  professors  of  religion, 
seems  to  have  spent  itself  in  leaves.  It 
stood  by  the  wayside,  free  to  all — a  single 
tree  seen  "  afar  off"  to  be  in  full  leaf  while 
others  were  not,  Mark  11:13;  hence  it 
was  reasonable  to  expect  to  find  figs  upon 
it.  Yet  there  was  "  nothing  thereon,  but 
leaves  only,"  Matt.  21:19.  Fig-trees  still 
overhang  the  path  over  the  Mount  of  Ol- 
ives, where  this  parable  was  spoken.  Matt. 
21:21.  It  furnishes  a  striking  type  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  specially  cared  for  by  God, 
Isa.  5,  and  full  of  leaves,  but  not  of  the 
expected  fruit. 

FILE,  literally  notchedness,  i  Sam.  13:21. 
This  verse  means  simply,  "  when  the  mat- 
tocks, etc.,  were  dull." 

FINE,  FI'NER,  FI'NING,  refine,  etc..  Job 
28:1. 

FIR,  an  evergreen  tree,  of  beautiful  ap- 
pearance, whose  lofty  height  and  dense 
foliage  afford  a  spacious  shelter  and  shade. 
The  Hebrew  word  often  seems  to  mean 
the  Cypress,  which  see.  It  was  used  for 
shipbuilding,  Ezek.  27:5;  for  musical  in- 
struments, 2  Sam.  6:5;  for  beams  and  raft- 
ers of  houses,  I  Kin.  5:8,  10;  9:11;  Song 
1:17.  In  Nah.  2:3,  "fir-trees  "  means  lan- 
ces made  of  cypress. 

FIRE,  in  Scripture,  is  often  connected 
with  the  presence  of  Jehovah ;  as  in  the 
burning  bush,  the  pillar  of  fire,  and  on 
Mount  Sinai,  Exod.  3:2;  13:21;  19:18;  in 
Psalm  18,  and  the  ode  of  Habakkuk.     The 

175 


FIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FIR 


2d  coming  of  Christ  will  be  "  in  flaming 
fire,'"  2  Thess.  i:«;  Dan.  7:9,  10.  In  the 
New  Testament  it  illustrates  the  enlight- 
ening, cheering,  and  purifjing  agency  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  Matt.  3:11  ;  Acts  2:3.  By 
sending  fire  from  heaven  to  consume  sac- 
rifices, God  often  signified  his  acceptance 
of  them,  as  probably  in  the  case  of  Abel, 
Gen.  4:4;  Abraham,  Gen.  15:17;  Manoah, 
Judg.  13:19,  20;  Elijah,  i  Kin.  18:38;  and 
at  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  the 
temple,  Lev.  9:24;  2  Chr.  7:1.  Hence  the 
Hebrew  for  "accept"  is  "turn  to  ashes," 
Psa.  20:3,  margin.  The  fire  on  the  altar 
of  burnt  offering  was  to  be  preserved  by 
the  priests  with  the  utmost  care.  Lev.  6:12, 
13.  Nadab  and  Abihu  were  slain  for  using 
other  fire  in  burning  incense.  Lev.  10:1, 
16:12,  or  in  some  way  violating  the  divine 
command,  E.xod.  30:7,  8.  Fire  symbolizes 
the  sin-consuming  holiness  of  God,  his  re- 
fining of  his  people,  and  punishment  of  the 
unbelieving,  Psa.  66:10;  Isa.  31:9;  48:10; 
Mai.  3:1,  2;  Heb.  12:29.  I"  many  ancient 
religions  fire  was  worshipped ;  and  children 
were  made  to  pass  through  the  fire  to  Mo- 
loch, 2  Kin.  17: 17  ;  Jer.  7:31  ;  Ezek.  16:21 ; 
23:37.  The  Jews  had  occasion  for  fires, 
except  for  cooking,  only  during  a  small 
part  of  the  year.  Besides  their  ordinary 
hearths  and  ovens, they  warmed  their  apart- 
ments with  "  a  fire  of  coals  "  in  a  brazier, 
Jer.  36:22,  23  ;  John  18: 18.  They  were  for- 
bidden to  kindle  a  fire  on  the  Sabbath, 
Exod.35:3 — a  prohibition  perhaps  only  of 
cooking  on  that  day,  but  understood  by 
many  Jews  even  now  in  the  fullest  extent ; 
it  is  evaded  by  employing  Gentile  servants. 
Another  provision  of  the  Mosaic  law  was 
designed  to  protect  the  standing  corn,  etc., 
in  the  dry  summer  season,  Exod.  22:6.  The 
earth  is  to  be  destroyed  by  fire,  2  Pet.  3:7; 
of  which  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  and  the 
volcanoes  and  earthquakes  which  so  often 
indicate  the  internal  commotions  of  the 
globe,  may  serve  as  warnings.  In  Isa. 
24:15,  for  "fires"  say  "East." 

FIR'KIN,  John  2:6,  a  Greek  measure, 
equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  bath,  and  con- 
taining about  8  gallons.  The  quantity  of 
wine  produced  by  the  miracle  at  Cana  was 
large  :  but  the  assemblage  was  also  large ; 
the  festivities  continued,  it  may  be,  a  whole 
week,  Judg.  14:12;  and  many  might  be 
drawn  to  the  scene  by  hearing  of  the  mir- 
acle. 

FIR'MAMENT,  Gen.  1 :  17,  the  expanse  of 
the  heavens  immediately  above  the  earth. 
The  Hebrews  seem  to  have  viewed  this  as 
176 


an  immense  crystalline  dome,  studded  with 
stars,  resting  on  the  far-distant  horizon  all 
around  the  spectator,  and  separating  the 
waters  above  us  from  those  on  the  earth. 
Through  its  windows  the  rain  descend- 
ed. It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  they 
thought  it  was  solid,  Psa.  19:1;  Isa.  40:22. 
It  is  not  the  aim  of  Scripture  to  give  sci- 
entific statements  of  natural  phenomena. 
Teaching  religion,  not  astronomy  or  phys- 
ics, it  does  not  anticipate  modern  discover- 
ies, but  speaks  of  natural  objects  and  oc- 
currences in  the  common  language  of  men 
everywhere.  Hence,  in  part,  its  attractive- 
ness in  all  ages  as  a  book  for  the  people. 

FIRSTBORN.  This  phrase  is  not  always 
to  be  understood  literally  ;  it  is  sometimes 
taken  for  the  preeminent,  most  excellent, 
most  distinguished  of  things,  Exod.  4:22; 
Psa.  89:27;  Rom.  8:29;  Heb.  1:4-6.  Thus 
Jesus  Christ  is  "  the  firstborn  of  every  crea- 
ture," Col.  1:15,  inasmuch  as  he  was  the 
"  Only-begotten  "  of  the  Father  before  any 
creature  was  produced.  He  is  "  the  first- 
born from  the  dead,"  Col.  i :  18,  because  he 
is  the  beginning,  and  the  author  of  the 
resurrection  of  all  who  die  in  faith. 

After  the  destroying  angel  had  slain  the 
firstborn  of  the  Egyptians,  God  ordained 
that  all  the  Jewish  firstborn,  both  of  men 
and  of  beasts  for  service,  should  be  conse- 
crated to  him,  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
right  as  owner  and  Lord  of  all,  Exod. 
4:22,  23;  19:6;  but  the  male  children  only 
were  subject  to  this  law.  and  he  set  apart 
the  tribe  of  Levi  to  minister  to  him,  in  lieu 
of  the  firstborn,  Num.  3:12,  45.  If  a  man 
had  several  wives,  he  was  obliged  to  pre- 
sent the  firstborn  son  of  each  one  of  them 
to  the  Lord.  Every  firstborn  son  was  pre- 
sented at  the  temple,  and  redeemed  for  5 
shekels.  The  firstling  of  a  clean  beast 
was  offered  at  the  temple,  not  to  be  re- 
deemed, but  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  Lord, 
Dent.  12:6;  15:19-21;  an  unclean  beast,  a 
horse,  an  ass,  or  a  camel,  was  either  re- 
deemed or  exchanged ;  an  ass  was  redeem- 
ed by  a  lamb  or  5  shekels ;  if  not  redeemed, 
it  was  put  to  death,  Exod.  13:2,  11,  etc. 
The  firstborn  son  among  the  Hebrews,  as 
among  all  other  nations,  enjoyed  special 
privileges  and  honors.     See  Birthricht. 

The  "firstborn  of  death,"  Job  18:13, 
seems  to  mean  the  chief  of  deadly  dis- 
eases; the  "firstborn  of  the  poor,"  Isa. 
14:30,  the  poorest. 

FIRST-FRUITS  were  presents  made  to 
God  of  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  harvest,  to 
express  the  submission,  dependence,  and 


FIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FIT 


thankfulness  of  the  offerers.  The  portion 
given  was  instead  of  the  whole,  in  ac- 
knowledgment that  all  was  due  to  God. 
They  were  offered  in  the  tabernacle  or 
temple  before  the  crop  was  gathered,  and 
when  the  harvest  was  over,  before  the  peo- 
ple began  to  use  their  corn.  The  first  of 
these  first-fruits,  offered  in  the  name  of 
the  nation,  was  a  sheaf  of  barley,  gathered 
on  the  15th  of  Nisan,  in  the  evening,  and 
threshed  in  a  court  of  the  temple.  After  it 
was  well  cleaned,  about  3  pints  of  it  were 
roasted,  and  pounded  in  a  mortar.  Over 
this  was  thrown  a  measure  of  olive  oil  and 
a  handful  of  incense  ;  and  the  priest,  ta- 
king the  offering,  waved  it  before  the  Lord 
towards  the  4  cardinal  points,  throwing  a 
handful  of  it  into  the  fire  on  the  altar,  and 
keeping  the  rest.  After  this,  all  were  at 
liberty  to  get  in  the  harvest.  When  the 
wheat  harvest  was  over,  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost they  offered  as  first-fruits  of  another 
kind,  in  the  name  of  the  nation,  2  loaves, 
of  about  3  pints  of  flour  each,  made  of 
leavened  dough,  Lev.  23:10,  17.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  first-fruits,  every  private  per- 
son was  obliged  to  bring  his  first-fruits  to 
the  temple,  but  Scripture  prescribes  nei- 
ther the  time  nor  the  quantity,  Exod.  22 :  29 ; 
Deut.  26:1-11. 

There  was,  besides  this,  another  sort  of 
first-fruits  paid  to  God,  Num.  15:19,  21; 
Neh.  10:37:  when  the  first  bread  of  the 
season  in  the  family  was  kneaded,  a  por- 
tion of  it  was  set  apart,  and  given  to  the 
priest  or  Levite  of  the  place ;  if  there  was 
no  priest  or  Levite,  it  was  cast  into  the 
oven  and  there  consumed.  The  first-fruits 
of  cultivated  fields,  vineyards,  fruit-trees, 
and  of  wool  were  required  by  God  for  the 
priests  or  Levites,  Num.  18:11-13;  Deut. 
18:4.     See  Fruit. 

Those  offerings  are  also  often  called  first- 
fruits  which  were  brought  by  the  Israelites 
from  devotion,  to  the  temple,  for  the  feast 
of  thanksgiving,  to  which  they  invited  their 
relations  and  friends  and  the  Levites  of 
their  cities.  The  first-fruits  and  tenths 
were  the  most  considerable  revenue  of  the 
priests  and  Levites,  and  the  neglect  of 
these  offerings  in  days  of  apostasy  was 
often  reproved  by  the  prophets,  2  Chr.  31  -.4., 
5,  12;  Neh.  10:35-37;  Ezek.  20:40;  Mai. 
3:8. 

Christians  have  "  the  first-fruits  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,"  Rom.  8:23;  that  is,  more 
abundant  and  more  excellent  gifts  than  the 
Jews ;  these  were  also  a  foretaste  of  the  full 
harvest.  "  Christ  is  risen  from  the  dead, 
12 


and  become  the  first-fruits  of  them  that 
slept,"  I  Cor.  15:20,  the  forerunner  of  all 
those  who,  because  he  lives,  shall  live  also, 
John  14: 19. 

FIRST'LING,  the  first  offspring  of  an  an- 
imal. Gen.  4:4;  Neh.  10:36. 

FISH,  FISH'ER.  The  Hebrews  have 
very  few  names  of  particular  species  of 
fish.  Moses  says  in  general,  that  all  sorts 
of  river,  lake,  or  sea  fish,  which  have  scales 
and  fins,  may  be  eaten  ;  all  others  shall  be 
to  the  Hebrews  an  abomination,  Lev.  11:9- 
12  ;  Deut.  14:9,  10.  So  in  the  parable,  Matt. 
13:48.  The  Nile  had  an  early  celebrity, 
which  it  still  retains,  for  the  abundance 
and  excellence  of  its  fish,  and  hence  the 
significance  of  the  plague  that  smote  the 
river  and  Hapi  its  god,  Exod.  7:18-21; 
Num.  11:5.  The  Sea  of  Tiberias  also  still 
abounds  in  fish,  Luke  5:5;  John  21:6-11. 
They  were  a  common  article  of  food  among 
the  Jews,  Matt.  7:10,  and  were  obtained 
from  the  Mediterranean,  Neh.  13:16,  and 
from  the  Jordan.  They  were  caught  with 
hooks,  Amos  4 : 2,  spears,  Job  41 : 7,  and  nets, 
Isa.  19:8-10.  Fish-worship  was  forbidden 
to  the  Jews,  Deut.  4 :  18,  but  was  prac- 
tised by  the  Assyrians  and  the  Philistines. 
See  Dagon.  The  "  great  fish,"  Jon.  1:17, 
which  swallowed  Jonah,  may  have  been  of 
the  shark  genus,  as  this  animal  is  common 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  original  word, 
both  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  Matt.  12:40, 
means  a  fish,  and  not  specifically  a  "  whale." 
See  Whale.  Fishermen  are  often  spoken 
of  in  the  Bible,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
the  12  apostles  of  our  Lord  were  of  that 
occupation.  Christ  made  them  "  fishers  of 
men,"  Matt.  4:18-22. 

The  early  Christians,  in  times  of  perse- 
cution, used  to  engrave  the  form  of  a  fish 
on  their  medals,  seals,  and  tombs,  as  a 
tacit  confession  of  their  faith  ;  as  the  5  let- 
ters of  the  Greek  word  for  fish,  ix'&vc,  are 
the  initial  letters  of  5  words  signifying 
"Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Sa- 
viour." This  symbol  has  thus  become  the 
subject  of  a  superstitious  regard. 

FITCH'ES,  or  Vetch'es,  a  species  of 
wild  pea.  Two  Hebrew  words  are  trans- 
lated "fitches,"  one  of  which  probably 
means  spe/l,  Ezek.  4:9,  and  the  oXher  gith, 
a  plant  resembling  fennel,  and  very  pun- 
gent, Isa.  28:25.  The  seed  is  black  and 
aromatic,  and  is  used  as  a  seasoning  and 
for  medicine.  It  is  readily  shed  from  the 
capsules,  while  the  grains  of  spelt  are 
firmly  lodged  in  the  husks.  God  exercises 
judgment  in  dealing  with   his  people,  not 

177 


FLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FLE 


crushing  with  a  wheel  when  beating  with 
a  staff  will  suffice,  ver.  27-29. 


FLAG:  CyPERUS  ESCULENTUS, 

FLAG,  Job  8:11,  a  coarse  grass  growing 
in  wet  meadows  and  on  river  banks,  prob- 
ably the  Cyperus  esculentus,  translated 
meadow  in  Gen.  41 : 2,  18.  A  different  word 
is  used  in  Exod.  2:3,  5;  Isa.  19:6,  in  a  more 
general  sense. 

FLAG'ON.  The  Hebrew  word  every- 
where rendered  in  the  English  version 
flagon,  2  Sam.  6:19;  i  Chr.  16:3;  Song  2:5; 
Hos.  3:1,  means  rather  a  cake,  especially 
of  dried  grapes  or  raisins,  pressed  into  a 
particular  form.  These  are  mentioned  as 
delicacies,  by  which  the  weary  and  languid 
are  refreshed ;  they  were  also  offered  to 
idols,  Hos.  3:1.  They  differed  from  the 
dried  clusters  of  grapes  not  pressed  into 
any  form,  i  Sam.  25:18,  and  also  from  the 
"cakes  of  figs."  We  may  refer,  in  illus- 
tration, to  the  manner  in  which  with  us 
cheeses  are  pressed  in  various  forms,  as 
of  pineapples,  etc.,  and  also  the  manner  in 
which  dates  are  prepared  at  the  present 
day  by  the  Arabs.  See  Figs.  The  word 
translated  flagon  in  Isa.  22:24  means  some- 
times a  leather  bottle,  and  sometimes  a 
musical  instrument  of  similar  shape. 

FLAX,  a  well-known  plant,  upon  which 
the  industry  of  mankind  has  been  exer- 
cised with  the  greatest  success  and  utility. 
Josh.  2:6;  Prov.  31:13.  Moses  speaks  of 
the  flax  in  Egypt,  Exod.  9:31,  which  coun- 
try has  been  celebrated  from  time  imme- 
morial for  its  production  and  manufacture, 
the  rich  deposits  of  the  overflowing  Nile 
rendering  the  soil  most  favorable  for  it. 
See  BoLLED.  The  "fine  linen  of  Egypt," 
which  was  manufactured  from  this  article, 
is  spoken  of  for  its  superior  excellence  in 
178 


Scripture,  Prov.  7:16;  Ezek.  27  : 7.  "  Linen 
yarn, "however,  in  i  Kin.  10:28,  is  translated 
"horses"  in  the  R.V.  Its 
production  in  Palestine  is 
mentioned  in  Josh.  2:6; 
Judg.  16:9 ;  Isa.  i  :3i ; 
Hos.  2:5,  9.  Most  of 
the  linen  found  wrapped 
around  Egyptian  mum- 
mies will  hardly  compare 
with  our  common  sheet- 
ings. But  some  speci- 
mens are  found  of  re- 
markable fineness ;  one 
containing  152  threads 
in  the  warp,  and  71  in 
the  woof,  to  each  square 
inch;  and  another,  270 
double  threads  in  the 
warp,  and  no  in  the 
woof,  per  inch.  Modern 
cambric  rarely  contains 
more  than  160  in  the 
woof.     See  Cotton  and  Linen. 

The  various  processes  by  which  flax  is 
changed  to  fine  and  snowy  linen  well  illus- 
trate God's  discipline  in  sanctifying  his 
children. 

The  prophet  Isaiah,  in  speaking  of  the 
gentleness  of  the  Messiah,  uses  a  proverb- 
ial expression,  "  The  bruised  reed  shall  he 
not  break,  and  the  smoking  flax  shall  he 
not  quench,"  Isa.  42:3;  Matt.  12:20.  Here 
"  flax  "  means  the  wick  of  a  lamp  or  taper. 
He  will  not  break  a  reed  already  bruised 
and  ready  to  be  broken,  nor  extinguish  a 
flickering,  dying  lamp,  just  ready  to  ex- 
pire; that  is,  he  will  not  oppress  his  hum- 
ble and  penitent  followers,  but  cherish  the 
feeblest  beginnings  of  true  grace. 

FLESH.  In  the  Bible,  besides  the  ordi- 
nary sense.  Job  33:25,  this  word  denotes 
mankind  as  a  race,  Gen.  6:12;  Psa.  145:21 ; 
Isa.  40:5,  6;  all  living  creatures  on  the 
earth.  Gen.  6:17,  19;  and  in  John  1:14  the 
human  nature.  It  is  often  used  in  opposi- 
tion to  "spirit,"  as  we  use  body  and  soul, 
Job  14:22;  and  sometimes  means  the  body 
as  animated  and  sensitive.  Matt.  26:41,  and 
the  seat  of  bodily  appetites,  Prov.  5:11; 
2  Cor.  7:1.  In  the  New  Testament,  "  flesh  " 
is  very  often  used  to  designate  the  bodily 
propensities  and  passions  which  draw  men 
away  from  yielding  themselves  to  the  Lord 
and  to  the  things  of  the  Spirit.  The  flesh, 
or  carnal  principle,  is  opposed  to  the  spirit, 
or  spiritual  principle,  Rom.  8;  Gal.  5:17. 
To  "  know  Christ  after  the  flesh  "  implied 
glorying   in   merely  outward   relations   to 


FLO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FOO 


Tiitn — as  of  belonging  to  Israel  his  nation, 
•or  having  seen  him  in  the  flesh — instead  of 
spiritually  knowing  him  as  having  been 
■created  anew  in  him,  without  which  all 
■else  is  in  vain,  Matt.  7:22,  23;  Luke  8:19- 
21;  2  Cor.  5:16,  17;  Phil.  3:3-10. 

FLOCKS.     See  Sheep. 

FLOOD.  See  Deluge.  In  Josh.  24:2 
the  Euphrates. 

FLUTE,  a  soft,  sweet-toned  wind  instru- 
ment of  music.  The  word  flute  is  used 
•only  in  Dan.  3,  and  is  supposed  to  mean  a 
pipe  with  2  reeds,  such  as  are  still  to  be 
found  in  the  East.  It  is  blown  at  the  end. 
See  Music,  Pipe. 

FLUX,7foz<y,  in  Acts  28:8,  the  dysentery. 

FLY,  a  genus  of  insects,  of  which  there 
•are  a  great  many  species.  Moses  declares 
them  and  most  other  insects  to  be  unclean, 
Lev.  11:42.  They  abound  in  Egypt,  and 
are  annoying  and  vexatious  in  the  extreme, 
attacking  the  eyelids,  etc.,  in  swarms  and 
with  the  utmost  pertinacity,  and  convey- 
ing ophthalmia  from  one  to  another.  How 
intolerable  a  plague  of  flies  may  be,  is  evi- 
•dent  from  the  fact  that  whole  districts  in 
the  Levant  have  been  for  a  time  depopu- 
lated by  them,  the  inhabitants  being  una- 
ble to  stand  against  their  incessant  attacks, 
Exod.  8 :  24. 

Dead  flies  polluting  fragrant  ointment, 
Eccl.  10:1,  show  what  scandal  a  little  "fol- 
ly," /.  e.,  sin,  in  a  good  man  may  cause. 
Corruption  tends  to  diffuse  itself,  i  Cor. 
5:6.  In  Isa.  7:18,  the  prophet,  describing 
the  armies  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  each  un- 
•der  the  symbol  of  one  of  the  prevalent 
insects  in  those  countries,  says,  "  The  Lord 
shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that  is  in  the  'utter- 
most part '  (or  rather,  as  the  same  Hebrew 
word  is  rendered  in  Exod.  16:35,  the  '  bor- 
ders '  of  the  streams  of  Egypt),  and  for  the 
bee  that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria."  It  is 
thought  by  some  that  the  fly  here  spoken 
of  is  the  zimb,  or  Ethiopian  fly,  of  which 
Mr.  Bruce  sa\-s,  "  It  is  in  size  very  little 
larger  than  a  bee,  of  a  thicker  proportion, 
and  has  wings  which  are  broader  than 
those  of  a  bee,  placed  separate,  like  those 
of  a  fly ;  they  are  of  pure  gauze,  without 
color  or  spot  upon  them  ;  the  head  is  large. 
As  soon  as  this  plague  appears,  and  their 
buzzing  is  heard,  all  the  cattle  forsake  their 
food,  and  run  wildly  about  the  plain  till 
they  die,  worn  out  with  fatigue,  fright,  and 
hunger.  No  remedy  remains  but  to  leave 
the  black  earth,  and  hasten  down  to  the 
sands  of  the  desert ;  and  there  they  remain 
while  the  rains  last,  this  cruel  enemy  never 


daring  to  pursue  them  farther."    The  cam- 
el also  is  obliged  to  fly  before  these   in- 


sects; and  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros 
coat  themselves  with  a  thick  armor  of  mud. 
The  Philistines  and  Canaanites  adored  Be- 
elzebub, the  fly-god,  probably  as  a  patron 
to  protect  them  against  these  tormenting 
insects. 

FOLD,  John  10:16,  flock. 

FOOD.  In  ancient  times  the  food  of  a 
people  was  more  entirely  the  product  of 
their  own  country  than  in  our  day.  Pales- 
tine was  favored  with  an  abundance  of 
animal  food,  grain,  and  vegetables.  But 
throughout  the  East  vegetable  food  is  more 
used  than  animal.  Bread  was  the  princi- 
pal food.  Grain  of  various  kinds,  beans, 
lentils,  onions,  grapes,  figs,  and  dates,  to- 
gether with  olive  oil,  honey,  and  the  milk 
of  goats  and  cows,  were  the  ordinary  fare. 
The  wandering  Arabs  live  much  upon  a 
coarse  black  bread.  A  very  common  dish 
in  Syria  is  rice,  with  shreds  of  meat,  vege- 
tables, olive  oil,  etc.,  intermixed.  A  simi- 
lar dish,  made  with  beans,  lentils,  and 
various  kinds  of  pulse,  was  in  frequent  use 
at  an  earlier  age,  Gen.  25:29-34;  2  Kin. 
4:38-41.  Fish  was  a  common  article  of 
food,  when  accessible,  and  was  very  much 
used  in  Egypt.  This  country  was  also 
famous  for  cucumbers,  melons,  leeks,  on- 
ions, and  garlics,  Num.  11:5.  Such  is  the 
food  of  the  Egyptians  still.  See  Clean, 
Eating,  Corn,  and  Meat. 

Animal  food  was  always  used  on  festive 
occasions;  and  the  hospitable  patriarchs 
lost  little  time  in  preparing  for  their  guests 
a  smoking  dish  from  their  flocks  of  sheep 
and  goats,  their  herds  of  cattle,  or  their 
dove-cotes,  Gen.  18:7;  Luke  15:23.  The 
rich  had  animal  food  more  frequently,  and 
their  cattle  were  stalled  and  fattened  for 
the  table,  i  Sam.  16:20;  i  Kin.  4:23;  Neh. 
5:18;    Isa.    i:ii;    11:6;    Mai.  4:2.      Sheep 

179 


FOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FOO 


were  brought  by  Abigail  to  David,  i  Sam. 
25:18,  and  by  others  at  Mahanaim,  2  Sam. 
17:28,  29,  as  animal  food  is  welcomed  by 
soldiers.  Among  the  poor,  locusts  were  a 
common  means  of  sustenance,  being  dried 
in  the  sun,  or  roasted  over  the  fire  on  iron 
plates.  Various  wild  plants  were  also  eat- 
en by  them,  Job  30:4.  Condiments,  as  salt, 
mustard,  etc.,  were  much  used,  Isa.  28:25, 
etc. ;  Matt.  23:23. 

In  the  East,  "butter"  (curdled  milk)  and 
honey  are  poured  out  of  jars.  Job  20:17. 
They  were  a  common  food  of  children,  Isa. 
7: 15,  and  could  be  obtained  even  when  the 
land  was  distressed  by  war,  ver.  22. 

Water  was  the  earliest  and  common 
drink.  Wine  of  an  into.\icating  quality 
was  early  known.  Gen.  9:20;  14:18;  40:1. 
Date -wine  and  similar  beverages  were 
common;  and  the  common  people  used  a 
kind  of  sour  wine,  called  vinegar  in  Ruth 
2:14;  Matt.  27:48. 

FOOL,  any  person  who  does  not  act 
wisely,  that  is,  does  not  follow  the  warn- 
ings and  requirements  of  God,  which  are 
founded  in  infinite  wisdom.  Hence  "  a 
fool  "  is  put  for  a  wicked  man,  an  enemy 
or  neglecter  of  God,  Psa.  14:1 ;  Prov.  19:1. 
So  folly  is  put  for  wickedness,  2  Sam.  13: 12, 
13  ;  Psa.  38:5,  foolish  lusts  for  wicked  lusts, 
etc.  Foolish  talking,  foolish  questions  are 
vain,  empty,  unprofitable  conversation, 
2  Tim.  2:23.  In  some  passages  "foolish 
men"  is  a  better  rendering  than  "fools," 
as  in  Luke  24:25.  In  Matt.  5:22  the  phrase 
"thou  fool "  implies  in  those  who  use  it  an 
angry  and  contemptuous  spirit,  displeasing 
to  God,  and  fatal  to  its  possessor  unless 
repented  of. 

FOOT.  The  expressions  in  Deut.  32:35, 
"  their  foot  shall  slide  in  due  time,"  and  in 
the  traveller's  song,  Psa.  121:3,  "he  will 
not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved,"  Psa.  66:9, 
Jer.  13: 16,  have  reference  to  the  dangerous 
character  of  the  narrow  roads  or  paths  of 
the  East,  over  rocks  and  beside  precipices, 
where  a  sliding  foot  was  often  fatal.  See 
also  Isa.  8:14;  Luke  2:34.  Nakedness  of 
feet  was  a  sign  of  mourning.  God  says  to 
Ezekiel,  "  Make  no  mourning  for  the  dead, 
and  put  on  thy  shoes  upon  thy  feet,"  Ezek. 
24:17.  It  was  likewise  a  mark  of  respect. 
Moses  put  off  his  shoes  to  approach  the 
burning  bush  ;  and  most  commentators  are 
of  opinion  that  the  priests  served  in  the 
tabernacle  with  their  feet  naked,  as  they 
did  afterwards  in  the  temple,  being  re- 
quired first  to  wash  their  feet  as  well  as 
their  hands,  Exod.  30:19-21.  The  Turks 
180 


never  enter  their  mosques  till  after  they 
have  washed  their  feet  and  their  hands, 
and  have  put  off  the  outward  covering  of 
their  legs.  The  Christians  of  Ethiopia  en- 
ter their  churches  witli  tlieir  shoes  off,  and 
the  Indian  Brahmins  and  others  have  the 
same  respect  for  their  pagodas  and  temples. 
See  Eccl.  5:1.  Eastern  conquerors  used 
to  set  their  feet  on  the  necks  of  conquered 
princes.  Josh.  10:22-24,  an  action  often  fig- 
ured in  ancient  sculptures,  Psa.  8:6;  Isa. 
49:23;  I  Cor.  15:25;  Heb.  2:8.  See  Nin- 
eveh. 

The  Orientals  used  to  wash  the  feet  of 
strangers  wlio  came  off  a  journey,  because 
they  commonly  walked  with  their  legs  bare, 
and  their  feet  defended  onl\-  by  sandals,. 
Gen.  24:32;  43:24.  So  Abraham  washed 
the  feet  of  the  3  angels.  Gen.  18:4.  This 
office  was  usually  performed  by  servants 
and  slaves ;  and  hence  Abigail  answers 
David,  who  sought  her  in  marriage,  that 
she  should  think  it  an  honor  to  wash  the 
feet  of  the  king's  servants,  i  Sam.  25:41.. 
Paul  would  have  a  widow  assisted  by  the 
church  to  be  one  who  had  hospitably  washed 
the  feet  of  saints,  i  Tim.  5:10.  The  prac- 
tice is  still  met  with  in  Palestine.  Says 
Dr.  Robinson,  at  Ramleh,  "  Our  youthful 
host  now  proposed,  in  the  genuine  style  of 
anc'ent  Oriental  hospitality,  that  a  servant 
should  wash  our  feet.  This  took  me  by 
surprise,  for  I  was  not  aware  that  the  cus- 
tom still  existed  here.  Nor  does  it  indeed 
towards  foreigners,  though  it  is  quite  com- 
mon among  the  natives.  We  gladly  ac- 
cepted the  proposal,  both  for  the  sake  of 
the  refreshment  and  of  the  Scriptural  illus- 
tration. A  female  Nubian  slave  accord- 
ingly brought  water,  which  she  poured 
upon  our  feet  over  a  large  shallow  basin 
of  tinned  copper,  kneeling  before  us  and 
rubbing  our  feet  with  her  hands,  and  wi- 
ping them  with  a  napkin.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  gratifying  minor  incidents  of  our 
whole  journey."  Our  Saviour,  after  his. 
last  supper,  gave  a  striking  lesson  of  humil- 
ity and  loving  service,  by  washing  his  dis- 
ciples' feet,  John  13:5,  6,  though  the  8th 
verse  shows  that  he  had  also  a  deeper 
meaning.  In  ver.  10  two  different  Greek 
verbs  are  used :  "  he  that  is  balhed  needs 
not  save  to  wash  his  feet."  After  "the 
washing  of  regeneration,"  Tit.  3:5,  the  soul 
needs  only  the  cleansing  of  daily  defile- 
ments, Luke  11:4.  Christ's  example  we 
should  follow,  "  by  love  serving  one  an- 
other." See  S.^NDALs;  and  for  "  watering 
with  the  foot,"  Deut.  n:io,  see  Rivers. 


FOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FOR 


FOOT'MEN,  or  runners,  were  attendants 
on  Eastern  princes,  trained  to  run  before 
their  chariots,  i  Sam.  8:ii ;  22:17.  So  Eli- 
jah ran  before  Ahab,  i  Kin.  18:46.  The 
speed  and  endurance  of  some  of  these 
couriers  is  almost  beyond  belief.  The 
word  is  also  the  translation  of  another  He- 
brew word  meaning  unmounted  soldiers, 
E.xod.  12:37;  Num.  11:21,  in  whom  swift- 
ness of  foot  was  much  valued,  2  Sam.  i  :23; 
2:18;  I  Chr.  12:8;  Jer.  12:5. 

FOOT'STOOL.  The  earth  is  spoken  of 
as  God's  footstool,  Isa.  66:1;  Matt.  5:35; 
so  are  his  enemies.  Acts  2:35  ;  and  also  the 
ark  of  the  covenant,  i  Chr.  28:2;  Psa.  99:5. 

FORE'HEAD,  Ezek.  9;  Rev.  7:2,;  13:16. 
Immodest  women  are  hard  of  forehead, 
Ezek.  3:7-9.  An  unveiled  forehead  indi- 
cated immodesty,  Jer.  3:3.  See  Veil.  The 
•devotees  of  different  idols  in  India  receive 
at  this  day  different  marks  on  the  fore- 
head, distinguishing  them  one  from  an- 
other. By  a  similar  method  the  slaves 
•claimed  by  different  owners  were  some- 
times designated.  Contrast  Exod.  28:36-38 
■with  Rev.  17:5;  22:4. 

FORE'KNOWL'EDGE,  Acts  2:23; 
Rom.  8:29;  11:2;  I  Pet.  I,  2;  an  es- 
sential attribute  of  Jehovah,  incom- 
prehensible by  any  finite  mind,  yet 
clearly  revealed  in  Scripture  as  inclu- 
■ding  all  things  that  shall  ever  come 
to  pass,  Isa.  46:9,  10.  Its  harmony 
•with  freedom  of  the  will  in  angels 
and  men  we  cannot  question,  how- 
ever vain  our  efforts  to  adjust  the  two. 

FOR'EST.  Several  are  mentioned 
an  the  Bible,  Josh.  17:15-18;  i  Sam. 
22 : 5  ;  23 :  15  ;  i  Kin.  7 : 2  ;  2  Kin.  2 :  23, 
24;  19:23;  Zech.  11:2.  In  "the  wood 
of  Ephraim "  Absalom  was  slain, 
2  Sam.  18:6.  "  The  forest  of  his  Car- 
jiiel,"  2  Kin.  19:23,  seems  to  denote 
the  garden-like  cedars  of  Lebanon. 
In  Zech.  11:2,"  the  forest  of  the  vint- 
age "  is  rather  "the  fortified  forest," 
perhaps  the  thickly-wooded  region 
beyond  the  Jordan.  Royal  property 
in  forests  was  carefully  guarded, 
Neh.  2:8.  The  word  sometimes  sym- 
bolizes royal  power,  Isa.  10:18;  also 
unfruitfulness  as  opposed  to  cultiva- 
tion, Isa.  29: 17. 

FORGIVE'NESS,  a  glorious  mani- 
festation of  God's  mercy  to  sinners, 
E.xod.  34:7,  freely  granted  for  the  sake 
of  what  Christ  has  done  and  suffered,  to  all 
who  truly  repent  and  accept  the  Saviour  as 
their  only  hope,  2  Chr.  7:14;  Job  33:27-30; 


Psa.  103:3,  12;  Acts  5:31;  10:43;  13:38; 
26:18;  and  to  no  others,  Prov.  1:24-31. 

Forgiveness  between  man  and  man  is 
strongly  required  by  Christ,  Matt.  5:44,  45; 
6:14,  15;  18:21-35;  ^"d  forcibly  commend- 
ed by  his  own  example,  Luke  23:34;  Eph. 
4:32.  Without  it  we  ourselves  cannot  be 
pardoned,  Matt.  6:14,  15. 

FORKS,  I  Sam.  13:21,  were  simply  large 
flesh-hooks. 

FORNICA'TION.  This  word  is  used  in 
Scripture  not  only  for  the  sin  of  impurity 
between  unmarried  persons,  but  for  idola- 
try, and  for  all  kinds  of  infidelity  to  God. 
In  Ezek.  16,  the  Jewish  Church  is  symbol- 
ized as  a  female  infant,  growing  up  to  wo- 
manhood, and  then  wedded  to  Jehovah  by 
covenant.  When  she  breaks  her  covenant 
by  going  after  idols,  she  is  justly  reproached 
as  an  adultress  and  a  harlot,  Jer.  2:20;  3:8, 
9;  Hos.  3:1.  Adultery  and  fornication  are 
frequently  confounded.  Both  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  condemn  all  impurity  and 
fornication,  corporeal  and  spiritual — idol- 
atry, apostasy,  heresy,  and  infidelity.  See 
Adultery. 


EGYPTIANS  ATTACKING  A  FORT  ON  A  ROCK. 

FORT.  Men  first  used  natural  caverns 
as  places  of  refuge,  and  fortified  them  for 
defence,  Josh.  10:16;  Judg.  6:2;   i   Sam. 

181 


FOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FRA 


22: 1.  But  forts  and  castles,  both  detached 
from  city  walls,  and  built  upon  them,  and 
even  within  them  as  citadels,  are  early 
mentioned,  Deut.  1:28;  3:5;  2  Kin.  9:17. 
They  were  built  of  timber  or  of  stone,  with 
battlements,  ditches,  etc.,  i  Chr.  27:25; 
2  Chr.  27:4;  Psa.  107:16.     See  War. 

FORTUNA'TUS,  I  Cor.  16:17,  came  from 
Corinth  to  Ephesus,  to  visit  Paul.  Paul 
speaks  of  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Ach- 
aicus  as  the  firstfruits  of  Achaia,  and  as 
set  for  the  service  of  the  church  and  saints. 
They  carried  Paul's  ist  epistle  to  Corinth. 
See  Stephan.\s. 

FOUN'TAINS,  or  perennial  springs  of 
good  water,  were  of  inestimable  value  in 
Palestine,  contrasted  with  the  desert  and 
with  Egypt,  Deut.  8:7;  ii:ii,  and  numer- 
ous places  took  their  name  from  some 
fountain  in  their  vicinity.  See  En.  They 
have  furnished  to  the  sacred  writers  some 
of  their  finest  illustrations  of  spiritual 
things.  Thus,  God  is  "  the  Fountain  of 
living  waters,"  Jer.  2:13.  The  atonement 
is  a  precious  fountain  of  cleansing,  heal- 
ing, life-giving  power,  Joel  3:18;  Zech. 
13:1.  The  consolations  of  the  gospel  and 
the  felicity  of  heaven  are  also  described 
by  this  similitude,  Psa.  36:7-9;  Rev.  7:17. 
The  grace  of  Christ  to  the  believer  is  inex- 
haustible and  satisfying,  John  4:14. 
See  Wells. 

FOWL.  Used  for  birds  of  prey, 
Gen.  15:11 ;  Job  28:7;  Isa.  18:6;  for 
poultry,  Neh.  5:18;  i  Kin.  4:23;  and 
for  birds  in  general,  Luke  12:24. 
See  Birds. 

FOX.  This  well-known  animal  is 
still  found  in  Palestine,  as  well  as 
the  jackal,  which  is  probably  meaint 
in  several  passages  where  "  fox  " 
now  occurs.  Both  animals  are  cun- 
ning, voracious,  and  mischievous, 
Ezek.  13:4;  Luke  13:32,  are  fond  of 
grapes,  and  do  much  hartn  in  vine- 
yards, Song  2: 15;  the  fable  of  the  fox 
and  the  sour  grapes  is  well  known. 
Both  burrow  in  the  ground  or  among 
ruins,  Luke  9:58.  But  the  fox  is  sol- 
itary in  his  habits,  while  the  jackal 
hunts  its  prey  in  large  packs,  howl- 
ing and  yelping  at  night,  to  the  an- 
noyance of  all  within  hearing.  They 
follow  after  caravans  and  armies, 
and  devour  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
and  even  dig  them  up  from  their 
graves,  Psa.  63:10;  Lam.  5:18.  Compare 
2  Sam.  18:17.  The  incident  in  the  life  of 
Samson,  where  jackals  are  probably  re- 
182 


ferred  to,  Judg.  15:4,  5,  has  a  parallel  in  the 
ancient  Roman  feast  of  Ceres,  goddess  of 
corn,  when  torches  were  bound  to  the  tail& 


of  numbers  of  foxes  and  they  ran  round  the- 
circus  till  the  fire  stopped  and  consumed 
them.  This  was  in  revenge  for  their  once 
burning  up  some  fields  of  corn.  In  Song 
2:  15  the  symbolical  reference  seems  to  be 
to  the  subtle  heart-sins  against  which  we 
are  less  on  our  guard  tiian  against  temi)ta- 
tions  to  overt  acts,  but  which  are  destructive 
to  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit ;  like  the  teachers, 
of  plausible  false  doctrines  in  the  church. 


FRANKINCENSK  :    BOSWF.I.I.IA   SERRATA. 

FRANK'INCENSE,  Hebrew  root  white,  a. 
white  and  yellowish  resin  or  gum,  glitter- 
ing, brittle,  and  bitter,  an  ingredient  of  the 


PALM-TREES,  AND  JERICHO. 


FRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FRO 


sacred  incense  prescribed  for  the  temple- 
service,  Exod.  30:7,  8,  34-36.  It  was  also 
used  by  itself  in  connection  with  the  fine- 
flour  offerings,  Lev.  2,  and  a  golden  cup  of 
it  was  daily  placed  on  both  piles  of  the 
show-bread,  Lev.  24:5-9.  It  was  much 
used  as  a  perfume  and  fumigator  in  the 
East,  Song  3:6,  and  was  one  of  the  precious 
gifts  of  the  wise  men  to  the  infant  Saviour, 
Matt.  2:11.  It  is  called  "frank"  or  free 
incense  from  its  burning  freely,  with  a 
steady  flame  and  a  highly  aromatic  odor. 
The  best  was  obtained  from  Arabia,  Isa. 
60:6;  Jer.  6:20,  but  now  also  from  East 
Africa  and  from  India,  an  exudation  from 
the  incised  bark  of  the  Boswellia  serrata,  a 
tree  40  feet  high.  The  Arabian  olibanum, 
or  an  imitation  of  it,  is  now  used  in  Greek 
and  Roman  churches.     See  Incense. 

FRANK'LY,  freely,  Luke  7:42. 

FRAY,  Zech.  1:21,  to  frighten. 

FRET,  Lev.  13:55,  eaten  in,  corroded. 

FRIEND.  Abraham  is  signally  honored 
in  being  called  "  the  friend  of  God,"  Isa. 
41:8;  Jas.  2:23.  Christ  granted  a  similar 
honor  and  blessing  to  his  disciples,  John 
15:15.  It  is  a  different  word,  however,  in 
Greek,  by  which  he  addressed  Judas,  Matt. 
26 :  50 ;  the  word  there  translated  friend 
means  simply  companion,  and  appears  to 
have  been  used  as  a  conversational  term 
not  implying  friendship.  The  same  word 
occurs  in  Matt.  20:13;  22:12. 

FRIN'GES.  In  the  fringes  or  tassels  at 
the  4  corners  of  the  Hebrew  outer  mantle, 
Deut.  22:12,  a  thread  or  stripe  of  sacred 
blue  was  inwoven  for  the  purpose  assigned 
in  Num.  15:38,  39.  Hence  perhaps  the  bor- 
der of  Christ's  garment  was  touched  by  the 
diseased  woman.  Matt.  9:20;  14:36.  The 
Pharisees  enlarged  their  tassels,  as  if  spe- 
cially zealous  to  honor  the  law.  Matt.  23:5. 
When  the  Jews  became  a  persecuted  race, 
they  dropped  the  fringed  mantle,  and  wore 
their  fringes  on  an  inner  garment.  A 
fringed  outer  garment  is  still  sometimes 
worn  at  morning  prayer. 

FROG,  a  well-known  amphibious  animal, 
famous  as  the  2d  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt, 
Exod.  8: 1-14.  The  original  word  is  Egyp- 
tian, and  its  use  by  Moses  with  that  of 
other  Egyptian  words  is  an  undesigned 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  his  narrative.  The 
frog,  though  unclean  to  the  Hebrews,  Lev. 
11:9-11,  was  a  sacred  animal,  and  one  of 
the  gods  of  Egypt,  Haka,  was  represented 
with  a  frog's  head ;  thvis  this  plague  was 
one  fulfilment  of  Exod.  12:12.  The  magi- 
cians are  said  to  have  brought  up  frogs 


upon  the  land  by  their  enchantments  ;  but 
as  they  could  not  remove  them,  it  is  clear 
that  they  did  not  actually  produce  them. 
They  penetrated  everywhere — to  the  beds 
of  the  Egyptians,  which  were  near  the 
ground,  and  to  their  ovens,  which  were 
cavities  in  the  ground. 

FRONT'LETS  are  thus  described  by  Leo 
of  Modena :  The  Jews  take  4  pieces  of  parch- 
ment, and  write  with  an  ink  made  on  pur- 
pose, and  in  square  letters,  these  4  passa- 
ges, one  on  each  piece:  (i.)  "  Sanctify  unto 
me  all  the  firstborn,"  etc.,  Exod.  13:2-10. 
(2.)  "  And  when  the  Lord  shall  bring  thee 
into  the  land  of  the  Canaanites,"  etc.,  ver. 
11-16.  (3.)  "  Hear,  O  Israel;  the  Lord  our 
God  is  one  Lord,"  etc.,  Deut.  6:4-9.  U)  "  I^ 
ye  shall  hearken  diligently  unto  my  com- 
mandments," etc.,  11:13-21.  This  they  do 
in  obedience  to  the  words  of  Moses :  "  These 
commandments  shall  be  for  a  sign  unto 
thee  upon  thy  liand,  and  for  a  memorial 
between  thine  eyes." 

These  4  pieces  are  fastened  together, 
and  a  square  formed  of  them,  on  which 


the  Hebrew  letter  iJ?  Shin  is  written ;  then 
a  little  square  of  hard  calfskin  is  put  at  the 
top,  out  of  which  come  2  leathern  strings. 


This  square  is  put  on  the  middle  of  the  fore- 
head, and  the  strings,  being  girt  about  the 
head,  are  then  brought  before,  and  fall  on 
the  breast.     It  is  called  the  Tephila,  liga- 

183 


FRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FUR 


ment  or  pr-iyer,  of  the  head.  The  most 
devout  Je\v«5  put  it  on  both  at  morning  and 
noonday  pi  ayer ;  but  it  is  generally  \\  orn 
only  at  morning  prayer.  See  Phvlactkr- 
lES.  The  use  of  such  material  aids  to  de- 
votion, more  needed  then  than  now,  was 
desirable  only  for  spiritual  ends,  Prov.  3:;^ ; 
4:21 ;  6:20,  21 ;  7:3.  But  in  many  cases 
it  becomes  a  superstition  and  a  mere 
form — a  worthless  substitute  for  the 
grace  it  was  designed  to  strengthen. 

FROST  sometimes  occurs  on  the  high 
grounds  in  Palestine,  and  thin  ice  occa- 
sionally forms  on  pools  in  Jerusalem. 
The  quiet  beauty  of  frost  formations  is 
hinted  in  Job  37:10.  In  all  that  region 
there  is  often  a  greater  difference  in 
the  temperature  of  day  and  night  than 
here,  a  frosty  night  being  followed  by  a 
hot  day,  Gen.  31:40;  Jer.  36:30. 

FRO'WARD,  the  opposite  of  toward, 
turned  away,  perverse,  Deut.  32:20. 

FRUITS.  The  Hebrew  has  3  generic 
terms  for  the  products  of  the  soil :  the  first, 
'■  corn  "  or  "  wheat,"  including  all  cereals 
zxidi  field-produce  in  general ;  the  second, 
"sweet  wine"  or  "new  wine,"  meaning 
the  grape  in  all  its  stages,  young  and  ma- 
ture, vintage-fniil ;  the  third,  "oil,"  inclu- 
ding olives,  figs,  dates,  nuts,  and  all  or- 
chard-fndls.  The  first-fruits  and  tithes  of 
these  were  devoted  to  God,  Num.  18:12; 
Deut  14:23.  "Fruit"  is  often  used  meta- 
phorically, Prov.  1:31;  11:30;  Isa.  10:12; 
57:19;  Psa.  132:11;  Gal.  5:22. 

FULFILLED'.  The  ordinary  meaning 
of  this  word  is  sufficiently  obvious.  It  will 
ultimately  be  recorded  over  against  all  the 
predictions  and  promises  of  Jehovah,  every 
one  having  been  fully  accomplished  at  the 
proper  time  and  place.  Josh.  23:14;  Matt. 
2:17;  8:17;  12:17.  There  are  in  the  New 
Testament  many  instances  of  such  an  ac- 
complishment, where  the  purposes  of  men 
were  very  different,  and  those  who  figured 
in  the  transaction  did  not  dream  of  any- 
thing but  some  evil  project  of  their  own. 
Thus  in  John  19:24,  28,  36,  the  actual  agents 
in  Christ's  crucifixion  had  no  thought  that 
they  were  fulfilling  the  purposes  of  God. 
Sometimes  also  the  phrase  "  that  it  might 
be  fulfilled  "  signifies  that  the  occurrence 
to  which  it  is  applied  is  a  secondary  fulfil- 
ment, a  verification,  or  simply  an  illustra- 
tion, of  the  original  prophetic  passage — yet 
foreknown  and  foreordained  of  (jod.  Thus 
the  words  of  Hosea  11  :i,  "I  called  my  son 
out  of  Egypt,"  refer  directly  to  the  exodus 
of  Israel  from  that  land  of  bondage ;  but, 
184 


as  we  learn  from  Matt.  2: 15,  they  were  not 
suggested  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  prophet 
without  a  regard  to  their  foreseen  applica- 
tion to  the  case  of  Christ.  Compare  also 
Matt.  13:14  with  Isa.  6:9;  Luke  4:18-21 
with  Isa.  61:1-3;  Acts  1:16,  20  with  Psa. 
109:8. 


EGYPTIAN  FULLERS. 

FUL'LER,  a  cleanser  and  whitener  of 
cloths,  probably  by  stamping  or  pounding 
them  in  water  with  some  alkaline  admix- 
ture. The  process  may  have  been  offen- 
sive, and  "the  fullers'  field"  was  outside 
of  Jerusalem,  2  Kin.  18:17,  a"d  the  fullers' 
fountain.  See  En-rogel.  We  read  also 
of  fullers'  soAp,  Mai.  3:2.  Christ's  robes 
at  the  transfiguration  were  white  "  so  as 
no  fuller  on  earth  can  white  them,"  Mark 
9:3.  Compare  Dan.  7:9.  He  takes  away 
the  filthy  garments  of  his  people,  Zech. 
3:4,  and  gives  them  the  white  raiment  of 
his  justification,  Rev.  3:18. 

FUL'NESS  OF  THE  Godhead,  Col.  2:9. 
The  attributes  of  the  one  only  true  God,  in 
all  their  perfection,  dwell  in  Christ,  and  are 
pledged  for  the  good  of  his  redeemed,  John 
1:16;  Eph.  1:22;  Col.  1:19.  "The  fulness 
of  the  time,"  Gal.  4:4,  is  the  period  fixed  in 
God's  purposes  and  predictions,  when  all 
things  previouslj'  needed  have  taken  place. 
Matt.  23:32.  Compare  Rev.  12:14;  22:10. 
His  2d  coming,  like  the  ist,  will  occur  un- 
failingly "  in  the  fulness  of  the  times,"  Eph. 
1 :  10,  though  the  world  scoff  at  and  oppose 
him,  as  he  foretold,  Matt.  24:9;  John  16:4; 
2  Pet.  3:3-14.  His  people  should  share  his 
calm  faith,  John  16:33;  Isa.  28:16. 

FU'NERAL.  See  Burial  and  Sepul- 
chre. 

FUR'LONG  is  put,  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, for  the  Greek,  or  rather,  Roman 
stadium,  which  contained  about  202  of  our 
yards.  The  English  furlong,  one-eighth  of 
a  mile,  contains  220  yards ;  and  is  thus 
one-twelfth  longer  than  tlie  Roman  stadi- 
um, Luke  24: 13. 

FURNACE,   the    translation   of  several 


FUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAD 


Hebrew  words  and  one  Greek,  denoting 
(i)  an  oven  for  baking,  Gen.  15:17;  Neh. 
3:11.  See  Bread.  (2.)  A  furnace  for  smelt- 
ing or  a  lime-kiln,  Gen.  19:28;  Exod.  9:8. 
(3.)  A  furnace  for  refining,  Prov.  17:3;  Isa. 
48:10;  Ezek.  22:18-22.  (4.)  A  crucible, 
Psa.  12:6.  (5.)  The  Chaldee  structure  for 
capital  punishment,  Jer.  29:22;  Dan.  3:19- 
26;  Rev.  1:15;  9:2. 

FUR'NITURE,  equipment,  Gen.  31:34; 
often  the  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  Exod. 
31:7.  The  household  "stuff"  in  the  East 
was  and  still  is  scanty  and  simple,  even 
among  the  rich,  2  Kin.  4:10,  13.  We  read, 
however,  of  skins  and  rugs  to  recline  on, 
divans  often  ornate,  Prov.  7:16,  17;  Amos 
•6:4;  costly  hangings,  Esth.  1:6;  handmills, 
kneading-troughs,  ovens,  baskets,  lamps, 
■cups,  and  vessels  of  earthenware,  gold,  or 
silver.  Gen.  44:2,  5;  i  Kin.  10:21.  See 
House. 

FU'RY  is  attributed  to  God  metaphori- 
cally, or  speaking  after  the  manner  of  men  ; 
•that  is,  God's  providential  actions  are  such 
as  would  be  performed  by  a  man  in  a  state 
of  anger ;  so  that  when  he  is  said  to  pour 
out  his  fury  on  a  person,  or  on  a  people,  it 
is  a  figurative  expression  for  dispensing 
afflictive  providences.  But  we  must  be 
cautious  not  to  attribute  human  infirmities, 
passions,  or  malevolence  to  the  Deity. 

G. 

GA'AL,  contempt,  Judg.  9:26-41,  son  of 
Ebed.  He  joined  the  Shechemites  when 
revolting  against  Abimelech,  son  of  Gide- 
on, inflamed  their  passions,  and  led  them 
to  battle,  but  was  defeated,  and  excluded 
from  the  city. 

GA'ASH,  quaking,  a  hill  of  Mount 
Ephraim,  north  of  which  stood  Timnath- 
serah,  celebrated  for  Joshua's  tomb.  Josh. 
24:30.  The  brooks  or  valleys  of  Gaash, 
2  Sam.  23:30;  I  Chr.  11:32,  were  probably 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

GAB'BATHA,  an  elevated  place,  the  place 
in  front  of  Pilate's  palace  and  judgment- 
hall,  John  19:13.  In  Greek  it  is  called 
"the  pavement."  It  was  not  the  usual 
judgment-hall,  or  Prsetorium,  which  the 
Jews  could  not  then  enter,  John  18:28; 
19:4,  9,  13;  but  a  court  with  a  mosaic  floor, 
on  which  his  seat  of  judgment  was  erected. 
Such  ornamented  pavements  were  com- 
mon at  that  day  among  the  wealthy  Ro- 
mans. 

GA'BRIEL,  a  mighty  one  of  God,  a  prin- 
cipal angel.     He  was  sent  to  the  prophet 


Daniel  to  explain  his  visions  ;  also  to  Zach- 
arias,  to  announce  to  him  the  future  birth 
of  John  the  Baptist,  Dan.  8:16;  9:21;  Luke 
i:ii,  19.  Six  months  afterwards  he  was 
sent  to  Nazareth,  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  Luke 
1:26-38.     See  Angel.    ■ 

GAD,  I.,  7th  son  of  Jacob  and  firstborn 
of  Zilpah,  Leah's  servant,  Gen.  30:11. 
Leah  called  him  Gad,  and  said,  ''A  troop 
Cometh."  Compare  Gen.  49: 19;  but  many 
Hebrew  scholars  prefer  the  rendering,  good 
fortune  or  prosperity  cometh.  The  tribe 
of  Gad  came  out  of  Egypt  in  number 
45,650  men,  Gen.  46:16;  Num.  1:24,  25; 
2:14.  After  the  defeat  of  the  kings  Og  and 
Sihon,  Gad  and  Reuben  desired  to  have 
their  allotment  east  of  the  Jordan,  alleging 
their  great  number  of  cattle.  Moses  grant- 
ed their  request,  on  condition  that  they 
should  accompany  their  brethren,  and  as- 
sist in  conquering  the  land  west  of  Jordan, 
Num.  32.  The  inheritance  of  the  tribe  of 
Gad  lay  between  Manasseh  on  the  north, 
Reuben  on  the  south,  the  Jordan  on  the 
west,  and  the  Ammonites  on  the  east.  The 
northwest  point  stretched  to  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee. It  was  a  fine  pastoral  region,  though 
its  exposure  to  the  incursions  of  eastern 
Arabians  compelled  the  Gadites  to  be  well 
armed  and  on  the  alert,  Gen.  49:19;  Deut. 
33:20;  I  Chr.  5:18-22,  25,  26;  12:8-15.  The 
principal  cities  of  Gad  are  called  cities  of 
Gilead,  Josh.  13:25.  Gad  and  Reuben 
built  an  altar  by  the  Jordan,  Josh.  22:1-29. 
The  tribe  was  carried  captive  by  Tiglath- 
pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29;  i  Chr.  5:26,  and  their 
land  was  possessed  by  the  Ammonites,  Jer. 
49:1.  The  "men  of  Gad"  are  mentioned 
on  the  Moabite  stone — about  890  B.  C. — as 
dwelling  in  Ataroth  "  from  of  old;"  a  con- 
firmation of  Num.  32:34.  Their  territory 
is  elevated  and  spreads  out  in  undulating 
downs,  with  rich  grass  and  noble  trees. 
Through  it  the  Jabbok  and  Yarmuk  flow 
in  deep  ravines  down  to  the  Jordan. 

II.  David's  friend,  who  followed  him 
when  persecuted  by  Saul,  and  was  often 
sent  with  a  divine  message  to  David, 
I  Sam.  22:5;  2  Sam.  24:11-19;  i  Chr.  21:9- 
19;  2  Chr.  29:25.  Scripture  styles  him  a 
prophet  and  David's  seer.  He  appears  to 
have  written  a  history  of  David's  life,  which 
is  cited  in  i  Chr.  29:29. 

III.  Rendered  "troop  "  in  Isa.  65: 11,  but 
generally  supposed  to  be  the  name  of  a 
heathen  god  of  Fortune,  and  perhaps  of 
the  planet  Jupiter,  the  star  of  good  fortune. 
Compare  Josh.  11:17;  15:37.  Meni  in  the 
same  verse,  translated  "  number,"  is  sup- 

185 


GAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAL 


posed  by  some  to  mean  destiny  ;  by  others, 
the  planet  Venus,  the  goddess  of  good  for- 
tune. 

GAD'ARA,  now  Um-keis,  a  fortified  chief 
city  of  Uecapolis,  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  having 
many  Greek  inhabitants.  It  lay  south  of 
the  river  Hieromax,  7  miles  southeast  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  upon  the  level  summit 
of  a  steep  limestone  hill.  A  few  ruins  are 
found  on  the  top  of  the  hill ;  many  e.xcava- 
ted  tombs  on  its  sides,  still  partly  occupied 
as  residences ;  and  warm  springs  at  its 
base.  The  country  of  the  Gadarenes  e.x- 
tended  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee ;  and  in  the  part  of  it  bordering  on  the 
lake  occurred  the  miracle  recorded  in 
Matt.  8:28  (R.  V.) ;  9:1.  A  legion  of  demons 
were  cast  out  of  2  men,  and  entered  a  herd 
of  swine,  causing  their  destruction.  It  is 
a  fearful  and  fatal  sin  to  bid  the  Saviour 
depart  from  us,  Deut.  31:17;  Job  21 :  14,  15 ; 
Hos.  9:12;  Matt.  25:41.  On  the  other  hand, 
one  of  the  Gadarenes  mentioned  by  Mark 
and  Luke,  being  healed,  entreated  to  re- 
main with  Christ ;  but  being  sent  to  tes- 
tify to  his  neighbors  who  rejected  Him, 
obeyed — a  true  disciple,  though  absent; 
while  Judas,  though  present,  was  false. 
See  Gergesenes. 

GA'IUS,  or  Caius,  I.,  a  Macedonian,  who 
accompanied  Paul  in  his  travels,  and  whose 
life  was  in  danger  at  Ephesus,  Acts  19:29. 

II.  A  Corinthian  convert  of  Paul,  who 
hospitably  entertained  the  apostle  while 
laboring  at  Corinth,  Rom.  16:23;  i  Cor. 
1:14. 

III.  Of  Derbe ;  an  attendant  of  Paul  from 
Corinth,  in  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  20:4. 

IV.  The  3d  Epistle  of  John  is  addressed 
"to  the  well-beloved  Gains;"  hospitable, 
like  No.  II.  above;  yet  there  was  a  long 
interval  between  the  2  dates,  and  this 
Gaius  appears  to  have  been  one  of  John's 
converts,  ver.  4.  The  name  was  a  common 
one  among  the  Romans. 

GALA'TIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
lying  south  and  southeast  of  Bithynia  and 
PaphlagDuia,  west  of  Pontus,  north  and 
northwest  of  Cappadocia.  and  north  and 
northeast  of  Lycaonia  and  Phrvgia.  Its 
name  was  derived  from  the  Gauls,  or  Gal- 
ati ;  of  whom  several  tribes,  Trocmi,  Tolis- 
toboii,  and  Tectosages,  migrated  thither 
about  B.  C.  280.  and  mingling  with  the  for- 
mer inhabitants,  the  whole  were  called  (jal- 
logr£eci.  They  were  conquered  by  Rome 
B.  C.  i8q,  yet  remained  self-governed  but 
186 


tributary  until  B.  C.  26,  when  Augustus 
made  Galatia  a  Roman  province,  with  a 
propraetor.  Their  language  was  partly 
Gallic,  i)artly  (ireek.  Tliese  Gauls  of  Asia 
retained  much  of  the  mercurial  and  impul- 
sive disposition  of  the  Gallic  race.  Com- 
pare Gal.  1:6;  4:15;  5:7.  Galatia  was  dis- 
tinguished for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and 
the  flourishing  state  of  its  trade.  It  was 
also  the  seat  of  colonies  from  various  na- 
tions, among  whom  were  many  Jews  ;  and 
from  all  of  these  Paul  appears  to  have 
made  many  converts  to  Christianity,  i  Cor. 
16: 1,  and  founded  several  churches.  His 
first  visit,  Acts  16:6.  probably  took  place 
about  A.  D.  51-2,  during  his  2d  missionary 
journey;  and  the  second.  Acts  18:23,  after 
which  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  appears 
to  have  been  written,  was  several  years 
later.  At  his  first  visit  he  was  sick ;  yet 
they  received  him  "  as  an  angel  of  God," 
and  most  heartily  embraced  the  gospel. 
Four  or  5  years  afterwards,  Jewish  teach- 
ers, professing  Christianity,  came  among 
them;  they  denied  Paul's  apostolic  autliDr- 
ity,  e.x'alted  the  works  of  the  law,  and  ])er- 
verted  the  true  gospel  by  intermi.xing  with 
it  the  rites  of  Judaism.  Paul,  learning  their 
state,  probably  at  Corinth,  A.  D.  57-8,  wrote 
his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  with  his  "  own 
hand,"  ch.  6:11,  not  by  an  amanuensis,  as 
usually.  He  indignantly  rebukes  his  chil- 
dren in  Christ  for  their  sudden  alienation 
from  him  and  from  the  truth  ;  vindicates 
his  authority  and  his  teachings  as  an  apos- 
tle, by  showing  that  he  received  them  from 
Christ  himself;  and  forcibly  presents  the 
great  doctrine  of  Christianity— justification 
by  faith — with  its  relations  to  the  law  on 
the  one  hand  and  to  holy  living  on  the 
other.  He  clearly  sets  forth  the  true  lib- 
erty of  the  sons  of  God,  and  guards  against 
abuse.  The  style  is  both  severe  and  ten- 
der. The  general  subject  of  the  epistle  is 
the  same  as  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  written  at 
about  the  same  time  with  that.  The  church- 
es of  Galatia  are  mentioned  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  for  about  900  years. 

GAL'BANUM,  an  ingredient  in  the  in- 
cense burned  at  the  golden  altar,  in  the 
Holv  Place,  Exod.  30:34.  It  is  the  gum  of 
an  umbelliferous  plant  growing  in  Eastern 
Africa,  called  by  Plinv  stagonitis.  The 
gum  is  unctuous  and  adhesive,  of  a  strong 
and  disagreeable  smell,  and  is  valued  in 
medicine. 

GAL'EED,  heap  of  ivitness,  the  name 
given  by  Jacob  to  the  mound  and  pillar 


GAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAM 


erected  by  himself  and  Laban,  Gen.  31 123, 
25,  43-52.     See  GiLEAD. 

GAL'ILEE,  a  circle,  originally  a  circuit 
around  Kedesh-Naphtali  and  Hiram's  20 
cities,  near  the  northern  limits  of  Israel's 
territory,  Josh.  20:7;  i  Kin.  9:11.  In  the 
time  of  Christ  it  included  all  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine  lying  west  of  the  Jordan 
and  north  of  Samaria.  It  was  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Galilee,  the  former  lying 
north  of  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun,  and  abounding  in  mountains ;  the  lat- 
ter, including  the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
being  more  level  and  fertile,  and  very 
populous;  the  whole  comprehending  the  4 
tribes  of  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and 
Asher.  Lower  Galilee  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 240  towns  and  villages,  of  which 
Josephus  mentions  Tiberias,  Sepphoris, 
and  Gabara,  as  the  principal ;  though  Ca- 
pernaum and  Nazareth  are  the  most  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
Mark  1:9;  Luke  2:39;  John  7:52,  etc. 
"Galilee  of  the  Gentiles"  is  supposed  to 
mean  Upper  Galilee,  either  because  it  bor- 
dered on  Tyre  and  Sidon,  or  because  Phoe- 
nicians, Egyptians,  Arabians,  and  other 
heathen  were  numerous  among  its  inhab- 
itants, many  having  been  sent  there  when 
the  Israelites  were  carried  captive  by  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29.  The  Galileans 
were  accounted  brave  and  industrious, 
though  the  men  of  Judaea  affected  to  con- 
sider them  as  not  only  stupid  and  unpol- 
ished, but  also  seditious,  Luke  13:1 ;  23:5; 
John  1:46;  7:52.  They  used  a  peculiar 
dialect  and  pronunciation,  Mark  14:70. 
Many  of  the  apostles  and  first  converts  to 
Christianity  were  men  of  Galilee,  Acts 
i:ii;  2:7,  as  well  as  Christ  himself;  and 
the  name  Galilean  was  often  given  as  an 
insult,  both  to  him  and  his  followers.  The 
apostate  emperor  Julian  constantly  used 
it,  and  in  his  dying  agony  and  rage  cried 
out,  "O  Galilean,  thou  hast  conquered!" 
Our  Saviour  resided  here  from  infancy  till 
he  was  30  years  of  age,  and  during  much 
of  his  public  ministry,  thus  fulfilling  the 
prophecy,  Isa.  9:1,  2;  Matt.  4:15,  and  show- 
ing that  God's  thoughts  often  differ  from 
men's,  i  Cor.  1:27-29.  Some  of  its  cities 
incurred  peculiar  woes  by  rejecting  special 
light,  Matt.  11:20-24;  but  the  cities  of  Naz- 
areth, Nain,  Cana,  Capernaum,  with  the 
whole  region  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  are  sa- 
credly endeared  to  all  Christ's  people  by 
the  words  he  there  spoke  and  the  wonders 
he  wrought.  These  are  recorded  chiefly 
by  the  first  3  evangelists.     See  Sea,  III. 


GALL,  a  general  name  for  anything  very 
bitter.  In  Job  16:30;  20:14,  25,  it  means 
the  animal  secretion  usually  called  the 
bile.  In  many  other  places,  where  a  dif- 
ferent word  is  used  in  the  original,  it  refers 
to  some  bitter  and  noxious  plant.  See 
Deut.  29:18;  Jer.  9:15;  23:15.  In  Hos. 
10:4;  Amos  6:12,  the  Hebrew  word  is 
translated  "hemlock."  In  Matt.  27:34,  it 
is  said  they  gave  Jesus  to  drink  vinegar 
mixed  with  gall,  which  in  Mark  15:23  is 
called  wine  mingled  with  myrrh.  It  was 
probably  the  sour  wine  which  the  Roman 
soldiers  used  to  drink,  mingled  with  myrrh 
and  other  bitter  substances,  very  much  like 
the  "  bitters  "  of  modern  times,  Psa.  69:21. 
The  word  gall  is  often  used  figuratively 
for  great  troubles,  wickedness,  depravity, 
etc.,  Jer.  8: 14;  Amos  6: 12;  Acts  8:23. 

GAL'LEY,  Isa.  33:21.     See  Ship. 

GAL'LIO,  a  proconsul  of  Achaia,  under 
the  emperor  Claudius,  in  the  time  of  Paul, 
Acts  18:12-17.  He  was  the  elder  brother 
of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  who  describes 
him  as  uncommonly  amiable  and  upright. 
His  residence  was  at  Corinth ;  and  when 
the  Jews  of  that  city  dragged  Paul  before 
the  judgment-seat,  Gallio  refused  to  enter- 
tain their  clamorous  and  unjust  demands. 
According  to  Dion  Cassius,  he  suffered 
death  by  order  of  the  tyrant  Nero,  like  his 
brother  Seneca. 

GAMA'LIEL,  recompense  of  God,  I.,  Num. 
1:10;  2:20;  7:54,  59;  10:23. 

II.  Acts  5:33-40,  a  celebrated  Pharisee 
in  the  generation  after  Christ,  a  doctor  of 
the  law,  and  member  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
He  possessed  great  influence  among  the 
Jews,  and  is  said  by  some  to  have  presided 
over  the  Sanhedrin  during  the  reigns  of 
Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Claudius.  The 
Talmudists  say  that  he  was  the  son  of  rab- 
bi Simeon,  and  grandson  of  Hillel,  the 
celebrated  teacher  of  the  law,  and  that 
upon  his  death  the  glory  of  the  law  de- 
parted. His  noble  intervention  before  the 
Sanhedrin  saved  the  apostles  from  an  igno- 
minious death,  and  shows  that  he  was  gifted 
with  wisdom  and  tolerance,  if  not  strongly 
inclined  towards  the  gospel.  The  apostle 
Paul  thought  it  a  high  honor  to  have  been 
one  of  his  pupils,  Acts  22:3,  and  no  doubt 
received  from  him  not  only  a  zealous  en- 
thusiasm for  the  Jewish  law,  but  many  les- 
sons of  candor,  impartiality,  and  liberality. 
His  high  renown  among  the  Jewish  rab- 
bins of  later  ages  seems  inconsistent  with 
the  tradition  that  he  embraced  Christi- 
anity. 

187 


GAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAR 


GAMES.      There   are    few   allusions    in 
Scripture  to  the  games  for  children   and 
youth,    which    were    no    doubt  practised 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  the  monuments 
show  they  were  among  the  Egyptians- 
some  of  them  innocent  and  others  not, 
E.xod.  32:6;  2  Sam.  2:14;  Psa.  19:5;  Eccl. 
9:11;  Zech.  8:5;  Matt.  11  :  16.     They  had, 
however,  no  national  games  like  the  fa- 
mous games  of  Greece  and  Rome.    These 
were  introduced  at  Jerusalem  by  Jason 
about   187  B.  C,  but  erelong  were  with- 
drawn.    Herod  the  Great  afterwards  built 
a  theatre  and  amphitheatre,  and  celebra- 
ted games  every  5  years  at  Jerusalem  and 
Casarea,  greatly  to  the  displeasure  of  all 
faithful  Jews.     Yet  Paul  drew  frequent  il- 
lustrations of  Christian  life  from  the  well- 
known  games  of  Greece.     See  Race.     His 
fight   with   "beasts"   at    Ephesus,    i    Cor. 
15:32,  was  probably  with  fierce  and  cruel 
men,  for  he  was  a  free  Roman  citizen.     In 
I  Cor.  9:26,  27  he  says,  "  I  bruise  under  the 
■eyes  my  body  (the  old  flesh),  lest  when  I 
have  heralded  to  others  I  myself  should  be 
rejected  and  lose  the  prize." 

GAM'MADIM  is  used  in  the  A.  V.,  Ezek. 
27:11,  as  the  name  of  a  people;  but  it 
means  simply  heroes. 

GAR'DENS  are  often  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, though  in  a  sense  somewhat  peculiar; 
for,  in  the  language  of  the  Hebrews,  every 
place  where  plants  and  trees  were  cultiva- 
ted with  greater  care  than  in  the  open  field 
was  called  a  garden.  Fruit  and  shade 
trees,  with  aromatic  shrubs,  sometimes 
constituted  the  garden.  Song  5:1;  though 
roses,  lilies,  and  various  flowers  were  often 
cultivated,  and  some  gardens  were  used 
only  for  table  vegetables,  Gen.  2:8-10,  15; 
I  Kin.  21:2;  Esth.  1:5;  7:7,8;  Eccl.  2:5,6. 
They  were-  located,  if  possible,  beside  a 
river  or  fountain.  Gen.  13:10;  Num.  24:6. 
In  other  places  reservoirs  were  provided, 
from  which  the  water  was  distributed  in 
various  ways,  as  occasion  required,  Prov. 
21:1;  Song  4:12-16;  Isa.  58:11.  Gardens 
were  inclosed  by  walls,  or  by  hedges  of 
rose-bushes,  wild  pomegranate -trees,  or 
other  shrubs,  many  of  which  in  Palestine 
have  long  and  sharp  thorns,  2  Sam.  23:6,  7; 
Job  1:10;  Prov  15:19;  Hos.  2:6.  Often, 
however,  they  were  left  uninclosed,  and 
were  watched  when  their  fruits  began  to 
ripen,  Isa.  i  :S;  Jer.  4: 16,  17.  It  is  still  cus- 
tomary in  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Hin- 
■dostan  to  plant  a  large  level  tract  with 
melons,  cucumbers,  etc.,  and  place  a  small 
hut  or  booth  on  a  mound  in  the  centre.  In 
188 


this  a  solitary  keeper  is  stationed,  who  re- 
mains day  and  night  until  the  fruits   are 


LODGE   IN   GARDEN   AT   BUTAIHA. 

gathered.  Job  27:18;  a  picture  of  desola- 
tion when  left  to  fall  into  ruins,  Isa.  1:8. 
Gardens  and  groves  were  often  furnished 
with  pavilions,  seats,  etc.,  and  were  resort- 
ed to  for  banqueting  and  mirth,  Isa.  51:3; 
for  retirement  and  meditation,  John  18:1; 
for  devotional  purposes,  Matt.  26:30;  John 
1:48;  18:1,  2;  and  for  idolatrous  abomina- 
tions, I  Kin.  14:23;  Isa.  1:29;  65:3;  66:17; 
Jer.  2:20;  3:6.  A  family  tomb  was  often 
prepared  in  a  garden,  2  Kin.  21: 18,  26; 
John  19:41.  There  were  many  gardens 
around  Jerusalem.  "  Solomon's  gardens," 
Eccl.  2:5,  6,  were  in  Wady  Urtas,  south  of 
Bethlehem.  "  The  king's  garden  "  was 
near  the  pool  of  Siloam,  where  the  valleys 
of  Hinnom  and  Jehoshajihat  meet,  2  Kin. 
25:4;  Neh.  3:15;  Jer.  39:4.  For  "  hanging 
gardens,"  see  Babylon,  Nebi'chadnez- 
ZAR.  The  mention  of  250  botanical  terms 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  evinces  the  fond- 
ness of  the  Israelites  for  plant-culture. 
In  Song  4:12-16,  Christ  likens  his  church 
to  a  garden,  and  calls  on  the  winds  of  the 
Spirit  to  blow  upon  it  that  it  may  be  fra- 
grant and  fruitful,  to  the  glory  of  God, 
John  15:8.  The  garden  of  the  believer's 
heart  needs  the  cutting  north  wind  as  well 
as  the  warm  and  soothing  south  wind. 

GAR'LIC,  a  bulbous  vegetable,  of  pun- 
gent smell  and  taste,  and  highly  prized  in 
the  East.  The  Jews  acquired  a  liking  for 
it  in  Egypt,  Num.  11:5.  Herodotus  men- 
tions it  as  part  of  the  food  of  the  builders 
of  the  pyramids.  One  variety,  called  the 
eschalot,  or  shallot,  was  introduced  into 
Europe  from  Ascalon ;  whence  its  name. 

GAR'MENTS.  The  chief  garments  of  the 
Hebrews  were  the  tunic  or  inner  garment, 
and  the  mantle  or  outer  garment.  These 
seem  to  have  constituted  a  "  change  of  rai- 


GAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAR 


ment,"  Judg.  14:13,   19;   Acts  9:39.      The 
tunic  was  of  linen,  and  was  worn  next  to 


the  skin,  fitting  loosely  to  the  body;  it  had 
armholes,  and  sometimes  wide  and  open 
sleeves,  and  reached  below  the  knees; 
that  worn  by  females  reached  to  the  an- 
kles. The  tunic  was  kept  close  to  the 
body  by  a  girdle,  and  was  sometimes  wo- 
ven without  a  seam,  like  that  of  Jesus, 
John  19:23.  The  upper  garment  or  mantle 
was  a  piece  of  cloth  nearly  square,  and  2 
or  3  yards  in  length  and  breadth,  which 
was  wrapped  round  the  body,  or  tied  over 
the  shoulders,  or  worn  loosely  flowing.  It 
was  easily  thrown  off  when  one  wished  to 


have  his  arms  free.  Matt.  24:18;  Acts  7:58; 
22:23.  A  man  without  this  robe  on  was 
sometimes  said  to  be  "  naked,"  Isa.  20:2-4; 


John  21:7.  This  could  be  so  arranged  as 
to  form  a  large  bosom  for  carrying  things ; 
and  the  mantle  also  served  the  poor  as  a 
bed  by  night,  Exod.  22:26,  27;  Job  22:6. 
See  Bosom,  Bed,  Girdle. 

Between  these  2  garments  the  Hebrews 
sometimes  wore  a  3d,  called  me-il,  a  long 
and  wide  robe  or  tunic  of  cotton  or  linen, 
without  sleeves.  It  is  mentioned  in  i  Sam. 
2:19;  24:4;  28:14;  Job  1:20;  2:12;  but  is 
not  always  a  distinct  middle  garment,  but 
any  dress  worn  over  the  tunic. 


The  head  was  usually  bare,  or  covered 
from  too  fierce  a  sunshine,  or  from  rain,  by 
a  fold  of  the  outer  mantle,  2  Sam.  15:30; 
I  Kin.  19:13;  Esth.  6:12.  The  priests, 
however,  wore  a  mitre,  bonnet,  or  sacred 
turban ;  and  after  the  captivity,  the  Jews 
adopted  to  some  extent  the  turban,  now  so 
universal  in  the  East.  Women  wore  a  va- 
riety of  plain  or  ornamented  head-dresses. 
Veils  were  also  an  article  of  female  dress, 
Isa.  3:23.  They  were  of  various  kinds, 
and  were  used  alike  by  married  and  un- 
married women  ;  generally  as  a  token  of 
modesty,  or  of  subjection  to  the  authority 
of  the  husband.  Gen.  24:65;  i  Cor.  11:3- 
10;  but  sometimes  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealment, Gen.  38:14.     See  Veil. 

As  the  Hebrews  did  not  change  the  fash- 
ion of  their  clothes,  as  we  do,  it  was  com- 
mon to  lay  up  stores  of  raiment  beforehand, 
in  proportion  to  their  wealth,  Isa.  3:6.  To 
this  Christ  alludes  when  he  speaks  of  treas- 
ures which  the  moth  devours,  Matt.  6:19; 
Jas.  5:1,  2.  But  though  there  was  a  gen- 
eral uniformity  in  dress  from  age  to  age, 
no  doubt  various  changes  took  place  in  the 
long  course  of  Bible  history;  and  at  all 
times  numerous  and  increasing  varieties 
existed  among  the  different  classes,  espe- 
cially  in    materials   and    ornaments.      In 

i8q 


GAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAR 


early  ages,  and  where  society  was  wild  and 
rude,  the  skins  of  animals  were  made  into 
clothing,  Gen.  3:21  ;  Heb.  11:37.  Spinning, 
weaving,  and  needlework  soon  began  to 
be  practised,  Uxod.  35:25;  Judg.  5:30.  A 
coarse  cloth  was  made  of  goats'  or  camels' 
hair,  and  finer  cloths  of  woolen,  linen,  and 
perhaps  cotton.  Their  manufacture  was  a 
branch  of  domestic  industry,  Prov.  31:13- 
24.  Silk  was  not  known  until  late  in  Bible 
times.  Rev.  18: 12. 

The  great  and  wealthy  delighted  in  white 
raiment;  and  hence  this  is  also  a  mark  of 
opulence  and  prosperity,  Eccl.  9:8.  Angels 
are  described  as  clothed  in  pure  and  cheer- 
ful white;  and  such  was  the  appearance  of 
our  Saviour's  raiment  during  his  transfig- 
uration. Matt.  17:2.  The  saints,  in  like 
manner,  are  described  as  clothed  in  white 
robes,  Rev.  7:9,  13,  14;  the  righteousness 
of  Christ  in  which  they  are  clothed  is  more 
glorious  than  that  of  the  angels. 

The  garments  of  mourning  among  the 
Hebrews  were  sackcloth  and  haircloth,  and 
their  color  dark  brown  or  black,  Isa.  50:3; 
Rev.  6: 12.  As  the  prophets  were  penitents 
by  profession,  their  common  clothing  was 
mourning.  Widows  also  dressed  them- 
selves much  the  same.  The  Hebrews,  in 
common  with  their  neighbors,  sometimes 
used  a  variety  of  colors  for  their  gayer  and 
more  costly  dresses,  Judg.  5:30.  So  also 
according  to  our  version.  Gen.  2>7-3!  23; 
2  Sam.  13:18;  though  in  these  passages 
some  understand  a  tunic  with  long  sleeves. 
Blue,  scarlet,  and  purple  are  most  frequent- 
ly referred  to,  the  first  being  a  sacred 
color,  Exod.  35:23,  25,  35;  38:18;  Esth. 
8:15.  Embroidery  and  fine  needlework 
were  highly  valued  among  them,  Judg. 
5:30;  Psa.  45:14- 

The  dress  of  females  differed  from  that 
of  males  less  than  is  customary  among  us. 
Yet  there  was  a  distinction  ;  and  Moses  ex- 
pressly forbade  any  exchange  of  apparel 
between  the  sexes,  Deut.  22:5,  a  custom 
associated  with  immodesty,  and  with  the 
worship  of  certain  idols.  It  is  not  clear 
for  what  reason  clothing  in  which  linen 
and  woollen  were  woven  together  was  pro- 
hibited, Deut.  22:11;  but  probably  it  had 
reference  to  some  superstitious  usage  of 
heathenism.  In  Isa.  3:16-23,  mention  is 
made  of  the  decorations  among  the  He- 
brew women  of  that  day;  among  which 
seem  to  be  included  tunics,  embroidered 
vests,  wide-flowing  mantles,  girdles,  veils, 
caps  of  network,  and  metallic  ornaments 
for  the  ears  and  nose,  for  the  neck,  arms, 
190 


fingers,  and  ankles;  also  smelling-bottles 
and  metallic  mirrors.    In  Acts  19:12,  men- 


tion is  made  of  handkerchiefs  and  aprons. 
Drawers  were  used,  Exod.  28:42,  but  per- 


' «ft 


haps  not  generally.     See  Fringes,  GlR- 
DLKS,  Rings,  and  Sandals. 

Presents  of  dresses  are  alluded  to  very 
frequently  in  the  historical  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  in  the  earliest  times.  Joseph 
gave  to  each  of  his  brethren  a  change  of 
raiment,  and  to  Benjamin  5  changes.  Gen. 
45:22.  Naaman  gave  to  Gehazi  2  changes 
of  raiment ;  and  even  Solomon  received 
raiment  as  presents,  2  Chr.  9 :  24.  This 
custom  is  still  maintained  in  the  East,  and 


GAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAT 


is  mentioned  by  most  travellers.  In  Tur- 
key, the  appointment  to  any  important 
office  is  accompanied  with  the  gift  of  a 
suitable  official  robe.  In  the  parable  of 
the  wedding  garment,  the  king  expected  to 
find  all  his  guests  clad  in  robes  of  honor 
of  his  own  providing,  Matt.  22:11.  The 
spreading  of  garments  in  the  road,  in  honor 
of  one  riding,  was  an  ancient  and  general 
custom  in  the  East,  Matt.  21 :8. 

GAR'RISON,  a  military  post,  i  Sam. 
13:23;  14: 1-15,  or  a  body  of  troops,  2  Sam. 
5:6,  14.  In  2  Chr.  17:2,  the  same  word  is 
used  which  is  translated  pillar  in  Gen. 
19:26;  perhaps  a  monument  is  meant  in 

1  Sam.  10:5,  and  a  statue  or  idol  in  Ezek. 
26:11.     Compare  Jer.  43: 13. 

GASH'MU.     See  Geshem. 

GATE.  The  gates  of  Eastern  walled 
towns  were  usually  two-leaved,  of  wood, 
Judg.  16:3,  often  covered  with  thick  plates 
of  iron  of  copper,  Psa.  107:16;  Isa.  45:2; 
Acts  12:10,  secured  by  bolts  and  bars, 
Deut.  3:5;  I  Kin.  4: 13,  and  flanked  by  tow- 
ers, 2  Sam.  18:24,  33.  They  were  some- 
times  double — an   outer   and    inner   gate, 

2  Sam.  18 :  24,  ^3,  and  siirmounted  by  watch- 
towers.  Palace  and  temple  gates  were 
highly  ornate,  Deut.  6:9;  i  Kin.  6:31-35; 
2  Kin.  18:16;  Ezek.  41:23-25.     Large  gates 


ANCIENT  GATE. 

had  keys  2  feet  or  more  in  length.     Com- 
pare Isa.  22:22.    Some  gates  were  of  stone 


slabs,  Isa.  54:12;  Rev.  21:21,  and  many 
stone  doors  are  found  in  the  Hauran  ruins. 
A  city  was  usually  regarded  as  taken  when 


i':yt'-^l''^<^m  ng-'-'~ 


!Si^-^^^  l^rk  •i:--J-3-^Kf: 


ANCIENT   EGYPTIAN   DOOR. 

its  gates  were  won,  Deut.  28:52;  Judg.  5:8. 
Hence  "gate"  sometimes  signifies  power, 
dominion.  God  promises  Abraham  that 
his  posterity  shall  possess  the  gates  of  their 
enemies— their  towns,  their  fortresses,  Gen. 
22:17.  So,  too,  "the  gates  of  hell  "  means 
the  power  of  death  or  of  hell  itself.  Matt. 
16:18.  Compare  Jer.  43:8-11  ;  i  Kin.  7:7. 
The  "Sublime  Porte,"  i.e.,  gate,  at  Con- 
stantinople, signifies  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment offices. 

In  Oriental  cities  there  was  always  an 
open  space  or  place  adjacent  to  each  gate, 
and  these  were  at  the  same  time  the  mar- 
ket-places and  the  place  of  justice.  Gen. 
23:10-18;  Ruth  4:1-12;  Deut.  16:18;  21:19; 
25:6,7;  2  Kin.  7: 1 ;  Neh.  13:19;  Prov.  22:22; 
Amos  5:10,  12,  15.  See  also  Dan.  2:48, 
49;  Zech.  8:16.  There,  too,  people  assem- 
bled to  spend  their  leisure  hours.  Gen. 
19:1 ;  often  idle  loungers,  who  are  coupled 
with  drunkards,  Psa.  69:12.  The  woes  of 
a  city  were  disclosed  in  the  mourning  or 
loneliness  of  these  places  of  resort,  Isa. 
14:31;  Jer.  14:2.  Here,  too,  the  public 
proclamations  were  made,  and  the  messa- 
ges of  prophets  delivered,  Prov.  i  :2i ;  8:3 ; 
Isa.  29:21;  Jer.  17:19;  26:10.  Near  the 
gate  of  a  city,  but  without  it,  executions 

191 


GAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAZ 


took  place,  i  Kin.  21:13;  Acts  7:58;  Heb. 
13:12.  To  exalt  the  gate  of  a  house  through 
pride  increased  one's  exposure  to  robbery, 
Prov.  17:19.  To  open  it  wide  and  high 
was  significant  of  joy  and  welcome,  as 
when  the  Saviour  ascended  to  heaven,  Psa. 
24:7,  9;  and  the  open  gates  of  the  New 
Jerusalem,  in  contrast  with  those  of  earthly 
cities  carefully  closed  and  guarded  at  night- 
fall, indicate  the  happy  security  of  that 
world  of  light.  Rev.  21:25.      See  Jerusa- 

LE.M. 

GATH,  wiiic-press,  one  of  5  principal  cit- 
ies of  the  Philistines,  i  Sam.  5:8;  6:17.  It 
was  a  notable  city,  in  the  border  of  the 
Philistines  nearest  to  Jerusalem ;  but  its 
site  has  long  been  lost.  It  was  the  home 
of  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17:4.  Compare  Josh. 
11:22;  I  Sam.  5:8;  6:17;  I  Chr.  20:8.  Here 
David  twice  sought  a  refuge  from  Saul, 
I  Sam.  21:10;  27:2-7.  It  came  under  his 
power  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  over 
all  Israel,  i  Chr.  18:1,  as  a  tributary  king- 
dom, I  Kin.  2:39.  Rehoboam  rebuilt  or 
fortified  it,  2  Chr.  11:8.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  2  Kin. 
12:17,  but  probably  soon  became   a  free 


city  again,  Amos  6 :.2;  Mic.  1:10.  Its  strong 
border  position  rendered  it  liable  to  fre- 
quent assault,  and  to  destruction,  and  it  is 
not  mentioned  by  the  later  prophets,  Zeph. 
2:4;  Zech.  9:5,  6.  Its  inhabitants  were 
called  Gittites,  Josh.  13:3;  and  Ittai,  with 
600  fellow-citizens,  faithfully  served  David, 
2  Sam.  15:18-22.  One  site  suggested  for' 
Gath  is  Tell-es-Safieh,  a  hill  200  feet  high 
at  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  Philistia,  10 
miles  east  of  Ashdod. 

GATH-HE'PHER,orGIT'TAH-HE'PHER, 
press  on  the  hill,  on  the  border  of  Zebu- 
lun,  Josh.  19:13,  was  the  birthplace  of  Jo- 
nah, 2  Kin.  14:25.  It  lay  near  Sepphoris, 
5  miles  north  of  Nazareth. 

GATH-RIM'MON,/';rjj  0/  the  pomegran- 
ate, I.,  a  Levitical  city  in  Dan,  Josh.  19:45; 
21:24;  I  Chr.  6:69,  on  the  Philistine  plain. 

II.  A  Levitical  town  of  Manasseh,  west 
of  the  Jordan,  Josh.  21 :  25,  perhaps  Bileam, 
i.e.,  Ibleam,  Josh.  17:11;  i  Chr.  6:70. 

GAU'LAN,  or  Go'l.\n,  a  Levitical  town 
of  Bashan,  in  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan. 
From  it  was  named  the  small  province  of 
Gaulonitis,  now  Jaulan,  Deut.  4:43;  Josh. 
20:8;  21:27  ;  I  Chr.  16:71. 


GAZA:   THP;   MODERN   GHUZZEH. 


GA'ZA,  or  AzzAH,  strong,  fortified,  now 
Ghuzzeh,  an  ancient  city  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  Canaan,  Gen.  10:19,  belonging 
to  the  Avim,  Deut.  2:23,  and  afterwards  to 
the  Philistines.  Joshua  assigned  it  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  but  did  not  conquer  it,  Josh. 
192 


10:41;  11:21,22;  13:3;  15:47-  Judahseems 
to  have  held  possession  of  it  for  a  while ; 
but  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  it  was  inde- 
pendent, and  one  of  the  5  chief  cities  of 
the  Philistines,  Judg.  1:18;  y.y,  13:1;  i6- 
Samson  carried  away  its  gates,  and  after- 


GAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GED 


wards  perished  under  the  ruins  of  its  vast 
temple.  When  the  Phihstines  returned  the 
captured  ark,  Gaza  sent  a  trespass-offering 
with  it,  I  Sam.  6.  It  seems  to  have  been 
subdued  by  David,  2  Sam.  8:1,  and  been 
subject  to  Solomon,  i  Kin.  4:21,  24,  with 
5:3,  4;  but  was  afterwards  independent 
again.  Hezekiah  smote  it,  2  Kin.  18:8; 
2  Chr.  21:16,  17;  28:18.  At  subsequent 
periods  it  was  possessed  by  Chaldaeans, 
Persians,  and  Egyptians,  Jer.  47:1,  occu- 
pying an  important  point  on  the  great 
route  from  Egypt  to  Syria.  For  5  months 
it  withstood  Alexander  the  Great.  About 
96  B.  C.  the  Jewish  king  Alexander  Jan- 
nseus  captured  and  destroyed  it.  The 
Roman  general  Gabinius  rebuilt  it ;  and 
not  long  after  the  ascension  of  the  Saviour, 
a  Christian  church  was  planted  there  to 
struggle  with  the  prevailing  idolatry.  In 
A.  D.  634  it  came  under  the  Mohammedan 
yoke ;  and  in  the  era  of  the  Crusades  had 
fallen  into  ruins.  It  was  partially  rebuilt 
and  fortified,  and  is  now  an  unvvalled  city 
of  some  15,000  inhabitants,  chiefly  Moham- 
medans ;  the  principal  mosque  was  for- 
merly a  Christian  church.  There  are  a 
few  Greek  Christians,  and  3  Protestant 
schools.  The  few  remains  of  the  old  city 
cover  a  large  but  low  hill  2  or  3  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  modern  city  lies  more  in 
the  plain,  which  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and 
abounds  in  gardens,  date-trees,  and  olive- 
trees.  There  was  a  landing-place  and 
"port"  for  ancient  Gaza,  but  no  harbor 
worthy  of  the  name.  It  was  often  referred 
to  by  the  prophets,  Jer.  25:20;  47:5;  Amos 
1:6,  7;  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech.  9:5.  The  south- 
ern route  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  mem- 
orable in  the  history  of  the  Ethiopian  eu- 
nuch, is  called  "desert"  in  Acts  8:26,  as 
passing  through  a  region  then  destitute  of 
villages. 

GAZELLE'.    See  Roe. 

G  before  E  and  I,  in  Hebrew,  O.  T., 
words,  is  pronounced  hard,  as  in  get,  give. 
In  Greek  words  it  is  soft,  like  J. 

GE'BA,  or  Ga'ba,  hill,  a  Levitical  town 
of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:24;  21:17;  i  Chr. 
8:6,  near  Ramah,  Neh.  7:30;  Isa.  10:29, 
and  not  far  from  the  northern  border  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  2  Kin.  23:8;  Zech. 
14:10.  Here  occurred  Jonathan's  exploit, 
I  Sam.  13:3,  and  ch.  14.  Near  Geba  David 
defeated  the  Philistines,  2  Sam.  5:25.  Asa 
renewed  it  from  the  ruins  of  Ramah,  i  Kin. 
15:22.  It  was  6  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and 
was  separated  from  Michmash  on  the  north 
by  a  deep  valley.  See  i  Sam.  14:4,  5,  where 
13 


Geba  is  meant.  The  half-ruined  village  of 
Jeba  well  marks  its  site,  facing  the  village 
of  Mukhmas,  across  the  great  Wady  Su- 
weinit,  where  the  invading  Sennacherib 
left  his  heavy  baggage,  Isa.  10:28,  29. 

GE'BAL,  mountain,  I.,  the  Gebalene  of 
the  Romans,  was  a  district  of  Idumaea, 
called  also  at  the  present  day  Jebal.  It  is 
the  northern  part  of  the  range  of  moun- 
tains skirting  the  eastern  side  of  the  great 
valley  El-Arabah,  which  runs  from  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Psa.  83:7.  See  Jordan.  This  Psalm 
is  thought  by  many  to  have  been  written 
on  the  occasion  mentioned  in  2  Chr.  20. 
Compare  ver.  14. 

II.  A  seaport  and  district  of  Phoenicia, 
north  of  Beirut,  called  Byblos  by  the 
Greeks,  now  Jebail ;  population  600.  The 
inhabitants  were  called  Giblites,  and  are 
denoted  in  the  Hebrew  word  rendered 
"  stone-squarers "  in  i  Kin.  5:18.  Their 
land  and  all  Lebanon  were  assigned  to  the 
Israelites,  but  never  fully  possessed,  Josh. 
13:5.  It  was  an  important  place,  Ezek. 
27:9,  and  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Tham- 
muz. 

GEDALI'AH,  God  is  viy  greatness,  son 
of  Ahikam,  appointed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  govern  Judaea  after  the  destruction  of 
the  temple  and  part  of  Jerusalem,  B.  C.  588. 
Like  his  father,  he  honored  and  befriended 
Jeremiah,  Jer.  40:5.  He  began  the  admin- 
istration of  his  government  at  Mizpeh  with 
wisdom,  but  in  2  months  was  treacherous- 
ly murdered  by  Ishmael,  2  Kin.  25:22-26; 
Jer.  39:14;  40:5-41:18.  His  death  was 
afterwards  observed  as  a  national  fast, 
Zech.  7:5;  8:19.  The  same  name  was 
borne  by  4  other  men,  i  Chr.  25:3,  9;  Ezra 
10:18;  Jer.  38:1-4;  Zeph.  1:1. 

GE'DER,  a  wall,  inclosure,  fortified  place; 
an  ancient  Canaanitish  town  in  the  plain  of 
Judah,  taken  by  Joshua,  Josh.  12:13;  per- 
haps the  same  with  Gederah,  or  with  Ge- 
dor.  III. 

Gede'rah,  the  sheepcote,  a  city  in  the 
"  valley  "  or  hilly  lowland  of  Judah,  on  the 
edge  of  the  plain.  Josh.  15:36.  Some  think 
it  the  same  as  Beth-gader,  i  Chr.  2:51.  Ge- 
de'roth,  sheep/old,  and  Gederotha'im, 
two  sheep/olds,  Josh.  15:41,  36,  were  in  the 
same  region. 

GE'DOR,  a  wall,  I.,  Josh.  15:58;  a  town 
of  Judah,  now  probably  Jedur,  a  ruined  vil- 
lage 2  miles  west  of  the  road  midway  from 
Bethlehem  to  Hebron.  A  name  among 
Judah's  posterity  is  thus  preserved,  i  Chr. 
4:4,  18. 

193 


GEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GEN 


II.  A  Benjamite  chief,  ancestor  of  Saul, 
I  Chr.  8 : 3 1 ;  9 :  37.  There  was  also  a  town  in 
Benjamin  which  bore  his  name,  i  Chr.  12:7. 

III.  On  the  southwestern  border  of  Ju- 
dah,  I  Chr.  4:39. 

GEHA'ZI,  valley  of  sight,  a  confidential 
attendant  of  Elisha.  He  appears  in  the 
story  of  the  Shunammite  woman,  2  Kin. 
4: 14-37,  a"d  in  that  of  Naaman  the  Syrian, 
from  whom  he  fraudulently  obtained  a  por- 
tion of  the  present  his  master  had  refused. 
His  covetousness  and  falsehoods  were  pun- 
ished by  a  perpetual  leprosy,  2  Kin.  5:2(?- 
27,  B.  C.  885.  We  afterwards  find  him  re- 
counting to  king  Jehoram  the  wonderful 
deeds  of  Elisha,  at  the  moment  when  the 
providence  of  God  brought  the  woman  of 
Shunem  before  the  king,  to  claim  the  res- 
toration of  her  lands,  2  Kin.  8:1-6. 
GEHEN'NA.  See  HiNNOM. 
GEMARI'AH,  accomplished  by  the  Lord, 
I.,  the  son  of  Shaphan;  a  prince  of  Judah 
and  a  scribe  of  the  temple  in  the  time  of 
Jehoiakim.  In  his  apartment  Baruch  read 
aloud  to  the  people  the  prophecies  of  Jere- 
miah ;  and  he  with  others  secured  a  second 
reading  to  the  nobles,  in  the  king's  house. 
The  roll  was  afterwards  read  to  the  king, 
who  caused  it  to  be  burned,  Jer.  36.  B.  C. 
606. 

II.  The  son  of  Hilkiah,  sent  to  Babylon 
by  king  Zedekiah  with  the  tribute-money 
for  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  was  also  the 
bearer  of  a  letter  in  which  Jeremiah  warned 
the  captive  Jews  against  false  prophets  who 
promised  them  a  speedy  return,  Jer.  29:3, 
4.     B.  C.  594. 

GENEAL'OGY,  a  record  of  one's  ances- 
tors, either  the  line  of  natural  descent 
from  father  to  son,  or  the  line  in  which,  by 
the  laws,  the  inheritance  descended,  or 
that  preserved  in  the  public  records.  Nev- 
er was  a  nation  more  careful  to  preserve 
their  genealogies  than  the  Hebrews,  for  on 
them  rested  the  distinction  of  tribes,  the 
ownership  of  lands,  and  the  right  to  the 
highest  offices  and  privileges,  i  Chr.  5:1, 
17;  9:1;  2  Chr.  12:15;  Ezra  2:62.  Hence 
their  public  tables  of  genealogies  were 
kept  secure  amid  all  vicissitudes.  They 
were  a  record  rather  of  inherited  rights 
than  of  mere  natural  descent,  and  the 
"  sons  "  of  a  patriarch  were  not  necessarily 
his  own  children  by  birth.  Gen.  48:5;  Num. 
26:41.  Genealogies  were  often  abridged 
by  the  omission  of  one  or  more  generations, 
as  in  Levi's  register,  Exod.  6:16-20;  Da- 
vid's, Ruth  4:18-22;  and  Ezra's,  Ezra  7: 1-5. 
Errors  in  copying  are  very  liable  to  occur 
194 


in  these  lists.  We  find  in  the  Bible  a  rec- 
ord carried  on  for  more  than  3,500  years, 
I  Chr.  I  ;  3 ;  6 ;  and  thus  were  guarded  the 
proofs  that  Christ  was  born  according  to 
prophecy  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  and  heir 
to  the  throne  of  his  father  David,  Luke 
1 :32  ;  2  Tim.  2:8  ;   Heb.  7: 14. 

GENEAL'OGY  OF  JESUS  CHRIST.  In 
the  evangelists  we  have  the  genealogy  of 
Christ  for  4,000  years.  The  2  accounts  in 
Matt.  I  and  Luke  3  differ  from  each  other; 
one  giving  possibly  the  genealogy  of  Christ's 
reputed  father  Joseph,  and  the  other  that 
of  his  mother  Mary.  The  2  lines  descend 
from  Solomon  and  Nathan,  David's  sons ;  . 
they  unite  in  Salathiel,  and  again  in  Christ. 
Joseph  was  the  legal  father  of  Christ,  and 
of  the  same  family  connections  with  Mary  ; 
so  that  the  Messiah  was  a  descendant  of 
David  both  by  law  and  "according  to  the 
flesh."  Another  explanation  is  that  both 
evangelists  give  us  the  genealogy  of  Jo- 
seph :  Matthew,  who  wrote  primarily  for 
the  Hebrews,  giving  the  line  of  loyal  suc- 
cession establishing  Christ's  claim  to  the 
throne  of  David ;  and  Luke,  who  wrote  for 
Gentiles,  tracing  the  natural  descent  of 
Joseph  and  his  adopted  Son  upwards  to 
Adam.  The  discrepancies  between  the 
various  genealogies  may  be  reconciled  in 
accordance  with  peculiar  Jewish  laws,  as, 
for  example,  the  laws  of  marriage  pre- 
scribed in  Deut.  25:5;  Num.  36:8.  Had 
they  been  false  or  contradictory,  the  ene- 
mies of  Christ  would  have  refuted  them 
from  the  public  records.  These,  which 
Josephus  says  were  scrupulously  kept  down 
to  his  day,  perished  with  the  ruin  of  the 
Jews  as  a  nation.  It  is  now,  therefore,  im- 
possible for  any  pretended  Messiah  to  prove 
his  descent  from  David. 

Melchizedek  was  "  without  descent," 
Heb.  7:3,  as  regards  the  Jewish  race.  No 
sacred  records  proved  his  right  to  be  num- 
bered among  that  people  of  God.  His 
priesthood  was  of  a  different  kind  from 
that  of  Aaron  and  his  sons.  Compare  Ezra 
2:62. 

GENERA'TION,  the  translation  of  a  He- 
brew word  meaning  a  circle,  and  of  anoth- 
er Hebrew  and  a  Greek  word  implying 
successive  births  ;  it  is  often  used  for  peri- 
ods of  indefinite  length,  but  usually  denotes 
the  average  duration  of  human  life,  now 
currently  reckoned  as  30  years,  but  an- 
ciently much  longer.  Gen.  15:16;  Job  42 :  16 ; 
Eccl.  1:4;  Mctt.  1:17;  ri:i6;  Luke  1:48. 
Another  derived  meaning  is,  a  peculiar 
breed  or  race  of  men,  Prov.  30: 11-14  ;  Isa. 


GEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GEN 


53:8;  Matt.  3:7;  16:4;  Luke  16:8;  i  Pet. 
2:9.  Still  another  use  of  the  word  is  in 
the  sense  of  a  genealogical  register:  the 
origin  and  history  of  a  person,  family,  or 
thing;  in  Gen.  5:1,  the  history  of  Adam's 
creation  and  his  posterity;  in  Gen.  2:4,  the 
history  of  the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth ; 
in  Matt.  1:1,  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  history  of  his  descent  and  life ;  in  Matt. 
24:34,  the  meaning  is,  some  now  livingshall 
witness  the  initial  fulfilment  of  the  event 
foretold;  and  in  Acts  2:40,  save  yourselves 
from  the  punishment  which  awaits  these 
perverse  men. 

GEN'ESIS,  the  ist  book  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, so  called  from  the  Septuagint  title, 
signifying  "the  book  of  the  generation  "  or 
creation  of  all  things.  The  Hebrew  title 
is  Bereshith,  from  its  opening  word,  "  In 
the  beginning."  Moses  is  generally  admit- 
ted to  have  been  the  writer  of  this  book, 
after  the  promulgation  of  the  law.  Its  au- 
thenticity is  attested  by  the  most  indispu- 
table evidence,  and  it  is  cited  as  an  inspired 
record  33  times  in  the  course  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  history  related  in  it  comprises 
a  period  of  about  2,369  years,  according  to 
the  lowest  computation,  but  according  to 
Dr.  Hales,  a  much  larger  period.  Begin- 
ning with  the  sublime  announcement  of  the 
one  only  living  and  true  God,  it  contains  in 
its  first  main  division  11  chapters,  the  rec- 
ord of  events  and  institutions  belonging  to 
the  whole  human  race :  an  account  of  the 
creation ;  the  primeval  state,  probation,  and 
fall  of  man ;  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath 
and  of  marriage ;  the  history  of  Adam  and 
his  descendants,  with  the  progress  of  reli- 
gion and  the  origin  of  the  arts ;  the  gene- 
alogies, age,  and  death  of  the  patriarchs 
until  Noah ;  the  general  defection  and  cor- 
ruption of  mankind,  the  general  deluge, 
and  the  preservation  of  Noah  and  his  fam- 
ily in  the  ark  ;  the  history  of  Noah  and  his 
family  subsequent  to  the  time  of  the  del- 
uge;  the  repeopling  and  division  of  the 
earth;  the  building  of  Babel,  the  confusion 
of  tongues,  and  the  dispersion  of  mankind. 
In  the  rest  of  the  book  general  history  gives 
place  to  the  special  history  of  Abraham  and 
his  chosen  seed— that  line  of  persons  and 
events  in  which  the  record  of  redemption 
lies— down  to  the  removal  into  Egypt.  It 
is  a  religious  history,  and  was  written,  like 
the  rest  of  Scripture,  "  by  inspiration  of 
God,"  with  whatever  immediate  communi- 
cations and  direction  He  deemed  neces- 
sary. Yet  many  of  the  facts  it  records 
must  have  been  well  known  among  the 


Jews  ;  the  account  given  by  Adam  himself 
maj-  have  been  orally  transmitted  through 
7  of  the  patriarchs  to  Moses,  and  he  may 
also  have  had  ancient  historical  writings 
to  consult.  The  book  of  Genesis  lays  the 
foundation  for  all  the  subsequent  books  of 
the  Bible.  Its  prophecies  are  the  germ  of 
all  subsequent  predictions.  It  is  the  most 
ancient  of  human  records,  and  its  value  in 
the  history  of  the  earth,  of  man,  and  of  re- 
ligion, is  inestimable. 

From  the  varying  use  of  the  names  of 
God,  Elohim  and  Jehovah,  some  critics 
have  inferred  that  Genesis  was  compiled 
from  a  number  of  separate  documents. 
But  whatever  use  Moses  may  have  made 
of  previous  writings — themselves  perhaps 
inspired — Genesis  is  certainly  no  loose  and 
careless  compilation,  but  a  carefully  pre- 
pared history,  showing  unity  of  plan  and 
purpose  throughout,  and  leading  on,  in  the 
other  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Israelitish  Theocracy. 

GENNES'ARET,  garden  of  the  prince, 
now  El  Ghuweir,  the  little  Ghor.  A  cres- 
cent-shaped plain  on  the  west  shore  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  about  3  miles  long,  from 
Khan  Minyeh  on  the  north  to  Medjel  on  the 
south,  and  over  a  mile  wide.  It  is  over- 
looked by  bare  and  rugged  hills,  and  is 
now  mostly  overgrown  with  thickets,  but 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord  was  a  lovely  and 
fertile  region,  producing  a  variety  of  fruits 
the  year  round.  It  was  the  scene  of  many 
of  Christ's  miracles,  Matt.  14:34;  Marie 
6:53,  and  probably  of  the  parable  of  the 
sower,  Matt.  13:1-8.  Magdala  lay  at  its 
southern  border.     See  Sea,  IV. 

GEN'TILES,  nations.  Gen.  10:5;  14:1. 
including  at  times  the  Israelites  them- 
selves, Gen.  12:2;  35:11;  Luke  7:5,  but 
generally  signifying  other  nations  in  dis- 
tinction from  Israel — often  with  the  implied 
idea  that  they  were  idolaters  and  not  the 
favored  people  of  God.  Exod.  4:22  ;  19:4-6. 
In  the  New  Testament,  owing  to  the  prev- 
alence of  the  Greek  language,  the  term 
"  Greeks  "  is  often  used  for  Gentiles,  inter- 
changeably with  "  heathen  "  and  "  people," 
Acts  14:1;  17:4;  Rom.  1:16;  2:9.  Paul  is 
commonly  called  the  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, Gal.  2:8;  I  Tim.  2:7,  because  he 
preached  Christ  principally  to  them.  Acts 
13:46;  whereas  Peter  preached  generally 
to  the  Jews,  and  is  called  the  apostle  of  the 
circumcision,  Gal.  2:8.  The  Jews  failed  to 
appreciate  their  nearness  to  God,  Exod. 
19:5,6;  Psa.  147:19,  20;  148: 14;  Rom.  3:1, 
2,  and  his  design  to  make  them  the  means 

TQ.S 


GEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GES 


of  blessings  to  all  nations,  Gen.  22:18. 
They  were  therefore  "  broken  off"  from 
the  olive-tree,  that  the  Gentiles  might  be 
"grafted  in,"  Rom.  11:11-35.  See  also 
Luke  21 :24. 

Gentiles,  Court  of  the.  Josephus 
says  there  was  in  the  court  of  the  temple  a 
wall  or  balustrade,  breast  high,  having  pil- 
lars at  regular  distances,  with  inscriptions 
on  them  in  Greek  and  Latin,  importing 
that  strangers  were  forbidden  to  approach 
nearer  to  the  altar,  Eph.  2 :  14.  See  Tem- 
ple. 

Gentiles,  Isles  of  the.  Gen.  10:5,  Asia 
Minor  and  the  whole  of  Europe,  peopled 
by  the  descendants  of  Japheth. 

GENU'BATH,  son  of  Hadad  IV. 

GE'RA,  enmity,  grandson  of  Benjamin, 
Gen.  46:21;  I  Chr.  8:3.  Perhaps  the  same 
person  mentioned  in  Judg.  3:15;  2  Sam. 
16:5. 

GE'RAH,  a  berry,  the  smallest  Hebrew 
weight  or  coin,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel, 
about  i^i  cents,  Exod.  30:13. 

GE'RAR,  circle,  a  chief  city  of  the  Philis- 
tines in  the  times  of  Abraham  and  Isaac, 
near  Beer-sheba,  Gen.  10:19;  20:1;  26:1,6, 
17,  in  a  fertile  region.  Gen.  26:12.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Asa's  time,  2  Chr.  14:13,  14. 
Conder  identifies  it  with  Tel-Jema,  a  huge 
mound,  with  broken  pottery,  south  of  Khir- 
bet  el  Gerar.     See  Abi.melech. 

GERASENES',  Mark  5:1;  Luke  8 :  26 
(R.  v.).  Gerasa  was  a  city  on  the  eastern 
border  of  Peraea.  Its  ruins,  now  called 
Jerash,  are  the  finest  east  of  the  Jordan. 
Its  name  and  jurisdiction  seem  to  have 
reached  40  miles,  to  the  scene  of  the  mir- 
acle referred  to  under  Gadara.     See  also 

GERGESENES',  Matt.  8:28,  where  the 
R.  V.  has  Gadarenes.  There  are  ruins 
called  by  the  Arabs  Gersa,  midway  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  which 
probably  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
gesa,  and  the  exact  scene  of  the  miracle. 
The  ruins  are  but  40  feet  from  the  w-ater, 
and  behind  them  rises  a  high  and  steep 
hill,  with  ancient  tombs  in  its  side.  See 
Gadara. 

GER'IZIM,  a  mountain  in  Ephraim,  be- 
tween which  and  Ebal  lay  the  city  of  She- 
chem,  Judg.  9:7.  The  world  has  beheld 
few  scenes  more  aw^ful  and  suggestive  than 
when,  having  taken  possession  of  Canaan, 
all  the  Israelites  were  summoned  to  this 
place,  and  6  tribes  were  stationed  on  Mount 
Gerizim  to  respond  to  the  blessings  pro- 
nounced on  those  who  should  obev  God's 
law,  and  the  other  6  on  Mount  Ebal  to  join 
iq6 


in  denouncing  curses  on  those  who  should 
break  it;  while  all  the  people  solemnly 
said,  Amen,  Deut.  11:29;  27:12-26;  28; 
Josh.  8 :  30-35.  See  Ebal,  Sa.maritans, 
Shechem.  Some  .\merican  travellers  re- 
cently stationed  themselves,  part  on  Ebal 
and  part  on  Gerizim,  and  read  aloud  in 
turn  the  blessings  and  the  curses.  The 
voices  of  each  party  were  clearly  heard  on 
the  opposite  mount. 

GER'SHOM,  a  stranger  there,  the  elder 
of  the  2  sons  of  Moses  and  Zipporah,  in 
Midian,  Exod.  2:22;  18:3.  Moses  appears 
to  have  given  them  no  rank  or  emoluments 
but  those  of  simple  Levites,  i  Chr.  23:14, 
15.  Another  Gershom,  a  descendant  of 
Phinehas,  is  mentioned  in  Ezra  8:2.     B.  C. 

459- 

GER'SHON,  banishment,  called  Gershom 
in  I  Chr.  except  in  6:1;  23:6,  the  eldest  of 
Levi's  3  sons,  from  whom  the  3  branches 
of  the  Levitical  tribe  were  named,  Gen. 
46:11;  Exod.  6:16.  The  2d  son,  however, 
Kohath,  had  the  honor  of  producing  Moses, 
Aaron,  and  the  priestly  line.  Gershon's 
sons  were  Libni  and  Shimi,  Exod.  6:17, 
I  Chr.  6:17,  20,  21,  39-43,  called  Laadan  and 
Shimei  in  i  Chr.  23:7-11.  See  also  2  Chr. 
29:12,  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah.  Asaph, 
the  famous  singer  and  seer,  was  of  his  line. 
At  the  Sinai  census  the  Gershonite  males 
numbered  7,500.  They  encamped  west  of 
the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  and  car- 
ried its  curtains  and  other  parts  from  station 
to  station,  Num.  3:17,  25;  4:24-28,  38-41, 
marching  in  the  rear  of  the  first  3  tribes, 
Num.  10: 17.  Thirteen  cities  were  assigned 
to  them  in  Northern  Canaan,  2  being  cities 
of  refuge.  Josh.  21:6,  27-33;  i  Chr.  6:62, 
71-76. 

GE'SHEM,  or  Gash'mu,  carcase,  an  Ara- 
bian, who  opposed  the  work  of  the  Lord  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah,  by  ridicule  and  plots, 
Neh.  2:19;  6:1-9;  about  445  B.  C. 

GE'SHUR,  a  bridge.  Gesh'uri,  Gesh'i'- 
RiTES,  the  name  of  a  district  and  people  in 
Syria.  Geshur  lay  upon  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Jordan  between  Bashan,  Maachah, 
and  Mount  Hermon,  and  within  the  limits 
of  the  Hebrew  territory  ;  but  the  Israelites 
did  not  expel  its  inhabitants,  Deut.  3:14; 
Josh.  12:5;  13:13.  They  appear  to  have 
been  brought  under  tribute,  i  Chr.  2:23, 
but  to  have  retained  their  own  kings.  One 
of  David's  wives,  Maachah  the  mother  of 
Absalom,  was  daughter  of  Talmai  king  of 
Geshur:  and  it  was  here  that  Absalom 
found  refuge  after  the  murder  of  Amnon, 
and  remained  3  years  with  his  grandfather, 


GET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GEZ 


2  Sam.  3:3;  13:37;  15:8-  The  wild  and 
rocky  region  they  occupied,  called  Argob, 
in  the  New  Testament  Trachonitis,  and 
now  El  Lejah,  refuge,  is  occupied  by 
fierce  half-independent  tribes,  and  is  still 


sometimes  a  refuge,  as  in  Absalom's  day. — 
There  was  also  a  people  of  the  same 
name,  possibly  a  branch,  in  the  S3uth  of 
Palestine,  near  the  Philistines,  Josh.  13:2; 
I  Sam.  27:8. 


GARDKN  OF   GKTHSEMANE,  AND   MOUNT   OF   OLIVES. 


GETHSEM'ANE,  oil-press,  a  garden  or 
olive-grove  in  the  valley  at  the  foot  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  over  against  Jerusalem, 
to  which  our  Saviour  sometimes  retired, 
John  18:2,  and  in  which  he  endured  his 
agony,  and  was  betrayed  by  Judas,  Matt. 
26:36-57.  Here  he  "trod  the  wine-press 
alone,"  Isa.  63:3;  Rev.  14:20,  separated 
from  his  disciples,  and  even  the  chosen  3, 
taking  into  his  hand  the  awful  cup  of  sub- 
stitution for  the  eternal  sufferings  of  those 
for  whom  he  was  to  die,  though  his  human 
nature  shrank  from  the  ordeal,  Isa.  53:4-6; 
Heb.  5:7-9.  Human  sympathy  failed  him, 
Isa.  53:3;  Matt.  26:40,  etc.,  but  he  was 
strengthened  by  an  angel,  Luke  22:43.  He 
saw  with  composure  the  crowd  with  lant- 
erns and  torches  following  Judas  down 
from  the  city  gate,  and  into  the  dark  gar- 
den. At  his  simple  word,  "  I  am  he,"  they 
"  went  backward  and  fell  to  the  ground,'" 
John  18:6.  Compare  Matt.  14:27;  Rev. 
1 :  18.  He  restored  the  ear  of  Malchus,  and 
gave  himself  "as  a  lamb  to  the  slaugh- 
ter." 

The  bloody  sweat  in  the  garden  has  been 
proved  to  be  an  actual  though  rare  phe- 
nomenon. The  anguish  there  endured,  it 
is  thought,  so  weakened  the  heart  of  the 


Redeemer  that  on  the  cross  it  actualh' 
broke. 

Tradition,  as  early  as  the  visit  of  Helena 
the  mother  of  Constantine,  A.  D.  326,  lo- 
cates Gethsemane  near  the  base  of  Mount 
Olivet,  beyond  the  brook  Kidron.  The 
place  now  inclosed  by  a  low  stone  wall 
may  be  but  a  part  of  the  original  "garden." 
It  is  about  52  yards  square,  and  contains  7 
or  8  aged  olive-trees,  whose  roots  in  many 
places  project  above  the  ground,  and  arc 
protected  by  heaps  of  stones.  It  is  the  spot 
which  the  Christian  visitor  at  Jerusalem 
first  seeks  out,  and  where  he  lingers  lon- 
gest and  last  ere  he  turns  homeward.  A 
recent  traveller.  Professor  Hackett,  pass- 
ing by  Gethsemane  one  daV,  saw  a  shep- 
herd in  the  act  of  shearing  a  sheep.  The 
animal  lay  on  the  ground,  with  its  feet 
tied,  the  man's  knee  pressed  rudely  against 
its  side,  while  it  seemed  as  if  every  move- 
ment of  the  shears  would  lacerate  its  flesh  ; 
yet  during  the  whole  it  struggled  not  and 
opened  not  its  mouth — a  touching  memen- 
to, upon  that  sacred  spot,  of  the  Lamb  of 
God,  Isa.  53:7. 

GE'ZER,  a  precipice,  a  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites,  Josh.  10:33;  12:12,  whose  king, 
going  to  help  Lachish,  was  slain  by  Joshua ; 

197 


GEZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIB 


between  lower  Beth-horon  and  the  Medit- 
erranean, Josh.  16:3;  afterwards  on  the 
southwest  border  of  Ephraim,  and  assigned 
to  the  Kohathite  Levites,  Josh.  16:3;  21:21. 
The  Canaanites  long  remained  in  it  under 
tribute,  Josh.  16:10;  Judg.  1:29;  and  per- 
haps became  again  independent,  but  were 
dispossessed  by  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  gave 
the  place  to  his  daughter,  the  wife  of  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  9: 16.  It  is  called  Clob  in  2  Sam. 
21 :  iX;  compare  i  Chr.  20:4— a  limit  of  Da- 
vid's pursuit  of  the  Philistines.  Its  site  is 
found  at  Tel  el  Djezer,  smiles  south  by 
west  from  Ramleh ;  and  near  by  is  a  hori- 
zontal rock  with  an  inscription  in  Greek 
and  Hebrew  at  least  as  old  as  100  B.  C, 
marking  "the  limit  of  Gezer,"  Num.  35:5. 
Two  other  similar  inscriptions  are  found 
not  far  off. 

GEZ'RITES,  rather  Ger'zites,  i  Sam. 
27:8,  a  tribe  on  the  southwest  border  of 
Palestine.  Some  scholars  trace  them  back 
to  Mount  Gerizim.  They  were  rich  in 
Arabian  treasures,  i  Sam.  27:9. 

GHOST,  the  spirit  or  principle  of  life  in 
man.  To  "give  up  the  ghost,"  is  to  die,  to 
yield  the  soul  to  God  who  gave  it,  Gen. 
25:8;  Luke  23:46.    See  Spirit. 

GI'ANTS.  It  has  long  been  supposed  by 
many  that  the  first  men  were  of  a  size  and 
strength  superior  to  those  of  mankind  at 
present,  since  a  long  life  is  usually  associ- 
ated with  a  well-developed  and  vigorous 
•frame.  We  know  also  that  there  were 
•giants  and  families  of  giants,  even  after  the 
average  length  of  human  life  was  greatly 
abridged.  These,  however,  appear  to  have 
been  exceptions;  and  if  we  judge  from  the 
mummie;s  of  Egypt,  and  from  the  armor 
and  implements  of  the  earliest  antiquity 
found  i:i  ancient  tombs,  in  bogs,  and  in 
burier]  cities,  we  must  conclude  that  man- 
hind  never  exceeded,  in  the  average,  their 
present  stature.  There  were,  however, 
giants  befor^j  the  flood.  Gen.  6: 1;  fruits  of 
the  union  of  prominent  men  of  Sethitc  fam- 
ilies with  heathen  women,  and  extraordi- 
nary in  stature,  power,  and  crime.  After 
the  flood,  mention  is  made  of  a  race  called 
Rephaim,  Gen.  14:5;  15:20;  Josh.  17:15; 
kindred  with  whom  were  the  Emim,  early 
occupants  of  the  land  of  Moab,  and  the 
Zamzummim  in  Ammon,  Deut.  2:10,  20. 
<)g  was  one  of  the  last  of  this  race,  Deut. 
3:11.  13.  West  of  the  Dead  Sea,  around 
and  south  of  Hebron,  lived  the  Anakim, 
whose  aspect  so  terrified  the  Hebrew  spies, 
Num.  13:28,  33;  Josh.  11:21,  22.  Of  this 
race  were  Goliath  and  his  kindred,  i  Sam. 
iq8 


17:4;  I  Chr.  20:4-8.  See  Anakim,  Goli- 
ath, and  Rephaim. 

Giants,  Valley  of.     See  Rephaim. 

GIB'BETHON,  lofty  place,  a  city  of  the 
Philistines,  within  the  bounds  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan,  and  assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Le- 
vites, Josh.  19:44;  21:23.  The  Philistines, 
however,  regained  it,  perhaps  when  Jero- 
boam drove  the  Levites  out  of  Israel,  2  Chr. 
11:13,  Hi  and  in  the  time  of  Nadab  they 
were  its  masters,  and  he  was  slain  by  Baa- 
sha  while  besieging  it,  i  Kin.  15:27.  Omri 
besieged  it  23  years  later,  i  Kin.  16: 15.  Its 
after  history  and  its  site  are  unknown. 

GIB'EAH,  hill,  I.,  a  city  of  Benjamin, 
I  Sam.  13:15,  and  the  birthplace  and  resi- 
dence of  Saul  king  of  Israel;  whence  it  is 
frequently  called  "  Gibeah  of  Saul,"  i  Sam. 
10:26;  11:4;  15:34;  23: 19;  26:1  :  Isa.  10:29; 
and  here  7  of  his  "sons"  were  sacrificed 
in  retribution  for  his  wrongs  to  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  2  Sam.  21:1-14.  Gibeon  at  an  earlier 
date,  when  "  every  man  did  what  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes,"  was  the  scene  of  a  flagrant 
crime,  in  the  violence  done  to  a  young 
Levite's  wife,  terribly  punished  by  the  de- 
struction of  nearly  the  whole  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, Judg.  19:20.  The  prophet  Hosea, 
5:8,  9;  9:9;  10:9,  holds  up  Gibeah  as  a 
warning;  and  Israel,  unfaithful  like  the 
woman  at  Gibeah,  Judg.  19:2;  Hos.  1:2; 
9:17;  10:13,  was  destroyed  also.  See  Prov. 
1:31.  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  is  further  men- 
tioned in  the  account  of  the  Philistine  wars 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  i  Sam.  13;  14.  Its 
ruins  are  found  at  Tuleil  el-F(il,  about  4 
miles  north  by  west  from  Jerusalem  on 
the  way  to  Er-Ram. 

II.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah, 
associated  with  Maon,  Josh.  15:57,  perhaps 
the  same  as  Gibea,  i  Chr.  2:49. 

III.  The  place  of  the  ark  for  a  time  after 
its  return  by  the  Philistines,  2  Sam.  6:3,  4. 
In  I  Sam.  7:1  the  name  is  translated  "the 
hill."  And  there  are  numerous  other  pla- 
ces where  one  is  in  doubt  whether  Gibeah 
in  the  Hebrew  means  a  town  so  called,  or 
simply  a  /////.  Thus  "  the  hill  "  or  Gibeah 
"of  Phinehas,"  where  Aaron's  son  Eleazar 
was  buried.  Josh.  24:33,  is  now  traced  in 
the  narrow  valley  El-Jib,  midway  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Shechem.  See  also  Josh.  5:3; 
Judg.  7:1;  I  Sam.  10:5;  23:19;  2  Sam.  2:24; 
Jer.  31:39. 

GIB'EATH,  Josh.  18:28,  perhaps  Gibe- 
ah, I. 

GIB'EON,  ///■//  city,  a  considerable  city  of 
the  Hivites,  afterwards  a  Levitical  city  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:25;  21:17. 


GID 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIH 


It  lay  near  Geba  and  Gibeah  on  the  west. 
Its  Canaanite  inhabitants  secured  a  treaty 
with  Joshua  and  the  elders  of  Israel  by 
stratagem,  and  were  made  hewers  of  wood 
for  the  sanctuary.  See  Nethinim.  Five 
neighboring  kings  unitedly  fell  upon  them, 
but  were  defeated  by  Israel  in  a  great 
battle,  during  which  "  the  sun  stood  still 
upon  Gibeon,"  Josh.  9  ;  10.  Compare  Isa. 
28:21.  Here  the  tabernacle  was  set  up  for 
many  years,  though  the  ark  was  in  Zion, 
I  Chr.  16:39;  21:29;  2  Chr.  1:3,  4;  and 
here  God  communed  by  night  with  young 
king  Solomon,  i  Kin.  3:4-15;  2  Chr.  1:3-6. 
It  is  also  memorable  for  two  scenes  in  the 
lifeof  Joab,2  Sam.  2:12-32.  Compare  3: 27; 
20:5-10.  Saul's  slaughter  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  2  Sam.  21:1,  is  not  narrated,  but  its 
chastisement — as  a  great  crime  before  both 
God  and  man.  Here  Ishmael  was  overta- 
ken after  his  murder  of  Gedaliah,  Jer.  41 : 2. 
See  also  Neh.  y-y;  7:25,  on  the  return  from 
captivity.  Its  site  is  found  in  the  village 
El-Jib,  6^  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  a  hill 
below  which  are  the  remains  of  a  "  pool  " 
120  feet  by  100. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  apparent  stand- 
ing still  of  the  sun.  Josh.  10,  was  easily 
within  the  power  of  the  Almighty,  with  all 
its  consequences.  Yet  some  contend  that 
this  is  avowedly  quoted  from  a  poetical 
book,  ver.  13,  and  not  intended  to  be  un- 
derstood literally.  Compare  Psa.  114:4. 
Maimonides,  a  pious  and  learned  Jew,  un- 
derstood the  account  to  mean  that  Joshua 
besought  the  Lord  to  give  him  a  decisive 
victory  before  the  sun  went  down,  and  that 
God  granted  his  petition. 

GiBLiTES,  Josh.  13:5.     See  Gebal. 

GID'EON,  a  hewer,  the  hewer  down  of 
Baal,  the  5th  judge  of  Israel,  and  its  deliv- 
erer from  the  Midianites,  B.  C.  1249  to  1209. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Joash,  family 
of  Abiezer,  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  lived  at 
Ophrah  near  Shechem.  Israel  was  then 
groaning  under  the  hand  of  Midian,  for  its 
sins;  and  in  harvest-time  the  whole  coun- 
try was  overrun  and  despoiled  by  preda- 
tory hosts  from  beyond  the  Jordan.  It  was 
"  the  Angel-Jehovah  "  who  summoned  Gid- 
eon as  a  leader,  commanded  him  to  de- 
stroy Baal's  altar  and  the  image  of  Ashto- 
reth,  "clothed"  him  with  power — compare 
I  Chr.  12:18;  2  Chr.  24:20;  Isa.  61 :  10— gave 
him  signs  to  confirm  his  faith,  and  aided 
him  in  3  battles  to  secure  a  complete  release 
from  Midian  for  40  years.  He  left  -ji  sons, 
one  of  them  a  curse  to  Israel.  See  Abime- 
LECH.     In  punishing  the  refractory  cities 


Succoth  and  Penuel,  and  the  fratricides 
Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  in  soothing  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  Ephraimites,  and  in  declining 
the  crown  offered  him  by  the  Jews,  he 
evinced  those  qualities  which  made  him  a 
successful  judge.  In  the  matter  of  the 
golden  ephod,  however,  he  fell  into  a  sin 
and  a  snare ;  for  this  memorial  of  the  won- 
ders God  had  wrought  became  erelong  an 
object  of  idolatrous  veneration,  Judg.  6-8; 

1  Sam.  12:11;  Psa.  83:11;  Isa.  9:4;  10:26; 
Heb.  II  :32. 

GIER  (pron.  jeer)  -EAGLE,  an  unclean 
bird.  Lev.  11:18;  Deut.  14:17,  the  Egyptian 
vulture,  still  found  in  all  the  ancient  Bible 
lands,  about  the  size  of  a  raven,  filthy  in 
habits  and  offensive  to  the  eye  and  nose, 
but  as  a  carrion  bird  very  useful,  and  in 
Egypt  safe  from  harm  and  sacred  to  I  sis. 
See  Vulture. 

GIFTS,  in  all  ages  common  in  the  East, 
no  important  event  passing  without  them. 
The  Hebrew  has  15  different  expressions 
for  the  idea,  specific,  general,  etc. :  gifts 
from  an  inferior,  Judg.  3:15;  i  Kin.  10:25; 

2  Chr.  17:  II ;  from  a  superior,  2  Sam.  19:42; 
Esth.  2:18;  complimentary.  Gen.  33:11; 
Judg.  1:15;  to  a  judge,  as  a  bribe,  Exod. 
23:8;  to  a  conqueror,  2  Kin.  16:8 — the  lat- 
ter being  often  a  compulsory  tribute,  or  a 
bid  for  favor,  Psa.  68:29;  76:11;  Isa.  18:7; 
36:16.  A  prophet  was  wont  to  receive  a 
consulting  fee,  1  Sam.  9:7;  compare  12:3; 
2  Kin.  5:5;  8:9.  Presents  were  sent  on  any 
joyful  occasion,  Esth.  9:19,  22;  Acts  2:33, 
with  Eph.  4:8 ;  and  exchanged  at  weddings. 
Gen.  24:22;  34:12;  I  Kin.  9: 16.  An  unusual 
withholding  of  a  gift  was  an  insult,  i  Sam. 
10:27;  compare  Prov.  23:26;  Rom.  12:1; 
and  to  refuse  to  accept  a  gift  a  great  indig- 
nity, Matt.  22:11.  In  the  New  Testament 
"gifts"  sometimes  denotes  the  offerings 
demanded  in  the  law,  Matt.  5:23,  24;  the 
blessings  of  the  gospel.  Acts  8:20;  the 
Christian  graces,  Eph.  4:8,  11;  and  mirac- 
ulous endowments,  i  Cor.  12-14.  See  Cor- 
B.\N,  Tongues. 

GI'HON,  _s^itshing  forth,  I.,  one  of  the  4 
rivers  of  Paradise ;  as  some  suppose,  the 
Araxes,  Gen.  2:13.  See  Eden  and  Eu- 
phrates. 

II.  A  place  beside  Jerusalem  where  Sol- 
omon was  anointed  king,  i  Kin.  1:33,  38, 
45,  apparently  at  a  lower  level  than  Jeru- 
salem. Compare  2  Chr.  33:14.  The  "wa- 
ters" or  fountain  of  Gihon  Hezekiah  cov- 
ered in  from  his  besiegers,  and  led  into 
the  city  on  the  west  side,  doubtless  by  a 
subterranean  channel,  2  Chr.  32:3,  4,  30. 

199 


GIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIL 


Compare  2  Kin.  20:20.  Gihon  has  usually 
been  looked  for  on  the  west  or  northwest 
side  of  Jerusalem,  where  is  now  the  pool 
called  Mamilla,  with  water  flowing  by  a 
small  conduit  into  the  city.  A  section  of 
an  ancient  aqueduct  was  found  running 
from  west  to  east  20  feet  below  the  surface, 
and  may  be  a  portion  of  Hezekiah's  con- 
duit. The  pool  Birket  es-Sultan,  in  the 
lower  part  of  Hinnom,  has  been  taken  for 
the  lower  Gihon ;  but  some  reasons  are 
found  for  placing  it  on  the  east  of  the  city, 
at  the  pool  of  Siloam. 

GILBO'A,  a  bubbling  spring,  a  mountain 
ridge  in  Issachar  southeast  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  running  10  miles  northwest  and 
southeast,  having  on  each  side  a  valley 
connecting  the  great  plain  with  the  Jordan 
valley.  The  valley  northeast  of  Gilboa, 
between  it  and  the  hill  Moreh,  Judg.  7:1,  is 
the  proper  Jezreel;  that  on  the  southwest 
side  separates  Gilboa  from  the  hills  of  Sa- 
maria. On  the  eastern  part  of  Ciilboa  was 
the  town  from  which  it  was  named,  now 
Jelbon.  In  this  vicinity  Saul  and  Jonathan 
were  defeated  by  the  Philistines,  and  died, 
I  Sam.  28:4,  5;  31.  It  is  now  a  dry  and 
barren  mountain,  2  Sam.  1:6,  21.  En-dor, 
where  Saul  went  the  night  before  his  death, 
lay  7  or  8  miles  away  on  the  northern  slope 
of  Moreh.  Beth-shean,  whither  his  body 
was  sent,  lay  at  the- eastern  opening  of  the 
valley  of  Jezreel. 

GIL'EAD,  a  hard,  rocky  region;  I.,  a 
mountainous  tract  adjoining  the  Jordan 
valley  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  e.xtend- 
ing  from  Bashan  on  the  north  to  Ammon 
on  the  south,  and  sloping  down  the  Ara- 
bian plateau  on  the  east.  It  is  about  60 
miles  long  and  20  in  breadth.  It  is  called 
"  Gilead,"  Gen.  37:25;  Psa.  60:7;  "the  land 
of  Gilead,"  Num.  32 :  i ;  or  "  Mount  Gilead," 
Gen.  31 :25.  In  a  restricted  sense  the  name 
may  have  denoted  onlj-  the  mountain  range 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Jabbok,  some  10 
miles  long  from  east  to  west,  still  called 
Jebel  JiVad,  and  on  which  are  ruins  called 
Jil'ad.  Jacob  entered  Gilead  from  the 
northeast,  beyond  the  Jabbok  and  Maha- 
naim,  CJen.  31:21-25;  and  by  a  play  upon 
the  name,  slightly  changing  its  sound  and 
meaning,  he  called  the  spot  G.\LKn:D,  mound 
of  witness,  ver.  45-48.  At  the  conquest 
Gilead  was  allotted  to  Gad  and  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  Deut.  3:12,  13,  16,  17; 
Josh.  13:24-31.  As  a  border  land  it  was 
e.xposed  to  the  wandering  tribes  of  Arabia, 
and  was  somewhat  isolated  from  Israel 
west  of  the  Jordan ;  but  Jephthah  and  Eli- 
200 


jah  were  Gileadites.  Its  mountains  fur- 
nished an  asylum  for  refugees,  i  Sam.  13:7. 
Here  Ishbosheth  made  his  headquarters, 
2  Sam.  2:8;  here  David  found  refuge,  2  Sam. 
17;  and  hither  probably  Christ  twice  with- 
drew during  his  ministry,  John  10:40.  Here 
too,  in  Pella,  his  followers  found  refuge 
when  Jerusalem  was  besieged. 

Mount  Gilead,  like  most  of  the  land  be- 
yond Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  viewed 
from  the  west  across  the  Jordan  depres- 
sion stretches  like  a  gigantic  wall  along 
the  horizon,  in  Gilead  2,000  or  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level.  The  surface  is  bro- 
ken by  many  hills  clothed  with  forests,  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  scener\'  grand.  It  is 
still  "a  land  for  cattle,"  and  the  Bedouins 
value  its  rich  pastures;  but  onlj*  a  small 
portion  is  tilled.  It  was  famous  in  early 
ages  for  its  spices  and  aromatic  gums.  Gen. 
37:25;  Jer.  8:22;  46:11.     See  Ramoth-Gil- 

EAD. 

II.  The  name  of  several  men,  Num. 
26:29,  3a;  Judg.  11: 1,  2;  I  Chr.  5:14. 

GIL'GAL,  a  wheel,  or  rolling,  I.,  a  cele- 
brated j)lace  between  the  Jordan  and  Jeri- 
cho, where  the  Israelites  first  encamped 
after  the  passage  of  that  river ;  where  also 
they  were  circumcised,  thus  renewing  their 
covenant  with  God,  which  had  been  for- 
feited by  neglect,  and  kept  their  first  Pass- 
over in  Canaan,  Josh.  4:19;  5:2-12;  Mic. 
6:5.  It  continued  to  be  the  headquarters 
of  the  Israelites  for  several  years,  while 
Joshua  was  occupied  in  subduing  the  land, 
Josh.  9:6;  10:6,  15,  43.  A  village  was  after- 
wards built  there,  Josh.  15:7.  Here  the 
tabernacle  rested  until  its  removal  to  Shi- 
loh.  Josh.  18: 1 ;  here  also,  according  to  the 
prevalent  opinion,  Samuel  offered  sacrifi- 
ces, and  held  in  turn  his  court  as  a  judge 
of  Israel;   and  here  Saul  was  recrowned, 

1  Sam.  7:16;  10:8;  11:15;  13:7-9;  15:33- 
Here  the  men  of  Judah  met  David  on  his 
return  to  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  19:15,  40-  At 
this  day  no  traces  of  it  are  found.  Accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  it  lay  \Vi  miles  east  of 
Jericho. 

II.  Another  Gilgal  lay  near  Antipatris, 
Josh.  12:23. 

III.  A  third  was  in  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,    north    of   Bethel,    Deut.    11:30; 

2  Kin.  2:1-6.  A  school  of  the  prophets  was 
here  established,  2  Kin.  4:38;  and  yet  it 
afterwards  appears  to  have  become  a  seat 
of  idolatrv,  Hos.  4:15;  Q^'S:  12:11;  Amos 
4:4;  5:5.  This  is  probably  the  Beth-Gilgal 
of  Neh.  12:29,  "o^^'  represented  by  Jiljilieh, 
5  miles  from  Bethel  and  4  from  Shiloh. 


GIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GLA 


GI'LOH,  exile,  a  town  in  the  hills  of  Ju- 
dah,  Josh.  15:51;  2  Sam.  15:12;  17:23. 

GI'MEL,  camel,  Psa.  119,  the  3d  Hebrew 
letter. 

GIM'ZO,  rich  in  sycatnores,  a  town  in 
Dan,  captured  by  Philistines  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz,  2  Chr.  28 :  18 ;  now  Jimzu,  a  village 
one  hour  from  Ludd  on  the  road  to  Jeru- 
salem from  Joppa. 

GIN,  a  trap;  usually'  a  net  or  "snare," 
with  an  elastic  stick  to  spring  it,  Isa.  8:14; 
Amos  3:5.  In  Job  40:24,  margin,  the  stick 
or  ring  passed  through  the  nose  of  an  un- 
ruly animal. 


ANCIENT   GIRDLES. 


GIRD,  GIR'DLE.  The  Orientals  com- 
monly dress  in  loose  robes  flowing  down 
about  the  feet ;  so  that  when  they  wish  to 
run,  or  fight,  or  apply  themselves  to  any 
business,  they  are  obliged  to  bind  their 
garments  close  around  them  with  a  sash 
or  girdle.  See  John  13:4,  5,  15.  Hence  it 
was  a  symbol  of  strength  and  activity, 
I  Sam.  2:4;  Job  12:18;  Isa.  45:5;  Jer.  13:11 ; 
and  "to  have  the  loins  girded,"  is  to  be 
prepared  for  action  or  service,  2  Kin.  4:29 ; 
Acts  12:8;  to  be  waiting  for  the  call  or 
coming  of  one's  Master  or  Lord,  Luke 
12:35.  A  tightened  girdle  was  also  thought 
to  increase  the  power  of  endurance,  and 
the  simile  is  used  in  exhortations  to  Chris- 
tian courage  and  fortitude,  Job  38:3;  Jer. 
1:17;  Eph.  6:14;  I  Pet.  1:13.  To  have  the 
girdle  loosed  is  to  be  unnerved  and  un- 
prepared for  action,  Isa.  5:27;  11:5.  Gir- 
dles of  leather  were  worn  by  the  common 
people;  and  also  by  prophets,  2  Kin.  1:8; 
Matt.  3:4.  Sashes  were  likewise  made  of 
linen  cloth,  Jer.  13:1;  also  of  silk,  some- 
times embroidered,  Prov.  31:24  ("stom- 
acher," Isa.  3:24);  Dan.  10:5;  Rev.  1:13; 
15:6;  and  were  used  as  presents,  i  Sam. 


18:4;  2  Sam.  18:11.  They  were  often  wide 
and  long;  and  were  folded  lengthwise,  and 
passed  several  times  around  the  body. 
The  girdle,  moreover,  answered  the  pur- 
pose of  a  purse  or  pouch,  to  carry  money 
and  other  things;  see  Matt.  10:9;  Mark 
6:8,  where  the  word  purse  is  put  for  Cwv?7, 
Greek,  girdle.  The  Arabs  and  other  Ori- 
entals wear  girdles  in  the  same  manner  at 
the  present  day ;  they  also  carry  a  knife  or 
dagger  stuck  in  them,  as  was  also  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Hebrews,  i  Sam.  25:13;  2  Sam. 
20:8.  Clerks  carried  their  inkhorns,  car- 
penters their  rules,  etc.,  in  the  same  way, 
Ezek.  9:2.  The  girdles  of  the  priests  were 
of  exceedingly  fine  linen,  worn  over  the 
tunic,  passing  several  times  around  the 
body,  and  with  the  ends  hanging  down  to 
the  feet,  Exod.  28:4,  39,  40;  39:29;  Lev. 
16:4;  Isa.  22:21.  The  "  curious  girdle "  of 
the  high-priest  was  a  part  of  the  ephod 
itself,  Exod.  28:8;  39:5.     See  cuts  in  G.\r- 

MKNTS. 

GIR'GASHITES.     See  Canaanites. 

GIT'TAH-HE'PHER,Josh.  19: 13,  the  same 
as  Gath-hepher. 

GITTA'IM,  two  wine-presses,  2  Sam.  4:3, 
a  place  occupied  by  Benjamites  after  th; 
captivity,  Neh.  11:33.  Site  unknown,  but 
northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

GIT'TITES.    See  G.\TH  and  Obed-edom. 

GIT'TITH,  belonging  to  Gath.  It  proba- 
bly denotes  either  a  musical  instrument  or 
a  kind  of  music  derived  from  Gath,  where 
David  sojourned  for  a  time  during  the  per- 
secution of  Saul,  I  Sam.  27:1-7.  The  word 
Gath  also  signifies  in  Hebrew  a  ivine-press. 
Hence  not  a  few  have  supposed  that  it  de- 
notes either  an  instrument  or  a  melody 
used  in  the  vintage.  It  is  prefixed  to 
Psalms  8,  81,  84,  all  of  which  require  an 
animated  strain  of  music. 

GLASS  was  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  no  doubt  to  the  Jews ;  and  the  arts  of 
blowing,  coloring,  grinding,  and  cutting  it 
were  familiar  to  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
Images  of  glazed  pottery  and  broken  wine- 
vases  have  been  found  in  Egypt,  dating  as 
far  back  as  the  Exodus;  and  the  earliest 
known  specimen  of  transparent  glass  was 
a  bottle  found  bearing  the  name  of  Sargon, 
700  B.  C,  and  opaque  glasses  of  many  cen- 
turies earlier.  Glass  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  used  at  that  time  for  mirrors, 
nor  for  windows,  but  for  cups,  bottles, 
vases,  ornaments,  sacred  emblems,  etc.  In 
the  New  Testament  glass  is  an  emblem  of 
smoothness  and  brightness,  and  crystal  of 
transparency,  Rev.  4:6;    15:2.      The  gold 

201 


GLE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


(iOA 


of  the   New  Jerusalem  has  the  gem-like 

brilliancy  of  translucent  glass,  Rev.  21:18, 
21.  (Jlass  is  probably  alluded  to  in  Job 
28:17,  where  our  English  version  has  the 
word  crystal.     See  Looki.ng-c;l.\ssi;s. 

GLEAN'ING,  a  right  of  the  poor  in  har- 
vest and  vintage,  under  the  Mosaic  law, 
Lev.  19:9,  10;  Deut.  24:19-21;  Ruth  2. 
Compare  Judg.  8:2.  Robinson  often  saw 
women  in  Palestine  beating  out  with  a 
stick  small  quantities  of  grain  which  they 
had  probably  gleaned. 


KITE  :    MILVUS   EGVPTIUS. 

GLEDE,  a  kind  of  hawk  or  kite,  Deut. 
14: 13,  an  unclean  bird  of  prey. 

GLO'RY,  the  distinctive  excellence  of 
any  person  or  thing  and  its  manifestation. 
The  glory  of  Lebanon  was  in  its  trees,  Isa. 
60:13;  the  glory  of  a  man  is  the  soul,  or 
often  the  tongue,  the  soul's  organ,  Psa. 
16:9;  30:12,  margin;  57:8;  108:1;  Acts 
2:26.  The  glory  of  God  denotes  his  divine 
perfections  disclosed  to  his  creatures,  Exod. 
33:18,  19;  Psa.  63:2;  Hab.  2:14;  often  with 
a  visible  effulgence  betokening  his  special 
presence,  Exod.  16:7,  10;  24:9,  10,  16,  17; 
40:34;  I  Kin.  8:11;  Psa.  80:1;  Acts  7:2. 
God's  glory  is  revealed  in  all  his  works  of 
creation  and  providence,  Psa.  19'.  i;  Isa. 
6:3;  Ezek.  28:22;  Rom.  1:19,  20,  23;  but 
above  all  in  Christ  and  redemption,  John 
1:14;  2:11;  2  Cor.  4:6;  Heb.  1:3 — where 
the  word  "  brightness  "  means  not  a  reflect- 
ed lustre,  but  the  outflowing  "effulgence" 
of  the  Father's  glory.  The  chief  end  of 
the  Christian  is  to  live  to  the  glory  of  God, 
I  Cor.  6:20;  I  Pet.  2:9,  showing  forth  his 
praise  by  obeying  his  law.  Matt.  5:16;  John 
17:4;  I  Cor.  10:31.  Contrast  Rom.  1:21. 
The  adjuration,  "  Give  (iod  the  glory," 
means,  confess  the  truth   in    view  of  his 


omniscience,  Josh.  7:19;  John  9 :  24.  Glory 
is  sometimes  expressive  of  the  heavenly 
state  of  Christ  and  believers,  i  Tim.  3:16; 
I  Pet.  5: 10. 

GNAT,  a  small  2-winged  insect,  a  mos- 
quito. Matt.  23:24;  where  read,  as  in  the 
first  English  translations,  "Ye  strain  ok/ a 
gnat."  Filtering  wine,  for  fear  of  swallow- 
ing an  insect  and  becoming  ceremonially 
unclean.  Lev.  11:23,  is  applied  to  those 
who  are  superstitiously  anxious  in  avoiding 
small  faults,  yet  do  not  scruple  to  commit 
great  sins. 

GO  ABOUT,  seek  or  endeavor,  John  7: 19, 
20;  Acts  9:29;  Rom.  10:3. 

GO  BEYOND,  I  Thess.  4:6,  overreach. 

GO  TO,  an  exhortation,  Gen.  11 : 3,  4,  7, 
or  a  call  for  attention,  Eccl.  2:1 ;  Isa.  5:5; 
Jas.  4:13;  5:1. 

GOAD,  ox-goad,  Judg.  3:31,  a  pole  6  or  8 
feet  long  with  a  sharp  point  at  one  end,  to 
stimulate  and  guide  the  oxen,  Eccl.  12:11, 
and  a  chisel-like  iron  at  the  head  for  clear- 
ing the  ploughshare,  cutting  roots,  etc. 
See  Plough  ;  also  Shamgar  ;  and  compare 
Judg.  5:8;  I  Sam.  13:19-22.  In  .Acts  26:14 
the  word  pricks  is  used  for  goads  in  the 
A.  v.,  also  in  Acts  9:5,  where  the  clause  is 
omitted  in  the  R.  V.,  not  being  found  in 
the  Greek  MSS.     Contrast  Matt.  11:29. 


SYRIAN   goat:   CAPRA    MAMBRICA. 

GOATS  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
pastoral  wealth  of  the  East,  Gen.  15:9; 
27:9;  30;  31;  32:14;  ^7-3^'^  and  were 
raised  by  the  Israelites  in  Canaan  and 
Egypt,  Exod.  12:5;  I  Sam.  25:2;  and  by 
the  surrounding  nomadic  tribes,  2  Chr. 
17:11;  Ezek.  27:21.  They  were  regarded 
as  clean  for  sacrifice,  Exod.  12:3;  Lev. 
3:12;  Num.  15:27;  and  their  milk  and  the 


GOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOD 


young  kids  were  much  used  for  food,  Deut. 
14:4;  Judg.  6:19;  Prov.  27:27;  Luke  15:29. 
The  common  leather  bottles  were  made  of 
their  skins.  Goat-skins  were  used  for 
kneading-cloths,  Exod.  12:34;  and  were 
worn  as  clothing  by  the  poor,  ascetics, 
mourners,  and  prophets,  i  Kin.  21:27;  ^sa. 
20:2;  Heb.  11:37;  Rev.  6:12;  but  goats' 
hair  was  woven  into  outer  garments,  and 
was  the  common  covering  for  tents,  Exod. 
26 : 7 ;  35:6;  Song  1:8,  that  used  for  the  tab- 
ernacle being  specially  fine,  Exod.  25:4; 
35:26.  Several  kinds  of  goats  were  kept  in 
Palestine  :  one  kind  having  long  silky  hair, 
like  the  Angora,  Song  4:1;  6:5,  and  anoth- 
er, long  and  broad  ears.  This  kind  is  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  Amos  3:12,  and  is  still 
the  common  goat  of  Palestine.     For  many 


bian  Ibex  or  Beden,  a  large  and  vigorous 
animal  still  found  in  the  mountains  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai,  and  east  and  south  of 


HEAD   OF    THK    S^R1A.N    GOAT. 

sacrifices  goats  and  kids  were  as  accepta- 
ble as  sheep  and  lambs.  For  one,  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement,  goats  exclusively  could 
be  used,  Lev.  16:5-28.  See  Expiation.  A 
kid  of  the  goats  was  the  prescribed  sin- 
offering  on  various  occasions.  Num.  28:11- 
31;  29:1-38.  The  he-goat,  leader  of  the 
flock,  Prov.  30:31;  Jer.  50:8,  symbolizes 
leaders  in  wickedness,  Isa.  14:9:  Zech. 
10:3.  Compare  Ezek.  34:17;  Matt.  25:32, 
33.  Sa'ir,  the  shaggy  goat  of  the  sin- 
oflfermg,  Lev.  9:15;  Ezek.  43:25,  is  trans- 
lated "hairy"  in. Gen.  27:11,  23;  "rough" 
in  Dan.  8:21;  "  devils  "  in  Lev.  17:7;  2  Chr. 
11:15;  "satyrs"  in  Isa.  13:21;  34:14.  A 
one-horned  he-goat  was  an  acknowledged 
symbol  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  Dan. 
8:5.     See  Wild-goat. 

Wild-goats  are  mentioned  in  i  Sam. 
24:2;  Job  39:1;  Psa.  104:18;  Prov.  5:19, 
A.  V.  "roe."     This  is  doubtless  the  Ara- 


the  Dead  Sea.  These  goats  are  very  simi- 
lar to  the  bouquetin  or  chamois  of  the  Alps. 
They  feed  in  flocks  of  a  score  or  two,  with 
one  of  their  number  acting  as  a  sentinel. 
At  the  slightest  alarm  they  are  gone  in  an 
instant,  darting  fearlessly  over  the  rocks, 
and  falling  on  their  horns  from  a  great 
height  without  injury.  Their  horns  are  2 
or  3  feet  long,  and  are  used  by  the  Arabs 
for  bottles  and  cut  into  knife-handles,  etc. 

For  Scape-goat,  see  Expiation. 

GOB,  a  pit,  2  Sam.  21 :  18,  19,  called  Gezer 
in  I  Chr.  20:4;  the  scene  of  2  battles  be- 
tween David's  heroes  and  the  Philistines. 
Some  copies  of  the  Septuagint  and  the 
Syriac  have  Gath  in  2  Samuel.  Compare 
2  Sam.  21:20;  I  Chr.  20:6. 

GOD.  This  name,  the  derivation  of  which 
is  uncertain,  we  give  to  that  eternal,  infi- 
nite, perfect,  and  incomprehensible  Being, 
the  Creator  of  all  things,  who  preserves 
and  governs  all  by  his  almighty  power  and 
wisdom,  and  is  the  only  proper  object  of 
worship.  In  our  Scriptures  God  is  the 
translation  of  various  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words:  i.  El,  the  mighty  one.  Gen.  14:18; 
16:13;  17:1,  etc.  2.  Elohim,  Deut.  32:15: 
Neh.  9:17,  etc.,  the  plural  form  of  the  word 
Eloah  (used  in  Job  and  Daniel),  expressing 
the  excellence  and  majesty  of  the  true  God. 
3.  Jehovah,  Lord— printed  God  in  the 
Bible  when  preceded  by  another  Hebrew 
word  translated  Lord.  4.  The  Greek  The- 
os.      5.  The   Greek    KuRios,   Acts    19:20, 

203 


GOD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOL 


usually  translated  Lord.    All  these  words 
except  Jehovah  are  in  some  cases  applied 
to  idols  as  well  as  to  the  true  God.     Other 
Hebrew  names  applied  to  the   Deity  but 
not  translated  (}od,  are  Elyon,  "the  Most 
High,"    Gen.    14:22;    Shaddai,    "the    Al- 
mighty," Gen.  17: 1 ;  Adonai,  "  Lord."    The 
proper  Hebrew  name  for  God  is  JEHO- 
VAH, which  signifies  Nc  is.    But  the  Jews, 
from  a  feeling  of  reverence,  avoided  pro- 
nouncing  this    name,   substituting   for   it, 
wherever  it  occurs  in  the  sacred  text,  the 
word  Adonai,  Lord  ;  except  in  the  expres- 
sion Adonai  Jehovah,  Lord  Jekovah,  for 
which  they  put  Adonai  Elohim,  Lord  God. 
This  usage,  which  is   not  without  an  ele- 
ment of  superstition,  is  very  ancient,  da- 
ting its  origin  some  centuries  before  Christ ; 
but  there  is  no  good  ground  for  assuming 
its   existence  in  the  days  of  the  inspired 
Old  Testament  writers.     The  word  Jeho- 
vah occurs  in  the  stone  record  set  up  by 
king  Mesha,  which  proves  that  this  name 
of  the   Hebrews'   God   was   not  then   un- 
known to  foreigners.     Compare  Josh.  2:9, 
10.     In  Exod.  3:14,  God  replies  to  Moses, 
when  he  asks  Him  his  name,  I  am  that  I 
AM ;    which   implies  the  eternal  self-exist- 
ence of  Jehovah,  and  his  incomprehensible 
nature.     The  name  I  am  means  the  same 
as  Jehovah,  the  first  person  being  used 
instead  of  the  third.      According  to   De- 
litzsch  the  primitive  name  was  Jah  or  Jahu, 
as  it  usually  appears  in  compound  names. 
The  Bible  assumes  and  asserts  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  "  In  the  beginning  God  ere: 
ated  the  heavens  and  the  earth;"  and  is 
itself  the  most  illustrious  proof  of  his  ex- 
istence, as  well  as  our  chief  instructor  as 
to  his  nature  and   will.      It  puts   a  voice 
into  the  mute  lips  of  creation ;    and    not 
only  reveals  God  in  his  works,  but  illus- 
trates his  ways  in  providence,  displays  the 
glories  of  his  character,  his  law,  and  his 
grace,  and  brings  man    into  true  and  sa- 
ving communion  with  him.     It  reveals  him 
to  us  as  a  Spirit,  the  only  being  from  ever- 
lasting and  to  everlasting  by  nature,  un- 
derived,  infinite,  perfect,  and  unchangea- 
ble in  power,  wisdom,  omniscience,  omni- 
presence, justice,  holiness,  truth,  goodness, 
and  mercy.     He  is  but  one  CKid,  and  yet 
exists  in  3  persons,  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit;  and  this  distinction 
of  the  Three  in  One  is,  like  his  other  attri- 
butes, from  everlasting.     He  is  the  source, 
owner,  and  ruler  of  all  beings,  foreknows 
and  predetermines  all   events,  and  is  the 
eternal  judge  and  arbiter  of  the  destiny  of 
204 


all.  True  religion  has  its  foundation  in 
the  right  knowledge  of  God,  and  consists 
in  supremely  loving  and  faithfully  obeying 
him.  See  Jesus  Christ,  Holy  Spirit, 
Trinity. 

GOD'LINESS,  ri^ht  reverence  and  wor- 
ship. It  denotes  the  spirit  that  gives  God 
his  due  supreme  place  in  the  heart  and  life. 
Gen.  5:22,  24;  Psa.  12:1;  Mic.  6:8;  Mai. 
2:15;  I  Tim.  4 : 7,  8 ;  2  Pet.  1:6.  In  i  Tim. 
3:16,  "the  mystery  of  godliness"  means 
the  substance  of  revealed  religion,  the 
"  mystery  "  revealed  in  the  incarnation  and 
work  of  Christ,  who  is  the  Object  of  the 
faith  of  the  godly,  and  the  Life  of  their 
obedience.  In  i  Tim.  6:5,  read,  "sup- 
posing that  godliness  is  a  wav  of  gain," 
R.  V. 

GODS.  The  words  god  and  gods,  He- 
brew Elohim,  are  several  times  used  in 
Scripture  to  express  the  power,  office,  or 
excellence  of  some  created  beings,  as  an- 
gels, magistrates,  Exod.  22:20,  28;  Psa. 
86 : 8 ;  97 : 7 ;  often  also  for  the  false  gods  of 
the  heathen.  These  were  exceedingly  nu- 
merous, and  are  denoted  by  various  terms, 
signifying  vanity,  falsehood,  etc.  Among 
the  first  objects  to  be  deified  were  the  sun, 
the  moon,  and  the  chief  powers  of  nature. 
Innumerable  animals,  deceased  men,  all 
ages,  passions,  and  conditions  of  man,  and 
everything  which  fear,  lust,  malice,  pride, 
or  caprice  could  suggest,  were  made  ob- 
jects of  worship.  The  gods  of  modern 
India  are  numbered t)y  millions. 

GOD  SPEED,  2  John  10,  11,  A.  V.,  good 
speed,  as  in  (ien.  24:12,  a  cordial  greeting, 
"speed  "  meaning  prosperity. 

GOG  and  MAGOG  are  usually  spoken  of 
together  in  Scripture.  In  Gen.  10:2,  Ma- 
gog, which  seems  to  denote  a  country  with 
its  people,  is  reckoned  among  the  descend- 
ants of  Japheth.  In  Ezek.  38 ;  39,  Magog 
apparently  signifies  a  country  with  its  peo- 
ple, and  Gog  the  king  of  that  people,  prob- 
ably the  Scythians  or  the  barbarous  tribes 
north  of  the  Caucasus.  They  reappear  in 
the  later  predictions  of  John  as  enemies  of 
the  people  of  God,  who  are  to  be  signally 
overthrown.  Rev.  20:7-9. 

GO'LAN,  exile,  or  circle,  a  city  of  Bashan, 
Deut.  4:43;  assigned  to  Manasseh  and  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites,  one  of  the  3  cities 
of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan,  Josh.  20:8; 
21:27;  I  Chr.  6:71.  Its  site  is  now  un- 
known. It  became  the  head  of  the  prov- 
ince named  after  it  Gaulonitis,  now  JaulSn, 
See  Bashan. 

GOLD,  known  and  valued  from  the  ear- 


GOL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOS 


liest  times,  Gen.  2:11,  12;  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  and  obtained  anciently 
in  Ophir,  Job  28:16;  Parvaim,  2  Chr.  3  :6; 
Arabia,  2  Chr.  9:14;  Sheba,  and  Raamah, 
Ezek.  27 :  22.  Job  alludes  to  gold  in  vari- 
ous forms,  Job  22 :  24 ;  28 ;  15-19.  Abraham 
was  rich  in  it,  and  ornaments  were  early 
made  of  it.  Gen.  13:2;  24 :  22,  35.  It  is  spo- 
ken of  throughout  Scripture ;  and  the  use 
of  it  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  in  its  na- 
tive and  mixed  state,  and  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  at  present,  was  very  common,  as 
well  as  among  other  nations,  Esth.  1:6; 
Dan.  3:1;  Nah.  2:9.  It  was  not  coined 
among  the  Jews  until  the  time  of  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  but  was  weighed  in  exchange. 
Gen.  43  :  21.  In  the  days  of  David  and  Sol- 
omon it  was  plentiful,  i  Kin.  10;  2  Chr. 
1:15;  9:1,9,  13-24.  In  Job  22 :  25,  for  "  de- 
fence "  read  "gold,"  as  in  ver.  24.  The 
ark  of  the  covenant  was  overlaid  with  pure 
gold ;  the  mercy-seat,  the  vessels  and  uten- 
sils of  the  tabernacle  and  temple  were  all 
of  gold,  Exod.  38:24;  I  Chr.  22:14;  29:4,  7; 
2  Chr.  3;  4. 

GOLD'SMITH,  Neh.  3:8,  32;  Isa.  40:19; 
41:7;  46:6;  literally  a  founder  or  finer. 
Compare  Mai.  3:2,  3.  Metallurgic  pro- 
cesses are  also  mentioned,  Prov.  17:3; 
27:21.  The  Scriptures  refer  to  the  work 
of  Egyptian  goldsmiths,  and  the  sculptures 
of  Thebes  and  Beni-hassan  depict  their 
processes  and  the  beautiful  results. 

GOL'GOTHA,  the  Hebrew  name  for  Cal- 
vary, which  see. 

GOLI'ATH,  exile,  a  celebrated  giant  of 
Gath,  who  challenged  the  armies  of  Israel, 
and  was  encountered  and  slain  by  David. 
The  history  is  contained  in  i  Sam.  17.  His 
height  was  gl4  feet;  or,  if  we  reckon  the 
cubit  at  21  inches,  over  11  feet.  He  was 
one  of  5  sons  of  a  giant,  margin  Rapha,  of 
Gath,  Josh.  11:21,  22;  see  Anakim  and 
Rephaim;  2  Sam.  21:15-22;  i  Chr.  20:4-8. 
See  Giants. 

GO'MER,  compleiion,  I.,  Gen.  10:2,  3; 
I  Chr.  1:5;  Ezek.  38:6,  a  son  of  Japheth^ 
and  father  of  Ashkenaz,  Riphath,  and  To- 
garmah.  He  is  generally  believed  to  have 
settled  the  northern  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  given  name  to  the  ancient  Cim- 
merians and  to  the  Crimea.  About  700 
B.  C.  a  part  of  his  posterity  ravaged  Asia 
Minor  for  a  time.  Traces  of  his  name  and 
parentage  are  also  found  in  the  Cimbri, 
Umbri,  and  Cambri  of  historians,  in  Cymry 
and  Kumeraeg,  the  names  of  the  Welsh 
people  and  language,  among  the  Gaels  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland.     Yet  some  ethnolo- 


gists regard  this  identification  of  the  Cimbri 
with  the  Cimmerians  and  the  Celtic  race  as 
baseless,  except  the  similarity  of  names. 

II.  A  harlot  whom  the  prophet  Hosea 
appears  to  have  married  in  prophetic  vis- 
ion, as  directed  by  God,  that  Israel  might 
be  led  to  reflect  on  the  guilt  of  their  spirit- 
ual uncleanness  or  idolatry,  Hos.  i. 

GOMOR'RAH,  subt>iersion,  one  of  the  cit- 
ies in  the  fruitful  vale  of  Siddim,  near  the 
southern  part  of  the  ancient  Dead  Sea, 
miraculously  blasted  by  God.    See  Sodom. 

GOOD'MAN,  Luke  12 :  39,  "  master,"  as  in 
Matt.  10:25,  or  "householder,"  as  in  Matt. 
13:27;  also  Prov.  7:19. 

GO'PHER,  the  wood  of  which  Noah's  ark 
was  built.  Many  suppose  it  to  be  the  cy- 
press, which  abounded  in  Assyria.  Others 
take  Gopher  to  be  a  general  name  for  res- 
inous trees,  as  the  cedar,  cypress,  fir,  and 
pine,  Gen.  6: 14. 

GO'SHEN,  I.,  the  tract  of  country  in 
Egypt  inhabited  by  the  Israelites  from  the 
time  of  Jacob  to  that  of  Moses.  It  was 
probably  the  tract  lying  east  of  the  Pelu- 
sian  arm  of  the  Nile,  towards  Arabia,  the 
modern  district  Esh-Shurkiyeh,  including 
the  valley  et-Tumeylat.  See  Egypt.  It 
appears  to  have  reached  to  the  Nile,  Exod. 
1:22;  2:3,  since  the  Jews  ate  fish  in  abun- 
dance, Num.  1 1 :5,  and  practised  irrigation, 
Deut.  11:10.  It  was  near  Heliopolis  and 
Rameses,  and  not  far  from  the  capital  of 
Egypt,  Gen.  45: 10;  47:11;  Exod.  S-12.  It 
was  a  part  of  "the  best  of  the  land,"  at 
least  for  the  pastoral  Hebrews,  Gen.  46:34, 
and  was  evidently  better  watered  and  more 
fertile  than  at  present.  Here  they  greatly 
multiplied  and  prospered.  Gen.  47:27; 
Exod.  1:7,  and  here  they  were  sorely  af- 
flicted, and  yet  not  forgotten  of  God,  Exod. 
8 :  22 ;  9 :  26.  Many  Egyptians  dwelt  among 
and  around  them,  Exod.  11:2;  12:12,  13, 
22,  23,  and  the  Hebrews  more  or  less  ac- 
quired the  arts  of  Egyptian  civilization, 
Exod.  31:1-11;  35:10,  30-35;  Acts  7:22. 
The  railroad  from  Cairo  to  Suez  makes  a 
northern  curve  through  Goshen,  and  the 
fresh  water  canal  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Suez  canal  traverses  it  in  going  from  the 
Nile  at  Cairo  to  Ismailia.     See  Pharaoh. 

II.  A  district  in  Southern  Palestine,  ap- 
parently on  the  border  of  the  hill  country, 
perhaps  adjacent  to  III. 

III.  A  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:51;  not  identified. 

GOS'PEL  s'\gn\f\es  ffood  news,  and  is  that 
revelation  and  dispensation  which  God  has 
made  known  to  guilty  man  through  Jesus 

205 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOS 


Christ  our  Saviour  and  Redeemer.  Scrip- 
ture speaks  of  " the  gospel  of  the  king- 
dom," Matt.  24 :  14,  the  gos])el  "  of  the  grace 
of  (iod,"  Acts  20:24,  "of  Christ,"  and  "of 
peace,"  Rom.  i  :i6;  10:15.  I^  's  the  "glo- 
rious "  and  the  "  everlasting  "  gospel,  i  Tim. 
i:ii;  Rev.  14:6,  and  well  merits  the  no- 
blest epithets  that  can  be  given  it.  The 
declaration  of  this  gospel  was  made  through 
the  life  and  teaching,  the  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  of  our  Lord. 

The  writings  which  contain  the  recital  of 
our  Saviour's  life,  miracles,  death,  resur- 
rection, and  doctrine  are  called  gospels, 
because  they  include  the  best  news  that 
could  be  published  to  mankind.  We  have 
4  canonical  gospels  —  those  of  Matthew, 
Mark,  Luke,  and  John.  These  have  not 
only  been  generally'  received,  but  they  were 
received  very  earlj^  as  the  standards  of 
evangelical  history,  as  the  depositories  of 
the  doctrines  and  actions  of  Jesus.  They 
are  appealed  to  under  that  character  both 
by  friends  and  enemies ;  and  no  writer 
impugning  or  defending  Christianity  ac- 
knowledges anj'  other  gospel  as  of  equal 
or  concurrent  authority,  although  there 
were  many  others  which  purported  to  be 
authentic  memoirs  of  the  life  and  actions 
of  Christ.  Some  of  these  apocryphal  gos- 
pels are  still  extant.  They  contain  many 
errcjrs  and  legends,  but  have  some  indirect 
value. 

There  appears  to  be  valid  objection  to 
the  idea  entertained  by  many,  that  the 
evangelists  copied  from  each  other  or  from 
an  earlier  and  fuller  gospel.  Whether 
Mark  wrote  with  the  gospel  by  Matthew 
befc^re  him.  and  Luke  with  Matthew  and 
Mark  both,  or  not,  we  know  that  they 
"spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost"  while  recounting  the  works  and 
sayings  of  Christ  which  they  had  seen  or 
knew  to  be  true,  using  no  doubt  the  most 
authentic  written  and  oral  accounts  of  the 
same  current  among  the  disciples.  They 
have  not  at  all  confined  themselves  to  the 
strict  order  of  time  and  place. 

Gosi'Ei,  OF  Matthew.  The  time  when 
this  gospel  was  written  is  very  uncertain. 
All  ancient  testimony,  however,  goes  to 
show  that  it  was  published  before  the  oth- 
ers. It  is  believed  by  many  to  have  been 
written  about  A.  D.  38,  bv  others  between 
50  and  60.  It  has  been  much  disputed 
whether  this  gospel  was  originally  written 
in  Hebrew  or  Greek.  The  unanimous  tes- 
timony of  ancient  writers  is  in  favor  of  a 
Hebrew  original,  tloat  is,  that  it  was  writ- 
206 


ten  in  the  language  of  Palestine  and  for 
the  use  of  the  Hebrew  Christians.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  definiteness  and  accu- 
racy of  this  testimony  is  drawn  into  ques 
tion ;  there  is  no  historical  notice  of  a  trans- 
lation into  Greek;  and  the  present  Greek 
gospel  bears  many  marks  of  being  an  orig- 
inal; the  circumstances  of  the  age,  too, 
and  the  prevalence  of  the  Greek  language 
in  Palestine,  seem  to  give  weight  to  the 
opposite  hypothesis.  Critics  of  the  great- 
est name  are  arranged  on  both  sides  of  the 
question:  and  some  who  believe  it  to  have 
been  first  written  in  Hebrew,  think  that 
the  author  himself  afterwards  made  a  Greek 
version.  Matthew  writes  as  "  an  Israelite 
indeed,"  a  guileless  converted  Jew  instruct- 
ing his  brethren.  He  often  quotes  from 
the  Old  Testament.  He  represents  the 
Saviour  as  the  fulfilment  of  the  hopes  of 
Israel,  the  promised  Messiah,  King  of  the 
"  kingdom  of  heaven  " — which  e.xpression 
he  commonly  uses  where  the  other  evange- 
lists speak  of  the  "  kingdom  of  God." 

Gospel  of  M.^^rk.  Ancient  writers  agree 
in  the  statement  that  Mark,  not  himself  an 
apostle,  wrote  his  gospel  under  the  influ- 
ence and  direction  of  the  apostle  Peter. 
The  same  traditionary  authority,  though 
with  less  unanimity  and  evidence,  makes 
it  to  have  been  written  at  Rome,  and  pub- 
lished after  the  death  of  Peter  and  Paul. 
Mark  wrote  primarily  for  the  Gentiles,  as 
appears  from  his  frequent  explanations  of 
Jewish  customs,  etc.  He  e.xhibits  Christ 
as  the  divine  Prophet,  mighty  in  deed  and 
word.  He  is  a  true  evangelical  historian, 
relating  facts  more  than  discourses,  in  a 
concise,  simple,  rapid  style,  with  occasional 
minute  and  graphic  details.  One  of  his 
peculiarities  is  his  use  of  the  (Jreek  word 
translated  "straightway,"  "immediately," 
"anon,"  etc.,  which  occurs  40  times,  more 
than  in  the  other  3  gospels  together. 

Gospel  of  Luke.  Luke  is  said  to  have 
written  his  gospel  under  the  direction  of 
Paul,  whose  companion  he  was  on  many 
journeys.  His  e.xpanded  views  and  cath- 
olic spirit  resemble  those  of  the  great  apos- 
tle to  the  Gentiles ;  and  his  gospel  repre- 
sents Christ  as  the  compassionate  Friend 
of  sinners,  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  It 
appears  to  have  been  written  primarily  for 
Theophilus,  some  noble  Greek  or  Roman, 
and  its  date  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
about  A.  D.  63. 

Gospel  of  John.  The  ancient  writers 
all  make  this  gospel  the  latest.  It  was 
probably  written  at   Ephesus,  some  time 


GOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GRA 


after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Out  of 
33  miracles  of  Christ  it  records  7,  only  one 
of  them  related  by  the  other  evangelists ; 
and  out  of  30  parables  he  records  none. 
The  gospel  of  John  reveals  Christ  as  the 
divine  and  divinely-appointed  Redeemer, 
the  Son  of  God  manifested  in  flesh.  It  is 
a  spiritual  rather  than  historical  gospel, 
omitting  many  things  chronicled  by  the 
other  evangelists,  and  containing  much 
more  than  they  do  as  to  the  new  life  in  the 
soul  through  Christ,  union  with  him,  regen- 
eration, the  resurrection,  and  the  work  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  The  spirit  of  the  "  disci- 
ple whom  Jesus  loved  "  pervades  this  pre- 
cious gospel.  It  had  a  special  adaptation 
to  refute  the  Gnostic  heresies  of  that  time, 
but  is  equally  fitted  to  build  up  the  church 
of  Christ  in  all  generations.  Among  his 
characteristic  e.\pressions  are  "  abide  "  and 
"bear  witness,"  which  occur  40  and  30 
times  in  this  gospel. 

GOURD.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Jo- 
nah's gourd  was  the  Ricinus  Communis, 
or  castor-oil  plant.  It  grows  in  the  East 
with  great  rapidity,  to  the  height  of  8  to  12 
feet,  and  one  species  much  higher.  Its 
leaves  are  large,  and  have  6  or  7  divisions, 
like  a  hand  with  outspread  fingers,  whence 


THE   CASTOR-OIL   PLANT. 

its  name  of  Palma  Christi.  Since,  how- 
ever, it  is  now  known  that  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  ancient  Nineveh  a  plant  of  the  gourd 


kind  is  commonly  trained  to  run  over  struc- 
tures of  mud  and  brush,  to  form  booths  in 
which  the  gardeners  may  protect  them- 
selves from  the  terrible  beams  of  the  Asi- 
atic sun,  this  goes  far  to  show  that  this  vine, 
called  in  the  Arabic  ker'a,  is  the  true  gourd 
of  Jonah.  If  the  e.xpression,  "  which  came 
up  in  a  night,"  Jonah  4:10,  is  to  be  under- 
stood literally,  it  indicates  that  God  "  pre- 
pared "  the  gourd,  ver.  6,  by  miraculously 
quickening  its  natural  growth.  The  Ori- 
ental gourd  grows  rapidly,  forms  a  dense 
shade,  flourishes  best  in  extreme  heat,  and 
quickly  withers  when  injured. 

The  WILD  GOURD  is  a  poisonous  plant, 
conjectured  to  mean  the  colocynth,  which 
has  a  cucumber-like  vine,  with  several 
branches,  and  bears  a  fruit  of  the  size  and 
color  of  an  orange,  with  a  hard,  woody 
shell,  within  which  is  the  white  meat  or 
pulp,  e.xceedingly  bitter,  and  a  drastic  pur- 
gative, 2  Kin.  4:39.  It  was  very  inviting 
to  the  eye,  and  furnished  a  model  for  the 
carved  and  molten  "  knops  "  in  Solomon's 
temple,  i  Kin.  6:18;  7:24. 

GOVERNOR,  Jas.  3:4,  pilot. 

GO'ZAN,  the  district,  Isa.  37: 12,  to  which 
Tiglath-pileser,  and  afterwards  Shalmane- 
ser  and  Sargon,  carried  the  captive  Israel- 
ites, 2  Kin.  17:6;  I  Chr.  5:26.  Identified 
by  some  with  the  modern  Kizzil-ozan,  a 
river  flowing  from  Kurdistan  into  the  Cas- 
pian Sea ;  but  by  Rawlinson  and  others 
with  Gauzanitis  in  Northern  Mesopotamia 
on  the  river  Habor,  now  Khabur,  an  afflu- 
ent of  the  Euphrates. 

GRACE,  favor,  mercy.  Divine  grace  is 
the  free  and  undeserved  love  and  favor  of 
God  towards  man  as  a  sinner,  especially 
as  exhibited  in  the  plan  of  redemption 
through  Jesus  Christ,  John  1:17;  3:16; 
Rom.  3:24-26.  It  is  only  by  the  free  grace 
of  God  that  we  embrace  the  offers  of  mercy, 
and  appropriate  to  ourselves  the  blessings 
graciously  purchased  by  redeeming  blood. 

The  "  GR.A.CE  OF  God."  spontaneous,  un- 
merited, self-directed,  and  almighty,  is  the 
source  of  the  whole  scheme  of  redemption, 
Rom.  11:6;  2  Tim.  1:9.  With  it  are  united 
"the  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  who 
gave  himself  for  sinners ;  and  that  of  "  the 
Spirit  of  grace,"  by  whom  alone  the  grace 
offered  by  the  Father  and  purchased  by 
the  Son  is  effectually  applied.  Thus  grace 
in  man,  or  all  true  holiness,  2  Pet.  3:18,  is 
traced  up  to  the  grace  of  God  as  its  only 
source ;  and  the  gospel  of  Christ  and  the 
work  of  the  Spirit— both  pure  grace— are  its 
only  channels  of  communication.     Hence 

207 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GRE 


also  all  the  fruits  and  blessings  of  the  gos- 
pel are  termed  graces,  2  Cor.  8:7;  Phil. 
1:7;  not  only  regeneration,  pardon,  en- 
lightenment, sanctitication,  etc.,  but  mirac- 
ulous, official,  and  prophetic  gifts,  the  pe- 
culiar traits  of  Christian  character,  and 
everlasting  salvation,  i  Pet.  i :  13.  In  Gal. 
5:4  "grace"  means  God's  plan  of  salva- 
tion by  his  mercy,  not  by  our  works. 

GRA'CIOUS,  Prov.  11:16;  Jer.  22 :  23 ;  com- 
plaisant and  winning. 

GRAIN.     See  Corn. 

GRAPES,  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  The 
grapes  of  Palestine  were  very  fine,  of  great 
size  and  high  flavor,  Num.  13:24.  At  pres- 
ent, and  probably  the  same  has  always 
been  true,  the  wine  that  is  made  requires 
but  a  small  part  of  the  annual  yield  of  the 
vines.  Dr.  Robinson  says,  "  No  wine  is 
made  from  the  very  extensive  vineyards 
of  Hebron,  e.xcept  a  little  by  the  Jews." 
While  yet  green,  grapes  are  used  for  food 
in  various  ways ;  and  are  dried  in  the  sun, 
or  their  juice  preserved  in  bottles,  to  secure 
a  pleasant  vegetable  tart  all  the  year  round. 
Num.  6:4.  Ripe  grapes  may  be  had  in 
Syria  4  or  5  months.  Lev.  26:5;  and  when 
the  season  closes  many  are  hung  up  in 
clusters,  suitably  protected,  and  remain 
without  drying  up  all  through  the  winter. 
Grapes  are  exceedingly  cheap,  and  form 
no  small  part  of  the  ordinary  food.  Ripe 
grapes  are  also  dried  into  raisins ;  and 
after  the  hanging  grapes  are  gone,  the  rais- 
ins are  used  until  the  return  of  the  new 
grapes.  The  expressed  juice  is  boiled 
down  to  a  syrup  called  dibs,  much  used  as 
a  condiment  by  all  classes. 

Besides  the  law  which  protected  the  first 
3  years'  growth  of  the  vine  (see  First- 
fruits),  there  \yas  another  law  requiring 
the  Jews  to  leave  the  gleanings  of  their 
vineyards  for  the  poor,  Lev.  19: 10,  23.  The 
law  also  allowed  one  who  was  passing  a 
vineyard  to  pick  a  few  grapes  to  eat  on  the 
spot,  but  not  to  carry  any  awa\',  Deut.  23 :  24. 
Everywhere  we  encounter  proofs  of  the 
admirable  humanity  that  characterized  the 
Mosaic  legislation.  A  vineyard  nearly 
stripped  of  its  clustered  treasures  was  a 
frequent  image  of  desolation,  Isa.  17:6; 
24:13;  Obad.  5.     See  Vine. 

"  Wild  grapes  "  were  the  fruit  of  a  wild 
vine,  probably  the  Vitis  Labrusca  of  Lin- 
naeus, the  wild  claret-grape.  The  fruit  of 
the  wild  vine  is  called  oenanthes,  or  the 
flower  of  wine.  They  never  ripen,  and  are 
good  only  for  verjuice.  In  Isa.  5:2.  4  God 
complains  of  his  people  whom  he  had  plant- 
208 


ed  as  a  choice  vine,  an  excellent  plant,  that 
he  had  a  right  to  require  of  them  good 
fruit,  but  they  had  brought  forth  only  wild 
grapes— fruit  of  a  bad  smell  and  a  bad 
taste. 

GRASS  sometimes  means  any  green  herb- 
age, Isa.  15:6,  and  sometimes  the  usual 
food  of  cattle,  Psa.  104:14.  The  quick 
growth  of  grass,  its  tenderness,  and  its 
rapid  combustion  when  dry,  have  furnished 
the  sacred  writers  with  some  of  their  most 
appropriate  illustrations,  Psa.  90:5,6;  92:7; 
103:15,  16;  Isa.  40:6-8;  51:12;  Jas.  1:10; 
I  Pet.  1:24.  All  sorts  of  grass  and  small 
shrubs  are  still  used  in  Syria  for  fuel,  on 
account  of  the  scarcity  of  wood.  Matt.  6:28- 
30.  Travellers  in  that  country  often  see 
grass  growing  on  the  housetops,  the  roofs 
being  flat  and  coated  with  earth  trodden 
hard.  Such  grass  quickly  withers  when 
the  rainy  season  is  over,  Psa.  129:6,  7, 
where  the  rendering  should  be,  "  before  it 
is  plucked  up,"  Isa.  37:27. 

GRASS'HOPPER,  a  kind  of  locust,  and 
so  called  in  2  Chr.  7: 13.  It  was  sometimes 
used  for  food,  Lev.  11:22.  Individually 
thej'  are  insignificant  and  timid  creatures, 
Num.  13:33,  and  their  worthlessness  fur- 
nishes a  striking  comparison  in  Isa.  40:22 ; 
while  the  feebleness  of  age  is  expressed 
by  its  inabilitj'  to  endure  them,  Eccl.  12:5. 
Yet  coming  in  great  numbers  they  are  de- 
structive to  all  herbage,  Amos  7:1.  See 
Locust. 

GRAVE,  Isa.  22:16,  to  excavate. 

GREAVES,  I  Sam.  17:6,  armor  for  the 
legs. 

GREECE,  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  put 
for  the  Hebrew  word  Javan,  which  is  equiv- 
alent to  Ionia,  and  seems  to  include  not 
only  Greece  but  Western  Asia  Minor  and 
the  intervening  isles,  all  settled  by  the 
Ionian  race,  (ien.  10:2.  Greece  proper, 
however,  is  chiefly  intended.     See  Javan. 

In  the  New  Testament  Greece  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  Achaia,  but  is  once  called 
Hellas,  a  name  supposed  to  have  belonged 
first  to  a  single  city  is  Thessaly,  but  at 
length  applied  to  the  whole  country  south 
of  Macedonia,  including  the  Peloponnesus, 
Acts  20:2.  About  B.  C.  146  the  Romans 
conquered  Greece,  and  afterwards  organ- 
ized 2  great  provinces,  namely,  Macedonia, 
including  Macedonia  proper,  Thessaly,  Ep- 
irus,  and  Illyricum  ;  and  Achaia,  including 
all  the  country  which  lies  south  of  the  for- 
mer province.  See  Achaia.  Greece  was 
bounded  north  by  Macedonia  and  Illyri- 
cum, from  which  it  was  separated  by  moun- 


GRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GRI 


tains,  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  east 
by  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  west  by  the  Ionian 
Sea.  It  was  generally  known  under  the  3 
great  divisions  of  Peloponnesus,  Hellas, 
and  Northern  Greece. 

Peloponnesus,  more  anciently  called  Pe- 
lasgia,  and  Argos,  and  now  the  Morea,  was 
the  southern  peninsula ;  it  included  the 
famous  cities  Sparta,  Messene,  Elis,  Cor- 
inth, Argos,  etc.  The  division  of  Hellas, 
which  now  constitutes  a  great  part  of  Liva- 
dia,  included  the  following  cities :  Athens, 
Megara,  Plattea,  Delphos,  and  Actium. 
Northern  Greece  included  Thessaly  and 
Epirus,  with  the  cities  Larissa,  Nicopolis, 
etc.  The  large  islands  of  Crete  and  Eu- 
boea  belonged  to  Greece,  as  well  as  most 
of  those  in  the  Archipelago  and  on  the 
west. 

The  Greeks  purchased  Jewish  captives 
as  slaves  from  the  Tyrians,  Joel  3:6  (about 
800  B.  C).  Compare  Ezek.  27: 13.  Daniel 
foretold  the  rise  of  the  Macedonian-Gre- 
cian empire,  Dan.  7:6;  8:5,21.  Zechariah, 
9:13,  predicted  the  Maccabees'  triumphs 
over  their  Graeco-Syrian  oppressors ;  and 
Isaiah,  66:19,  speaks  of  future  Jewish  mis- 
sionaries to  Javan,  a  prophecy  fulfilled  in 
the  witness  of  the  Jews  against  polj'theism, 
and  the  labors  of  Jewish  gospel  missiona- 
ries on  Grecian  soil.     See  Javan. 

The  Jews  and  the  Greeks  appear  to  have 
had  little  intercourse  with  each  other  until 
after  Ale.xander  the  Great  overran  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  the  East.  They  then  began  to 
come  in  contact  everywhere,  for  both  races 
were  widely  dispersed.  The  Jews  extend- 
ed the  name  of  Greeks  (Hellenes)  to  in- 
clude the  people  conquered  and  ruled  by 
Greeks ;  and  the  word  is  thus  often  synony- 
mous in  the  New  Testament  with  Gentiles, 
Mark  7:26;  Acts  20:21;  Rom.  1:16.  The 
term  "  Grecian  "  or  Hellenist,  on  the  con- 
trary, denotes  a  Jew  by  birth  or  religion 
who  spoke  Greek;  in  the  R.  V.  "Grecian 
Jews."  It  is  used  chiefly  of  foreign  Jews 
and  proselytes,  in  contrast  with  the  He- 
brews, that  is,  those  speaking  the  vernacu- 
lar Hebrew,  or  Aramaean,  Acts  6:1;  9:29. 
In  Acts  11:20  "Greeks"  is  probably  the 
true  reading,  for  the  "Grecians"  would 
be  included  among  the  "Jews"  of  ver.  19. 
The  Greeks  were  a  vivacious,  acute,  and 
polished,  but  superficial  people,  compared 
with  the  Jews.  They  excelled  in  all  the 
arts  of  war  and  peace ;  but  were  worship- 
pers of  beauty,  not  of  duty.  Their  pride 
of  intellect  and  their  corruption  of  morals 
were  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to 

14 


their  reception  of  Christianity,  i  Cor.  1:22, 
23.  Yet  it  was  among  the  Greek  cities  and 
people  that  Paul  chiefly  labored,  and  with 
great  success.  Many  flourishing  churches 
were,  in  early  times,  established  among 
them;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
for  a  long  time  preserved  the  apostolic  cus- 
toms with  much  care.  At  length,  however, 
opinions  fluctuated  considerably  on  points 
of  doctrine;  schisms  and  heresies  divided 
the  church ;  and  rancor,  violence,  and  even 
persecution  followed  in  their  train.  To 
check  these  evils,  councils  were  called  and 
various  creeds  composed.  The  removal  of 
the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Con- 
stantinople gave  a  preponderance  to  the 
Grecian  districts  of  the  empire,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  determinations  of  the  Greek 
Church  were  extensively  received.  In  the 
middle  of  the  8th  century  disputes  arose, 
which  terminated  in  a  permanent  schism 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
The  Greek  Church  has  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  Roman-catholic,  and  embra- 
ces a  population  of  not  far  from  70,000,000  of 
souls,  in  Russia,  Greece,  Turkey,  Syria,  etc. 

The  Greek  language  is  the  original 
language  of  all  the  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, except  perhaps  the  gospel  by  Mat- 
thew ;  but  the  sacred  authors  have  followed 
that  style  of  writing  which  was  used  by  the 
Hellenists,  or  Grecizing  Hebrews,  adopting 
many  idioms  and  turns  of  speech  from  the 
Syriac  and  Hebrew  languages,  very  differ- 
ent from  the  classical  style  of  the  Greek 
writers,  but  like  that  of  the  Septuagint. 
They  were  also  obliged  to  make  use  of 
some  new  words,  and  new  applications  of 
old  words,  to  express  religious  ideas  before 
unknown  to  the  Greeks,  and  for  which  they 
had  no  proper  expression.  After  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  Greek  became  the  language 
best  known  throughout  the  East,  and  was 
generally  used  in  commerce.  As  the  sa- 
cred authors  had  in  view  the  conversion 
not  only  of  the  Jews,  then  scattered  through- 
out the  East,  but  of  the  Gentiles  also,  it  was 
natural  for  them  to  write  to  them  in  Greek, 
that  being  a  language  to  which  all  were  of 
necessity  accustomed.  It  was  the  language 
commonly  spoken  by  our  Lord  and  his  dis- 
ciples, and  the  evangelists  have  doubtless 
given  us  in  many  cases  the  very  words  he 
spoke;  though  the  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  was 
probably  more  loved  and  spoken  at  Jeru- 
salem by  devout  Jews,  Acts  1:19;  22 : 2. 

GRIEF  and  GRIEVOUS  often  denote 
physical  pain.  Gen.  49:23;  Isa.  53:4;  Matt 
8:6;   i  Pet.  2:19. 

209 


GRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAD 


GRIND.    See  Corn. 

GRINDERS,  Eccl.  12:3,  the  molars,  or 
jaw-teeth. 

GROVE,  Heb.  Asherah,  means  a  wooden 
image  of  Ashtoreth  (see),  and  should  be  so 
understood,  except  in  Gen.  21:33,  where  a 
different  Hebrew  word  is  used,  meaning  a 
tree,  as  in  i  Sam.  22:6;  31:13.  The  Israel- 
ites were  commanded  to  destroy  the  Ashe- 
rim,  Exod.  34:13;  Deut.  16:21;  but  often 
disobeyed,  Judg.  t,:-j;  6:25,  26;  i  Kin. 
15:13;  2Kin. 17:10;  21:3,7;  23:6;  Isa.i7:8. 
Groves  were  early  associated  with  the  wor- 
ship of  the  true  God,  Gen.  12:6,  7;  13:18, 
and  seem  naturally  fitted  for  such  a  pur- 
pose. The  heathen  and  backsliding  Jews 
resorted  to  them  for  idolatrous  rites,  some 
elevated  spot  being  generally  chosen,  Jer. 
17:2;  Ezek.  20:28;  Hos.  4:13.  See  High 
Places,  Mam  re,  Oak. 

GUARD,  Gen.  37:36;  2  Kin.  25:8;  Dan. 
2: 14,  literally  a  butcher,  hence  a  cook,  and 
an  e.xecutioner  —  the  body-guard  of  the 
kings  of  Egypt  and  Babylon.  See  Foot- 
men. 

GUDGO'DAH,  Deut.  10:7;  Hor-hagidgad, 
Num.  33:32. 

GUIL'TY,  Matt.  26:66;  Mark  14:64,  in 
R.  V.  "  .worthy." 

H. 

HABAK'KUK,  embrace,  one  of  the  minor 
prophets,  probably  a  Levite,  and  perhaps  a 
temple  singer.  Compare  3:19  with  i  Chr. 
25:1-5-  Of  his  life  we  know  nothing,  ex- 
cept that  he  appears  to  have  been  contem- 
porary with  Jeremiah,  and  to  have  proph- 
esied between  630  B.  C,  Josiah's  12th  year, 
and  610  B.  C,  before  Nebuchadnezzar's  ist 
invasion  of  Judaea,  2  Kin.  24:1. 

The  BOOK  OF  Habakkuk  consists  of  3 
chapters,  which  all  constitute  one  oracle. 
In  the  first  chapter,  he  foretells  the  woes 
which  the  rapacious  and  terrible  Chaldae- 
ans  would  soon  inflict  upon  his  guilty  na- 
tion. In  the  second,  he  predicts  the  future 
humiliation  of  the  iniquitous  conquerors. 
The  third  is  a  sublime  and  beautiful  ode, 
in  which  the  prophet  implores  the  succor 
of  Jehovah  in  view  of  his  mighty  works 
of  ancient  da\-s,  and  expresses  the  most 
assured  trust  in  him.  Nothing,  even  in 
Hebrew  poetry,  is  more  loft}'  and  grand 
than  this  triumphal  ode,  which  inspires  the 
most  afflicted  believer  to  rejoice  in  his  God. 

HABER'GEON,  Neh.  4:16;  Job.  41:26,  a 
coat  of  mail ;  an  ancient  piece  of  defensive 
armor,  in  the  form  of  a  coat  or  tunic,  de- 
210 


scending  from  the  neck  to  the  middle  of 
the  body,  and   formed  of  tough   hide,  or 


manj-  quilted  linen  folds,  or  of  scales  of 
brass  overlapping  each  other  like  fishes' 
scales,  or  of  small  iron  rings  or  meshes 
linked  into  each  other,  Exod.  28:32;  39:23. 

HA'BOR,  united,  "  the  river  of  Gozan," 
a  river  and  probably  also  a  district  of 
Assyria,  2  Kin.  17:6;  18: u;  i  Chr.  5:26. 
Identified  with  the  Khabur,  which  flows 
into  the  Euphrates  at  Karkesia.  It  is  about 
200  miles  long,  and  traversed  the  province 
of  Gauzanitis  (see  Gozan),  adjoining  which 
was  Chalcitis,  formerly  Halah. 

HACH'ILAH,  a  hill' in  the  untilled  land 
near  Ziph  (see),  facing  the  Jeshimon  (see). 
A  lurking-place  of  David  and  his  600,  where 
Saul's  life  was  spared,  i  Sam.  23:19;  26:1, 
3-12.  Now  found  at  Yekin  or  Hachin,  a 
ruin  on  a  high  hill  between  valleys  run- 
ning north  and  south. 

HACH'MONITE,  son  of  Hachmoni,  to 
whose  family  the  heroes  Jashobeam  and 
Jehiel  belonged,  2  Sam.  23:8;  i  Chr.  11: 11 ; 
27:32. 

HA'DAD,  or  Hadar,  mighty,  I.,  son  of 
Ishmael,  Gen.  25:15;  i  Chr.  1:30. 

II.  A  king  of  Edom,at  Avith,  Gen.  36:35; 
I  Chr.  1:46. 

III.  Another  king  of  Edom,  at  Pau,  Gen. 
36:39;  I  Chr.  1:50,  51,  perhaps  contempo- 
rary with  Moses. 

IV.  Another  Edomite  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily, who  fled  to  Egypt  while  young,  upon 
David's  conquest  of  Edom,  2  Sam.  8:14; 
was  well  received,  and  married  the  queen's 
sister.  After  the  death  of  David  and  Joab, 
he  returned  to  Edom  and  made  an  ineffec- 
tual effort  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  11:14-22,25. 

Hadad  was  also  the  name  of  the  Syrian 


HAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAI 


sun-god,  and  is  part  of  the  name  of  several 
Syftan  kings. 

HADADE'ZER,  or  Hadare'zer,  helped 
of  Hadad,  a  powerful  king  of  Syria,  reign- 
ing in  Zobah  and  the  surrounding  country, 
even  to  the  Euphrates,  i  Kin.  11:23.  He 
was  thrice  defeated  and  his  power  over- 
thrown by  David,  2  Sam.  8:3,  4;  10:6-14, 
16-19;  I  Chr.  18:3;  19:6.  Psalm  60  was 
written  after  David's  first  victory  over  the 
Syrians  and  Edomites,  2  Sam.  8:13,  14. 

HA'DAD-RIM'MON,  named  for  2  Syrian 
deities,  a  city  in  the  valley  of  Megiddo,  the 
scene  of  national  lamentation  over  Josiah's 
death,  in  battle  with  Pharaoh-necho,  2  Kin. 
23:29;  2  Chr.  35:20-25;  Zech.  12:11.  After- 
wards, Jerome  says,  called  Maximianop- 
olis. 

HADAS'SAH.    See  Esther. 

HA'DES.    See  Hell. 

HA'DID,  Ezra  2:33;  Neh.  7:37;  11:34,  in 
Dan,  though  belonging  to  Benjamin;  now 
El-Haditheh,  3  miles  east  of  Ludd. 

HADO'RAM,  Hadar  is  exalted,  I.,  Gen. 
10:27;   I  Chr.  1 :2i. 

II.  Son  of  Toi,  king  of  Hamath,  called 
Joram  in  2  Sam.  8: 10. 

III.  2  Chr.  10:18,  contracted  from  Ado- 

NIR.\M. 

HA'DRACH,  the  land  of,  Zech.  9:1.  Not 
identified,  probably  a  part  of  Syria. 

HA'GAB,  Hagaba,  one  of  the  Nethinim, 
Ezra  2:45,  46;  Neh.  7:48. 

HA'GAR,  stranger,  an  Egyptian  bond- 
maid in  the  household  of  Sarah,  Gen.  12: 16, 
who,  being  barren,  gave  her  to  Abraham 
for  a  secondary  wife,  that  by  her,  as  a  sub- 
stitute, she  might  have  children,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  customs  of  the  East  in  that 
age.  The  history  of  Hagar  is  given  in 
Gen.  16;  17;  21.  In  an  allegory,  Paul 
makes  Hagar  represent  the  Jewish  Church, 
which  was  in  bondage  to  the  ceremonial 
law ;  as  Sarah  represents  the  true  church 
of  Christ,  which  is  free  from  this  bondage. 
Gal.  4:24.  Her  name  is  much  honored 
among  the  Arabs  claiming  to  be  her  de- 
scendants. 

HAGARENES',  or  Ha'garites,  i  Chr. 
5:10,  18-22,  descendants  of  Hagar  and  Ish- 
mael.  In  Psa.  83:6  the  name  seems  to  be 
given  to  a  distinct  portion  of  the  Ishmael- 
ites.  A  Hagarite  was  fitly  placed  over  Da- 
vid's flocks,  I  Chr.  27:31. 
,  li\G'GXi,fesiive,  one  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets, probably  accompanied  Zerubbabel  in 
the  first  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon, 
B.  C.  536.  He  prophesied  during  the  sec- 
ond year  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  B.  C.  520. 


urging  his  countrymen  to  resume  the  build- 
ing of  the  temple,  for  about  14  years  inter- 
rupted, and  at  last  suspended,  Ezra  4:4, 
5,  23,  24.  The  Jews  had  become  indiffer- 
ent, and  excused  themselves  from  building 
until  the  end  of  the  70  years.  Haggai's 
reproof  roused  them  for  a  time,  ch.  i :  i-ii ; 
Ezra  5:1,2;  but  they  soon  became  despond- 
ent, and  he  was  charged  with  a  2d  message 
of  encouragement,  ch.  2:1-9.  The  exceed- 
ing glory  of  the  2d  temple  was,  as  he  fore- 
told, that  Christ "  the  Desire  of  all  nations  " 
came  into  it,  and  made  the  place  of  his  feet 
glorious.  Again  he  taught  them  that  atten- 
tion to  outward  rites  cannot  atone  for  dis- 
obedience to  God,  and  assured  them  of 
God's  blessing  now  that  they  had  begun  to 
build,  ch.  2:10-19.  He  also  instructs  the 
inquiring  Zerubbabel  in  regard  to  the  na- 
tional revolutions  foretold,  ver.  7,  and  the 
safety  of  Judah  represented  by  Zerubba- 
bel, ver.  20-23;  Jer.  46:28.  The  book  still 
admonishes  the  people  of  God  when  list- 
less and  slothful  in  his  service,  and  cheers 
those  who  strive  to  build  his  spiritual  tem- 
ple, I  Pet.  2:5. 

HAG'GITH,  rejoicing,  one  of  David's 
wives,  Adonijah's  mother,  2  Sam.  3:4. 

hail!  a  salutation  customary  among  our 
Saxon  ancestors,  and  importing  "  health  to 
you,"  including  all  kinds  of  prosperity. 

HAIL'STONES,  drops  of  rain  formed  into 
ice  by  the  power  of  cold  in  the  upper  re- 
gions of  the  atmosphere.  Hail  was  among 
the  plagues  of  Egypt,  Exod.  9:24,  and  was 
the  more  terrible  because  it  rarely  occurred 
in  that  country.  Hail  was  also  made  use 
of  by  God  for  defeating  an  army  of  Ca- 
naanites.  Josh.  10:11;  and  is  used  figura- 
tively to  represent  terrible  judgments,  Isa. 
28:2;  Rev.  16:21. 

HAIR.  Egyptian  men  cut  their  hair  and 
shaved,  except  in  mourning,  and  Joseph 


ASSYRIAN    HEAD. 

did  likewise,  Gen.  41 :  14.  Egyptian  women 
wore  their  hair  long  and  braided,  as  now. 
Wigs  were  worn  in  Egypt.  Hebrew  men 
cut  their  hair  moderately  short,  and  this 
was  required  of  the   priests,    Lev.  21:5; 

211 


HAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAM 


Ezek.  44:20;  I  Cor.  11:14.  Fragrant  oint- 
ments were  used,  Exod.  30:33;  Psa.  23:5; 
Eccl.  9:8.  In  mourning  men  cut,  or  shaved 
off,  or  plucked  out  the  hair,  Ezra  9:3; 
Amos  8:10,  or  let  it  go  dishevelled,  Lev. 
10:6;  Ezek.  24:17.  In  Jer.  7:29,  Jerusalem 
is  addressed  as  a  woman.    Women  plait- 


GRECIAN   HEADS. 


ed,  perfumed,  and  decked  their  hair  in 
many  ways,  Isa.  3:18,  24;  i  Cor.  11:15,  so 
much  as  to  call  for  apostolic  interdictions, 
I  Tim.  2:9;  I  Pet.  3:$.  Nazarites  wore 
their  hair  uncut  as  a  sign  of  humiliation 


EGYPTIAN  OFFICER   AND  WIFE. 

and  self-dedication  to  God,  Num.  6:5,  9; 
Judg.  13:5;  16:17.  Absalom's  hair  perhaps 
weighed  20  shekels,  not  200,  a  copyist's  er- 
ror being  possible  in  the  numerals,  2  Sam. 
14:26.  Arabians  cut  the  hair  around  their 
temples  in  a  circular  form  in  honor  of  their 
god  Orotal,  Jer.  9:26;  25:23;  49:32,  mar- 
gins ;  and  in  mourning  marred  their  beards, 
Jer.  48:37,  practices  forbidden  to  the  Isra- 
elites, Lev.  19:27.  Lepers,  when  cleansed, 
and  Levites  on  their  consecration,  shaved 
the  whole  body.  Lev.  13;  14:8,9;  Num.  8:7. 
"Hair  like  women's,"  Rev.  9:8,  was  sug- 
gestive of  semi-barbarous  hosts  like  the 
long-haired  Saracens,  afflicters  of  Christian 
Europe  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries. 

HA'LAH,  2  Kin.  17:6;  18:11 ;  1  Chr.  5:26. 
Probably  a  province  of  Mesopotamia  called 
Chalcitis  by  Ptolemy,  on  the  Khabfir  north 
of  Gauzanitis.  See  Gozan  and  Habor. 
The  name  is  traced  in  the  modern  Gla,  a 
large  mound  on  that  river. 

HA'LAK,  smooth,  perhaps  not  a  proper 
212 


name,  but  descriptive  of  some  unknown 
hill,  the  southern  limit  of  Joshua's  'An- 
quests  towards  Mount  Seir,  Josh.  11:17; 
12:7,  perhaps  the  pass  es-Suf&h. 

HALE,  Luke  12:58;  Acts  8:3,  to  draw  or 
drag. 

HALL,  Luke  12:55,  the  court  or  uncov- 
ered space  in  the  midst  of  a  house.  The 
"porch,"  Matt.  26:71 ;  Mark  14:68,  was  the 
vestibule  leading  to  the  court  from  the 
street.     See  House. 

HALLELU'JAH,  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment Alleluiah,  Praise  ye  Jehovah.  This 
word  occurs  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 
end  of  many  Psalms.  It  was  also  sung  on 
solemn  days  of  rejoicing,  as  an  expression 
of  joy  and  praise,  and  as  such  it  has  been 
adopted  in  the  Christian  church,  and  is 
still  used  in  devotional  psalmody.  Rev. 
19:1,3,4,6.  The  Jews  gave  the  name  Hal- 
lel  to  the  Psalms  from  113  to  118,  and  sang 
them  on  their  Feast  days,  as  Christ  and 
his  disciples  are  supposed  to  have  done  at 
the  Lord's  Supper,  Matt.  26:30. 

HAL'LOW,  to  render  sacred,  set  apart, 
consecrate.  The  English  word  is  from  the 
Saxon,  and  means  to  make  holy ;  hence 
hallowed  persons,  things,  places,  rites,  etc. ; 
hence  also  the  name,  power,  and  dignity  of 
God  are  hallowed,  that  is,  reverenced  as 
holy. 

HALT,  Psa.  38:17;  Matt.  18:8,  limping. 
HAM,  hot,  sunburnt,  I.,  a  son  of  Noah, 
Gen.  5:32;  7:13;  9:18;  10:1.  His  name 
may  prophetically  refer  to  the  hot  territo- 
ries of  his  descendants.  Compare  Gen. 
5:29.  The  impiety  revealed  in  his  conduct 
towards  his  father  drew  upon  him,  or  rath- 
er, according  to  the  Bible  statement,  on  his 
son  Canaan,  a  prophetic  malediction.  Gen. 
9:20-27.  Ham  was  the  father  of  Cush,  Miz- 
raim,  Phut,  and  Canaan,  that  is,  the  ances- 
tor of  the  Canaanites,  Southern  Arabians, 
Ethiopians,  Egyptians,  and  the  Africans  in 
general.  Gen.  10:6-20.  A  Cushite  descend- 
ant of  Ham  is  mentioned  as  the  founder  of 
Babylon,  Gen.  10:8-10;  a  statement  con- 
firmed by  the  earliest  Babylonian  monu- 
ments exhumed,  the  language  of  which  is 
Cushite. 

II.  A  poetical  name  for  Egypt,  Psa. 
78  :  51 ;  106 :  22,  the  first  civilized  of  the 
Hamite  settlements. 

III.  An  unknown  place  of  the  Zuzim, 
Gen.  14:5. 

IV.  I  Chr.  4:40,  probably  the  Philistines, 
as  descended  from  Ham  through  Mizraim, 
Gen.  10: 14. 

HA'MAN,  magnificent,  a  favorite  of  Ahas- 


HAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAN 


uerus,  king  of  Persia.  In  order  to  revenge 
himself  upon  Mordecal  the  Jew,  he  plotted 
the  extermination  of  all  the  Jews  in  the 
kingdom ;  but  in  the  providence  of  God  he 
was  thwarted  by  Esther,  fell  into  disgrace 
with  the  king,  and  wrought  his  own  ruin 
and  the  upbuilding  of  the  Jews.  He  is 
called  an  Agagite ;  and  as  Agag  was  a  com- 
mon name  of  the  Amalekite  kings,  the 
Jews  believe  he  was  of  that  race.  This 
would  help  to  explain  his  malice  against 
the  Jews.  See  Amalekites.  Similar 
wholesale  slaughters  are  still  plotted  in 
Asia,  and  the  whole  narrative  is  confirmed 
and  illustrated  by  the  descriptions  of  East- 
ern life  furnished  by  modern  travellers  in 
the  same  region.  The  death  of  Haman 
took  place  about  473  B.  C.  His  eventful 
history  shows  that  pride  goes  before  de- 
struction; that  the  providence  of  God  di- 
rects all  things  ;  that  his  people  are  safe  in 
the  midst  of  perils ;  and  that  his  foes  must 
perish. 

HA' MATH,  fortress,  an  important  city 
and  province  of  Upper  Syria,  settled  by  a 
Canaanite  tribe,  Gen.  10:  i8.  "  The  Enter- 
ing in  of  Hamath  "  is  probably  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  valley  which  led  up  to  it 
from  Palestine  between  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon,  often  mentioned  as  Israel's  north- 
•ern  boundary.  Num.  13:21;  Josh.  13:5; 
Judg.  3:3.  The  land  of  Hamath,  appar- 
ently independent' in  David's  time,  2  Sam. 
3:9,  10,  seems  to  have  come  under  Solo- 
mon's control,  for  he  had  "store  cities"  in 
it  to  accommodate  his  northern  commerce, 
2  Chr.  8:4.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  of  Ahab's  time  as  an  ally  of 
Damascus  ;  was  "  recovered  "  by  Jeroboam 
II.,  2  Kin.  14:28,  taken  by  the  Assyrians, 
2  Kin.  18:34;  19:13;  Amos6:2,  14.  Com- 
pare I  Kin.  8:65.  Hamah  now  belongs  to 
the  Turkish  empire,  is  built  on  both  sides 
■of  the  Orontes,  and  has  30,000  inhabitants. 

HA'MATH-ZO'BAH,  2  Chr.  8:3,  perhaps 
Hamath. 

HAM 'MATH,  hot  Springs  or  baths,  a  forti- 
fied city  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  19:35  ;  probably 
the  Levitical  city  called  Hammoth-dor, 
Josh.  21:32,  and  Hammon,  i  Chr.  6:76. 
About  a  mile  south  of  Tiberias  are  still  3 
or  4  hamtnam,  i.  e.,  hot  springs. 

HAMME'LECH,/A^/&TO^,  probably  should 
be  so  translated,  meaning  Jehoiakim  in  Jer. 
36 :  26,  and  Zedekiah  in  Jer.  38 : 6. 

HA'MON-GOG,  Ezek.  39:  II,  15,  a  prophet- 
ic name  given  to  a  ravine  on  the  east  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  thoroughfare  of  com- 
merce with  Arabia  and  Egypt. 


HA'MOR,  an  ass,  Gen.  33:19;  34;  Judg. 
9:28,  a  Hivite  prince,  father  of  Shechem. 
From  his  sons  Jacob  bought  some  land  for 
100  "lambs,"  Gen.  33:19,  margin,  proba- 
bly rings  of  silver  stamped  with  the  figure 
of  a  lamb,  Josh.  24:32.  Called  Emmor  in 
Acts  7:16,  A.  v.,  where  Stephen,  speaking 
to  men  familiar  with  the  facts,  elliptically 
sums  up  the  Old  Testament  narrative  of  2 
purchases  and  2  burial-places,  Gen.  50:13. 

HAMU'TAL,  kin  of  the  dew,  2  Kin.  23:31 ; 
24:18;  Jer.  52:1. 

HANAM'EEL,  the  grace  of  God,  son  of 
Shallum,  a  kinsman  of  Jeremiah,  from 
whom  the  prophet  bought  a  piece  of  ground 
before  the  captivity,  and  had  the  legal  rec- 
ord made,  in  token  of  his  prophetic  assu- 
rance that  his  people  would  return  to  their 
possessions,  Jer.  32:6-15,  37,  43,  44.  See 
Anathoth.  The  law  prohibiting  the  alien- 
ation of  Levitical  lands.  Lev.  25:25,  34,  ap- 
parently did  not  forbid  sales  within  the 
tribe  of  Levi. 

HANAN'EEL,  the  tower  of,  on  the  north- 
eastern wall  of  Jerusalem,  between  the  fish- 
gate  and  the  sheep-gate,  Neh.  3:1;  12:39; 
Jer.  31:38;  Zech.  14:10. 

HANA'NI,  gracious,  I.,  a  Levitical  musi- 
cian and  director  under  David,  i  Chr.  25:4, 
25.     B.  C.  1014. 

II.  A  seer  in  the  time  of  Asa,  imprisoned 
for  his  fidelity,  B.  C.  941.  He  was  also  the 
father  of  the  prophet  Jehu,  i  Kin.  16:1-7; 
2  Chr.  16:7-10;  19:2;  20:34. 

III.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah,  who  brought 
to  Susa  an  account  of  the  wretched  state  of 
the  Jews  then  at  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards 
had  charge  of  the  gates  of  the  city,  Neh. 
1:1-3;  7:2,  3,  B.  C.  446. 

IV.  Neh.  12:35,  36. 

HANANI'AH,  gift  of  the  Lord,  I.,  i  Chr. 
25:4,5-23. 

II.  A  false  prophet  of  Gibeon,  who  for 
his  impious  hardihood  was  overtaken  with 
speedy  death,  according  to  the  word  of 
God,  Jer.  28.  Compare  Acts  5:1-5;  Rev. 
21:8;  22:15. 

III.  I  Chr.  3:19.  Identified  by  some  with 
Joanna,  Luke  3:27. 

IV.  The  Hebrew  name  of  Shadrach,  Dan. 

1:3.6,7- 

V.  A  pious  and  faithful  officer  under  Ne- 
hemiah, Neh.  7:2. 

Many  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned. 

HAND,  a  symbol  of  skill,  power,  and 
various  actions,  Psa.  24:4;  Ezek.  23:37; 
also  of  God's  vengeance,  i  Sam.  5:6,  7; 
Psa.  21:8,  and  mercy,  Isa.  65:2.  The  hand 
was  given  as  a  pledge  of  faithfulness  to  an 

213 


HAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAR 


agreement,  Prov.  6:i;  of  submission  to  a 
master  or  conqueror,  2  Chr.  30:8,  margin; 
Ezek.  17:18;  Lam.  5:6;  Jer.  50:15.  It  was 
raised  in  taking  an  oath,  or  in  blessing,  Gen. 
14:22  ;  Lev.  9:22,  also  in  prayer,  Job  11 :  13 ; 
Psa.  28:2;  63:4;  I  Tim.  2:8.  The  offerer  of 
a  sacrifice,  by  placing  his  hand  on  its  head, 
betokened  the  transfer  of  his  guilt  and  pen- 
alty to  a  divinely-appointed  substitute,  Lev. 
1:4;  3:2;  4:15;  Isa.  53:6;  2  Cor.  5:21.  In 
the  case  of  the  scape-goat.  Lev.  16,  the  com- 
plete removal  of  pardoned  sin  was  sym- 
bolized. Compare  Psa.  103:12;  Mic.  7:19. 
The  "  laying  on  of  hands  "  signified  conse- 
cration to  office  and  the  bestowal  of  a  bless- 
ing or  of  divine  gifts.  Gen.  48:14;  Num. 
8:10;  27:18;  Mark  10:16;  Acts  6:6;  19:6; 
I  Tim.  4:14;  Heb.  6:2.  To  kiss  the  hands 
was  an  act  of  adoration,  Job  31 :  27  ;  to  pour 
water  on  them,  of  service,  2  Kin.  3:11 ;  to 
wash  them  in  public  was  a  protest  of  inno- 
cence, Deut.  21:6,  7;  Matt.  27:24.  "At  the 
right  hand  of  God"  is  the  place  of  honor, 
power,  and  happiness,  Psa.  16:11;  45:9; 
110:1;  Matt.  26:64;  Col.  3:1.  In.  descri- 
bing location,  "  to  the  right  hand  "  meant 
south,  "to  the  left  hand"  north,  the  He- 
brews being  wont  to  speak  as  if  facing  the 
east.  Gen.  14:15;  i  Sam.  23:19,  margin. 
In  Zech.  13:6,  one  calls  on  an  idolatrous 
prophet  to  account  for  the  scars  in  his 
hands.  Compare  i  Kin.  18:28.  See  Wash- 
ing. 

HAND'BREADTH,  the  width  of  the  palm, 
nearly  4  inches,  Exod.  25:25;  i  Kin.  7:26. 
Sj'mbolic  of  shortness,  Psa.  39:5. 

HAND'ICRAFT.     See  Cr.'Vft. 

HAND'IWORK,  Psa.  19:1,  products  of 
one's  labor. 

HA'NES,  Isa.  30:4,  a  city  of  Egypt,  prob- 
ably Tahapanes. 

HANG'ING  was  practised  among  the 
Jews  upon  the  dead  bodies  of  criminals,  as 
a  mark  of  ignominy.  Num.  25:4;  Josh. 
10:26,  in  which  case  they  were  to  be  re- 
moved by  nightfall,  Deut.  21:22,  23.  Com- 
pare John  19:31;  Acts  5:30;  Gal.  3:13, 
where  Christ's  crucifixion  is  spoken  of. 

Hang'ing,  literally  cover,  means  the 
curtain  before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
Exod.  26:36,  37;  39:38,  before  the  entrance 
of  the  court,  Exod.  27:16;  38:18;  Num. 
4:26;  and  the  same  Hebrew  word  is  "the 
veil  of  the  covering  "  which  shut  off  the 
Most  Holy  Place,  Exod.  35:12;  39:34; 
40:21 ;  Num.  4:5. 

HANG'INGS,  the  translation  of  another 
Hebrew  word,  meaning  "that  which  is  in 
motion,"  formed  the  walls  of  the  court  of 
214 


the  tabernacle,  Exod.  27:9;  35:17;  38:9; 
Num.  3 :  26 ;  4 :  26.  In  2  Kin.  23 : 7,  for  "  hang- 
ings "  read  "  tents,"  for  the  impure  worship 
of  Ashtoreth. 

HAN'NAH,  grace,  favor,  the  pious  wife 
of  a  Levite  of  Ramathaim-zophim  named 
Elkanah,  and  mother  of  Samuel,  B.  C.  1 171. 
She  had  earnestly  besought  the  Lord  for 
him,  and  freely  devoted  him  to  serve  God 
according  to  her  vow.  She  was  afterwards 
blessed  with  3  other  sons  and  2  daughters, 
I  Sam.  1-2:21.     Compare  Luke  1:46-55. 

HA'NUN,  a  king  of  the  Ammonites,  whose 
father  Nahash  had  befriended  David  in  his 
early  troubles.  Compare  i  Sam.  11.  Upon 
the  death  of  Nahash,  David  sent  an  embas- 
sage to  condole  with  his  son.  The  shame- 
ful treatment  received  by  these  ambassa- 
dors led  to  a  destructive  war  upon  the 
Ammonites,  2  Sam.  10;  12:25-31;  i  Chr. 
19 ;  20. 

Two  others  are  honorably  on  record  as 
builders  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  Neh. 
3:13,  30. 

HA'RA,  hill-country,  i  Chr.  5:26,  a  place 
in  Western  Assyria,  apparently  on  or  near 
the  Khabur,  identified  by  many  with  Ha- 
ran. 

HA'RAN,  strong,  mountaineer,  I.,  3d  son 
of  Terah,  brother  of  Abraham  and  Nahor, 
and  father  of  Lot,  Milcah,  and  Iscah.  He 
was  born  in  Ur,  and  died  before  his  father, 
Gen.  11:26-31.     B.  C.  1990. 

II.  A  Gershonite  Levite  in  David's  time, 
I  Chr.  23:9. 

HA'RAN,  or  CHAR'RAN,  parched,  I.,  sork 
of  Hezron's  son  Caleb,  and  Ephah,  i  Chr. 
2:46. 

II.  An  ancient  city,  called  in  the  New 
Testament  Charran,  in  the  northwest  part 
of  Mesopotamia,  that  is,  Padan-aram,  Gen. 
25:20.  Here,  after  leaving  Ur,  Abraham 
dwelt  till  his  father  Terah  died;  here  he 
received  a  2d  call,  Gen.  12:1;  Acts  7:2; 
here  Nahor  remained ;  and  to  this  old 
homestead  Isaac  sent  for  a  wife,  and  Jacob- 
fled  from  the  wrath  of  Esau,  Gen.  11:31. 
32;  12:5;  24;  27:43;  28:10;  29:4.  Haran 
was  ravaged  by  the  predecessors  of  the 
Assyrian  king  Sennacherib,  2  Kin.  19:12; 
Isa.  37:12.  It  traded  with  Tyre,  Ezek. 
27:23.  Here  Crassus  the  Roman  general 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Parthians. 
Harran,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  on  the  Belik, 
a  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  in  36"  52'  N. 
lat.,  and  390  5'  E.  long.,  in  a  flat  and  sandy 
plain,  and  is  peopled  only  by  a  few  wan- 
dering Arabs,  who  select  it  for  the  deli- 
cious water  it  furnishes.     It  is  20  miles 


HAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAR 


from  Orfah.  See  Ur.  The  traditional 
tomb  of  Terah  is  still  shown. 

HARD,  Psa.  63:8;  Matt.  25:24;  Acts  18:7, 
close. 

HARD'LY,  Isa.  8:21;  Matt.  19:23,  with 
difficulty. 

HARD'NESS,  2  Tim.  2:3,  hardships. 


THE  COMMON   HARE  OF   PALESTINE. 

HARE,  prohibited  to  the  Israelites  for 
food,  Lev.  11:6;  Deut.  14:7.  The  hare 
masticates  at  leisure  food  which  it  has 
cropped  and  retained  in  its  cheeks,  and 
also  keeps  down  the  undue  growth  of  its 
incisors  by  a  constant  grinding  motion,  re- 
sembling the  cud-chewing  of  true  rumi- 
nants ;  hence  it  is  popularly  classed  with 
them.  Five  varieties  of  the  hare  are  found 
in  Palestine. 

HA'RETH,  Forest  of,  David's  refuge, 
I  Sam.  22:5.  Conder  identifies  it  with 
the  village  Kharas  a  mile  above  Keilah, 
where  ruined  walls,  cisterns,  and  caves 
are  found — in  a  region  full  of  ravines  and 
thickets. 

HAR'LOT,  in  old  English,  any  person  re- 
ceiving hire,  even  wages  honorably  earned  ; 
afterwards  an  abandoned  woman,  Prov. 
59:3  ;  a  type  of  idolatrous  nations  and  cit- 
ies, Isa.  1:21 ;  Ezek.  16;  Nah.  3:4;  Rev.  17. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  prostitutes  were  often 
foreigners;  hence  their  name  of  "strange 
women."  They  were  often  devoted  to  hea- 
then idols,  and  their  abominations  were  a 
part  of  the  worship,  Num.  25:1-5;  Hos. 
4:14;  a  custom  from  the  defilement  of 
which  the  house  of  God  was  expressly  de- 
fended, Deut.  23:18. 

HAR'NESS,  armor  or  weapons,  i  Kin. 
20:11;  22:34;  2Chr.  18:33;  a  coat  of  mail. 
The  Hebrews  went  out  from  Egypt  "har- 
nessed," that  is,  properly  equipped  or  ar- 
ranged. 

HA'ROD,  terror,  a.  spring  near  Jezreel 
in  the  valley  between  Little  Hermon  and 
Mount  Gilboa,  Judg.  7:1 ;  2  Sam.  23:25,  now 
Ain  Jalud. 

HARO'SHETH     OF     THE     GENTILES,     SO 

called  from  its  mixed  population,  a  city  in 
North    Canaan,   the    residence   of   Sisera, 


Judg.  4:2,  13,  16.  Thomson  places  it  at 
the  base  of  Mount  Carmel,  the  entrance  to 
the  narrow  pass  through  which  the  Kishon 
flows  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  to  the 
plain  of  Acre.  Here  are  found  a  village 
and  a  large  mound  with  ruins,  called  Ha- 
rothieh.  Stanley  and  some  others  locate 
Harosheth  near  Lake  Merom. 

HARP,  Heb.  KiNNoR,  invented  by  Jubal, 
Gen.  4:21.  It  was  used  on  joyful  occasions, 
sacred  or  secular,  and  was  the  national 
musical  instrument  of  the  Hebrews,  Gen. 
31:27;  I  Chr.  16:5;  25:1-5;  Psa.  81:2. 
Compare  Psa.  137:2.  David  was  a  pro- 
ficient in  its  use,  i  Sam.  16:16,  23;  18:10. 
Harps  were  of  various  shapes  and  sizes, 
some  being  small  enough  to  be  played 
upon  by  one  walking,  i  Sam.  10:5.    Jose- 


ANCIENT    HARPS   OR    LYRES. 

phus  says  they  had  10  strings,  like  the  in- 
strument called  Nebel  in  Hebrew,  trans- 
lated "psaltery,"  Psa.  33:2;  57:8;  144:9. 
It  was  played  with  the  hand,  i  Sam.  16:23, 
or  with  a  plectrum,  a  short  iron  rod.  See 
Music. 

HAR'ROW,  2  Sam.  12:31,  probably  a 
sharp  threshing  machine,  as  it  is  unlikely 
that  anything  like  our  harrow  was  known 
to  the  Hebrews.  After  ploughing  and  be- 
fore sowing,  in  modern  Palestine,  the  clods 
are  still  broken  by  the  trampling  of  oxen 
or  dragging  a  rugged  thorn-bush  over  the 
ground,  Job  39:10;  Isa.  28:24;  Hos.  10:11. 

HART,  or  Stag,  a  species  of  deer,  clean 
by  the  Levitical  law,  Deut.  12:15,  and  cel- 
ebrated for  its  elegance,  agility,  and  grace, 
Song  2:9;  Isa.  35:6.  It  may  have  been  the 
fallow-deer  or  the  red  deer.  See  Hind  and 
Roe. 

HAR'VEST,  began  in  Palestine  with  bar- 
ley, at  the  presentation  of  the  first-fruits  in 
the  temple  in  Passover-week,  the  middle 
of  Abib,  Lev.  23:9-14;  2  Sam.  21:9,  10; 
next  came  the  wheat  harvest,  the  first-fruits 
being  offered  at  Pentecost,  Lev.  23:15-20; 
Ruth  2:3;  the  grain  being  cut  with  the 
sickle,  Joel  3:13,  gathered  by  hand,  bound 

215 


HAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAZ 


in  sheaves,  Psa.  129:7,  and  carried,  some- 
times in  carts,  Amos  2: 13,  to  the  threshing- 
floor  or  granary.  The  end  of  the  world  is 
described  under  the  figure  of  a  harvest, 
Matt.  13:30,  39.  "  Feast  of  Harvest,"  see 
Pentecost. 

HASHABI'AH,  whom  God  regards,  the 
name  of  many  descendants  of  Levi,  i  Chr. 
26:30;  27: 17,  etc. 

HATE,  a  rooted  dislike,  which  in  some 
cases  is  sinless,  for  God  hates  all  sinful 
thoughts  and  ways,  Jer.  44:4,  and  the  char- 
acter of  sinners,  Psa.  5:5,  6,  while  he  yet 
earnestly  desires  their  salvation,  Ezek. 
18:23,  32;  John  3:16.  And  so  with  all  holy 
beings.  But  hatred  in  men  is  usually  a 
malevolent  passion — a  "  work  of  the  flesh," 
Gal.  5:20.  No  one  can  hate  without  sin 
who  is  not  perfect  in  love.  We  should  hate 
sin,  but  love  and  bless  even  our  enemies. 
Matt.  5:44.  Hate  often  in  Scripture  de- 
notes only  a  less  degree  of  love.  Gen.  29:30, 
31;  Deut.  21:15;  Prov.  13:24;  Mai.  1:2,3; 
Luke  14:26;   Rom.  9:13. 

HAUNT,  Ezek.  26:17,  to  frequent. 

HAU'RAN,  caves,  a  country  east  of  the 
Jordan  and  south  of  Damascus,  bounding 
Palestine  on  the  northeast,  Ezek.  47:16, 
18,  its  name  changed  to  Auranitis  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  ;  now  the  Hauran.  It 
was  included  loosely  in  Bashan,  the  king- 
dom of  Og,  Num.  21:33-35.  Its  limits  va- 
ried at  diflferent  periods,  at  times  including, 
besides  the  beautiful  and  fertile  country 
now  called  en-Nukra  (the  granary  of  Da- 
mascus, occupied  by  Arab  farmers),  the 
rocky  Trachonitis  on  the  northeast,  now 
el-Lejah,  and  the  Hauran  range  running 
north  and  south  on  the  east,  these  hills  and 
rocks  presenting  an  astonishing  number 
of  ruined  cities  and  towns.  See  B.\shan. 
These  buildings,  including  churches  and 
amphitheatres,  Wetzstein  assigns  to  Arabs 
from  Yemen,  who  settled  here  and  were 
Christianized,  retaining  the  land  till  con- 
quered by  the  Moslems,  A.  D.  635.  Some 
of  the  cave-dwellings  of  Mount  Hauran  he 
traces  to  the  ancient  Rephaim,  Gen.  14:5; 
Deut.  3: 13. 

HAVI'LAH,  circuit,  I.,  Gen.  2:11,  accord- 
ing to  one  theory,  on  the  southeastern  end 
of  the  Black  Sea;  according  to  another, 
at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  See 
Eden. 

II.  A  descendant  from  Ham,  Gen.  10:7. 

III.  A  descendant  from  Shem  and  Jok- 
tan.  Gen.  10:29.  Some  suppose  these  two 
Havilahs  to  have  given  name  to  one  re- 
gion in  which  both  Cushites  and  Joktanites 

216 


are  found,  and  locate  this  region  in  Yemen, 
in  Arabia  Felix,  now  Khawlan. 

IV.  Gen.  25:18,  a  boundary  of  the  Ish- 
maelites,  supposed  by  Kalisch  to  have  been 
a  country  between  the  Persian  and  Arabi- 
an Gulfs. 

V.  I  Sam.  15:7,  thought  to  be  the  region 
around  Mount  Seir. 

HA'VOTH-JAIR,  huts  or  villages  0/  Jair, 
23  small  villages  taken  by  Segub's  son  Jair, 
and  so  called  after  him.  Num.  32:41,  in- 
creased to  30  in  the  time  of  the  judge  Jair, 
Judg.  10:4.  They  were  in  Gilead  or  Ba- 
shan, and  are  supposed  to  form,  with  Ke- 
nath  and  its  villages  taken  by  Nobah,  Num. 
32:42,  the  60  "  fenced  cities  "  of  Deut.  2>'Z< 
4,  14.  Others  distinguish  them  as  being, 
one  in  Gilead,  the  other  in  Bashan.     See 

1  Kin.  4:7,  13. 

HAWK,  or  Falcon,  a  strong-winged  and 
rapacious  bird,  of  several  migratory  spe- 
cies in  Syria;  unclean  for  the  Hebrews, 
Lev.  11:16,  but  sacred  among  the  Greeks 
and  Egyptians.  In  its  migrations  it  illus- 
trates the  wise  providence  of  the  Creator, 
Job  39:26. 

HAY,  in  Prov.  27:25  and  Isa.  15:6,  de- 
notes the  first  shoots  of  grass.  The  He- 
brews did  not  prepare  and  store  up  hay 
for  winter  use,  as  is  customary  in  cold  cli- 
mates. Grass  was  cut  as  it  was  needed. 
The  word  translated  chafif  in  Isa.  5:24; 
33:11,  means  withered  grass .  See  Mow- 
ings. 

HAZ'AEL,  God  is  seeing,  an  officer  of 
Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria,  whose  future 
accession  to  the  throne  was  revealed  to  the 
prophet  Elijah,  i  Kin.  19:15.  Many  years 
afterwards  he  was  sent  by  Ben-hadad  to 
consult  Elisha,  then  at  Damascus,  as  to  his 
recovery  from  sickness,  and  on  the  next 
day  smothered  the  king  with  a  wet  cloth, 

2  Kin.  8:7-15,  B.  C.  886.  His  discomposure 
under  the  eye  of  the  prophet  was  an  indi- 
cation that  he  had  already  meditated  this 
crime.  Having  usurped  the  throne,  he 
reigned  46  years ;  and  by  his  successful 
and  cruel  wars  against  Judah  and  Israel 
justified  the  forebodings  of  Elisha,  2  Kin. 
8:28;  10:32;  12:17;  13:3,7.  Compare2Chr. 
22:5;  Amos  1:3,  4.  Hazael  is  mentioned 
on  Assyrian  monuments  as  an  opponent 
and  afterwards  a  tributary.  His  son  Ben- 
hadad  lost  the  conquests  he  had  made, 
2  Kin.  13:25;  14:25-27;  Amos  1:4. 

HA'ZAR,  or  HA'ZER,  pi.  Hazerim  and 
Hszeroth,  inclosure,  village — found  in 
many  Hebrew  names,  and  denoting  a  semi- 
permanent collection  of  dwellings,  like  the 


HAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEA 


rude  stone  walls  roofed  with  tent-cloth  still 
found  in  the  East. 

HA'ZAR-AD'DAR,  Num.  34:4,  called  Ad- 
dar — in  A.  V.  Adar — in  Josh.  15:3,  on  the 
southern  border  of  Palestine,  west  of  Ka- 
desh  ;  now  el-Kudeirat,  on  a  ridge  between 
Canaan  and  the  desert. 

HA'ZAR-E'NAN,  village  of  springs,  at 
the  junction  of  the  north  and  east  borders 
of  the  promised  land,  Num.  34:9,  10;  Ezek. 
47:17;  48:1.  Perhaps  Ayun-ed-Dara,  a 
fountain  in  the  midst  of  Anti-Lebanon. 

HA'ZAR-GAD'DAH,  village  of  fortu7ie, 
Josh.  15:27,  now  el-Ghurra,  9  miles  east  of 
Beer-sheba. 

HA'ZAR-HAT'TICON,  middle  village,  on 
the  border  of  Hauran,  Ezek.  47:16. 

HA'ZAR-MA'VETH,  court  of  death,  3d 
son  of  Joktan,  Gen.  10:26;  i  Chr.  1:20, 
ancestor  of  the  people  of  Hadramaut,  in 
Southwestern  Arabia,  a  region  abounding 
in  myrrh  and  frankincense,  but  unhealthy. 

HA'ZAR-SHU'AL,yac/ta/-t/«V/a^<?,  in  South- 
ern Judah,  Josh.  15:28,  afterwards  given  to 
Simeon,  Josh.  19:3;  i  Chr.  4:28;  repeopled 
after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:27.  Now  Sa- 
weh,  between  Beer-sheba  and  Moladah. 

HA'ZAR-SU'SAH  and  SU'SIM,  village  of 
horses,  }os\\.  19:5;  i  Chr.  4:31.  Now  Beit- 
Susin,  south  of  Beit-Jibrin. 

HA'ZEL,  Gen.  30:37,  probably  the  wild 
almond-tree. 

HAZE'RIM,  villages,  Deut.  2:23,  ancient 
abodes  of  the  Avim,  Josh.  13:3,  4,  in  the 
southernmost  part  of  Canaan. 

HAZE'ROTH,  villages,  the  Israelites'  2d 
station  from  Mount  Sinai,  Num.  10:11,  33; 
11:3.  34>  35;  33:17.  18;  where  Aaron  and 
Miriam  spoke  against  Moses,  Num.  12:1- 
16;  probably  Hudhera,  40  miles  northeast 
of  Sinai. 

HAZE'ZON-TA'MAR,  Gen.  14:7.  See 
En-gedi. 

HA'ZOR,  inclosu7-e,  I.,  a  chief  city  of 
Northern  Canaan,  near  Lake  Merom,  whose 
king  Jabin,  at  the  head  of  an  allied  host, 
was  defeated  by  Joshua,  Josh.  11:1-13. 
Hazor  revived,  however,  and  for  a  time 
oppressed  the  Israelites;  but  was  subdued 
by  Barak,  fortified  by  Solomon,  and  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  Israel  until 
the  invasion  of  Tiglath-pileser,  Josh.  19:36; 
Judg.  4:2;  I  Kin.  9:15;  2  Kin.  15:29.  The 
site  suggested  by  Wilson  and  Anderson  of 
the  English  Palestine  Survey  is  Tell  Hara, 
a  hill  2!^  miles  southeast  of  Kedesh,  where 
are  ancient  ruins. 

II.  Josh.  15:23,  in  South  Judah. 

III.  Another  town  in  South  Judah,  Ha- 


zor-Hadattah,  Josh.  15:25,  now  el-Hudhe- 
rah. 

IV.  Also  named  in  Josh.  15:25,  where 
Canon  Cook  reads  "  Kerioth-Hezron,  which 
is  Hazor,"  and  identifies  with  Kurretein. 

V.  A  city  of  Benjamin,  Neh.  11:33. 

VI.  An  unidentified  region  in  Arabia, 
laid  waste  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  49:28- 
2,2,- 

HEAD'-DRESS,  among  the  Hebrews  an 
occasional  adornment,  the  head  being  or- 
dinarily uncovered.  It  was  covered  in 
mourning,  2  Sam.  15:30;  Jer.  14:3,  4,  usu- 
ally with  the  mantle,  i  Kin.  19:13.  One  of 
the  Hebrew  words  for  the  ornamental  cov- 
ering indicates  a  form  of  the  turban :  worn 
by  distinguished  men  and  kings.  Job  29 :  14 ; 
Isa.  62:3,  "diadem;"  and  by  ladies,  Isa. 
3:23,  "hoods."  It  is  the  name  given  to 
the  high-priest's  mitre,  Zech.  3:5.  Com- 
pare E.xod.  28:39.  The  ordinary  priests' 
bonnets  were  "  for  glory  and  for  beauty," 
Exod.  28:40.  Another  Hebrew  term,  sig- 
nifying ornament,  denotes  a  head-dress 
worn  by  the  priests.  Exod.  39:28;  Ezek. 
44:18,  "bonnets;"  by  ladies,  Isa.  3:20, 
"bonnets;"  by  a  "bridegroom,  Isa.  61:10, 
"ornaments;"  and  by  others  on  festive 
occasions,  ver.  10,  "  beauty."  Compare 
2  Sam.  13:19;  Ezek.  24:17,  23,  "tire."  The 
word  translated  "  hats,"  in  Dan.  3:21,  prob- 
ably signifies  cloaks. 

HEAD'STONE,  Zech.  4:7,  the  crowning 
or  chief  stone  of  a  building. 

HEALTH,  healing  or  wholeness.  God's 
"saving  health,"  Psa.  67:2,  is  his  gracious 
soul-healing  and  salvation. 

HEART.  In  the  Bible  the  seat  of  the 
affections,  desires,  hopes,  motives,  and  will. 
Acts  16:14,  also  of  the  intellectual  percep- 
tions as  influenced  by  the  moral  character, 
Psa.  14:1;  John  12:40;  i  Cor.  2:9;  thus  in- 
cluding the  whole  spiritual  nature  of  man, 
Rom.  1:21;  2  Cor.  4:6.  The  heart  of  fall- 
en mankind  is  naturally  and  everywhere 
alienated  from  God,  Gen.  8:21;  Eccl.  9:3; 
Jer.  17:9,  the  fountain  of  sin  and  crime. 
Matt.  15: 19,  needing  to  be  renewed  by  the 
special  grace  of  God,  Psa.  51  :io;  Jer.  32:40; 
Ezek.  36:26.  It  is  then  the  seat  of  faith, 
Rom.  10:10,  whereby  God  purifies  it,  Acts 
15:9  (compare  Heb.  10:22);  the  abode  of 
Christ,  Eph.  3:17;  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  2  Cor. 
1:22;  of  the  Father,  John  14:23.  Its  re- 
newal is  evidenced  in  the  life,  Matt.  12:35. 
God  looks  upon  it,  i  Sam.  16:7;  Acts  8:21, 
and  judges  both  it  and  the  life,  Jer.  17:10; 
Rev.  2:23.  We  are  commanded  to  yield  it 
wholly  to  God,  and  to  keep  it  diligently  in 

217 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


his  ways,  i  Sam.  j-.t,;  Prov.  3:1,  4;  23:26; 
Psa.  51:17;  Jer.  4:14;  Joel  2:12,  13;  Phil. 
4:7;  I  Pet.  3:15. 

HEARTH.  In  Gen.  18:6,  heated  stones 
on  which  cakes  of  dough  were  laid,  and 
covered  with  hot  ashes  and  embers,  as  is 
still  the  Bedouin  custom.  In  Psa.  102:3  ^ 
fagot.  In  Isa.  30:14  a  burning  mass.  In 
Jer.  36:22,  23  a  large  pot  or  brazier.  Such 
portable  furnaces,  with  lighted  charcoal, 
placed  when  required  in  a  cavity  in  the 
middle  of  a  room,  are  still  used  in  the 
East.  In  Zech.  12:6  a  small  pan  for  hold- 
ing fire. 

HEATH,  supposed  to  be  the  juniper,  a 
low  and  stunted  tree  found  in  desert  and 
rocky  places,  and  thus  contrasted  with  a 
tree  growing  by  a  water-course,  Jer.  17:5- 
8;  48:6. 

HEATH'EN,  Jer.  10:2;  Zech.  9:10;  Gal. 
3:8,  a  frequent  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
goyi?n  and  the  Greek  ethne,  otherwise  trans- 
lated "nations,"  Gen.  18:18;  Josh.  23:7; 
Matt.  28:19,  and  "Gentiles,"  Isa.  11:10; 
42:6;  Rom.  11:25.  In  the  English  Bible 
this  term  is  applied  to  all  the  nations  ex- 
cept Israel.  It  now  denotes  all  except 
Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans.  The 
inspired  descriptions  of  the  moral  and 
mental  darkness  of  the  ancient  nations  that 
ignored  the  true  God,  Jer.  10;  Rom.  i,  are 
borne  out  by  modern  heathendom;  while 
the  Bible  promises,  which  have  already  re- 
ceived glorious  fulfilment,  still  enjoin  and 
encourage  faithful  effort  to  win  the  whole 
race  for  Christ. 

HEAVEN,  heaved  up,  high,  either  the 
material  realm  of  the  atmospheric  and  stel- 
lar regions,  or  the  special  abode  of  God 
and  holy  spirits.  In  both  cases  the  plural 
is  often  used,  and  always  in  Greek,  in  the 
expressions  "  Father  in  the  heavens," 
"kingdom  of  the  heavens." 

1.  In  the  former  sense  heaven  is  con- 
trasted with  earth,  "  heaven  and  earth " 
meaning  the  universe.  Gen.  1:1.  It  is  spo- 
ken of  as  a  broad  expanse,  "  firmament," 
Gen.  1:6-8,  metaphorically  represented  as 
having  doors  and  windows,  opened  or  shut 
to  give  or  withhold  rain,  etc.,  Deut.  11:17; 
28:12;  Psa.  78:23;  in  it  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  are  set,  Gen.  1:14-17;  Deut.  4:19; 
Nah.  3:16;  in  the  midst  of  it  the  fowl  fly, 
Gen.  1:20;  Rev.  19:17.  It  is  to  be  destroyed 
with  the  earth,  and  give  place  to  "  a  new 
heaven  and  a  new  earth"  at  the  end  of 
time,  Isa.  51:6;  Matt.  24:35;  2  Pet.  3:10; 
Rev.  21  :i. 

2.  In  the  second  sense  the  word  denotes 

218 


the  world  of  holy  bliss,  the  peculiar  dwell- 
ing-place of  God,  I  Kin.  8:30;  Matt.  5:45; 
whence  Christ  descended,  John  3: 13;  i  Cor. 
I5-47)  whither  he  ascended,  Luke  24:51; 

1  Pet.  3 :  22,  and  whence  he  is  again  to  come, 
Phil.  3:20.  It  is  the  abode  of  angels.  Matt. 
22:30;  Mark  13:32.     Into  it  Elijah  passed, 

2  Kin.  2: 1.  There  Christ  intercedes  for  his 
people,  Heb.  7 :  25 ;  8:1;  9 :  24 ;  and  there  he 
has  a  place  prepared  for  them,  John  14:  2, 
3;  I  Pet.  1:4,  where  all  shall  at  length  be 
gathered.  From  it  all  sin  and  its  bitter 
fruits  are  for  ever  excluded.  To  set  forth 
its  happiness,  which  is  beyond  our  concep- 
tion, many  images  are  employed.  It  is  a 
kingdom,  an  inheritance;  there  are  rivers 
of  pleasure,  trees  of  life,  glorious  light, 
rapturous  songs,  robes,  crowns,  feasting, 
mirth,  treasures,  triumphs.  God  also  gives 
us  positive  representations:  the  righteous 
dwell  in  the  divine  presence;  they  appear 
with  Christ  in  glory.  Heaven  is  life  ever- 
lasting; glory,  an  eternal  weight  of  glory; 
salvation,  repose,  peace,  fulness  of  joy,  the 
joy  of  the  Lord.  There  are  different  de- 
grees in  that  glory,  and  never-ceasing 
advancement.  It  will  be  a  social  state, 
and  its  happiness,  in  some  measure,  will 
arise  from  mutual  communion  and  con- 
verse, and  the  expressions  and  exercises 
of  mutual  benevolence.  It  will  include  the 
perfect  purity  of  every  saint;  delightful 
fellowship  with  those  we  have  here  loved 
in  the  Lord,  Matt.  8:11;  17:3,  4;  i  Thess. 
2:19;  4:13-18;  the  presence  of  Christ,  and 
the  consciousness  that  all  is  perfect  and 
everlasting.  Rev.  7:9-17.  We  are  taught 
that  the  body  will  share  this  bliss  as  well 
as  the  soul :  the  consummation  of  our  bliss 
is  subsequent  to  the  resurrection  of  the 
body;  for  it  is  redeemed  as  well  as  the 
soul,  and  shall,  at  the  resurrection  of  the 
just,  be  fashioned  like  unto  Christ's  glori- 
ous body.  By  descending  from  heaven, 
and  reascending  thither,  he  proves  to  the 
doubting  soul  the  reality  of  heaven ;  he 
opens  its  door  for  the  guilty  by  his  atoning 
sacrifice;  and  all  who  are  admitted  to  it  by 
his  blood  shall  be  made  meet  for  it  by  his 
grace,  and  find  their  happiness  for  ever  in 
his  love.     See  Kingdom  of  heaven. 

"  The  third  heaven,"  2  Cor.  12:2,  is  prob- 
ably equivalent  to  the  "  heaven  of  heav- 
ens," Deut.  10:14,  the  highest  heavens, 
thought  of  as  above  the  aerial  and  also  the 
starry  heavens. 

HE'BER,  alliance,  I.,  a  grandson  of  Ash- 
er.  Gen.  46: 17  ;  Num.  26:45  ;  i  Chr.  7:31. 

II.  A   Kenite  descended   from    Hobab. 


HEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


He  resided  in  North  Canaan,  and  seems  to 
have  been  a  man  of  note.  His  wife  Jael 
slew  Sisera,  Judg.  4:11,  17;  5:24. 

in.  Used  in  the  A.  V.  for  Eber,  Luke 
3:35.     See  Eber,  Hebrews. 

Four  others  are  named  in  i  Chr.  4:18; 
5:13;  8:17,  22. 

HE'BREWS,  that  branch  of  Abraham's 
posterity  whose  home  was  in  the  land  of 
promise.  The  name  is  first  applied  to 
Abraham  himself,  Gen.  14:13,  and  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
Eber,  Gen.  10:24;  11:14-17,  who  was  the 
last  of  the  long-lived  patriarchs,  and  out- 
lived Abraham  himself,  after  whose  death 
he  was  for  many  years  the  only  surviving 
ancestor  of  Isaac  and  Jacob.  Others  de- 
rive the  name  from  the  Hebrew  verb  abar, 
to  pass  over,  and  suppose  it  to  have  been 
applied  to  Abraham  by  the  Canaanites  as 
the  man  from  beyond  the  Euphrates.  "  He- 
brews" appears  to  have  been  the  name 
given  to  and  used  by  the  chosen  people  in 
their  relations  with  foreigners,  Gen.  39:14; 
40:15;  41:12;  Exod.  2:7;  Deut.  15:12; 
I  Sam.  4:6;  Jonah  1:9.  Their  home  name 
was  "the  children  of  Israel."  Compare 
Exod.  3: 15  and  ver.  18.  The  name  "Jews," 
at  first  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  Judaea 
only,  2  Kin.  16:6,  afterwards  became  more 
general. 

1.  Origin.  God  chose  Abram  in  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees  to  be  the  founder  of  the  He- 
brew nation.  Gen.  11:31;  12:1,  2,  through 
Isaac  and  Jacob ;  hence  their  names,  "the 
seed  of  Abraham,"  "  the  children  of  Isra- 
el," or  of  "Jacob,"  Exod.  1:13;  Psa.  105:6; 
John  8:37. 

2.  Government.  This  was  patriarchal 
under  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  After 
their  430  years  in  Canaan  and  Egypt,  dur- 
ing 215  of  which  they  were  subjects  and 
slaves  of  Egyptian  kings.  Gen.  15:13; 
Exod.  I,  God  brought  them  out  by  his  ser- 
vant Moses,  and  established  the  theoa-acv, 
Exod.  6:7,  a  form  of  government  in  which 
God  is  the  recognized  king  of  the  state, 
gives  it  its  laws,  and  specially  manages  ali 
national  aifairs.  This  government  was  va- 
riously administered  under  the  legislator 
Moses,  his  successor  Joshua,  the  judges, 
kings,  and  high-priests  ;  but  amid  all  these 
revolutions  God  was  considered  the  true 
monarch  of  Israel,  and  more  or  less  loy- 
ally served.  In  the  time  of  Moses  God 
dwelt  among  his  people  as  a  king  in  his 
palace  or  in  the  midst  of  his  camp.  He 
gave  them  the  law,  moral,  ceremonial,  so- 
cial, and  political,  and  compacted  them  into 


a  nation  during  their  40  years  in  the  wil- 
derness. He  dwelt  visibly  among  them  in 
the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  ordering  their 
journeyings  and  encampments,  accessible 
for  consultation,  giving  relief  in  emergen- 
cies, and  miraculously  supplying  their 
wants,  while  punishing  their  rebellions. 
This  was  the  time  of  the  theocracy  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  the  term.  Under  Joshua 
and  the  judges  it  continued  nearly  the 
same:  the  former  was  appointed  by  God, 
Num.  27:18-21,  and  being  filled  by  the 
spirit  which  animated  Moses,  would  under- 
take nothing  without  consulting  Jehovah ; 
and  the  latter  were  leaders,  raised  up  by 
God  himself,  to  deliver  the  Hebrews  and 
govern  in  His  name.  The  demand  of  the 
people  for  a  king  occasioned  to  Samuel, 
the  prophet-judge,  great  disquietude,  for 
he  regarded  it  as  a  rejection  of  the  theo- 
cratic government,  i  Sam.  8:6,  7.  God 
complied  with  the  wishes  of  the  people; 
but  he  still  asserted  his  own  sovereign  au- 
thority, and  claimed  the  obedience  of  all, 
appointing  and  deposing  Saul,  i  Sam.  10:  i ; 
16:1,  and  choosing  David,  16:12,  and  Solo- 
mon and  his  descendants,  i  Chr.  28:6,  7.    . 

3.  Religion.  The  religion  of  the  He- 
brews may  be  considered  in  different  points 
of  view,  with  respect  to  the  different  condi- 
tions of  their  nation.  Under  the  patriarchs 
they  were  instructed  in  the  will  of  God  by 
direct  revelation,  worshipped  him  by  prayer 
and  sacrifices,  opposed  idolatry  and  athe- 
ism, used  circumcision  as  .  the  appointed 
seal  of  the  covenant  made  by  God  with 
Abraham,  and  followed  the  laws  which  the 
light  of  grace  and  faith  discovers  to  those 
who  honestly  and  seriously  seek  God,  his 
righteousness,  and  truth.  They  lived  in 
expectation  of  the  Messiah,  the  Desire  of 
all  nations,  to  complete  their  hopes  and 
wishes,  and  fully  to  instruct  and  bless 
them.  Such  was  the  religion  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  Judah,  Joseph,  etc.,  who  main- 
tained the  worship  of  God  and  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  true  religion.  After  the  time  of 
Moses  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  became 
more  fixed,  and  ceremonies,  days,  feasts, 
priests,  and  sacrifices  were  determined 
with  great  exactness.  This  whole  dispen- 
sation only  prefigured  that  more  perfect 
one  which  should  in  after  times  arise,  when 
the  Messiah  should  come,  and  bring  life 
and  immortality  to  light  in  his  gospel,  and 
make  a  full  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the 
world,  Heb.  8:7;  10:1;  i  Pet.  1:10-12.  See 
Type. 

The  long  abode  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt 
219 


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had  nourished  in  them  a  strong  propensity 
to  idolatry;  and  neither  the  miracles  of 
Moses,  nor  his  precautions  to  withdraw 
them  from  the  worship  of  idols,  nor  the 
rigor  of  his  laws,  nor  the  splendid  marks 
of  God's  presence  in  the  Israelitish  camp, 
were  able  to  conquer  this  unhappy  perver- 
sity. We  know  with  what  facility  they 
adopted  the  adoration  of  the  golden  calf, 
when  they  had  recently  been  eye-witnesses 
of  such  divine  wonders.  Saul  and  David, 
with  all  their  authority,  were  not  able  en- 
tirely to  suppress  such  inveterate  disorders. 
Superstitions,  which  the  Israelites  did  not 
dare  to  exercise  in  public,  were  practised 
in  private.  They  sacrificed  on  the  high 
places,  and  consulted  diviners  and  magi- 
cians. Solomon,  whom  God  had  chosen  to 
build  his  temple,  was  himself  a  stone  of 
stumbling  to  Israel.  He  erected  altars  to 
the  false  gods  of  the  Phoenicians,  Moabites, 
and  Ammonites,  and  not  only  permitted 
his  wives  to  worship  the  gods  of  their  own 
country,  but  himself  to  some  extent  adored 
them,  I  Kin.  11:5-7.  Most  of  his  succes- 
sors showed  a  similar  weakness.  Jerobo- 
am introduced  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calves  into  Israel,  which  took  such  deep 
root  that  it  was  never  entirely  extirpated. 
It  was  for  this  cause  that  God  gave  the 
Hebrews  over  into  the  hands  of  their  ene- 
mies, to  captivity  and  dispersion.  See 
Idolatry.  After  the  Captivity  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  wholly  free  from  the 
worship  of  idols ;  but  they  were  still  cor- 
rupt and  far  from  God,  and  having  filled 
the  cup  of  their  guilt  by  rejecting  and  cru- 
cifying the  Lord  of  glory,  they  were  extir- 
pated as  a  nation,  and  became  strangers 
and  sojourners  over  all  the  earth. 

4.  Political  History.  This  may  be  divi- 
ded into  7  periods,  as  follows: 

(i.)  From  Abraham  to  the  Exodus.  This 
embraces  the  partriarchal  period  and  the 
sojourn  in  Egypt,  where  Jacob's  descend- 
ants dwelt  215  years,  during  which  time  the 
Egyptians  reduced  them  to  state  of  sore 
bondage.  See  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
Joseph,  etc. 

(2.)  From  the  Exodus  to  the  Kingdom. 
The  Hebrews  were  delivered  from  Egypt 
by  Jehovah  through  Moses,  who  led  them 
out  with  great  signs  and  wonders  to  Sinai, 
where  God  gave  them  his  law;  and  then, 
after  40  years  of  wanderings,  he  brought 
them  to  the  borders  of  the  promised  land. 
Here  Moses  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Joshua,  who  conquered  the  desired  coun- 
try, and  allotted  it  to  the  several  tribes. 
220 


From  this  time  they  were  governed  in  the 
name  of  Jehovah  by  chiefs,  judges,  or  pa- 
triarchal rulers,  until  the  time  of  Samuel, 
when  the  government  was  changed  to  a 
monarchy,  and  Saul  anointed  king.  See 
MosKS,  Exodus,  Judges,  Samuel. 

(3.)  To  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom. 
This  period,  of  about  120  years,  includes  the 
time  of  Israel's  greatest  prosperity,  under 
David  and  Solomon.  David,  a  shepherd 
youth,  but  the  man  after  God's  own  heart, 
was  made  king  instead  of  the  disobedient 
and  rejected  Saul,  and  founded  a  family 
which  continued  to  reign  in  Jerusalem  un- 
til the  entire  subjugation  of  the  country  by 
the  Chaldaeans.  It  was  during  the  reigns 
of  David  and  Solomon  that  Israel's  territo- 
rial limits  were  most  extended,  i  Kin. 
4:21-24.  Foreign  nations  then  most  ac- 
knowledged the  glory  and  power  of  the 
kingdom,  i  Kin.  5:1;  10:1.  But  Solomon's 
reign,  the  period  of  the  greatest  prosperity, 
was  marked  also  by  the  beginnings  of  de- 
cline— in  the  introduction  of  idolatry  and 
oppression,  I  Kin.  11:4-8;  12:4.  See  Saul, 
David,  Solomon,  Temple. 

(4.)  To  the  Return  from  Captivity.  At 
Solomon's  death  the  10  tribes  revolted  from 
his  son  Rehoboam,  and  formed  under  Je- 
roboam a  separate  kingdom,  that  of  Israel, 
between  which  and  that  of  Judah  there 
were  hostile  feelings  and  frequent  wars. 
Both  fell  into  idolatry,  and  prophets  were 
sent,  from  time  to  time,  to  reprove,  warn, 
and  instruct  them.  Temporary  and  par- 
tial recoveries  from  idolatry  were  followed 
by  relapses.  Both  kingdoms  came  into 
collision  with  surrounding  nations,  God's 
instruments  to  punish  them  for  their  sins ; 
and  both  declined  in  power,  until  the  north- 
ern kingdom  was  finally  led  away  captive 
by  the  Assyrians,  B.  C.  721,  2  Kin.  17:6-18, 
and  the  southern  by  the  Babj'lonians,  B.  C. 
588,  2  Kin.  25:1-21.  Between  B.  C.  536 and 
457  two  colonies  of  Hebrews,  chiefly  of  Ju- 
dah, Benjamin,  and  Levi,  returned  under 
Zerubbabel  and  Ezra,  Ezra  2:2;  8:1,  being 
followed  by  Nehemiah  in  445,  Neh.  2:7-11. 
They  rebuilt  the  temple,  and  the  walls  and 
houses  of  Jerusalem,  and  attempted  to  re- 
establish their  nation,  the  majority  of  which 
preferred  to  remain  in  the  lands  of  their 
captivity.     See  Kings. 

(5.)  To  the  Coming  of  Christ.  Contrary 
to  the  command  of  God,  Jer.  42: 7-22,  many 
Jews  after  the  Chaldaean  conquest  went 
into  Egypt,  Jer.  43:1-7,  fell  into  idolatry 
there,  Jer.  44:15-19,  and  were  taken  cap- 
tive by  Nebuchadnezzar  when  he  overran 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


Egypt,  B.  C.  570,  Jer.  46:13-28.  Later,  un- 
der Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Ptolemies, 
great  numbers  of  Jews  settled  in  Egypt, 
where  they  enjoyed  many  privileges.  In 
Alexandria  they  became  exceedingly  nu- 
merous ;  and  there,  under  the  patronage  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  B.  C.  285,  their  schol- 
ars made  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.  About  B.  C.  168  the  Jews  erect- 
ed a  temple  at  Leontopolis  in  Lower  Egypt, 
and  worshipped  there  after  the  Mosaic  rit- 
ual. This  temple,  like  that  in  Jerusalem, 
was  destroyed  in  Vespasian's  reign.  Philo, 
the  celebrated  Jewish  philosopher  and  his- 
torian contemporary  with  Christ,  was  a 
resident  at  Alexandria. 

After  the  return  from  captivity,  B.  C.  536, 
the  Jews  remained  under  the  dominion  of 
Persia  till  the  overthrow  of  that  kingdom 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  granted  them 
many  favors.  On  the  disruption  of  his 
kingdom  at  his  death,  B.  C.  323,  Palestine 
was  for  over  a  century  alternately  subject 
to  the  Graeco-Egyptian  Ptolemies  and  the 
Graeco-Syrian  Seleucidfe,  the  "  kings  of  the 
south"  and  "of  the  north,"  who  in  their 
frequent  wars  were  often  traversing  the 
country  with  their  armies.  The  Jews  final- 
ly revolted  from  Egypt,  after  persecution 
by  Ptolemy  Philopator,  to  Antiochus  the 
Great  of  Syria,  B.  C.  203,  who  treated  them 
kindly.  But  his  youngest  son,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  violated  the  temple  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  and  endea- 
vored to  force  the  Jews  to  worship  heathen 
divinities.  Of  the  Jews,  one  party,  led  by 
the  renegade  high-priests  Jason  and  Mene- 
laus,  favored  the  adoption  of  Greek  cus- 
toms, while  the  mass  of  the  people  clung  to 
their  ancient  faith,  and  many  suffered  tor- 
ture and  death  rather  than  apostatize  from 
Jehovah.  These  were  led  by  the  Asmone- 
an  and  Maccabean  priestly  and  princely 
family,  and  after  a  30  years'  struggle  gained 
their  independence,  peace  being  made  with 
the  Syrian  king  Antiochus  Sidetes  by  John 
Hyrcanus,  B.  C.  133.  His  son  Aristobulus 
assumed  the  title  of  king  B.  C.  133.  From 
that  time  till  B.  C.  63,  when  Jerusalem  was 
taken  by  Pompey,  the  nation  was  engaged 
in  external  wars  and  in  struggles  between 
the  rival  parties  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sad- 
ducees.  The  Idumsean  Antipater,  father 
of  Herod,  was  made  procurator  of  Judaea 
B.  C.  47,  and  10  years  later  Herod,  on 
whom  the  Roman  Senate  conferred  the 
crown  of  Judaea,  took  possession  of  his 
kingdom  with  the  aid  of  the  Roman  army. 
See  Herod. 


(6.)  To  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
As  the  gospels  relate,  the  Jewish  nation  re- 
jected the  Messiah,  and  thus  by  despising 
God's  greatest  offer  of  mercy  brought  ruin 
upon  itself.  Matt.  23:34-37.  The  Jews  suf- 
fered much  from  the  cruel  Roman  govern- 
ors after  Pilate,  and  at  length  were  pro- 
voked to  an  insurrection,  which  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  Jeru- 
salem, A.  D.  70.  The  Roman  army  under 
Titus  attacked  the  city  when  the  nation 
was  gathered  there  to  celebrate  the  Pass- 
over. Fearful  sufferings  were  endured, 
and  multitudes  perished,  as  the  Saviour 
had  foretold.  Matt.  24:2;  Luke  21:20-24. 

(7.)  To  Modern  Times.  On  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  the  Jews  were  scattered  into  all 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  multitudes 
being  sold  as  slaves.  Many  afterwards 
returned  to  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Jews  were  admitted  to  Roman  citizenship 
by  the  emperor  Claudius,  but  were  treated 
with  great  severity  by  his  successors.  In 
Hadrian's  reign,  A.  D.  135,  multitudes 
flocked  to  the  standard  of  the  fanatical 
Bar-Cocheba,  who  proclaimed  himself  the 
Messiah ;  but  the  Romans  speedily  brought 
this  insurrection  to  a  bloody  end,  desola- 
ting Judaea  again,  redestroying  Jerusalem, 
and  on  its  ruins  planting  a  Roman  colony, 
which  they  named  ^lia  Capitolina,  and 
forbade  the  Jews  to  enter.  An  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  rebuild  the  temple  was  made 
by  the  emperor  Julian,  A.  D.  331-363,  out 
of  hostility  to  Christianity. 

Since  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Ro- 
man empire,  A.  D.  476,  the  Jews  have  had 
a  variety  of  masters  and  fortunes,  and  have 
endured  much  cruel  persecution.  Spread 
over  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  in  most 
places  exposed  to  contempt  and  oppres- 
sion, they  have  yet  remained  a  distinct 
people  and  everywhere  maintained  obser- 
vances peculiar  to  themselves :  such  as 
circumcision,  performed  after  the  law  of 
their  fathers ;  the  great  day  of  expiation ; 
also  the  observance  of  a  sabbath  or  day  of 
rest  on  Saturday,  and  not  on  the  Christian 
Sabbath.  They  have  generally  retained 
the  observance  of  the  Passover  in  some 
form.  They  everywhere  consider  Judaea 
as  their  proper  country,  and  Jerusalem  as 
their  metropolitan  city.  However  com- 
fortably they  may  be  settled  in  any  resi- 
dence, they  hope  to  see  Zion  and  Jerusa- 
lem revive  from  their  ashes.  Their  con- 
tinued existence  as  a  distinct  people  is  a 
standing  proof  of  the  truth  of  Scripture, 
and  of  the  Christian  as  well  as  the  Jewish 

221 


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religion.  It  evinces  God's  providential 
care  over  them,  and  his  intention  yet  to 
fulfil  his  gracious  promises  concerning 
them,  Rom.  11:26. 

They  are  divided  into  various  sects. 
Some  of  them,  who  may  be  regarded  as 
successors  of  the  ancient  Pharisees,  are 
extremelj-  attached  to  the  traditions  of  the 
rabbins,  and  to  the  multiplied  observances 
enjoined  in  the  Talmud.  Others,  as  the 
Caraites,  reject  these,  and  adhere  solely  to 
Scripture.  The  Rabbinical  Jews,  who  are 
the  most  numerous,  are  also  called  Ortho- 
dox. Many  Jews  are  deists  or  atheists. 
Between  these  extremes  are  the  "  Conser- 
vative "  and  the  "  Reformed  "  or  "  liberal  " 
Jews.  The  great  Jewish  theologian  Moses 
Maimonides,  A.  D.  1 135-1204,  drew  up  a 
confession  of  faith  still  used  by  the  Ortho- 
dox Jews.  The  modern  epoch  is  marked 
by  the  name  of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  1729- 
1786,  whose  translation  of  the  Pentateuch 
into  German,  with  comments,  was  the 
groundwork  of  reform.  Within  the  pres- 
ent century  nearly  all  the  European  States 
have  admitted  the  Jews  to  political  liberty 
and  nominal  equality,  which  they  fully  en- 
joy in  the  United  States  also.  The  strictly 
Orthodox  or  Rabbinical  Jews  prevail  in 
Russia,  Poland,  and  the  East ;  the  Conser- 
vative in  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Hol- 
land; the  Reformed  in  Germany  and  Amer- 
ica. Of  late  years  the  Jews  have  been  in- 
creasing in  Jerusalem,  where  they  gather 
every  Friday  at  the  foundation  of  the  tem- 
ple wall  and  lament  their  forefathers'  sins 
and  Jerusalem's  desolation.     See  W.a.lls. 

The  Jews  have  distinguished  themselves 
in  nearly  all  occupations,  and  many  great 
statesmen,  artists,  and  scholars  have  arisen 
among  them.  They  have  long  been  the 
bankers  of  the  world.  Their  number  is 
now  estimated  at  6,000,000,  of  whom  50,000 
are  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

For  the  language  of  the  Jews,  see  Lan- 
guage. 

"  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,"  one  of 
pure  Hebrew  descent  on  the  side  of  both 
parents,  Phil.  3:5. 

Hk;brews,  Epistle  to  the.  The  object 
of  this  epistle,  which  ranks  among  the  most 
important  of  the  New  Testament  books, 
was  to  prove  to  the  Christian  Hebrews 
from  the  Old  Testament  the  divinity,  hu- 
manity, atonement,  and  intercession  of 
Christ,  particularly  his  ])reeminence  over 
Moses  and  the  angels  of  God ;  to  demon- 
strate the  superiority  of  the  gospel  to  the 
law,  and  the  real  object  and  design  of  the 

222 


Mosaic  institution ;  to  fortify  the  minds  of 
the  Hebrew  converts  against  apostasy  un- 
der persecution,  and  to  engage  them  to  a 
deportment  becoming  their  Christian  pro- 
fession. In  this  view,  the  epistle  furnishes 
a  key  to  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  and 
is  invaluable  as  a  clear  elucidation  and  an 
inspired,  unanswerable  demonstration  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  great  atoning  Sacrifice 
as  set  forth  in  Old  Testament  institutions. 
The  name  of  the  writer  of  this  epistle  is 
nowhere  mentioned.  Its  authorship  is  dis- 
puted, many  ascribing  it  to  the  apostle  Paul, 
others  to  Apollos,  Luke,  or  Barnabas.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  it  may  have  been 
written  by  Paul  in  Hebrew,  and  transferred 
to  Greek  by  Luke  or  some  other  of  the  great 
apostle's  disciples.  This  would  account 
for  its  difference  in  style  and  unity  of  sen- 
timent as  compared  with  the  known  wri- 
tings of  Paul.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
written  in  Italy  about  A.  D.  63.  See  Paul. 
HE' BRON ,/nends/np,  I.,  an  ancient  city 
of  Canaan,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  in 
the  world,  built  7  years  before  Tanis,  the 
capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  Num.  13:22.  It 
was  anciently  called  Kirjath-arba  (see  Ar- 
b.\)  and  Mamre,  and  was  a  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob.  Here  too  they  were  buried. 
Gen.  13:18;  14:13;  23:2-19;  35:27.  Under 
Joshua  and  Caleb  the  Israelites  conquered 
it  from  the  Canaanites,  and  it  was  assigned 
to  the  priests  and  made  a  Levitical  citj^  of 
refuge.  Josh.  14:13-15;  15:13;  21:11,  13; 
Judg.  1 :  10,  20.  It  was  David's  seat  of 
government  during  the  7  years  when  he 
reigned  over  Judah  only,  2  Sam.  2:3;  5:5. 
Here  Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  re- 
volt, 2  Sam.  15:9,  10.  It  was  fortified  by 
Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:10,  and  reoccupied 
after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:25.  It  was  re- 
covered from  Edom  by  Judas  Maccabeus; 
burned  by  the  Romans,  A.  D.  69;  taken  by 
the  Mohammedans  in  the  7th  century,  and 
by  the  Crusaders  early  in  the  12th;  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  "  bishopric  "  till  1187,  when  it 
again  fell  into  Moslem  hands,  and  has  so 
remained.  It  is  one  of  the  4  holy  cities  of 
the  Moslems,  and  a  hot-bed  of  fanaticism. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  4  holy  cities  of  the 
Jews.  At  present  Hebron  is  an  unwalled 
city  of  about  10,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
some  500  are  Jews,  and  the  remainder 
Turks  and  Arabs.  It  lies  in  a  deep  valley 
and  on  the  adjacent  hillside,  in  the  ancient 
hill  country  of  Judsea,  about  20  miles  south 
of  Jerusalem,  and  20  north  of  Beer-sheba, 
and  3,040  feet  above  the  sea.     Its  modern 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEL 


HEBRON:    THE   GREAT    MOSQLIK    AND    PART    OK   THE   TOWN. 


Arabic  name,  el-Khulil,  "  the  friend,"  is  in 
honor  of  Abraham,  "  the  friend  of  God." 
In  one  quarter  of  the  town  is  the  Haram — 
a  sacred  inclosure  surrounding  a  small 
mosque,  which  it  is  generally  believed 
stands  over  the  venerated  cave  of  Machpe- 
lah.  The  outer  structure  is  built  of  mas- 
sive stones,  and  is  about  60  feet  high,  150 
feet  wide,  and  200  long.  With  the  e.xcep- 
tion  of  its  2  minarets,  it  is  evidently  of  very 
high  antiquity — according  to  Tristram  and 
Stanley,  probably  as  early  as  David  or 
Solomon.  The  mosque  within  was  proba- 
bly a  Christian  church  in  Justinian's  time. 
The  Moslems  guard  it  jealously  against 
the  entrance  of  Jews  or  Christians,  though 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  with  Dean  Stanley, 
was  admitted  in  1862,  the  Marquis  of  Bute 
in  1866,  and  the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia  in 
1869.  The  real  tomb  is  beneath  the  floor  of 
the  mosque.  See  Machpelah.  Other  rel- 
ics of  antiquity  exist  in  2  stone  reservoirs, 
the  larger  133  feet  square  and  21  feet  deep. 
They  are  still  in  daily  use;  and  one  of 
them  was  probably  the  "  pool  in  Hebron," 
above  which  David  hung  up  the  assassins 
of  Ishbosheth,  2  Sam.  4:12.  The  city  con- 
tains 9  mosques  and  2  synagogues.  Its 
streets  are  narrow;  the  houses  of  stone, 
with  flat  roofs  surmounted  by  small  domes. 
Large  quantities  of  glass  lamps  and  col- 
ored rings  are  here  manufactured ;  also 
leathern  bottles,  raisins,  and  dibs,  or  grape- 
syrup.  A  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  with 
the  Bedouins,  who  exchange  their  wool  and 


camels'  hair  for  the  commodities  of  the 
town.  The  environs  of  the  city  are  very 
fertile,  furnishing  the  finest  vineyards  in 
Palestine,  numerous  plantations  of  olive 
and  other  fruit  trees,  and  excellent  pas- 
turage. See  EsHCOL,  Mamre.  Two  miles 
west  of  Hebron  is  the  tree  venerated  as 
"Abraham's  oak."  Its  trunk  measures 
32  feet  in  circumference,  and  its  crown  of 
spreading  branches  275  feet.  Josephus 
speaks  of  a  great  oak  or  terebinth  on  this 
spot,  and  of  the  tradition  that  it  was  as  old 
as  the  world.     See  0.\k. 

II.  A  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:28,  perhaps 
the  same  as  Abdon,  Josh.  21:30. 

HE'BRONITES,  descendants  of  Hebron, 
a  son  of  Kohath,  Num.  3:19,  27;  26:58. 

HEDGE.  A  close  row  of  thorny  shrubs 
still  often  surmounts  in  the  East  a  wall  of 
dried  earth  or  of  stone,  Psa.  80: 12,  13 ;  Isa. 
5:5;  Mic.  7:4  ;  a  formidable  barrier  in  the 
way  of  the  slothful,  Prov.  15:19.  The  nar- 
row paths  amid  thorny  hedges,  Num.  22 :  24, 
are  contrasted  with  the  highways  in  one 
of  our  Saviour's  parables,  Luke  14:23. 

HEIF'ER,  a  symbol  of  wanton  wildness, 
especially  when  highly  fed,  Jer.  50: 1 1 ;  Hos. 
4:16.  A  red  heifer  was  sacrificed  without 
the  camp,  Heb.  13 :  12,  as  described  in  Num. 
19,  because  all  contact  with  death  —  the 
penalty  of  sin— was  defiling ;  illustrating 
the  superior  cleansing  power  of  the  blood 
of  Christ  for  polluted  but  penitent  souls, 
Heb.  9:13,  14;  10:22. 

HEIR.    See  Inheritance. 

223 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEL 


HEL'BON,  /£■;-//■/«■,  Ezek.  27:18,  noted 
for  its  wine,  supplied  to  Tyre  by  Damas- 
cus merchants.  Not,  as  formerly  thought, 
Aleppo  (Arabic,  Halebj,  which  is  about  180 
miles  north  of  Damascus,  and  produces  no 
wine  of  reputation,  but  a  wild  glen  and 
village  still  called  Helbon,  high  up  on  the 


eastern  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon,  about  10 
miles  north  of  Damascus,  and  famous  for 
its  vineyards  and  wool.  Many  ancient 
ruins  are  to  be  seen  here. 

HE'LEPH,  e:i:chan^e,Josh.  19:33,  a  place 
on  the  border  of  Naphtali.  Perhaps  Beit- 
lif,  but  not  identified  with  certainty. 


PLAIN  AND  OBELISK    OF    HELIOPOLIS. 


HELIOP'OLIS,  city  of  the  sun,  I.,  a  cele- 
brated city  of  Egypt,  called  in  Coptic,  He- 
brew, and  the  English  version,  On,  sun, 
light,  Gen.  41:45.  The  70  mention  ex- 
pressly, Exod.  i:ii,  that  On  is  Heliopolis. 
Jeremiah,  43:13,  calls  this  city  Beth-she- 
mesh,  that  is,  house  or  temple  of  the  sun. 
In  Ezekiel,  30:17,  the  name  is  pronounced 
Aven,  which  is  the  same  as  On.  The  Arabs 
called  it  'Ain-Shems,  fountain  of  the  sun. 
All  these  names  come  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  city  was  the  ancient  seat  of 
the  Egyptian  worship  of  the  sun.  It  was 
in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  men- 
tions that  2  obelisks  had  already  been  car- 
ried away  to  Rome.  At  present  its  site,  6 
miles  north-northeast  from  Cairo,  is  marked 
only  by  extensive  ranges  of  low  mounds 
full  of  ruinous  fragments,  and  a  solitary 
obelisk  formed  of  a  single  block  of  red 
granite,  rising  66  feet  above  the  sand,  and 
covered  on  its  4  sides  with  hieroglyphics. 

II.  Another  Heliopolis  is  alluded  to  in 
Scripture  under  the  name  of  the  "  plain  of 
Aven,"  or  field  of  the  sun,"  Amos  i :  5.  This 
224 


was  the  Heliopolis  of  Coele-Syria,  now  Ba- 
albek. Its  stupendous  ruins  have  been  the 
wonder  of  past  centuries,  and  will  continue 
to  be  the  wonder  of  future  generations,  till 
barbarism  and  earthquakes  shall  have  done 
their  last  work.  The  most  notable  remains 
are  those  of  3  temples,  the  largest  of  which, 
with  its  courts  and  portico,  extended  i,ooo 
feet  from  east  to  west.  A  magnificent  por- 
tico, 180  feet  long,  with  12  lofty  and  highly- 
wrought  columns,  led  to  a  large  hexagonal 
court,  and  this  to  a  vast  quadrangle,  440 
feet  by  370.  Fronting  on  this  rose  10  col- 
umns of  the  peristyle  which  surrounded 
the  inner  temple.  There  were  19  columns 
on  each  side,  or  54  in  all,  only  6  of  which 
are  now  standing,  and  they  were  7  feet  in 
diameter,  and  62  feet  high,  besides  the  en- 
tablature of  nearly  14  feet.  This  temple 
rested  on  an  immense  vaulted  substruc- 
ture, rising  nearly  50  feet  above  the  ground 
outside,  and  in  this  are  3  stones  63  feet 
long  and  13  feet  high,  lying  20  feet  above 
the  ground.  The  temples  are  of  Roman 
origin ;  and  in  vastness  of  plan,  combined 


HEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEL 


RUINS   OF    BAALBEK. 


with  elaborateness  and  delicacy  of  execu- 
tion, they  seem  to  surpass  all  others  in  the 
world.  "  They  are  like  those  of  Athens  for 
lightness,  but  far  surpass  them  in  vastness ; 
they  are  vast  and  massive,  like  those  of 
Thebes,  but  far  excel  them  in  airiness  and 
grace."     (Robinson.) 

HEL'KATH-HAZ'ZURIM,7?<?/rf  of  heroes, 
or  of  rocks,  a  place  near  Gibeon,  so  named 
from  a  fatal  duel-like  combat,  preceding  a 
battle  between  the  armies  of  David  and 
Ishbosheth,  2  Sam.  2:16. 

HELL.  This  word,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
helan,  "to  cover,"  represents  in  the  A.  V. 
one  Hebrew  and  two  Greek  words.  I.  The 
Hebrew  is  sheol,  from  a  root  meaning  "  to 
demand,"  or  from  another  root,  "  to  make 
hollow."  It  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament 
Hebrew  65  times,  and  is  translated  31  times 
"  hell,"  31  times  "  grave,"  and  3  times  "  pit." 
In  the  Septuagint  it  is  rendered  "Hades" 
"  the  invisible,"  a  name  which  the  Greeks 
first  applied  to  the  king  of  the  unseen  world, 
and  later  to  the  place  of  disembodied  spir- 
its. This  use  of  hades  for  sheol  proves  a 
general  agreement  in  the  ideas  expressed 
by  the  two  words.  But  while  the  Greeks 
pictured  hades  as  ruled  over  by  a  god  in- 
dependent of  the  gods  of  heaven  and  earth, 
the  Hebrew  thought  of  sheol  as  a  part  of 
Jehovah's  kingdom,  Psa.  139:8;  Prov. 
15:11.  The  heathen  looked  for  no  deliv- 
erance from  hades,  but  the  pious  Hebrew, 
while  he  regarded  sheol  with  dread,  looked 

15 


for  a  release  from  it  and  the  resurrection 
of  the  body,  Dan.  12:2;  Acts  23:6-8,  though 
until  Christ  brought  "  life  and  immortality 
to  light "  Hebrew  ideas  concerning  the 
future  state  were  necessarily  indefinite. 
Sheol  is  spoken  of  as  the  common  subter- 
ranean home  after  death  of  all  human  spir- 
its, godly  and  ungodly,  Gen.  37:35;  Num. 
16:30,33;  Psa. 9:17;  16: 10;  Isa.  14:4, 9-15; 
the  receptacle  for  the  body  being  expressed 
by  a  different  word  in  Hebrew,  Isa.  14:19, 
20.  It  is  a  place  of  restraint.  Job  17:16; 
Isa.  38:10,  of  gloom,  2  Sam.  22:6;  Psa.  6:5; 
as  a  refuge  from  earthly  afflictions.  Job 
14:13,  where  earthly  occupations  cease, 
Eccl.  9:10;  a  place  to  be  delivered  from, 
Psa.  49:15;  Hos.  13:14.  It  is  implied  that 
there  were  in  it  different  abodes  for  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked,  Deut.  32:22; 
Psa.  86:13;  Prov.  14:32;  Isa:  57:2.  Sheol 
is  never  spoken  of  as  the  abode  of  Satan 
or  fallen  angels. 

II.  In  the  New  Testament,  A.  V.,  "  hell  " 
is  10  times  the  translation  of  hades,  the 
Greek  word  itself  being  retained  in  the 
R.  V.  In  I  Cor.  15:55  the  true  reading  in 
the  Greek  is  now  thought  to  be  "death," 
as  in  the  R.  V.  Like  sheol.  Job  11:8,  hades 
is  used  as  antithesis  to  the  visible  heaven, 
Matt.  11:23;  Luke  10:15.  From  it  Christ 
will  deliver  his  church.  Matt.  16:  i8.  In 
hades  the  rich  man,  Luke  16:22-31,  was 
"  in  anguish,"  R.  V.  ver.  25,  while,  appar- 
ently in  the  same  realm  though  far  off  and 

225 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEM 


above,  Lazarus  was  "comforted."  See 
Abraham's  Bosom  and  Paradise.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  final  place  of  tor- 
ment in  Rev.  20:13,  14. 

The  teaching  of  the  New  Testament  in 
regard  to  the  home  after  death  of  the  dis- 
embodied spirits  of  the  redeemed  differs 
widely  from  that  of  the  Old  Testament. 
They  are  repeatedly  spoken  of  as  depart- 
ing to  be  with  Christ:  see  John  14:2,  3; 
17:24;  Acts  7:55,  56;  2  Cor.  5:8;  Phil.  1:23; 
Heb.  12:22-24;  I  Pet.  3:22;  compare  Acts 
3:21.  In  explanation  of  this  difference  it 
has  been  held  by  some  that  Christ,  on  his 
descent  into  hades,  Acts  2:27,  31,  or  "the 
lower  parts  of  the  earth,"  Eph.  4:9,  there 
proclaimed  the  news  of  his  completed 
atonement,  i  Pet.  3:18-20,  and  having  pre- 
pared a  place  in  his  Father's  house,  "  led 
captive"  thither  "the  captivity"  of  the 
saints  then  in  hades;  since  which  event 
hades  remains  the  abode  of  the  wicked 
only. 

III.  Gehenna  (Geenna),  another  New 
Testament  Greek  word  represented  by 
"  hell  "  in  both  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.,  occurs 
12  times.  It  was  the  Grecized  term  for 
"  the  valley  of  Hinnom,"  and  was  adopted 
by  the  Jews  after  the  Captivity  and  by  our 
Lord  to  designate  the  place  of  torment  to 
which  evil  spirits  and  wicked  men  are  to 
be  consigned  at  the  judgment  day.  It  is 
referred  to  by  our  Lord  in  the  most  solemn 
and  awful  terms,  Matt.  5:22,  29,  30;  10:28; 
18:9;  23:15,  T,y,  Mark  9:43-48;  Luke  12:5; 
Jas.  3:6;  compare  Matt.  25:41,  46.  The 
gehenna  of  the  gospels  and  James  seems 
synonymous  with  the  "  destruction  "  of  the 
Old  Testament, »Job  26:6,  the  "furnace  of 
fire"  of  Matt.  13:42,  the  "lake  of  fire"  of 
Rev.  19:20;  20:10,  14,  15,  and  the  "perdi- 
tion" of  Rev.  17:8,  II.  "Cast  down  to 
hell,"  in  2  Pet.  2:4,  is  literally  "consigned 
to  Tartarus,"  the  place  of  punishment  in 
Greek  mythology ;  compare  Jude  6. 

Under  the  government  of  an  infinitely 
holy,  just,  wise,  and  loving  God,  bound  by 
his  own  nature  and  regard  for  the  well- 
being  of  his  universe  to  express  his  abhor- 
rence of  sin  and  to  put  a  check  upon  it,  as 
a  ruinous  and  hateful  thing,  the  existence 
of  a  hell  for  the  confinement  and  punish- 
ment of  his  free,  responsible,  sinning,  but 
unrepentant,  creatures,  who  have  abused 
the  probation  accorded  and  rejected  the 
grace  offered  by  him,  is  a  reasonable  ne- 
cessity, Rom.  6:23;  2  Thess.  1:6-11;  Rev. 
20:11-15.  The  strong  desire  of  God  that 
men  should  be  saved  from  hell  is  mani- 
226 


fested  in  the  all-sufficient  atonement  by  the 
death  of  Christ,  and  the  divine  warnings 
and  pleadings  throughout  the  Bible. 

The  misery  of  hell  will  consist  in  the 
privation  of  the  vision  and  love  of  God, 
exclusion  from  every  source  of  happiness, 
perpetual  sin,  remorse  of  conscience  in 
view  of  the  past,  malevolent  passions,  the 
sense  of  the  just  anger  of  God,  and  all 
other  sufferings  of  body  and  soul  which 
are  the  natural  results  of  sin,  or  which  the 
law  of  God  requires  as  penal  inflictions, 
Matt.  7:21,  23;  22:13;  25:41;  2  Thess.  1:9. 
The  degrees  of  anguish  will  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  degrees  of  guilt,  Matt.  10:15; 
23:14;  Luke  12:47,  48.  And  these  punish- 
ments will  be  eternal,  like  the  happiness 
of  heaven.  The  wrath  of  God  will  never 
cease  to  abide  upon  the  lost  soul,  and  it 
will  always  be  "the  wrath  to  come." 

HEL'LENISTS.      See  GREECE. 

HEL'MET.     See  ARMOR. 

HELPS,  only  in  I  Cor.  12:28.  This  di- 
vinely recognized  form  of  work  in  the 
primitive  church  is  believed  by  many  to 
have  included  the  ministrations  of  the  dea- 
cons and  deaconesses  in  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  sick.  Other  interpretations,  how- 
ever, have  been  given,  and  we  cannot  de- 
termine with  certainty  the  exact  nature  of 
the  "  aids  "  denoted  by  it.  It  suggests  all 
the  kindly  ministries  by  which  Christian 
charity  alleviates  human  woe.  They  all 
come  from  Christ  as  their  source,  are  in- 
spired by  him,  and  lead  to  him. 

In  Acts  27:17  the  "helps"  were  cables 
passed  under  and  around  the  ship  to 
strengthen  it. 

HEM  OF  GAR'MENT.      See  GARMENTS. 

HE'MAN,/a/////«/,  I.,  a  son  of  Zerah,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  noted  for  wisdom,  i  Kin. 
4:31 ;  I  Chr.  2:6. 

II.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Joel  and 
grandson  of  Samuel,  a  chief  musician  for 
the  temple  in  David's  time,  i  Chr.  6:33; 
15:17,  19;  16:41,  42;  25:1,  4-6;  2  Chr.  5:12; 
29:14;  35:15-  Psalm  88  is  attributed  to 
him.  Some  explain  "  Ezrahite  "  as  equiv- 
alent to  "  son  of  Zerah,"  and  thus  identify 
the  singer  and  seer  with  Heman  I.— born 
a  Levite,  but  connected  with  and  reckoned 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

HEM'LOCK,  Hos.  10:4;  Amos  6:12,  in 
Hebrew,  rosh,  usually  translated  gall  or 
bitterness,  Deut.  32:32,  and  mentioned  in 
connection  with  wormwood,  Deut.  29:18; 
Jer.  9:15;  23:15;  Lam.  3:19.  It  indicates 
some  wild,  bitter,  and  noxious  plant,  which 
it  is  difficult  to  determine.     According  to 


HEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HER 


some  it  is  the  poisonous  hemlock,  while 
others  consider  it  to  be  the  poppy,  or  the 
euphorbia  with  its  acrid  juices. 

HEN.  The  care  of  a  hen  to  protect  her 
brood  from  hawks,  etc.,  illustrates  the  Sa- 
viour's tender  care  of  his  people  when 
exposed  to  the  swoop  of  the  Roman  eagle, 
as  in  all  similar  perils,  Matt.  23:37;  24:22. 
The  common  barn-door  fowl  is  not  often 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  Mark  13:35;  14:30; 
Luke  22:34;  but  at  the  present  day  they 
and  their  eggs  are  more  used  in  Syria  than 
any  other  food  not  vegetable. 

HE'NA,  supposed  to  have  been  a  city  of 
Mesopotamia  afterwards  called  Ana,  on 
the  Euphrates,  about  20  miles  above  Baby- 
lon, 2  Kin.  18:34;  19:13;  Isa.  37:13. 

HEPH'ZIBAH,  my  delight  is  in  her,  I., 
the  wife  of  Hezekiah  and  mother  of  Ma- 
nasseh,  2  Kin.  21:1.  From  her  name  and 
her  son's  character  it  might  be  inferred 
that  she  was  chosen  for  her  beauty  rather 
than  her  piety. 

II.  A  name  applied  to  restored  Jerusa- 
lem, Isa.  62:4;  compare  Isa.  i:  i. 

HER'ALD,  one  who  makes  official  and 
public  proclamations,  e.  g.,  in  the  name 
of  a  king,  or  of  the  rulers  of  the  Grecian 
games,  Dan.  3:4.  The  apostles,  in  preach- 
ing the  gospel,  are  the  "heralds"  of  the 
King's  message,  i  Tim.  2:7;  2  Tim.  i:ii; 
2  Pet.  2:5. 

HERBS,  plants  with  a  soft,  not  woody 
stem,  dying  entirely  in  the  dry  season,  if 
annuals  ;  or  down  to  the  ground  and  revi- 
ving after  the  fall  rains,  or  in  the  spring,  if 
not  annuals.  Gen.  2:5;  3:18;  Psa.  72:16; 
92:7;  102:4,  II-  See  Exod.  12:8;  Num. 
■9:11. 

HERD,  HERDS'MAN.  Herds  and  flocks 
formed  a  chief  part  of  the  wealth  of  Abra- 
ham and  his  near  descendants.  Gen.  13:2; 
26:14;  32:5,  and  were  among  the  most  val- 
ued possessions  of  the  Hebrews  all  through 
their  national  life,  Gen.  46:6;  Exod.  9:4, 
20;  12:38;  2  Chr.  26:10;  32:28,  29;  35:7-9; 
Eccl.  2:7.  The  herd  supplied  many  young 
for  sacrifices,  Lev.  1:3;  4:3;  Psa.  69:31; 
Isa.  66:3,  besides  furnishing  milk,  butter, 
■cheese,  flesh-meat,  horns,  and  hides.  See 
Ox.  The  grassy  and  wooded  table-lands 
east  of  the  Jordan  afforded  fine  pasturage 
for  cattle.  Num.  32:1-4.  West  of  the  Jor- 
dan the  chief  feeding-grounds  were  Shar- 
on, I  Chr.  27:29,  and  Carmel,  i  Sam.  25:2. 
In  the  hot  season,  when  the  grass  was 
dried  up,  cattle  were  stalled,  Hab.  3:17; 
Mai.  4:2,  and  fed  on  mixed  grains  and 
chopped  straw,   Gen.  24:25;  Job  6:5;  Isa. 


11:7;  30:24;  65:25.  In  Solomon's  time 
cattle  -  raising  declined  as  commerce  in- 
creased, but  was  still  pursued,  Eccl.  2:7. 
Uzziah  built  towers  in  the  "desert,"  uncul- 
tivated lands,  to  protect  the  pasturing  cat- 
tle, 2  Chr.  26: 10.  Josiah  also  seems  to  have 
had  numerous  herds.  The  early  Israelites 
regarded  the  occupation  of  herdsmen  as 
honorable.  King  Saul  himself  kept  cattle, 
I  Sam.  11:5,  and  Doeg  the  herdsman  was  a 
favorite,  i  Sam.  21:7.  The  superintend- 
ents of  David's  herds  were  among  his 
prominent  officers,  i  Chr.  27:29;  28:1. 
The  Egyptians,  though  possessing  exten- 
sive herds,  Gen.  47:17;  Exod.  9:3,  held 
herdsmen  in  abomination.  Gen.  46:34,  and 
the  monuments  often  represent  them  as 
bearded,  dwarfish,  or  deformed.  Pharaoh 
committed  the  oversight  of  his  herds  to 
Joseph's  brethren.  Gen.  47:6.  The  proph- 
et Amos  was  a  herdsman,  Amos  1:1 ;  7:14. 
See  Sheep. 

HE'RES,  sun.  Mount  Heres,  in  Hebrew 
Cheres,  Judg.  1:35,  was  probably  a  city 
identical  with  Beth-shemesh,  or  connected 
with  it. 

The  same  word  is  found  in  some  Hebrew 
texts  of  Isa.  19:18,  which  would  change 
"  city  of  destruction,"  A.  V.,  to  "  city  of  the 
sun,"  perhaps  Heliopolis.  The  passage 
is  thought  to  refer  to  one  of  5  cities  in 
Egypt  partly  or  wholly  inhabited  by  Jews, 
who  were  very  numerous  in  Egypt  at  the 
period  of  Greek  dominion.  The  Jewish 
town  Onion  was  destroyed  by  Titus. 

HER'ESY,  choice.  Applied  to  the  adop- 
tion of  religious  views  and  practices  new 
and  obnoxious.  In  the  New  Testament 
sometimes  translated  "sect,"  and  not  im- 
plying any  judgment  as  to  its  tenets.  Acts 
5:17;  15:5;  26:5.  Sometimes  censure  is 
implied,  Acts  24:5;  when  those  who  call 
others  heretics  deserve  the  name  them- 
selves instead.  Acts  24:14.  In  the  Epistles 
"heresies"  and  schisms  in  the  Christian 
church  are  strongly  condemned,  i  Cor. 
11:19;  Gal.  5:20;  Tit.  3:10;  2  Pet.  2:1,  the 
word  early  coming  to  mean  a  departure 
from  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  gospel. 

HER'MAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  Rom. 
16:14;  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
writer  of  the  ancient  work  called  "The 
Shepherd" — a  singular  mixture  of  truth 
and  piety  with  folly  and  superstition.  But 
this  was  written  in  the  2d  century. 

HERMOG'ENES  and  PHY'GELUS  de- 
serted Paul  during  his  2d  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  2  Tim.  1:15. 

HER'MOli,  motmiain-nose,  or  peak,-  call- 
227 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HER 


ed  also  Sirion  or  Shenir,  breastplate,  Deut. 
3:9;  Ezek.  27:5,  in  allusion  to  its  ice-capped 
top;  also  Sion,  lofty,  Deut.  4:48.  It  is  the 
southern  part  of  the  Anti-Lebanon  range, 
40  miles  north  by  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
and  30  west  by  south  of  Damascus.  It  is 
the  highest  mountain  in  Syria,  and  now 
bears  the  name  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  old  man's 
mountain.  It  has  3  peaks,  Psa.  42:6,  form- 
ing a  triangle  inclosing  a  small  plateau, 
the  northern  and  southern  being  each  9,053 
feet  above  the  sea  level  and  11,000  above 
the  Jordan  valley;  the  western  peak,  600 
yards  off,  being  loo  feet  lower.  Hermon 
was  the  northern  limit  of  Israel  east  of  the 
Jordan,  Deut.  3:8;  4:48;  Josh.  11:3,  17; 
12:1;  13:11;  I  Chr.  5:23.  See  also  Psa. 
89:12;  Song  4:8.  It  appears  to  have  been 
a  sanctuary  for  Baal,  and  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  temple  are  found  on  its  southern 
peak. 

Hermon  is  crowned  with  snow  or  ice 
throughout  the  year.  In  November  the 
fresh  snow  begins  to  cover  it,  and  gradu- 
ally extends  5,000  feet  down  its  sides. 
Melting  as  summer  advances,  only  a  little 
is  left  in  shaded  spots  by  September,  and 
the  ice  in  the  ravines  around  the  summit 
glitters  in  silvery  stripes  under  the  rays  of 
the  sun,  like  the  snowy  locks  of  an  old 
man — esh-Sheikh.  This  majestic  mountain 
can  be  seen  from  all  the  heights  of  Pales- 
tine, and  its  summit  commands  an  exten- 
sive view  over  the  Damascus  plain  on  the 
east,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  and  the 
Holy  Land  on  the  south.  Its  copious  dews, 
from  the  hot  moist  air  rushing  up  through 
the  Ghor  and  condensed  on  its  cold  sides, 
are  referred  to  in  Psa.  133:3  as  an  emblem 
of  the  spiritual  dew  of  blessing  vouchsafed 
on  Mount  Zion ;  travellers  speak  of  them 
as  very  heavy,  their  tents  affording  an 
insufficient  protection.  The  mountain  is 
frequented  by  bears,  wolves,  foxes,  and 
various  kinds  of  game;  compare  Song  4:8. 
At  its  base  lay  Cassarea-Philippi,  now  Ba- 
nias.  Matt.  16:13,  where  Jesus  was  shortly 
before  his  transfiguration,  which  it  is  be- 
lieved took  place  at  some  retired  spot  on 
the  mountain.  Matt.  17:1-8;  Mark  9:1-8. 

The  "  Little  Hermon  "  of  travellers,  not 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  is  a  shapeless  mass 
of  hills  north  of  the  smaller  valley  of  Jez- 
reel;  it  is  called  Jebel  ed-Duhy  by  the 
Arabs. 

HER'OD,  hero-like,  the  name  of  several 

princes,  Idumaeans  by  descent,  who  bore 

rule  in   Palestine  under  the  Romans  and 

are    mentioned    in    the    New    Testament. 

228 


The  Idumaeans  had  been  subdued  by  John 
Hyrcanus  B.  C.  130,  and  constrained  to 
adopt  Judaism. 

I.  Herod  the  Great,  Matt.  2;  Luke 
1 :5,  king  of  Judaea,  etc.,  B.  C.  40.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Antipater,  an  Idumaean 
made  procurator  of  Judaea  by  Julius  Caesar 
B.  C.  47,  Hyrcanus  II.  being  then  high- 
priest.  Herod,  then  25,  was  made  by  his 
father  governor  of  Galilee;  in  B.  C.  41  he 
and  his  brother  Phasael  were  made  joint 
tetrarchs  of  Judiea  by  Antony,  and  the  next 
year  he  was  made  king  of  Judaea  by  the 
Roman  Senate.  In  3  years  he  established 
himself  in  his  kingdom ;  Jerusalem  being 
taken,  Antigonus,  then  high-priest,  being 
captured  "and  executed  B.  C.  37,  and  all  the 
Sanhedrin  but  2  put  to  death.  Herod  won 
the  favor  of  Octavius,  the  conqueror  and 
successor  of  Antony,  and  retained  it  by 
heavily  taxing  his  subjects,  thus  losing  their 
good-will.  Though  professedly  a  Jew,  he 
used  religion  solely  to  advance  his  ambi- 
tious designs.  He  rebuilt  the  temple  at  Je- 
rusalem, but  also  constituted  one  on  Mount 
Gerizim  for  the  Samaritans,  established 
heathen  worship  in  Caesarea  for  the  Gen- 
tiles, a  temple  to  Augustus  at  Paneas,  and 
rebuilt  that  of  Apollo  at  Rhodes.  Among 
the  cities  he  adorned  with  costly  buildings 
were  Caesarea  and  Sebaste,  formerly  Sa- 
maria. At  Jerusalem  he  built  a  theatre 
and  instituted  games,  and  sought  to  lessen 
the  popular  dissatisfaction  by  donating 
large  sums  in  relief  of  a  famine,  by  build- 
ing the  fortress  Antonia,  and  rebuilding  the 
temple,  which  see.  His  life  was  marked 
by  many  acts  of  cruelty.  He  put  to  death 
the  brother  (about  B.  C.  JH)  and  the  grand- 
father (Hyrcanus,  B.  C.  30)  of  his  wife  Ma- 
riamne,  Mariamne  herself  (B.  C.  29),  her 
mother,  and  her  2  sons  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus  (B.  C.  7),  and  a  few  days  before 
his  death  ordered  the  execution  of  his  son 
Antipater,  and  also  commanded  that  the 
chief  men  of  Judaea,  whom  he  had  assem- 
bled and  confined  at  Jericho,  should  be 
slain  as  soon  as  he  expired— to  insure  tears 
on  that  occasion.  This  order,  however, 
was  not  fulfilled.  It  must  have  been  short- 
ly before  his  death  that  he  caused  the  in- 
fants of  Bethlehem  to  be  slain,  in  the  hope 
of  thus  destroying  Jesus.  This  event  and 
the  death  of  Antipater  are  recorded  by  the 
Latin  author  Macrobius,  A.  D.  420.  He 
appointed  Archelaus  his  successor  "  in  the 
kingdom,"  subject  to  the  emperor's  ap- 
proval, dividing  his  territories  between  him 
and  his  brothers  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip. 


HER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HER 


He  was  a  man  of  great  shrewdness  and 
strong  will,  but  of  violent  passions  and  in- 
satiable ambition,  and  devoid  of  scruples. 
His  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  Messiah 
makes  him  preeminent  among  the  foes  of 
God  and  his  church. 

n.  Herod  Philip,  I.,  Matt.  14:3;  Mark 
6:17;  called  Herod  bj^  Josephus;  the  son 
of  Herod  the  Great  and  his  2d  Mariamne, 
daughter  of  Simon  the  high-priest.  Dis- 
inherited by  his  father  for  his  mother's 
treachery,  he  seems  to  have  lived  a  private 
life.  He  was  the  first  husband  of  Hero- 
dias.    See  Herodias. 

ni.  Archela'us,  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  elder  brother  of  Herod  Antipas.  See 
Archelaus.  Josephus  says  that  before 
going  to  Rome  to  obtain  imperial  confirma- 
tion in  his  kingdom,  he  quelled  an  insur- 
rection by  slaughtering  3,000  men  in  the 
temple  at  the  Passover.  He  was  confirmed 
in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  people,  but 
with  the  title  of  ethnarch  instead  of  king. 

IV.  Herod  An'tipas,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  by  Malthace  his  Samaritan  wife,  and 
full  brother  to  Archelaus,  along  with  whom 
he  was  educated  at  Rome.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  he  was  confirmed  by  Augus- 
tus as  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Peraea,  that 
is,  the  southern  part  of  the  country  east  of 
the  Jordan,  Luke  3:1,  whence  also  the  gen- 
eral appellation  of  king  was  given  to  him, 
Mark  6:14.  He  first  married  a  daughter 
of  Aretas,  an  Arabian  king ;  but  afterwards 
becoming  enamored  of  Herodias,  the  wife 
of  his  brother  Herod  Philip  I.,  and  his  own 
niece,  he  dismissed  his  former  wife,  and 
induced  Herodias  to  leave  her  own  hus- 
band and  connect  herself  with  him.  This 
sin  was  the  source  of  misfortune,  further 
sin,  and  shame  to  Herod.  Aretas  made 
war  upon  him,  and  severely  chastised  him. 
John  the  Baptist,  reproving  him,  incurred 
the  hate  of  Herodias,  who  influenced  her 
husband  to  imprison  and  finally  kill  John, 
Matt.  14:1-12;  Mark  6:14-29;  Luke  3:13- 
20.  Self-indulgent,  he  chose  to  continue  in 
sin  and  kill  one  whom  he  knew  to  be  "just 
and  holy"  rather  than  break  an  improper 
oath.  If  a  Sadducee,  as  might  be  inferred 
from  comparing  Matt.  16:6  with  Mark  8: 15, 
and  from  his  "perplexity"  at  the  view  of 
Jesus  as  John  risen  from  the  dead,  Luke 
9:7-9,  Herod's  guilty  fears  seem  to  have 
overcome  his  disbelief  in  spirits  and  the 
resurrection.  Matt.  14:2;  Mark  6:14-16. 
His  cunning  is  alluded  to  in  Luke  13:32. 
Christ,  as  a  Galilean,  was  under  Herod's 
jurisdiction,  and  Pilate's  acknowledgment 


of  this  when  the  two  rulers  were  at  Jerusa- 
lem for  the  Passover  made  them  friends, 
Luke  23:7-12.  Christ,  declining  to  satisfy 
Herod's  curiosity,  was  mocked  by  him,  the 
combination  of  the  two  against  Christ  hav- 
ing been  foretold,  Psa.  2:2;  Acts  4:25-27. 
Herod  Antipas,  like  his  father,  spent  much 
money  in  public  works,  including  the  city 
Tiberias,  which  he  built  and  named  after 
Tiberius.  In  A.  D.  38  he  was  induced, 
mainly  by  Herodias,  to  go  to  Rome  and 
sue  for  the  title  of  king,  which  Caligula  had 
just  conferred  on  Herod  Agrippa  I. ;  but  at 
the  accusation  of  the  latter  he  was  banished 
to  Lyons,  and  died  in  e.xile. 

V.  Herod  Philip  II.,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  by  his  5th  wife,  Cleopatra,  from  B.  C. 
4  to  A.  D.  34  tetrarch  of  Itursea,  Gaulonitis, 
Auranitis,  and  Trachonitis,  Luke  3:1.  He 
married  Salome,  the  dancing  daughter  of 
Herod  Philip  I.  and  Herodias.  He  enlarged 
Paneas  and  named  it  Caesarea-Philippi, 
and  made  Bethsaida  a  city,  calling  it  Julias, 
after  a  daughter  of  Augustus.  At  Julias  he 
died,  without  children.  He  was  just  and 
moderate  in  his  life  and  government. 

VI.  Herod  Agrip'pa  Major  or  I.,  Acts 
12;  23:35,  a  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Mariamne  I.,  and  son  of  the  Aristobu- 
lus  who  was  put  to  death  with  his  mother, 
by  orders  of  his  father.  See  Herod  I.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Rome  with  Drusus,  son 
of  Tiberius.  On  the  accession  of  Caligula 
to  the  imperial  throne,  Agrippa  was  taken 
from  prison,  where  he  had  been  confined 
by  Tiberius,  and  received  from  the  em- 
peror, A.  D.  37,  the  title  of  king,  together 
with  the  tetrarchies  formerly  of  his  uncle 
Philip  and  Lysanias.  After  the  death  of 
Herod  Antipas,  Caligula  conferred  Gali- 
lee and  Peraea  on  Agrippa,  and  in  A.  D. 
41  gave  him  Judaea  and  Samaria,  thus 
making  his  kingdom  equal  to  his  grand- 
father's. He  was  a  strict  observer  of  the 
Jewish  ceremonial,  and  dissuaded  Caligu- 
la from  erecting  a  statue  of  himself  in  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  In  order  to  ingra- 
tiate himself  with  the  Jews,  he  commenced 
a  persecution  against  the  Christians ;  but 
seems  to  have  proceeded  no  farther  than 
to  put  to  death  James  and  to  imprison 
Peter,  since  he  soon  after  died  suddenly 
and  miserably  at  Caesarea,  A.  D.  44.  He 
began  to  strengthen  Jerusalem  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  massive  "  third  wall  "  around  the 
new  northern  part,  Bezetha,  but  desisted 
on  account  of  the  suspicions  of  Claudius. 
The  wall  was  finished  in  an  inferior  man- 
ner. 

229 


HER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEZ 


VII.  Herod  Agrippa  Minor  or  II.,  Acts 
25;  26,  was  the  son  of  Herod  Agrippa  I., 
and  was  educated  at  Rome  under  the  care 
of  the  emperor  Claudius.  Being  only  17 
at  his  father's  death,  the  emperor  thought 
him  too  young  to  succeed  to  the  kingdom, 
which  was  again  madi;  a  Roman  province. 
After  the  death  of  Agrippa's  uncle  Herod, 
in  A.  D.  48,  Claudius  gave  his  small  king- 
dom of  Chalcis  to  Agrippa,  A.  D.  50.  In 
A.  D.  52  he  was  transferred  with  the  title 
of  king  to  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and 
Lysanias  first  possessed  by  his  father ;  to 
which  Nero  added,  in  A.  D.  55,  Tiberias 
and  Tarichea;  in  Cialilee,  and  Julias  with 
circumjacent  villages  in  Peraea.  In  A.  D. 
60  Agrippa  and  his  sister  Bernice  heard 
the  defence  of  Paul  at  Cesaraea,  Acts  25:13 
to  ch.  26.  In  A.  D.  66  he  endeavored  to 
dissuade  the  Jews  from  waging  war  with 
the  Romans,  and  when  they  persisted  he 
took  sides  with  Rome.  After  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  he  retired  with  Bernice  to  Rome, 
where  he  died,  aged  70,  in  the  3d  j^ear  of 
Trajan's  reign,  A.  D.  100. 

HERO'DIANS,  a  Jewish  political  party, 
devoted  to  the  Herods.  As  the  Herodian 
princes  were  dependent  on  Rome,  their 
partisans  willingly  submitted  to  the  Ro- 
man power,  and  maintained  the  propriety 
of  paying  tribute  to  the  emperors,  which 
the  Pharisees  denied.  Yet  both  parties 
desired  the  continuance  of  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion, and  coalesced  in  opposing  the  spirit- 
ual kingdom  of  the  true  Messiah,  Matt. 
22:16;  Mark  3:6;  12:13;  Luke  20:20. 

HERO'DIAS,  a  granddaughter  of  Herod 
the  Great  and  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Aris- 
tobulus,  and  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
She  was  first  married  to  her  uncle  Herod 
Philip  I.,  but  afterwards  abandoned  him 
for  his  brother  Herod  Antipas.  It  was  by 
her  artifice  that  Herod  was  persuaded  to 
cause  John  the  Baptist  to  be  put  to  death, 
she  being  enraged  at  John  on  account  of 
his  bold  denunciation  of  the  incestuous  and 
adulterous  connection  which  subsisted  be- 
tween her  and  Herod.  When  Herod  was 
banished  to  Lyons,  she  accompanied  him. 
Matt.  14:3,  6;  Mark  6:17;  Luke  3:19.  See 
Hkrod  IV. 

HER'ON.    See  next  column. 

HESH'BON,  hilelligence,  a  city  taken 
from  the  Moabites  by  Sihon,  king  of  the 
Amorites,  and  made  his  capital ;  conquered 
from  him  and  occupied  by  Israel,  Num. 
21:25-30;  Judg.  11:19,  26.  It  was  as- 
signed to  Reuben,  being  on  the  boundary 
between  Reuben  and  Gad,  Josh.  13:17,26; 
230 


was  rebuilt  by  Reuben,  Num.  32:37,  but 
reckoned  to  Gad  when  made  a  Levitical 
city,  Josh.  21:39;  I  Chr.  6:81.  In  later 
times  Heshbon  was  repossessed  by  Moab, 
and  denounced  by  the  prophets,  Isa.  15:4; 
16:8,  9;  Jer.  48:2,  34,  45;  49:3.  In  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees  it  again  belonged  to  the 
Jews.  Its  ruins,  now  Hesban,  are  15  miles 
east  of  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  a  hill 
200  feet  high,  covering  a  circuit  of  about  a 
mile.  East  of  the  city  a  vast  pool,  etc.,  are 
still  found,  Song  7:4. 


GOI.DEN   PLOVER  :   CHARADRIUS  PLUVIALIS. 

HER'ON,  Lev.  11:19;  Deut.  14:18.  The 
reference  of  the  Hebrew  word  has  been 
much  debated.  According  to  Jerome  it  is 
the  Golden  Plover,  found  in  Palestine  and 
feeding  along  the  water-side  of  rivers  and 
lakes.  According  to  Tristram,  the  long- 
billed  and  long-legged  heron,  also  found  in 
Palestine. 

HESH'MON,  a  tovn  in  the  south  of  Ju- 
dah.  Josh.  15:27,  identified  by  Conder  with 
el-Meshash,  between  Beer-sheba  and  Mo- 
ladah. 

HETH,  dread,  a  descendant  of  Canaan, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Hittites,  Gen.  10:15; 
23;  25:10;  27:46.     See  Hittites. 

HETH'LON,  on  the  northern  border  of 
Palestine,  Ezek.  47:15;  48:1,  apparently 
adjoining  the  "entrance  of  Hamath." 

HEZEKI'AH,  zvhotn  God  sirenglhens,  a 
pious  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded  his 
father  Ahaz  about  726  B.  C,  and  died  about 
698  B.  C.  His  history  is  contained  in  2  Kin. 
18-20;  2  Chr.  29-32.  Compare  Isa.  36-38. 
His  reign  is  memorable  for  his  faithful 
efforts  to  restore  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
removing  "high  places,"  and  destroying 
the  brazen  serpent;  contrast  2  Chr.  28:22- 
25;  for  the  final  deportation  of  the  Ten 
Tribes,  2  Kin.  17;  18:9-12;  for  his  revolt 
against  the  Assyrians,  compare  2  Kin.  16:7, 
8;  2  Chr.  28:16-21 ;  for  their  2  invasions  of 


HEZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIG 


his  land :  the  first  marked  by  the  capture 
of  the  fortified  cities  of  Judah,  an  attack 
on  Jerusalem,  and  Hezekiah's  payment  of 
tribute,  2  Kin.  18:13-16.  Assyrian  annals 
of  Sennacherib  discovered  at  Nineveh  agree 
with  this  account.  A  2d  invasion  seems 
to  have  followed  in  the  course  of  2  years, 
when  Sennacherib,  having  been  checked 
in  an  attempt  upon  Egypt,  Hezekiah's  ally, 
Isa.  30:1-7,  returned  and  "dealt  treacher- 
ously" with  Hezekiah  in  attacking  La- 
chish,  Isa.  30:1-7;  33:1.  Then  followed 
Sennacherib's  threatening  letters  from  La- 
chish  and  Libnah,  the  supernatural  de- 
struction of  a  great  part  of  his  army,  and 
the  retreat  of  the  rest  to  Assyria,  in  answer 
to  Hezekiah's  prayer.  Compare  Isa.  31:8, 
9;  2)7'2)3~57-  The  other  notable  events  in 
this  king's  reign  were  his  sickness,  humili- 
ation, and  prolongation  of  life  15  years  in 
peace,  miraculously  assured  to  him ;  his 
vain  conduct  when  visited  by  ambassadors 
of  Merodach-baladan,  and  the  prediction 
that  Babylon,  then  feeble  and  friendly, 
would  one  day  carry  his  descendants  into 
captivity,  Isa.  39;  Mic.  4:10.  Hezekiah  col- 
lated the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  Prov.  25:1. 
The  prophecies  of  Hosea  and  Micah  were 
delivered  partly  in  his  reign  ;  compare  Jer. 
26: 17-19 ;  and  Nahum  was  perhaps  his  con- 
temporary. Psalms  46  and  76  are  believed 
to  commemorate  the  overthrow  of  Sennach- 
erib's host.  Hezekiah  was  succeeded  by 
the  unworthy  Manasseh. 

HEZ'RONITES,  a  family  in  Reuben,  and 
another  in  Judah,  Num.  26:6,  21. 

HID'DEKEL,  rapid  Tigris,  Gen.  2:14; 
Dan.  10:4.  The  ancient  Zend  name  was 
Teger,  "stream;"  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions Tiggar ;  modern  name  Dijleh.  This 
river  has  its  sources,  west  and  east,  in  the 
mountains  of  Armenia  and  of  Kurdistan. 
The  2  branches  unite  at  Tilleh,  and  the 
river  rushes  through  along  and  deep  gorge 
down  into  the  Assyrian  plain.  At  Mosul  it 
is  300  feet  wide,  but  lower  down  it  averages 
600  feet.  After  flowing  1,146  miles  it  meets 
the  Euphrates  at  Kurnah,  and  they  form 
the  Shat-el-Arab,  which  flows  on  about  120 
miles  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Tigris  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  light  draft  nearly 
600  miles  from  the  Persian  Gulf.  An  active 
trade  is  carried  on  between  Bassorah  and 
Bagdad  by  fleets  of  boats,  and  rafts  float 
down  from  Mosul.  An  ancient  canal  still 
connects  the  Tigris  below  Bagdad  with  the 
Euphrates.  The  banks  of  the  river,  once 
occupied  by  populous  cities,  are  now  cov- 
ered with  mounds  and  ruins,  with  few  per- 


manent settlements.  The  river  rises  in 
April  with  the  melting  of  the  mountain 
snows,  and  in  November  with  the  rains. 
See  Nineveh. 

HI'EL,  God  liveth,  a  Bethelite,  who  re- 
built Jericho  in  despite  of  the  woe  de- 
nounced 500  years  before,  Josh.  6:26.  The 
fulfilment  of  the  curse  by  the  death  of  his 
children  proves  the  truth  which  his  name 
signified,  i  Kin.  16:34. 

HIERAP'OLIS,  sacred  city,  named  either 
from  its  healing  warm  springs,  carbonate 
of  lime,  or  from  being  a  chief  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Astarte;  a  city  of  Phrygia,  5 
miles  from  Laodictea,  and  also  near  Co- 
lossae,  beautifullj'  situated  above  the  junc- 
tion of  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Meander.  It 
shared  with  its  two  neighbors  the  ministra- 
tions of  the  faithful  Epaphras,  Col.  4:12,  13. 
On  its  desolate  site  are  e.xtensive  ruins, 
among  them  the  remains  of  3  churches. 
The  white  front  of  the  cliffs  below  it  gave 
it  its  present  name  Pambouk-kalessi,  or 
Cotton  Castle. 

HIGGA'ION,  in  Psa.  9:16,  is  supposed  to 
indicate  a  pause  in  the  singing  of  the 
Psalm,  for  meditation.  The  word  occurs 
also  in  Psa.  19:14,  "meditation,"  and  in 
Psa.  92:3,  "solemn  sound,"  and  seems  to 
have  had  both  a  general  and  a  technical 
meaning. 

HIGH  PLACES.  From  the  idea  of  heav- 
en as  the  divine  abode  arose  the  practice 
of  worship  upon  mountains  and  hills,  a 
custom  observed  by  Trojans,  Greeks,  Per- 
sians, and  many  other  nations.  The  patri- 
archs erected  altars  to  Jehovah  wherever 
they  sojourned.  Gen.  12:7,  8;  26:25;  28:18; 
sometimes  on  mountains,  Gen.  22:2;  31:54. 
Moses  did  likewise,  Exod.  17:10,  15;  Num. 
20:25-28,  and  the  first  altar  of  Israelites  in 
Palestine  was  built  at  God's  command  on 
Mount  Ebal.  The  Moabites,  Num.  21:28; 
22:41;  Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  48:35,  and  the  Ca- 
naanites,  Num.  33:52;  Deut.  12:2,  wor- 
shipped their  idols  on  high  places ;  which 
the  Israelites  were  commanded  to  destroy, 
and  to  repair  for  sacrifice  and  worship  to 
the  place  which  the  Lord  would  choose, 
Deut.  12:2-14.  But  they  did  not  fully  obey 
this  command,  Judg.  2:2,  and  they  even 
worshipped  the  deities  of  the  heathen.  Be- 
fore the  building  of  the  temple,  sacrifices 
were  offered  at  various  places  away  from 
the  Tabernacle,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Divine  Lawgiver  himself,  Judg.  6:25,  26; 
I  Sam.  9:12,  13,  25;  10:8;  11:15;  16:2-5,  a 
state  of  things  apparently  contemplated  in 
Exod.  20:24,  25;    Deut.   12:10,   11;   i  Kin. 

231 


HIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIG 


8  :  16-20.  These  Jehovistic  high  places 
probably  were  local  centres  of  religion, 
I  Kin.  3 : 2,  3,  like  the  synagogues  of  a  much 
later  time.  But  after  the  temple  was  built 
the  continued  use  of  high  places  was  reck- 
oned a  transgression,  2  Chr.  7:12-16;  8:12, 
13.  Yet  God  sanctioned  Elijah's  act  on 
Mount  Carmel,  i  Kin.  18:30-38.  In  the 
latter  part  of  David's  reign  and  at  the  ac- 
cession of  Solomon  the  "great  high  place" 
was  at  Gibeon,  where  the  tabernacle  and 
altar  then  were,  i  Chr.  21:29;  2  Chr.  1:3-6. 
Solomon  wickedly  revived  the  worship  of 
heathen  gods  in  high  places,  i  Kin.  11:6-8. 
Jeroboam  instituted  an  idolatrous  system 
for  the  northern  kingdom,  and  ordained 
priests  for  his  high  places  at  Dan  and  Beth- 
el, I  Kin.  12:26-33;  and  from  that  time  in 
Israel  high  places  were  used  chiefly  for 
idol-worship,  and  Elijah  complains  that 
the  altars  of  Jehovah  were  thrown  down, 
I  Kin.  19: 10,  14.  In  Judah  also  high  places 
for  false  gods  multiplied,  i  Kin.  14:22,  23. 
Even  pious  kings  tolerated  the  high  places, 
though  doubtless  only  for  the  worship  of 
Jehovah:  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Joash,  Amazi- 
ah,  Uzziah,  and  Jotham.  The  high  places 
were  denounced  by  the  prophets,  Hos. 
10:8;  Amos  7:9;  Mic.  1:5;  and  Hezekiah 
set  himself  to  remove  them,  2  Kin.  18:4,  22, 
and  after  their  renewal  under  Manasseh 
and  Amon,  Josiah  completed  their  destruc- 
tion, whether  idolatrous  or  Jehovistic,  2  Kin. 
22:8-13;  23;  2  Chr.  34:3,  33.  After  Josiah 
no  mention  is  made  of  the  worship  of  Jeho- 
vah in  high  places,  though  their  use  for 
idol-worship  lingered  still,  Jer.  17:3;  19:5; 
Ezek.  6:3,  6. 

The  high  places  were  either  natural  em- 
inences or  artificial  mounds,  with  their  own 
priests,  altars,  and  sacrifices,  i  Kin.  12:32; 
13:33;  2  Kin.  17:32;  23:9,  15,  20;  frequent- 
ly with  chapels  or  temples,  "  houses  of  the 
high  places,"  i  Kin.  12:31 ;  2  Kin.  23:19. 

HIGH-PRIEST,  the  head  of  the  priest- 
hood of  Israel,  Lev.  21:10,  distinguished 
from  the  other  priests  by  the  mode  of  his 
consecration,  by  peculiar  functions,  and  a 
peculiar  dress.  Aaron  was  chosen  by  God 
the  first  high-priest,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
Exod.  6:20;  28:1.  The  office  descended 
to  his  3d  son  Eleazar,  Num.  3:32;  20:28; 
Deut.  10:6,  in  whose  family  it  continued, 
Judg.  20:28,  until  it  passed  to  Eli,  a  de- 
scendant of  Ithamar,  Aaron's  youngest  son, 
I  Sam.  1:9;  14:3;  21:1;  22:20;  23:6,  9; 
I  Chr.  24:3,  6.  Solomon  retransferred  it, 
from  Abiathar,  to  Eleazar's  family  in  the 
person  of  Zadok,  i  Kin.  2:35,  because  Abi- 
232 


athar  was  disloyal,  i  Kin.  1:7,  25;  thus  the 
prophecy  concerning  Eli's  house  was  ful- 
filled, I  Sam.  2:27-36;  3:11-14.  Previously 
Abiathar  and  Zadok  would  seem  to  have 
been  colleagues  in  office,  2  Sam.  15:24-29; 

1  Chr.  15:11.  An  incomplete  list  of  the 
high-priests  succeeding  Zadok  to  the  Cap- 
tivity, in  I  Chr.  6:8-15,  is  supplemented  by 
notices  in  Kings  and  Chronicles  of  several 
who  came  between  Amariah  and  Shallurn, 

2  Kin.  II ;  12;  2  Chr.  22-24;  26:17;  2  Kin. 
16:10;  2  Chr.  31:10,  ending  with  Seraiah, 
2  Kin.  25:18.  His  grandson  Jeshua,  Ezra 
3:2,  was  high-priest  after  the  Captivity; 
and  his  successors  appear,  Neh.  12:10,  11. 
According  to  Josephus,Jaddua  in  his  priest- 
ly robes  won  the  reverence  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  B.  C.  332.  After  the  close  of  the 
Old  Testament  canon,  in  the  time  of  the 
high-priest  Simon  the  Just,  B.  C.  300-291. 
the  high-priesthood  often  became  a  tool  in 
the  hands  of  civil  rulers.  Some  of  its  in- 
cumbents, in  the  days  of  the  Syro-Greek 
kings,  were  unworthy  men,  unfaithful  to 
their  religion.  It  passed  into  the  brilliant 
Asmonean  or  Maccabean  familj^  of  the 
course  of  Joiarib,  i  Chr.  24:7,  B.  C.  153, 
and  was  generally  conjoined  with  the  royal 
authority  and  title  from  B.  C.  105  to  63, 
when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Pompey; 
but  the  Asmoneans  held  princely  and 
priestlj^  power  until  Herod  became  king, 
B.  C.  37.  He  murdered  Aristobulus,  B.  C. 
35,  the  last  of  that  line,  whom  he  had 
appointed;  and  alternately  elevated  and 
deposed  4  other  priests.  Under  Arche- 
laus  and  the  Romans  the  office  was  degra- 
ded by  frequent  changes,  no  less  than  28 
persons  having  filled  it  between  Herod's 
accession,  B.  C.  37,  and  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  A.  D.  70,  several  of  these  living 
at  the  same  time.  Compare  John  11:51. 
The  last  high-priest  was  an  ignorant  rus- 
tic, Phannias,  whom  the  Zealots  chose  by 
lot,  closing  a  series  of  76,  continuing  through 
14  centuries. 

In  2  Kin.  25 :  18  a  "  second  priest "  is  men- 
tioned, the  sagan  or  deputy,  often  appoint- 
ed to  officiate  when  the  true  high-priest 
was  disabled. 

The  consecration  of  the  high-priest  was 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  anointing — by 
pouring  the  sacred  oil  upon  his  head,  Exod. 
29:7;  30:22-33;  Lev.  8:12;  21:10,  12;  Psa. 
133:2 — in  addition  to  the  washing  and  the 
sprinkling  with  oil,  etc.,  which  he  shared 
with  all  priests,  Exod.  29:4,  20,  21;  Lev. 
8:6,  23,  24,  30.  So  Christ,  our  great  High- 
Priest,  was  anointed  with  the  Holy  Spirit, 


HIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIN 


Dan.  9:24;  Acts  10:38;  John  3:34.  Pecu- 
liar garments  were  put  upon  the  high- 
priest,  Exod.  29:5,  6,  29,  30;  Lev.  8:7-9, 
and  sacrifices  were  offered  7  days,  E.xod. 
29:1-37;  Lev.  8:14-36. 

The  high-priest's  sacred  garments,  be- 
sides the  drawers,  linen  tunic,  and  girdle 
of  other  priests,  were  4  in  number,  E.\od. 
28:4,  39-43;  Lev.  8:7-9:  the  robe  of  the 
ephod,  Exod.  28:31-35;  the  ephod,  with  its 
"curious  girdle,"  Exod.  28:6-12;  \\\&breasl- 
plate,  with  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  ver. 
15-30;  and  the  mitre,  ver.  36,  39.  See  the 
respective  titles.  These  garments  were 
worn  only  when  the  high-priest  was  minis- 
tering in  the  sanctuary,  Ezek.  42:14;  44:17- 
19;  Acts  23:5.  On  the  Day  of  Atonement 
his  dress  was  of  plain  white  linen,  Lev. 
16:4,  23,  24. 

The  peculiar  and  most  solemn  function 
of  the  high-priest  was  to  enter  the  Holy  of 
Holies  once  a  year  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, to  make  expiation  for  the  sins  of  the 
nation.  Lev.  16.  See  Expiation.  By  the 
Urim  and  Thummim  God  disclosed  to  him 
secret  and  future  things,  Exod.  28:30; 
Num.  27:21;  Deut.  33:8.  Scripture  says 
nothing  of  this  function  after  David's  time, 
I  Sam.  23:6-9;  30:7,  8;  compare  Ezra  2:63. 
The  prophets  superseded  the  high-priests 
as  mediums  of  divine  revelations,  2  Chr. 
15:1-8;  18;  20:14-17;  2  Kin.  19:2;  22:12- 
14;  Jer.  21:1,  2.  The  high-priest  had  a  pe- 
culiar place  in  the  law  of  the  man-slayer. 
Num.  35:25,  28.  At  first,  as  chief  of  all  the 
priests,  he  was  at  the  head  of  all  religious 
affairs  and  of  the  administration  of  justice 
in  Israel,  Deut.  17 : 8-12 ;  19 :  17 ;  21 : 5 ;  33  : 8, 
10;  compare  2  Chr.  19:8-11;  Ezek.  44:24. 
But  after  the  establishment  of  the  monar- 
chy the  kings  generally  led  in  great  reli- 
gious movements:  as  David,  i  Chr.  24;  25; 
Solomon,  2  Chr.  6;  7;  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chr. 
17:7-9;  19:4-11 ;  Joash,  2  Chr.  24:4-6;  Hez- 
ekiah,  ch.  29-31 ;  Josiah,  ch.  34.  When  the 
king  undertook  evil,  the  high-priest  some- 
times withstood :  as  Jehoiada  queen  Ath- 
aliah,  2  Chr.  22:10  to  23:20,  and  Azariah 
Uzziah,  2  Chr.  26:16-20;  but  sometimes  he 
yielded,  as  Urijah  to  Ahaz,  2  Kin.  16:10-16. 
The  high-priest  was  president  of  the  San- 
hedrin  in  our  Lord's  time.  Matt.  26:62. 

The  high-priest  was  to  be  without  blem- 
ish, was  to  marry  a  virgin  of  his  own  peo- 
ple, and  was  not  to  mourn  for  the  death  of 
any  relative;  strict  laws  guarded  him  from 
ceremonial  defilement.  Lev.  21:10-24.  He 
was  supported  from  the  tithes  and  offer- 
ings.   See  Priests. 


Christ  is  our  "  merciful  and  faithful  High- 
Priest;"  of  a  better  order  than  Aaron's, 
because  his  priesthood  is  intransmissible; 
holy,  not  needing  to  offer  sacrifice  for  him- 
self, but  having  once  for  all  made  propitia- 
tion for  our  sins  with  his  own  blood,  with 
which  he  passed  through  the  heavens  into 
the  presence  of  God,  where  he  ever  liveth 
to  make  intercession  for  us;  who  blesses 
by  turning  his  people  from  their  iniquities, 
Num.  6:23-26;  Acts  3:26;  who  has  opened 
a  way  of  access  to  God  through  himself, 
and  will  appear  a  second  time,  from  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  to  the  complete  salvation, 
bodily  as  well  as  spiritual,  of  those  who 
believe  in  him — welcoming  them  to  the 
abode  which  as  Forerunner  he  has  pre- 
pared and  entered,  i  Thess.  4:13-18;  He- 
brews. That  his  work  may  avail  for  us, 
we  need  to  accept,  trust,  and  obey  him, 
Heb.  10: 19-39. 

HIGH'WAYS.  Anciently  Palestine  must 
have  had  roads  practicable  for  vehicles, 
since  carts  and  chariots  were  used,  Gen. 
46:5;  Josh.  17:16;  Judg.  4: 13;  2  Kin.  10: 16; 
Acts  8:28.  Traces  of  Roman  roads  still 
remain.  But  now  even  the  most  important 
routes  are  only  narrow  winding  paths  for 
the  passage  of  beasts  of  burden,  usually  in 
single  file.  See  Hedge.  In  Matt.  22:9, 
read,  "  the  crossings  of  the  highways." 

HILKI'AH,  God  is  my  portio7i,  I.  and  II. 

1  Chr.  6:45;  26:11.-111.  2  Kin.  18:18;  Isa. 
22:20;  36:3,  22. — IV.  High-priest  in  Josi- 
ah's  reign.  He  found  "  the  book  of  the 
Law,"  the  sacred  copy  of  the  Pentateuch, 
in  the  temple,  and  aided  Josiah  in  his  refor- 
mation, 2  Kin.  22:8  to  23:25;  2  Chr.  34:14- 
35.  He  was  probably  an  ancester  of  Ezra, 
Ezra  7:1. — V.  Jer.  1:1. — VI.  Jer.  29:3. — 
VII.  Neh.  12:7,  21.— VIII.  Neh.  8:4. 

HILL,  sometimes  improperly  used  in  A. 
V.  for  mountain — a  height,  range,  or  dis- 
trict, E.xod.  24:4,  12,  13,  18;  Num.  13:29; 
14:40,  44,  45;  Josh.  15:9.  In  Deut.  1:7; 
Josh.  9:1,  the  mountain  district  of  Southern 
Palestine;  in  Josh.  15:8  the  Mount  of  Ol- 
ives;   in   Psa.  3:4;    24:3,  Mount  Zion;  in 

2  Kin.  1:9;  4:27,  Mount  Carmel,  i  Kin. 
18:19;  2  Kin.  4: 25.  I"  Luke  9 : n  the  R.  V. 
has  mountain  as  in  ver.  28. 

HIN.    See  Measures. 

HIND.     See  next  page. 

HIN'GES,  pivots,  often  of  one  piece  with 
the  door,  turning  in  sockets  hollowed  above 
and  below  in  the  door-frame,  Prov.  26:14. 
The  golden  pivots  in  i  Kin.  7:50  were  sep- 
arate and  fitted  to  the  corners  of  the 
doors. 

233 


HIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIT 


HIND,  the  hornless  female  of  the  hart; 
active,  Gen.  49:21;  compare  Judg.  4:6-10; 


HIND   AND   KAWN. 

5:18;  swift  and  sure  -  footed  on  rocky 
heights,  2  Sam.  22:34;  Psa.  18:33;  Hab. 
3:19;  affectionate,  Prov.  5:18,  19;  Jer.  14:5; 
easily  agitated.  Song  2:7;  3:5;  timid,  Psa. 
29:9.    See  Thunder. 

HIN'NOM,  a  valley  west  and  south  of 
Jerusalem,  called  also  the  "  valley  of  the 
son  of  Hinnom;"  a  deep  ravine  with  rocky 
sides,  passing  south  from  the  Jaffa  gate 
and  then  east,  between  Mount  Zion  on  the 
north  and  the  "  Hill  of  KmU  Counsel  "  on 
the  south,  and  joining  the  Kedron  valley 
on  the  east.  It  was  the  boundary  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  Josh.  15:8;  18:16; 
Neh.  11:30.  Its  width  varied  from  50  to 
100  yards,  and  near  the  wider  part  opening 
to  the  Kedron  it  was  called  Tophet,  Jer. 
7:31,  32;  19:2-6;  2  Kin.  23:10,  where  Solo- 
mon built  high  places  to  Moloch,  i  Kin. 
11:7,  and  Ahaz  and  Manasseh  made  their 
children  "  pass  through  the  fire,"  2  Kin. 
16:3;  2  Chr.  28:3;  33:6;  Jer.  32:35.  To 
end  these  abominations  Josiah  defiled  the 
spot  with  human  bones  and  other  corrup- 
tions, 2  Kin.  23:10,  13,  14;  2  Chr.  34:4,  5, 
and  it  became  a  cesspool  to  receive  the 
sewage  of  the  city  to  be  carried  off  into  the 
Kedron.  From  the  fires  of  Moloch  and 
from  the  defilement  of  the  valley  (compare 
Isa.  30:33;  66:24),  if  not  from  the  supposed 
ever-burning  funeral  fires  (not  well  authen- 
ticated), the  later  Jews  applied  the  name 
of  the  valley,  in  the  Septuagint  Geenna,  to 
the  place  of  eternal  suffering  for  lost  angels 
and  men;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  used  in  the 
New  Testament,  Matt.  5:22,  29,  30;  10:28; 
Mark  9:43,  45,  47;  Luke  12:5;  Jas.  3:6. 
See  Hell.  An  ancient  aqueduct  crosses 
it  below  the  western  gate  and  above  "  the 
234 


lower  pool."  The  "upper  pool  '  is  700 
yards  west  by  north  of  the  gate.  No  water 
now  flows  in  the  bed  of  the  valley,  which 
is  cultivated  in  parts,  and  in  Tophet  are 
gardens  watered  from  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
The  hill  on  the  south  of  Hinnom  is  full  of 
ruined  tombs;  and  on  the  slope  south  of 
Tophet  is  the  traditional  site  of  "  the  pot- 
ters' field  "  (see  Aceldama),  where  a  bed 
of  clay  is  still  worked  by  potters.  The 
valley  is  now  called  Wady  er-Rababi. 

Warren  and  Stanley  have  argued  that 
Hinnom  is  identical  with  the  Kedron  val- 
ley, but  are  not  generally  followed  in  this. 

HI'RAM,  or  Hi'RAM,  high-born,  I.,  a 
king  of  Tyre,  a  friend  of  David,  i  Kin.  5:1, 
whom  he  furnished  with  materials  and 
workmen  for  his  palace,  2  Sam.  5:11;  i  Chr. 
14:1;  and  afterwards  of  Solomon,  whom 
he,  or  perhaps  his  son,  supplied  with  gold, 
timber,  and  men  to  build  the  temple,  and 
probably  Solomon's  palace,  i  Kin.  5;  9:11 ; 
10:11,  12;  2  Chr.  2:3-16;  9:10,  II.  Solo- 
mon in  return  sent  yearly  supplies  of  grain, 
wine,  and  oil  to  Tyre,  and  gave  Hiram  20 
cities  in  Galilee,  i  Kin.  9:11-13.  See  Ca- 
BUL.  Hiram  assisted  Solomon  in  com- 
mercial enterprises  by  sea,  i  Kin.  9:26-28  ; 
10:11,  22;  2  Chr.  8:17,  18;  9:10.  Josephus 
says  he  greatly  improved  Tyre,  and  reigned 
34  years. 

II.  A  skilled  artificer  of  Tyre,  under 
whose  direction  the  interior  decorations 
and  utensils  of  Solomon's  temple  were 
made,  i  Kin.  7:13-45;  2  Chr.  2:13,  14; 
4: 11-16. 

HIRE'LING,  a  laborer  employed  for  a 
limited  time.  Job  14:6;  to  be  paid  prompt- 
ly. Lev.  19:13;  Jas.  5:4.  "The  years  of  a 
hireling"  mean  time  measured  with  e.xact- 
ness,  Isa.  16:14;  21:16.  In  our  Lord's  time 
a  laborer's  "  hire  "  was  a  penny.  Matt.  20:  i- 
14.  A  hireling  took  less  interest  in  his 
charge  than  the  owner,  John  10:12,  13. 

HIS,  in  A.  V.  often  used  for  Us,  which  is 
nowhere  found.  Gen.  i:ii,  12;  Lev.  11:22; 
Deut.  14:14,  15. 

HISS,  an  e.xpression  of  contempt,  Job 
27:23;  I  Kin.  9:8;  Jer.  19:8;  Ezek.  27:36; 
Mic.  6:16.  Also  a  mode  of  calling  an  at- 
tendant, still  common  in  the  East,  Isa.  5:26; 
7: 18;  Zech.  10:8. 

HIT'TITES,  descendants  of  Heth,  second 
son  of  Canaan,  Gen.  10:15;  15:20.  In  Abra- 
ham's time  they  were  settled  around  He- 
bron, and  appear  as  a  peaceable  commer- 
cial people  in  selling  him  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah,  (ien.  23;  25:9.  Esau  married  Hit- 
tites,  Gen.  26:34,  35.     Later  they  are  found 


HIV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOL 


in  the  mountains,  Num.  13:29;  Josh.  11:3; 
united  in  a  confederation  against  Israel, 
and  were  subdued,  Josh.  9:1,  2;  11:1-9; 
12:7,  8,  as  God  had  promised  Abraham, 
Gen.  15:18,  20,  and  Moses,  Exod.  3:8.  For- 
bidden intercourse  with  them  helped  to 
lead  Israel  into  idolatry,  Judg.  3:5-7.  Uri- 
ah was  a  Hittite,  2  Sam.  11:3;  23:39.  Sol- 
omon brought  the  remaining  Hittites  un- 
der subjection,  i  Kin.  9:15-21 ;  2  Chr.  8:1- 
8,  and  married  among  them,  i  Kin.  n:i. 
"The  kings  of  the  Hittites,"  an  ancient 
and  powerful  kingdom  north  of  Palestine, 
purchased  some  of  the  chariots  Solomon 
imported  from  Egypt,  i  Kin.  10:29;  2  Chr. 
1 :  17  ;  compare  2  Kin.  7:6;  Josh.  11 :4.  The 
Hittites  were  not  lost  as  a  people  till  after 
the  Captivity,  Ezra  9:1.  The  exact  extent 
of  their  "land"  is  not  known. 

Hittites  are  mentioned  on  Egyptian  mon- 
uments of  the  19th  and  20th  dynasties,  in- 
cluding Joshua's  time,  as  conquered  ene- 
mies of  Egypt  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes, 
and  in  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  2  or  3  cen- 
turies later  as  in  the  same  region.  Ash- 
toreth  is  named  in  the  Egyptian  records 
as  one  of  their  divinities.    See  Canaan- 

ITES. 

HI'VITES,  descendants  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
10:17,  ^t  Shechem  in  Jacob's  time,  when 
they  appear  commercial  and  unvvarlike, 
Gen.  33:18  to  34:31.  In  Joshua's  time  they 
possessed  Gibeon,  etc.,  Josh.  9:3-27;  11  :i9; 
and  though  accounted  powerful.  Josh.  10:  i- 
5,  they  secured  terms  from  Israel  by  craft 
and  not  by  force.  See  Gibeonites.  They 
also  had  a  home  in  Mount  Lebanon,  Josh. 
11:3;  Judg.  2-3<  even  till  David's  time, 
2  Sam.  24:7;  and  these  were  defeated  by 
Israel  at  the  waters  of  Merom,  Josh.  11 :3-8, 
17,  19.  Israel  did  not  exterminate  the  Hi- 
vites,  but  unlawfully  mingled  with  them  in 
marriage  and  idolatry,  Judg.  3:5-7.  They 
as  well  as  the  Hittites  furnished  bond-ser- 
vants to  Solomon  for  his  extensive  con- 
structions, I  Kin.  9:15-21;  2  Chr.  8:1-8; 
compare  i  Kin.  5:15.     See  Canaanites. 

HO'BAB,  favored,  a  Midianite  prince, 
son  of  Raguel  or  Reuel,  Num.  10:29-32,  and 
probably  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses.  He 
is  mentioned  in  the  record  of  the  2d  year 
after  the  Exodus.  He  finally  acceded  to 
Moses'  request  to  cast  in  his  lot  with  Israel, 
Judg.  1:16;  4:11.  The  word  translated 
"father-in-law,"  and  applied  to  Jethro  as 
well  as  to  Hobab,  Exod.  3:1;  4:18;  18:1, 
may  mean  in  Judg.  4:11  simply  a  connec- 
tion by  marriage — one  whose  house  gave 
Moses  a  wife.     See  Jethro. 


HO'BAH,  a  place  2  or  3  miles  north  of 
Damascus,  to  which  Abraham  pursued  his 
allied  foes.  Gen.  14:15. 

HOLD,  Exod.  20:7;  Job  9:28;  13:24; 
Prov.  16:5;  17:5;  19:5,  margin;  Zech. 
11:5;  Matt.  21:26,  regard  and  treat. 

HO'LY,  HO'LINESS.  The  primitive 
meaning  of  these  words  is  a  separation  or 
setting  apart  to  God  and  his  service.  True 
holiness  characterizes  outward  acts,  but 
still  more  the  motive  and  intent  of  the 
heart.  It  is  an  inward  principle  ;  not  mere 
rectitude  or  benevolence,  or  any  one  moral 
excellence,  but  the  harmonious  and  perfect 
blending  of  all,  as  all  the  colors  of  the 
prism  duly  blended  form  pure  light.  God 
is  holy  in  a  transcendent  and  infinitely 
perfect  manner,  Isa.  1:4;  6:3.  The  Mes- 
siah is  called  "the  Holy  One,"  Psa.  16:10; 
Luke  4:34;  Acts  3: 14;  and  Holy  is  the  epi- 
thet commonly  given  to  the  third  person  of 
the  Trinity,  the  Holy  Spirit.  God  is  the 
fountain  of  holiness,  innocence,  and  sancti- 
fication.  The  angels  who  kept  their  purity 
are  called  holy.  Matt.  25:31.  Mankind  lost 
all  holiness  in  the  fall ;  but  God  makes  his 
people  gradually  "  partakers  in  his  holi- 
ness "  here,  and  in  heaven  the}^  will  be 
found  perfectly  and  for  ever  sanctified ;  as 
an  earnest  of  which,  he  looks  upon  them 
as  already,  in  Christ,  holy  and  beloved. 
The  Bible  applies  the  epithet  holy  to  what- 
ever pertains  especially  to  God — to  heaven, 
to  his  temple,  its  parts,  utensils,  and  servi- 
ces ;  to  his  day,  his  ministers,  priests,  proph- 
ets, and  apostles.  The  children  of  Israel 
were  called  a  holy  nation,  because  they 
were  separated  unto  God  to  be  a  religious 
and  consecrated  people,  Exod.  19:6;  Deut. 
7:6;  and  Christians,  as  a  body,  are  also 
called  holy,  because  they  are  in  like  man- 
ner separated  unto  Christ,  i  Pet.  2:9.  But 
a  "holy  man,"  in  the  ordinary  Christian 
sense,  is  one  who  exhibits  in  his  conduct 
the  inward  purity,  benevolence,  and  holy 
devotedness  to  the  Saviour  with  which  his 
heart  overflows.  The  conception  of  God 
as  the  Holy  One,  perfectly  free  from  and 
averse  to  sin,  distinguishes  the  religion 
of  the  Bible  from  all  ancient  and  modern 
heathen  systems,  which  attribute  to  imag- 
ined deities  human  passions  and  sins. 

HO'LY  SPIR'IT,  or  HO'LY  GHOST,  both 
English  words  being  the  rendering  of  the 
same  word  in  Greek,  the  3d  person  in  the 
blessed  Trinity.  He  is  said  to  proceed 
from  the  Father,  and  to  be  sent  by  the 
Father  and  the  Son  upon  disciples,  John 
14 :  26 ;  15 :  26 ;  to  be  the  Spirit  of  the  Father, 

235 


HOM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOP 


Matt.  10:20;  I  Cor.  2:11;  and  the  Spirit  of 
Christ,  Gal.  4:6;  Phil.  1:19. 

That  he  is  a  real  person,  and  not  merely 
an  attribute  or  emanation  of  God,  is  clear 
from  the  numerous  passages  in  the  Bible 
which  describe  him  as  exercising  the  acts, 
thoughts,  emotions,  and  volitions  of  a  dis- 
tinct intelligent  person.  None  other  could 
be  pleased,  vexed,  and  grieved — could 
speak,  console,  and  intercede,  or  divide  his 
gifts  severally  to  every  one  as  he  will. 

That  he  is  a  divine  person,  equally  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  proved  from  his 
association  with  them  in  a  great  variety  of 
acts  purely  divine;  as  in  the  work  of  crea- 
tion, Gen.  1:2;  Psa.  33:6;  104:30.  He  is 
honored  as  they  are  in  the  baptismal  for- 
mula, Matt.  28:19,  and  in  the  apostolic 
benediction,  2  Cor.  13:14;  Rev.  1:4,  5.  He 
receives  the  names  of  God:  Jehovah,-  com- 
pare Acts  18:25  with  Isa.  6;  Heb.  3:7-9 
with  Exod.  17:2-7;  Jer.  31:31-34  with 
Heb.  10:15,  16. — God;  Acts  5:3,  4. — Lord ; 
2  Cor.  3:17,  18.  He  exercises  the  attri- 
butes of  God,  I  Cor.  2:10,  11;  Isa.  40:13, 
14;  Psa.  139:7-10;  Heb.  9:  14;  and  blas- 
phemy against  him  is  unpardonable,  Matt. 
12:31,  32.    See  Blasphemy. 

The  WORK  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  divine. 
Of  old  he  inspired  the  sacred  writers  and 
teachers,  and  imparted  miraculous  gifts. 
Under  the  Christian  dispensation  he  ap- 
plies the  salvation  of  Christ  to  men's  hearts, 
convicting  them  of  sin,  John  16:8,  9,  show- 
ing them  "the  things  of  Christ,"  illumina- 
ting and  regenerating  them,  John  3:5; 
I  Cor.  12:3-11.  He  is  the  Comforter  of  the 
church,  John  14:16,  17,  26;  calls  laborers 
into  the  ministry  and  directs  them,  Acts 
13:2,  4;  20:28;  witnesses  with  believers, 
Rom.  8:15-17,  aids  them  in  prayer  and  in- 
tercedes for  them,  ver.  26,  27,  directs  them 
in  duty,  ver.  14,  and  sanctifies  them  for 
heaven,  Gal.  5:16-26;  i  Pet.  1:2.  All  are 
warned  not  to  "quench,"  "vex,"  "resist," 
or  "grieve"  him,  Isa.  63:10;  Acts  7:51; 
Eph.  4:30;  I  Thess.  5:19,  for  without  him 
we  have  no  part  in  Christ,  Rom.  8:9. 

HO'MER,  or  Cor,  the  largest  dry  meas- 
ure of  the  Hebrews,  equal  to  10  baths  or 
ephahs,  and  containing  about  8  of  our  bush- 
els, Ezek.  45:14.     See  Measures. 

HONEST,  HON'ESTY,  HON'ESTLY, 
often  used  in  the  A.  V.  in  the  original  sense 
of  "honorable,"  etc.,  Rom.  12:17;  2  Cor. 
13:7;  Phil.  4:8;  I  Tim.  2:2:  Heb.  13:18. 

HON'EY  was  formerly  very  plentiful  in 
Palestine,  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey,  Exod.  3:17;  Lev.  20:24.  Wild  bee 
236 


honey  was  often  found  in  hollow  trees  and 
clefts  in  the  rocks,  Ueut.  32: 13  ;  Psa.  81 :  16. 
Jonathan  refreshed  himself  with  it,  i  Sam. 
14:25-27,  and  it  was  a  part  of  John  the 
Baptist's  food,  Matt.  3:4.  The  "  vegetable 
honey"  which  some  writers  refer  to,  the 
exudation  from  twigs  of  the  gharrab-tree 
in  the  Jordan  valley,  is  found  only  in  small 
globules,  needing  to  be  carefully  collected 
and  strained.  Honey  was  highly  prized, 
Psa.  19:10;  Prov.  27:7,  and  inconstant  use, 
2  Sam.  17:29;  Isa.  7:15.  A  mixture  of 
honey  with  curdled  milk  or  butter  is  still 
a  Bedouin  delicacy.  Honey,  like  leaven, 
was  not  to  be  offered  on  the  altar.  Lev. 
2:11.  It  symbolized  flattery,  Prov.  5:3,  and 
pleasant  and  wholesome  discourse,  Song 
4:11.  The  term  " honey  "  also  includes  a 
3d  substance — a  syrup  prepared  by  boiling 
down  the  fresh  juice  of  grapes  or  dates, 
2  Chr.  31 :5,  margin.  Grape  honey,  in  Ara- 
bic dibs,  is  much  used  by  the  Arabs  as  a 
condiment,  and  resembles  thin  molasses. 
It  may  have  been  this  that  Jacob  sent  to 
Egypt,  Gen.  43:11,  and  the  Tyrians  pur- 
chased from  Palestine,  Ezek.  27:17.  Pales- 
tine still  abounds  in  honey;  bee-keeping  is 
much  practised,  and  swarms  of  wild  bees 
are  numerous.    See  Bee,  Grapes. 

HOOD,  Isa.  3:23,  a  turban.  See  Head- 
dress. 

HOOK,  used  in  A.  V.  for  several  Hebrew 
words  of  different  senses.  I.  Fish-hook, 
Job  41:1;  Amos  4:2. — II.  Probably  a  ring 
for  the  noses  of  lions  and  other  animals,  to 
lead  them  with,  2  Kin.  19:28;  Ezek.  19:4, 
9,  A.  V.  "in  chains;"  29:4;  38:4.  Captives 
were  sometimes  thus  led,  as  Assyrian 
sculptures  show,  2  Chr.  33:11,  A.  V.  "in 
the  thorns."  Large  fish  were  secured  alive 
in  the  water.  Job  41 :2,  A.  V.  "  thorn,"  and 
attached  by  a  cord,  A.  V.  "  hook,"  to  a 
stake.— III.  Hooks  by  which  the  curtains 
of  the  tabernacle  hung,  Exod.  26:32,  2,7- — 
IV.  Pruning-hooks,  curved  knives,  Isa.  2:4; 
18:5. — V.  Flesh-hooks,  i  Sam.  2:13,  14. — 
VI.  Perhaps  hooks  on  which  carcases  were 
hung  up  for  flaying,  Ezek.  40:43. 

HOPE,  the  desire  and  e.xpectation  of 
some  good,  i  Cor.  9:10,  especially  the  as- 
sured expectation  of  salvation  and  all  its 
blessings  for  this  life  and  the  life  to  come, 
through  the  merits  of  Christ.  It  is  one 
of  the  3  great  elements  of  Christian  char- 
acter and  life,  i  Cor.  13:13.  Its  earnest  is 
the  spiritual  life  already  begun  in  believ- 
ers, to  be  prolonged  through  eternity,  Rom. 
8:23-25;  I  Cor.  15:19;  Gal.  5:5;  i  Thess. 
5:8-10;  2  Tim.  4:8;  Tit.  3:4-7.     The  Holy 


HOP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOR 


Spirit  inspires  and  maintains  it,  i  Pet. 
1:3-5;  Rom.  8:11;  15:13.  Unbelievers 
are  witliout  hope  because  without  God, 
Eph.  2: 12 ;  I  Thess.  4: 13.  Christ  is  the  be- 
lievers' "hope,"  because  all  their  depend- 
ence is  on  him,  and  because  it  is  at  his  2d 
coming  that  their  hope  of  glory  is  to  be 
realized.  Col.  1:27;  i  Tim.  1:1;  Tit.  2:13. 
Hope  enables  them  to  bear  present  trials, 
Rom.  8:25;  I  Thess.  1:3,  and  stimulates 
them  to  labor  diligently  and  perseveringly, 
1  Cor.  15:51-58,  and  to  strive  to  grow  into 
the  likeness  of  Christ,  Heb.  12:14;  i  John 

3:2,3- 

HOPH'NI,  a  boxer,  and  PHIN'EHAS,  the 
wicked  sons  of  Eli  the  high-priest,  called 
"  sons  of  Belial."     They  grossly  and  con- 


tinuously abused  the  influence  of  their  po- 
sition and  sacred  office ;  and  their  cupidity, 
violence,  and  impious  profligacy,  overbear- 
ing the  feeble  remonstrances  of  their  fa- 
ther, brought  disgrace  and  ruin  on  their 
family.  Though  professedly  the  servants 
of  God,  they  knew  him  not,  i  Sam.  2:12; 
compare  Jer.  22:16;  Matt.  7:21-23;  Tit. 
1:16.  The  ark,  which  they  had  carried  to 
the  camp,  was  taken,  and  they  were  slain 
in  battle,  i  Sam.  2-4.  See  Eli.  The  ark 
of  God  protects  only  those  who  love  and 
obey  him.  Compare  Jer.  7:4.  Men  in  all 
ages  are  prone  to  rely  on  a  form  of  reli- 
gion, while  the  heart  and  life  are  not  right 
with  God;  and  all  who  thus  sin,  like  the 
sons  of  Eli,  must  perish  likewise. 


MOUNT   HOR,   AND   AAROn's  TOMB. 


HOR,  mountajn,  I.,  the  mountain  on  which 
Aaron  died,  and  Eleazar  his  son  succeeded 
him  as  high-priest,  Num.  20:22-29;  33:38, 
39;  Deut.  32:50.  It  was  on  the  border  of 
Edom,  Num.  33:37,  between  Kadesh  and 
Zalmonah,  ver.  36,  41.  Mosera  lay  at  its 
foot,  Deut.  10:6.  It  is  the  highest  and  most 
conspicuous  peak  in  the  sandstone  range 
of  Mount  Seir,  which  extends  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Arabah  from  near  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  lying  mid- 
way in  the  range,  about  50  miles  from  each 
end.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  Neby  Harun, 
"mount  of  the  prophet  Aaron."  It  rises 
4,800  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  4,000 
above  the  Arabah,  6,000  above  the  Dead 
Sea,  "marked  far  and  near,"  says  Stanley, 
"by  its  double  top,  which  rises  like  a  huge 


castellated  building  from  a  lower  base." 
On  the  eastern  peak  is  "Aaron's  tomb,"  a 
small  Mohammedan  chapel,  erected  from 
the  remains  of  an  older  building,  over  the 
supposed  grave,  to  which  pilgrimages  are 
made.     See  Selah. 

Many  scholars,  however,  now  identify 
the  Mount  Hor  where  Aaron  died  with  Je- 
bel Madurah,  2i3  miles  southwest  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  on  the  west  border  of 
Edom,  which  the  Hebrews  were  forbidden 
to  enter,  Num.  20:14-21,  or  possess,  Deut. 
2:5.  Madurah  is  a  lofty,  isolated  mountain- 
citadel,  at  a  point  where  Canaan,  Edom, 
and  Zin  meet.     See  Kadesh,  Mosera. 

II.  A  mountain  on  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  Promised  Land,  Num.  34:7,8; 
according  to    some,    the   whole    Lebanon 

237 


HOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOR 


range;  but  perhaps  the  highest  peak  of  that 
range,  Dahar  el-Kudib,  about  25  miles  from 
the  northern  end.     See  Lebanon. 

HO'REB.    See  Sinai. 

HOR'ITES,  or  Ho'rim,  cave-dwellers,  a 
race  of  early  dwellers  in  Mount  Seir, 
whence  they  were  expelled  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  Gen.  14:6;  Deut.  2:12,  22.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  caves,  like  the 
men  referred  to  in  Job  30:6,  and  to  have 
been  divided  into  several  tribes,  Gen. 
36:20-30. 

HOR'MAH,  destruclion,  Num.  21:1-3; 
also  called  Zephath ;  a  city  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Canaan,  near  which  the  rebellious 
Hebrews  were  defeated,  in  the  2d  year 
after  leaving  Egypt,  Num.  14:45;  it  was 
afterwards  laid  waste,  Judg.  1:16,  17.  The 
Simeonites  repeopled  it.  Josh.  19:4,  and 
David  sent  them  some  of  his  spoils  taken 
from  the  Amalekites,  i  Sam.  30:30.  In 
some  passages  the  name  seems  to  be  given 
by  anticipation.  Palmer  and  Drake  place 
it  at  Sebaiteh ;  Robinson  at  es-Sufa,  30 
miles  east.    See  Zephath. 

HOR'NET.  This  formidable  insect  was 
a  means  of  expelling  the  Canaanites  before 
Israel,  Exod.23:28;  Deut.  7:20;  Josh.  24: 12. 
Some  scholars  regard  the  term  as  figura- 
tive, vividly  denoting  the  consternation 
which  God  would  send  upon  Israel's  ene- 
mies, Exod.  23:27;  Deut.  1:44;  2:25;  Josh. 
2:11.  But  real  hornets  may  well  have  done 
the  work  described.  Swarms  of  these  in- 
sects are  known  to  have  rendered  some 
places  uninhabitable.  They  are  numerous 
still  in  some  parts  of  Palestine,  and,  Cap- 
tain Warren  says,  "attack  human  beings 
in  the  most  furious  manner.  I  can  readily 
conceive  the  rout  of  an  army  being  occa- 
sioned by  them."     See  Zoreah. 

HORNS  were  used  as  cups  and  vessels 
for  liquids,  i  Sam.  16:1;  i  Kin.  1:39.  See 
Keren-happuch.  Also  as  trumpets,  Josh. 
6:5,  though  the  words  translated  "trum- 
pets of  rams'  horns,"  ver.  4,  6,  8,  13,  should 
be  rendered  "trumpets  of  jubilees,"  and 
"  rams'  horn  "  in  ver.  5  should  be  "  horn 
of  jubilee."  Artificial  instruments  of  like 
form  are  no  doubt  sometimes  intended, 
and  were  used  in  the  temple  worship,  i  Chr. 
25:5.  The  horns  of  the  altar  were  eleva- 
tions at  its  4  corners,  Exod.  27:2;  30:2.  As 
the  chief  ornament  and  defence  of  many 
beasts  are  in  their  horns,  these  are  often 
symbols  of  strength,  honor,  victory,  and 
dominion,  Deut.  33:17;  i  Sam.  2:1,  10; 
I  Kin.  22:11;  Psa.  75:10;  Hab.  3:4;  Rev. 
5:6.  Horns  often  denote  kings  and  king- 
238 


doms,  Dan.  7:20-24;  8:3-9;  Zech.  1:18-21; 
Rev.  17:7,  12.  Assyrian  kings  in  the  Nin- 
evite  sculptures  wear  conical  one-horned 
caps,  and  coins  of  Alexander  the  Great  rep- 
resent him  as  horned.  "  A  horn  of  salva- 
tion," Luke  1 :69,  is  One  "  mighty  to  save," 
Isa.  63 : 1 .  To  abase  or  defile  the  horn  sym- 
bolizes humiliation,  Job  16:15;  to  cut  off  the 
horn,  to  ruin,  Jer.  48:25.  The  Indian  chief 
who  treated  with  William  Penn  asserted 
his  authority  by  first  putting  on  a  crown 
with  a  horn  upon  it.  Silver  and  even  gold 
horns  of  great  length  were  formerly  worn 
by  married  Druse  ladies  on  Mount  Leba- 


non, as  in  the  cut;  the  other  head  is  that 
of  an  Abyssinian  chief. 

HORONA'IM,  ht'o  caverns,  a  city  of  Moab, 
apparently' on  a  height,  Isa.  15:5;  Jer.  48:3, 

5,  34- 

HO'RONITE,  the,  Sanballat,  Neh.  2 :  10, 19 ; 
13:28,  may  have  come  from  Horonaim,  or 
Beth-horon. 

HOR'SES,  anciently  used  chiefly  in  war, 
Prov.  21:31;  Jer.  8:16,  not  among  Abra- 
ham's acquisitions  from  Egypt,  though  2 
centuries  later  paid  to  Joseph  for  corn, 
Gen.  12:16;  47:17.  A  force  of  war-chari- 
ots, each  with  2  horses  and  a  "captain," 
besides  the  driver  and  perhaps  a  shield- 
bearer,  accompanied  Pharaoh  in  pursuit  of 
Israel,  and  was  overwhelmed  in  the  Red 
Sea,  Exod.  14:6-9,  23-28;  15;  here  "horse- 
men" and  "riders,"  some  Hebrew  schol- 
ars think,  denote  those  who  rode  in  chari- 
ots;  and  Egyptian  monuments  never  rep- 
resent Egyptian  soldiers  on  horseback. 
The  Arabians  in  old  time  seem  to  have 
had  no  horses.  Num.  31 :  28,  30,  32-34 ;  Judg. 
6:3-5;  I  Chr.  5:20-22.  The  Canaanites  and 
Philistines  had  them.  Josh.  11:4;  i  Sam. 
13:5.    Israel  was  forbidden  to  fear  the  cav- 


HOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOS 


airy  of  enemies,  to  preserve  the  horses  of 
the  conquered,  or  to  multiply  horses,  Deut. 
17:16;  20:1;  Josh.  11:6,  9,  but  were  to  trust 
in  God  alone,  Isa.  31 : 1-6.  The  formidable 
aspect,  courage,  and  strength  of  the  war- 
horse  are  grandly  described  in  Job  39:19- 
25.  See  Samuel's  prediction  as  to  the  king 
the  people  so  desired,  i  Sam.  8:11.  David 
reserved  horses  of  the  defeated  king  of 
Zobah,  2  Sam.  8:4,  and  Solomon  imported 
them,  received  them  as  tribute  from  other 
countries,  and  established  a  large  chariot 
and  cavalry  force,  i  Kin.  4:26;  10:25-29; 
2  Chr.  1:14,  16,  17;  9:24,  25,  28;  and  suc- 
ceeding kings  did  the  like,  i  Kin.  22:4; 
Isa.  2:7.  Israel's  cavalry  dwindled  under 
Jehoahaz,  and  Judah's  still  more  under 
Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  13:7;  18:23.  Zedekiah 
sought  Egyptian  cavalry  to  aid  his  revolt 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Chr.  36:13; 
Ezek.  17:15.  Idolatrous  kings  of  Judah 
consecrated  horses  to  the  sun — either  liv- 
ing, to  take  part  in  processions  in  honor  of 
Baal,  or  statues  before  his  temples.  Josiah 
removed  them,  2  Kin.  23:11.  The  Jews 
brought  back  horses  with  them  from  Baby- 
lon, Neh.  7:68.  The  Assyrian  mounted 
troops  were  very  formidable,  Ezek.  23:6; 
Nah.  ^■.^■,  Hab.  1:8;  they  also  used  horses 
in  hunting,  etc.  As  they  were  then  un- 
shod, hard  hoofs  were  highly  valued,  Isa. 
5:28.  Saddles  are  not  spoken  of  or  de- 
picted, but  bells  were  used,  Zech.  14:20. 
The  Hebrew  distinguishes  between  horses 
of  a  heavy  and  of  a  light  build.  Tyre  ob- 
tained "chariot-horses  and  riding-horses  " 
from  Armenia,  Ezek.  27:14.  In  Joel  2:4 
read,  "as  riding-horses  .  .  .  they  run."  In 
Isa.  21:7  read,  "a  cavalcade  of  horsemen 
riding  in  pairs,"  describing  the  orderly 
march  of  the  Persian  cavalry,  ver.  2,  "  two 
by  two,"  as  Xenophon  tells  us.  In  i  Kin. 
4:26  read,  "4,00.0  chariot-horses  and  12,000 
riding -horses,"  40,000  being  probably  a 
copyist's  error.  Compare  2  Chr.  9:25.  In 
I  Kin.  10:28  probably  "strings"  of  horses 
should  be  understood  instead  of  "  linen 
yarn."  A  swift  horse  is  mentioned  in  i  Kin. 
4:28  as  "a  dromedary,"  Esth.  8:10,  14  as  a 
"  mule,"  in  Mic.  i :  13  as  "  a  swift  beast."  In 
agricultural  labor  the  horse  appears  in  Isa. 
28:28— the  threshing  of  wheat  or  barley  by 
-driving  horses  over  it.  Mention  is  made  of 
the  use  of  horses  in  locomotion,  Isa.  66:20; 
Jer.  17:25;  22:4,  ordinarily  only  by  princes 
•or  great  men,  Eccl.  10:7.  Horses  symbol- 
ize angelic  powers,  2  Kin.  2:11;  6:15-17; 
and  under  different  colors,  different  dis- 
pensations of  God,   Zech.    i:8-n;   6:2-8; 


Rev.  6:2-8.  A  white  horse  indicated  vic- 
tory, Rev.  6:2;  19:11,  14.  At  present  in 
Palestine  horses  are  used  in  travelling,  not 
in  agriculture. 

HORSE' LEECH,  Ihe  adherer,  a  well- 
known  water-worm  very  common  in  Pal- 
estine. It  frequently  enters  the  nostrils 
or  mouth  of  animals  when  drinking,  and 
clings  until  gorged  with  blood.  It  is  an 
apt  emblem  of  avarice  and  rapacity,  Prov. 
30: 15.  Its  "  two  daughters  "  are  the  words 
"  Give  !  Give  !" 

HOSAN'NA  !  save  now!  or  save,  we  be- 
seech! an  acclamation,  invoking  the  bless- 
ing of  God  upon  the  Messiah,  used  by  the 
multitudes  who  welcomed  Christ's  entry 
into  Jerusalem,  Matt.  21:9,  15.  The  2  He- 
brew words  composing  it  begin  ver.  25  of 
Psa.  118,  and  were  shouted  by  the  multi- 
tudes in  the  temple  at  the  joyous  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  as  a  response  at  intervals  to 
the  chanting  of  the  Great  Hallel,  Psalms 
113-118,  by  one  of  the  priests.  The  early 
Christian  church  adopted  the  word  in  its 
worship. 

HOSE'A,  deliverance,  was  probably  the 
4th  of  the  prophets  in  chronological  order, 
exercising  his  office  about  60  years,  B.  C. 
784-725,  from  the  early  part  of  Uzziah's 
long  reign — which  coincided  with  the  last 
14  years  of  Jeroboam  II.  of  Israel,  2  Kin. 
14:23;  15:1 — until  some  time  in  Hezekiah's 
reign.  He  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah 
and  Micah,  and  perhaps  also  with  Joel  and 
Amos.  Though  the  opening  verse  loyally 
dates  his  activity  mainly  by  the  kings  of 
Judah,  Hosea  was  a  prophet  of  the  north- 
ern kingdom,  many  of  whose  localities  he 
specially  mentions,  though  he  incidentally 
warns  and  comforts  Judah  also,  and  pre- 
dicts the  union  of  the  two  "in  the  latter 
days,"  ch.  i:ii;  3:5.  The  prophecy  is  di- 
vided into  2  parts,  ch.  1-3,  and  4-14.  It  is 
disputed  whether  the  actions  described  in 
the  first  part  are  real  occurrences,  or  were 
presented  to  the  prophet's  mind  in  a  vis- 
ion ;  -in  all  probability  the  latter  is  the  cor- 
rect view,  but  in  either  case  the  relations 
of  idolatrous  Israel  to  her  covenant  God 
are  illustrated,  and  the  prophet  is  the  bet- 
ter qualified  to  speak  with  feeling  and 
power  of  the  guilt  of  Israel  and  the  forbear- 
ance and  love  of  Jehovah.  The  2d  part  is 
chiefly  occupied  with  denunciations  against 
Israel,  and  especially  Samaria,  for  the  wor- 
ship of  idols  and  accompanying  immoral- 
ity. The  pictures  of  Israel's  political  and 
social  life  are  drawn  from  the  interregnum, 
B.  C.  781-773,  after  the  death  of  Jeroboam, 


HOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOS 


and  from  the  troubled  reigns  of  the  suc- 
ceeding kings.  Hosea  predicts  the  death 
of  Zechariah,  Jeroboam's  son,  4th  and  last 
of  Jehu's  line,  ch.  1:4;  2  Kin.  15:12.  At  a 
later  date,  Hos.  10:14,  he  is  thought  to  al- 
lude to  Shalmaneser's  first  inroad  against 
Hoshea,  2  Kin.  17:1,  3;  18:9.  God's  judg- 
ments upon  Israel  are  represented  by  the 
names  of  Corner's  children,  Jezreel,  Lo- 
ruhamah,  and  Lo-ammi ;  and  the  depth  of 
the  divine  mercy  and  love  is  shown  in 
God's  causing  the  penitent  Israel  to  call 
him  Ishi  instead  of  Baali.  See  these  names. 
Ch.  3:4,  5  is  a  remarkable  prophecy  of  Is- 
rael's state  for  many  centuries,  and  of  its 
final  restoration.  Gomer's  character,  ch. 
1:2;  3:1,  represents  the  idolatry  of  the 
stock  of  the  chosen  people  in  Egypt  and  in 
Ur,  Josh.  24: 14,  as  well  as  after  the  call  out 
of  both  places.  The  "  Egj-pt"  of  affliction, 
ch.  8:13;  9:3,  is  not  literal  Egypt,  ch.  11:5. 
Hosea  declares  that  Assyria,  considered 
friendly,  will  destroy  Israel,  ch.  5 :  13 ;  7:11; 
8:9;  12:1;  14:3;  3:4;  10:6;  11: 11;  and  that 
return  to  God  is  the  only  remedy  for  exist- 
ing and  impending  evils. 

As  Hosea  shows  acquaintance  with  the 
already  existing  sacred  writings  of  Moses 
and  others,  so  succeeding  prophets  give 
evidence  of  familiarity  with  Hosea's  proph- 
ecy; compare  Hos.  i:ii  with  Isa.  11:12, 
13 — Hos.  4:3  with  Zeph.  1:3 — Hos.  4:6  with 
Isa.  5:13 — Hos.  7:10  with  Isa.  9:12,  13 — 
Hos.  10:12  with  Jer.  4:3. 

The  New  Testament  references  to  Hosea 
are  Matt.  9:13;  12:7  to  Hos.  6:6 — Luke 
23:30;  Rev.  6:16  to  Hos.  io:8-^Matt.  2:15 
to  Hos.  1 1 : 1 — Rom.  9 :  25,  26 ;  i  Pet.  2 :  10  to 
Hos.  1:10;  2:23 — I  Cor.  15:4  to  Hos.  6:2 — 
Heb.  13: 15  to  Hos.  14:2. 

Paul's  application  of  Hos.  i:io;  2:23  to 
the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  Rom.  9:25, 
26,  seems  to  indicate  that  the  descendants 
of  the  scattered  10  tribes,  absorbed  and 
lost  in  the  heathendom  around  them,  were 
among  the  Gentiles  brought  into  the  church 
of  Christ. 

Hosea's  warnings  are  mingled  with  ten- 
der and  pathetic  expostulations.  His  style 
is  abrupt  and  obscure,  and  it  is  difficult 
now  to  fix  the  periods  or  the  divisions  of 
his  various  predictions. 

HO'SEN,  old  plural  of  hose,  which  for- 
merly meant  trousers  as  well  as  stockings. 
The  Chaldee  word  so  rendered  in  Dan. 
3:21,  A.  v.,  means  "tunics." 

HOSHE'A,  I.,  Joshua,  Deut.  32:44. 

II.  The  19th,  last,  and  least  wicked  king 
of  Israel.  He  slew  Pekah,  B.  C.  735,  but 
240 


did  not  succeed  him  until  B.  C.  729,  2  Kin. 
15 '30 1  17:1.  2.  When  his  land  was  inva- 
ded by  Shalmaneser,  Hoshea  became  trib- 
utary to  Assyria,  ver.  3 ;  but  afterwards 
formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Egypt,  on 
the  discovery  of  which  Shalmaneser  rav- 
aged Israel  and  besieged  Samaria,  and  his 
successor  Sargon,  more  than  2  years  later, 
took  the  city,  threw  Hoshea  into  prison, 
and  carried  the  Israelites  into  captivity  in 
Assyria  and  Media,  B.  C.  721,  in  the  9th 
year  of  Hoshea  and  the  loth  of  Hezekiah, 
2  Kin.  17:4-6;  18:9-12.  Hosea  predicted 
the  fate  of  Samaria  and  its  king,  ch.  10:7; 
13:16;  compare  Mic.  1:6. 

HOSPITAL'ITY,  the  free  unremunerated 
supply  of  food  and  lodging  to  a  friend  or 
a  traveller.  This  duty  is  continually  set 
before  us  in  God's  kindness  to  men,  who 
are  pilgrims  and  sojourners  here,  Psa.  23:3; 
and  in  Christ's  feeding  the  multitudes  with 
bodily  and  spiritual  food,  and  his  gracious 
invitations  to  the  heavenly  feast  without 
money  or  price,  Luke  14:15-24:  Rev.  19:9. 
This  was  a  virtue  of  great  necessity  and 
much  practised  in  the  ancient  world — 
owing  to  the  state  of  society,  the  scattered 
population,  limited  travelling,  and  lack  of 
public  houses.  It  is  beautifully  illustrated 
in  the  histories  of  Abraham,  Lot,  Gen.  18; 
19,  Reuel,  Exod.2:2o,  Manoah,Judg.  13:15, 
and  the  Ephraimite  of  Gibeah,  Judg.  19:17. 
See  also  Job  31:17.  It  was  divinely  com- 
manded. Lev.  19:33,  34;  Deut.  14:29,  and 
the  Benjamites  who  so  grossly  violated  its 
claims  suffered  fearful  punishment,  Judg. 
19:15,  22  to  20:48.  National  animosities 
and  fanaticism  sometimes  interfered  with 
its  exercise,  as  in  Judg.  19:12;  Luke  9:53; 
John  4:9.  Our  Lord  came  unto  his  own, 
but  they  received  him  not.  He  bade  his 
apostles  accept  the  kindnesses  offered  them, 
Luke  10:4-8,  and  encouraged  these  acts 
especially  when  done  from  love  to  him, 
Matt.  10:40-42;  25:34-45;  Mark9:4i;  while 
warning  those  who  should  not  receive  his 
disciples,  as  rejecting  him  also.  Through 
his  apostles  he  repeatedly  urged  the  duty  of 
hospitality,  Rom.  12:13;  i  Tim.  3:2;  5:10; 
Tit.  1:8;  Heb.  13:2;  i  Pet.4:9;  3  John  5-8; 
and  the  early  Christians  regarded  it  as  a 
chief  duty,  and  so  practised  it  as  to  win 
the  admiration  of  the  heathen.  They  wel- 
comed especially  all  members  of  "the 
household  of  faith  "  from  any  quarter,  and 
these  were  usually  bearers  of  letters  of 
commendation.  It  was  accounted  a  dis- 
grace for  a  Christian  to  lodge  at  an  inn 
when  any  Christian  lived  near  by.     Many 


HOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


travellers  still  find  this  virtue  freely  exer- 
cised in  the  East.  De  la  Roque  mentions 
an  incident  at  the  house  of  a  priest  in  a 
Maronite  village  who  entertained  him  over 
night.  He  says,  "  He  gave  us  a  supper 
under  the  trees  before  his  little  dwelling. 
As  we  were  at  table  there  came  by  a  stran- 
ger, wearing  a  white  turban,  who,  after 
having  saluted  the  company,  sat  down  to 
the  table  without  ceremony,  ate  with  us 
during  some  time,  and  then  went  away, 
repeating  several  times  the  name  of  God. 
They  told  us  it  was  some  traveller  who  no 
doubt  stood  in  need  of  refreshment,  and 
who  had  profited  by  the  opportunity,  ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  East,  which  is 
to  exercise  hospitality  at  all  times  and  to- 
wards all  persons." 

Says  Niebuhr,  "When  the  Arabs  are  at 
table,  they  invite  those  who  happen  to 
come,  to  eat  with  them,  whether  they  be 
Christians  or  Mohammedans,  gentle  or  sim- 
ple. In  the  caravans,  I  have  often  seen 
with  pleasure  a  mule-driver  press  those 
who  passed  to  partake  of  his  repast;  and 
though  the  majority  politely  excused  them- 
selves, he  gave,  with  an  air  of  satisfaction, 
to  those  who  would  accept  of  it,  a  portion 
of  his  little  meal  of  bread  and  dates ;  and 
I  was  not  a  little  surprised  when  I  saw  in 
Turkey  rich  Turks  withdraw  themselves 
into  corners  to  avoid  inviting  those  who 
might  otherwise  have  sat  at  table  with 
them." 

We  notice  here  also  the  obligations  un- 
derstood to  be  contracted  by  the  intercourse 
of  the  table.  Niebuhr  says,  "  When  a  Bed- 
ouin sheikh  eats  bread  with  strangers,  they 
may  trust  his  fidelity  and  depend  on  his 
protection.  A  traveller  will  always  do  well 
therefore  to  take  an  early  opportunity  of 
securing  the  friendship  of  his  guide  by  a 
meal."  This  brings  to  recollection  the 
complaint  of  the  Psalmist,  Psa.  41:9,  pene- 
trated with  the  deep  ingratitude  of  one 
whom  he  describes  as  having  been  his  own 
familiar  friend,  in  whom  he  trusted,  "  who 
did  eat  of  my  bread,  even  he  hath  lifted 
up  his  heel  against  me." 

HOST,  I.,  a  hospitable  entertainer,  Rom. 
16:23,  or  an  inn-holder,  Luke  10:35. 

II.  An  army.  See  War.  The  "host  of 
heaven  "  is  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  like 
an  army  in  array.  Gen.  2:1;  Deut.  4:19. 
Compare  Deborah's  words  in  Judg.  5:20. 
The  host  of  heaven  was  worshipped  by 
most  of  the  nations  in  the  East,  and  by  the 
Israelites  in  their  days  of  apostasy,  2  Kin. 
17:16;  21:3,  5;  23:5;  jer.  19:13;  Zeph.  1:5; 

16 


Acts  7:42.  "Jehovah  of  hosts"  is  Lord  of 
the  starry  heavens,  the  heaven  of  heavens, 
and  all  the  legions  they  contain. 

HOUGH  (pronounced  hockj,  to  disable 
by  hamstringing,  or  cutting  the  cords  of 
the  hind  legs.  Josh.  11 :6,  9;  2  Sam.  8:4. 

HOUR,  sometimes  a  short  indeterminate 
time,  Dan.  3:6;  4:19,33;  Matt.  9:22;  John 
J '■  2>-^:,  sometimes  a  determined  season, 
Luke  22:53  ;  John  2:4  ;  4:21,  23  ;  and  some- 
times one  of  the  12  portions  into  which 
daily  time  was  divided.  Acts  5:7;  19:34. 
Though  the  Egyptians  very  early  divided 
the  day  and  the  night  each  into  12  equal 
portions,  the  Hebrews  did  not :  but  em- 
ployed 3  general  dixrtsions — "  evening," 
"  morning,"  and  "  noon  " — Psa.  55: 17,  and 
further  divided  the  day  into  unequal  sec- 
tions, as  the  Arabs  now  do.  The  Babylo- 
nians divided  the  day  into  12  equal  parts 
or  hours,  and  afterwards  the  Greeks,  and 
the  Jews  at  or  before  the  Captivity.  This 
was  the  custom  in  our  Lord's  time,  John 
11:9,  reckoning  the  hours  from  sunrise  to 
sunset — the  3d,  6th,  and  9th  hours  answer- 
ing nearly  to  our  9  o'clock  a.  m.,  noon,  and 
3  o'clock  p.  M. ;  and  these,  according  to 
Josephus,  were  the  appointed  "hours  of 
prayer."  See  Acts  3:1;  10:9,  30.  By  the 
Romans  the  hours  were  reckoned  from 
midnight  to  noon,  and  again  from  noon  to 
midnight ;  and  this  is  thought  by  some  com- 
mentators to  have  been  the  method  used 
by  John  in  his  gospel,  1:39;  4:6.  This 
assumption  would  harmonize  John  19:14, 
where  Jesus  is  said  to  have  been  delivered 
to  the  Jews  by  Pilate  at  "about  the  6th 
hour  " — 6  A.  M. — with  the  statements  of  the 
evangelists  that  the  crucifixion  took  place 
at  "the  3d  hour" — by  Jewish  reckoning  9 
A.  M.,  and  the  darkening  of  the  sun  from 
the  6th  to  the  9th  hour,  12  to  3  p.  m..  Matt. 
27:45;  Mark  15:33;  Luke  23:44,  time  being 
allowed  for  delay  in  going  to  Calvary,  and 
erecting  and  occupying  the  other  crosses. — 
Scripture  hours  being  counted  from  sun- 
rise to  sunset,  of  course  varied  in  length 
in  winter  and  summer.  The  astronomical 
hour,  or  24th  part  of  a  civil  day,  did  not 
come  into  general  use  till  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  "  The  eleventh 
hour,"  ending  with  sunset,  became  a  pro- 
verbial expression  for  lateness.  Matt.  20:1- 
10.  The  night  was  divided  into  Watches. 
(See.)  It  is  not  known  by  what  means  the 
Jews  determined  the  length  of  their  hours, 
but  some  kind  of  a  dial,  with  careful  divis- 
ions no  doubt,  for  the  hours  of  sunshine, 
existed  in  Ahaz's  time,  Isa.  38:8;  and  they 

241 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


probably  had  the  clepsydra,  or  water  time- 
piece, and  other  contrivances  known  to 
Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 

HOUSE.  The  difference  between  tents 
and  permanent  dwellings  appears  very 
early,  (ien.  4:17,  20,  and  a  high  degree  of 
constructive  skill  had  been  attained  before 
the  time  of  the  ark  and  the  tower  of  Babel, 
Gen.  6:14-16;  11:3-5.  Abraham  and  his 
near  descendants  dwelt  in  tents,  Heb.  11:9, 
but  at  the  time  of  the  h;.\odus  the  Hebrews 
occupied  houses,  Exod.  12:7,  as  did  the 
Canaanites  whom  they  dispossessed,  Deut. 
6:io,  II,  having  long  lived  in  cities,  like  the 
Assyrians  and  Egyptians,  Gen.  10:10-12, 
19.  The  mode  o^  building  in  the  East 
seems  to  have  been  much  the  same  from 
the  earliest  ages,  as  the  houses  shown  in 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  records  accord 
nearly  with  those  now  in  use.  The  ruins 
of  ancient  cities  show  only  the  more  sub- 
stantial public  buildings. 

The  rural  poor  live  in  huts  of  sun-burnt 
brick  or  mud,  usually  of  one  story  and 
often  with   but   one  apartment— which    in 


some  cases  holds  the  cattle  as  well  as  the 
family,  i  Sam.  2S:24.  The  windows  are 
small  and  high,  and  sometimes  with  wood- 
en gratings  ;  the  roofs,  reached  by  a  ladder 
outside,  are  flat,  a  thick  plaster  of  mud  and 
straw  laid  upon  boughs,  and  booths  of 
boughs  or  rushes  are  often  erected  on  them 
for  sleeping-places.  In  parts  of  Arabia 
and  Syria  stone  is  abundant,  and  is  used 
for  the  houses  of  the  poor.  Their  dwell- 
ings in  towns  are  similar,  though  some- 
times they  have  more  than  one  story,  a  bet- 
ter roof,  and  a  shaded  platform  in  front. 
Such  huts  afford  shelter  for  vermin  and 
serpents,  Amos  5:19,  and  may  easily  be 
"dug  through,"  Job  24:16;  Ezek.  12:5-7; 
Matt.  6:19,  20;  under  the  wind  and  rain 
they  soon  melt  away  if  deserted,  Job  15:28, 
illustrating  the  frailtj-  of  human  life.  Job 
4: 19,  and  of  delusive  teachings  and  ground- 
less hopes,  Ezek.  13:10-16;  compare  Matt. 
7:24-27.    See  Inns. 

Houses  of  a  better  class,  of  which  there 
are  many  grades,  Jer.  22:14,  are  usually 
built  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square  with 


INTERIOR  OF  AN  ANCIENT  HOrsK 


an  open  "  court  "  or  yard  "  in  the  midst," 
2  Sam.  4:6;  Luke  5: 19.  The  materials  used 
are  brick  and  stone,  sometimes  marble, 
2  Sam.  12:31 ;  i  Chr.  29:2;  Jer.  43:9;  Amos 
5:11;  Nah  3:14,  wood  being  used  for  floors, 
ceilings,  and  doors.  Cramp-irons  anciently 
held  the  great  blocks  of  stone  together,  and 
tiles  were  united  by  mud  or  mortar.  The 
outer  or  street  wall  of  an  Eastern  house 
looks  gloomy  and  inhospitable,  having  only 
a  door  and  a  projecting  window  or  two, 
242 


with  closely-latticed  casements  opened  only 
on  public  occasions,  2  Kin.  9:30-33.  See 
Lattice.  The  door,  usually  locked  and 
attended  by  a  porter,  Acts  12: 13,  opens  into 
a  porch  containing  benches  for  the  ser- 
vants. Passing  through  the  porch  one  en- 
ters the  court,  which  is  commonly  paved, 
sometimes  with  costly  mosaic,  and  often 
contains  a  well  or  fountain,  2  Sam.  17:18, 
with  vines  or  trees,  Psa.  52:8;  92:13.  In 
hot  weather  it   may  be  covered   with  an 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


awning;  compare  the  description  of  the 
heavens  in  Psa.  104:2.  The  wealthy  spare 
no  pains  to  render  the  court  a  dehghtful 
place  of  resort  in  summer.  Here  guests 
are  received,  and  at  a  wedding,  etc.,  Esth. 
1:5,  it  is  furnished  with  carpets,  rugs,  di- 
vans, flowers,  etc.  The  appearance  of  a 
deserted  court  is  described  in  Isa.  34:13. 
Some  of  our  Saviour's  discourses  were 
probably  delivered  in  the  courts  of  large 
houses.  The  stairs  leading  to  the  upper 
story,  if  there  is  one,  and  to  the  roof,  open 
on  a  corner  of  the  court,  or  on  the  porch. 
The  court  is  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  or 
veranda  several  feet  deep,  over  which,  in 
houses  of  more  than  one  story,  is  a  gallery 
of  the  same  dimensions,  bordered  by  a  bal- 
ustrade or  lattice-work.  Spacious  cham- 
bers communicate  with  the  verandas,  by 
open  fronts,  by  arches,  or  by  doors,  in  this 
■case  receiving  light  and  air  from  the  court 
by  windows.  These  rooms  do  not  com- 
municate with  each  other,  except  by  the 
veranda.  On  the  ground  floor  facing  the 
entrance  into  the  court  there  is  generally 
a  "guest-chamber,"  Luke  22:11,  where  the 
master  of  the  house  receives  his  friends ; 
it  often  has  a  portion  of  its  floor  lower  than 
the  rest  and  paved  with  tiles,  with  fre- 
quently a  fountain  in  the  centre.  Around 
the  3  inner  sides  of  the  room  is  a  raised 
platform  with  divans,  which  are  seats  by 
day  and  beds  at  night,  there  being  usually 
no  special  bedrooms.  The  host  retains  a 
corner  seat  of  the  divan  as  a  place  of  honor. 
The  guests  remove  their  sandals  before 
stepping  on  the  platform,  Exod.  3:5;  Josh. 
5:15;  Luke  7:38.  The  ceiling  is  often  richly 
wainscoted  and  painted,  inlaid,  or  adorned 
with  stucco,  Jer.  22:14;  Hag.  1:4,  and  the 
walls  are  similarly  ornamented,  sometimes 
with  hangings.  See  Ivory.  Some  of  the 
other  rooms  on  the  ground-floor  are  used 
as  store-rooms,  and  others  are  for  servants 
and  guests.  Many  houses  have  more  than 
one  court,  some  in  Damascus  as  many  as  7. 
When  there  are  2,  the  master  has  his  pri- 
vate rooms  opening  on  the  inner  court,  on 
which  also  open  the  rooms  of  the  women  of 
the  family,  the  "harem,"  secluded,  i  Kin. 
7:8;  Esth.  2:3,  which  no  man  but  the  mas- 
ter may  enter— though  in  Israel  the  women 
enjoyed  much  greater  freedom  than  mod- 
ern Orientals.  Much  expense  is  lavished 
on  these  apartments,  which  are  perhaps 
referred  to  under  the  name  of  "palaces," 
I  Kin.  16:18;  2  Kin.  15:25;  Isa.  34:13.  In 
this  inner  court  it  is  usual  to  have  a  foun- 
tain and  basin  of  water,  2  Sam.  ir:2.     If 


there  is  but  one  court,  the  females  are 
lodged  in  a  separate  building,  or  in  an  up- 
per story — where  also  in  fine  houses  the 
rooms  are  spacious  and  furnished  with 
mats,  divans,  and  curtains,  and  considered 
more  desirable  than  the  lower  rooms. 
There  is  often  another  "guest-chamber" 
on  the  upper  floor.  Some  houses  have  3 
stories.  Acts  20:9,  or  even  more.  The  up- 
per story  often  projects  over  the  lower, 
and  through  the  lattice  of  a  window  thus 
overhanging  the  street  Ahaziah  seems  to 
have  fallen,  2  Kin.  1:2.  A  structure  called 
aliyyah  is  sometimes  annexed  to  a  house, 
often  over  the  porch,  communicating  with 
the  gallery  of  the  main  building  by  a  door, 
or  with  the  porch  by  private  stairs,  and 
containing  but  one  or  two  rooms,  devoted 
to  the  entertainment  of  visitors,  or  for  re- 
tirement. Matt.  6:6.  Its  roof  was  more 
secluded  than  the  main  roof  In  such  a 
structure  may  have  been  Eglon's  summer- 
chamber,  Judg.  3:20-23,  David's  retiring- 
place,  2  Sam.  18:33,  Elijah's  loft,  i  Kin. 
17:19,  Elisha's  little  chamber,  2  Kin.  4:10, 
and  Ahaz's  upper  chamber,  2  Kin.  23:12. 

The  roof,  or  housetop,  is  reached  by  out- 
side stairs  from  the  porch  or  the  court, 
Matt.  24:17;  2  Kin.  9:13.  The  roof  is  usu- 
ally flat,  though  modern  houses  sometimes 
have  domes  over  upper  rooms  to  enlarge 
them.  A  common  mode  of  construction  is 
to  lay  beams  about  3  feet  apart,  lay  across 
these  shorter  sticks  or  thorn-bushes,  and 
cover  the  whole  with  a  kind  of  cement. 
Stone  rollers  are  kept  on  many  roofs  to 
pack  them  when  they  crack  and  leak,  Prov. 
27:15.  Or  the  coating  may  be  mainly  of 
hardened  earth,  upon  which  grass  grows 
in  the  spring  rains,  but  soon  withers  in  the 
sun,  Psa.  129:6,  7;  Isa.  37:27.  In  some 
places  the  roof-floor  is  of  stone  or  brick. 
A  wall  or  parapet  guards  the  sides,  often 
so  low  that  a  person  can  easily  pass  from 
house  to  house  over  a  whole  row.  The 
wall  overlooking  the  court  is  always  breast- 
high,  but  is  sometimes  only  a  balustrade  or 
lattice-work,  though  the  Israelites  were  by 
law  required  to  make  their  roofs  safe,  Deut 
22:8.  These  were  much  frequented  for  va- 
rious purposes — such  as  drying  linen,  corn, 
flax,  figs,  and  raisins,  Josh.  2:6;  conver- 
sing, I  Sam.  9:25,  and  sleeping,  ver.  26 — 
where  Samuel  "  called  to  Saul  upon  the 
house-top."  Roofs  were  used  for  idola- 
trous worship,  2  Kin.  23:12;  Jer.  19:13; 
32:29;  Zeph.  1:5,  for  lamentation  in  time 
of  public  calamity,  Isa.  15:3;  Jer.  48:38, 
for  public  proclamations,  Matt.  10:27,  fo'' 

243 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HUM 


observation  in  time  of  danger,  2  Sam. 
18:24;  Isa.  22:1,  and  for  prayer,  Acts  10:9. 
Booths  were  erected  on  them  at  the  Feast 


of  Tabernacles,  Neh.  8:16.  The  doors  of 
Eastern  houses  were  hung  in  a  peculiar 
way.    See  Hinge.     A  fire  was  sometimes 


ANCIENT   APARTMENT 

made  with  wood  in  the  open  court,  Luke 
22:55,  or  rooms  were  warmed  by  charcoal 
in  a  portable  furnace,  the  "hearth  "  of  Jer. 
36:22.  Chimneys  were  unknown,  and  the 
smoke  escaped  by  holes  in  the  wall,  Hos. 
13:3-  The  kitchen  is  in  the  inner  court,  if 
there  are  2,  and  contains  a  raised  platform 
of  brick,  with  holes  in  it  for  fire,  like  the 
"boiling-places"  of  Ezek.  46:23.  There 
were  sometimes  special  apartments  in  large 
houses  for  summer  and  winter,  Jer.  36:22; 
Amos  3:15.  In  Jerusalem  some  houses 
have  no  less  than  4  cisterns,  cut  in  the 
limestone  rock,  2  Kin.  18:31 ;  into  these  the 
rain-water  is  conducted  from  the  roof. 
Great  care  was,  and  still  is,  taken  in  pre- 
paring the  foundations  of  fine  houses,  i  Kin. 
5:17.  digging  many  feet  to  reach  solid  rock, 
whence  arches  are  built  up  to  the  surface, 
Luke  6:48.  A  new  house  was  dedicated 
by  its  owner,  Deut.  20:5. 

"  House "  sometimes  denotes  a  family. 
Gen.  12:17;  E.xod.  1:21;  property,  i  Kin. 
13:8;  the  earthly  and  the  spiritual  body, 
Eccl.  12;  2  Cor.  5:1;  the  grave.  Job  30:23; 
Isa.  14:18;  the  tabernacle,  Exod.  23:19; 
the  church,  i  Tim.  3:15;  and  heaven,  John 
14:2. 

"House  of  the  rolls"  and  "treasure- 
house,"  the  depository  of  public  archives, 
Ezra  6:1 ;  5: 17. 

"House  of  God,"  in  Judg.  20:18,  26,  27; 
21:2,  means  Bethel,  where  the  ark  of  God 
tarried  for  some  time.     See  Bethei,. 

HUK'KOK,  incised,  in   the  boundary  of 
244 


WITH    STONE   CEILING. 

Naphtali,  Josh.  19:34;  now  Yakuk,  west  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  7  miles  south  of  Safed. 

HUL'DAH,  weasel,  wife  of  Shallum,  a 
prophetess  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  consult- 
ed respecting  the  denunciations  in  the  new- 
found copy  of  the  Book  of  the  Law,  2  Kin. 
22:14-20;  2  Chr.  34:22-28,  B.  C.  623.  See 
College. 

HUMIL'ITY  (from  the  Latin  humus,  the 
ground),  low-mindedness,  a  proper  charac- 
teristic of  all  created  beings,  and  possessed 
by  all  the  holy,  whether  unfallen  or  re- 
deemed, Isa.  6:2,3;  R^v.  4:8-11;  7:9-12. 
As  a  Christian  grace  it  is  wrought  in  the  re- 
newed heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  springs 
from  a  realization  of  one's  personal  weak- 
ness, unworthiness,  and  sinfulness,  and 
one's  obligation  to  the  grace  of  God  for  any 
good;  and  results  in  not  thinking  of  one's 
self  more  highly  than  he  ought,  Luke  17:10; 
Rom.  12:3;  Phil.  2:3,  4,  giving  all  glory  to 
God,  I  Cor.  4:7;  2  Cor.  3:5,  and  submitting 
one's  self  to  him.  As  a  recognition  of  need 
it  is  indispensable  to  acceptance  with  him, 
and  to  growth  in  holiness.  Hence  it  is  re- 
quired by  God,  Mic.  6:8,  has  the  promise  of 
his  blessing,  Isa.  57:15;  i  Pet.  5:5,  is  urged 
by  Christ  as  indispensable  to  his  followers,. 
Matt.  18:4;  Luke  18:14;  Col.  3: 12,  and  rec- 
ommended by  his  example,  John  13:4-17; 
Phil.  2:5-8.  Punishment  is  threatened  for 
its  opposite,  pride,  which  is  an  abomination 
to  God,  Isa.  2:11-17;  Prov.  16:5.  There  is 
an  affected  and  false  humility,  which  is  a 
veil  for  spiritual  pride — a  voluntary  self- 


HUN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HUS 


subjection  to  things  not  commanded  of  God, 
accompanied  by  a  depreciation  and  neglect 
of  Christ.  Against  this  we  are  warned, 
Col.  2:18-23. 

HUNT'ING.  The  Scripture  account  of 
primeval  men  exhibits  them  not  as  mere 
savages,  subsisting  by  the  chase,  but  as 
living  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  life, 
dwelling  in  cities,  and  skilled  in  various 
arts.  Gen.  2:15;  4:2,  17,  20-22;  5:29.  It  is 
not  known  that  the  use  of  animal  food  was 
customary  before  the  flood,  but  Noah  was 
permitted  to  make  use  of  the  beasts,  both 
domestic  and  wild,  for  food,  after  draining 
off  the  blood,  Gen.  9:2-4.  Nimrod  was  "a 
mighty  hunter,"  Gen.  10:9,  also  Esau,  Gen. 
25:27,  28;  27:3,  4;  but  in  general  the  patri- 
archs seem  to  have  lived  a  quiet  pastoral 
and  agricultural  life.  Gen.  9:20;  13:2; 
26:12-14;  37:2-7.  In  Egypt,  as  the  monu- 
ments show,  hunting  was  pursued  as  a 
sport,  hounds  and  the  lasso  being  employed. 
When  the  Israelites  conquered  Canaan,  the 
expulsion  of  the  heathen  was  to  be  grad- 
ual, to  guard  against  an  undue  increase  of 
wild  beasts,  Exod.  23:27-30.  Afterwards 
hunting  was  practised,  both  of  edible  ani- 
mals, Lev. 17: 13;  25:7;  Prov.  12: 17,  and  of 
wild  beasts :  we  read  of  animals  of  the  an- 
telope and  deer  kinds,  Deut.  12:15;  i  K.in. 
4:23,  and  of  lions  and  bears,  Judg.  14:5; 
I  Sam.  17:34;  2  Kin.  2:24,  jackals,  Judg. 
15:4,  and  foxes.  Song  2:15. — The  methods 
of  hunting  were  various  :  bows  and  arrows 
were  used.  Gen.  27:3,  large  animals,  like 
the  lion,  were  taken  in  a  pit  dug  for  the 
purpose,  2  Sam.  23:20;  Ezek.  19:4-8;  some 
being  driven  between  nets  inclosing  a  wide 
region,  converging  and  ending  in  a  capa- 
cious pit.  Traps  of  several  kinds  were 
used,  some  lying  in  the  ground  in  the  ani- 
mals' run,  and  catching  them  by  the  foot, 
Job  18 : 9, 10 ;  Prov.  22 : 5.  Birds  were  caught 
by  a  net  stretched  over  a  frame,  or  held 
open  by  a  stick  so  placed  as  to  give  way  at 
a  touch,  Amos  3:5;  by  a  snare  to  entangle 
the  leg,  Job  18:10;  Psa.  140:5;  and  by  a 
trap  containing  a  decoy  bird,  Jer.  5:26,  27. 
The  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  monuments 
show  wild-bulls  and  lions  hunted  by  kings 
on  horseback  and  in  chariots.  War  is  spo- 
ken of  under  the  image  of  hunting,  Jer. 
16:16. 

HUR,  a  hole,  a  chief  man  among  the  He- 
brews in  the  desert,  associated  with  Aaron 
in  upholding  the  hands  of  Moses  at  Rephi- 
dim,  and  in  supplying  his  place  while  on 
the  summit  of  Sinai,  Exod.  17:  lo,  12 ;  24: 14. 
Four  other  men  of  this  name  are  men- 


tioned, Exod.  31:2;  Num.  31:8;  I  Kin.  4:8; 
Neh.  3:9. 

HU'RAM.     See  Hiram. 

HUS'BAND,  a  man  betrothed.  Matt,  i :  16, 
19,  as  well  as  one  actually  married,  be- 
trothal being  held  to  be  inviolable. 

HUS'BANDMAN,  a  cultivator  of  the 
ground,  an  ancient  and  honorable  occupa- 
tion. Gen.  2:15;  9:20.  God  is  so  styled, 
John  15:1;  compare  Isa.  5:1-7,  a  figure 
which  well  represents  his  assiduous  care 
for  his  people— his  vineyard,  branches  of 
his  Vine,  Christ— and  his  plot  of  tilled 
ground,  his  "husbandry,"  i  Cor.  3:9. 

HU'SHAI,  haste,  the  Archite,  perhaps  a 
citizen  of  Archi,  Josh.  16:2.  See  2  Sam. 
15:32-37;  16:16-19;  17;  I  Kin.  4:16;  I  Chr. 
27:33.  He  was  David's  friend  or  compan- 
ion, and  probably  an  aged  man,  since 
David  suggested  that  he  would  be  a  "  bur- 
den "  to  him  in  fleeing  from  Absalom,  com- 
pare 2  Sam.  19:35,  but  might  do  him  valu- 
able service  as  an  adviser  of  Absalom. 
God  did  not  sanction  the  deceitful  policy 
of  David  and  Hushai,  yet  he  allowed  Absa- 
lom's hypocrisy  and  treachery  to  be  pun- 
ished by  like  sins  in  Hushai. 


HUSKS,  Luke  15:16,  the  fruit  of  the  ca- 
rob-tree,  Ceratonia  Siliqua,  a  handsome 
evergreen  common  in  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Mediterranean.  It  attains  a 
height  of  from  20  to  30  feet,  and  has  clus- 
ters of  dark  red  blossoms,  which  mature 

245 


HUZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HYS 


into  flat  brown  pods  6  to  lo  inches  long 
and  an  inch  or  more  wide.  They  resem- 
ble the  pods  of  the  American  locust-tree, 
which  is  of  the  same  family.  From  their 
curved  shape  came  their  Greek  name  kera- 
tia,  "little  horns."  The  pods  contain  a 
number  of  small  flat  seeds  imbedded  in  a 
sweet  nutritious  pulp.  In  their  native  lands 
they  are  a  chief  food  of  cattle,  and  much 
used  by  the  poor.  From  the  erroneous 
idea  that  they  were  the  "  locusts  "  on  which 
John  the  Baptist  subsisted,  they  are  often 
called  St.  John's  bread. 

HUZ'ZAB,  Nah.  2:7,  A.  V.,  often  regard- 
ed as  a  queen  of  Nineveh.  But  most  mod- 
ern sciiolars  reject  this  opinion.  Rawlin- 
son  tiiinks  the  fertile  "  Zab  country,"  on 
the  river  so  called  12  centuries  before 
Christ,  may  be  intended,  as  a  representa- 
tive of  all  Assyria.  Others  interpret  it  as 
in  the  A.  V.  margin,  "  it  is  decreed,"  /.  e., 
Nineveh's  fall;  or,  connecting  it  with  the 
preceding  verse  and  a  different  Hebrew 
verb,  "shall  flow  away,"  /.  e.,  the  palace, 
ver.  6. 

HYMEN^'US,  perlainifig-  lo  marriage,  a 
member  of  the  church,  probably  at  Ephe- 
sus,  who  fell  into  great  errors  of  principle 
and  practice,  i  Tim.  1:20,  and  was  "deliv- 
ered unto  Satan  "  by  Paul.  The  expres- 
sion probably  denotes  ecclesiastical  excom- 
munication, and  the  infliction,  through  the 
permitted  agency  of  Satan,  of  some  bodily 
infirmity,  intended  for  the  sufferer's  spirit- 
ual profit;  compare  Job  1:6-12;  Matt.  4:1; 
I  Cor.  5:5:2  Cor.  12:7.  Hymenaeus  is  spo- 
ken of  later  as  still  in  error,  denying  the 
resurrection,  and  corrupting  the  faith  of 
others,  2  Tim.  2:17,  18,  having  perhaps 
wrested  Paul's  teachings  as  to  the  raising 
of  the  spirit  from  the  death  of  sin,  Rom. 
6:4;  Eph.  2:6;  Col.  2:12;  2  Pet.  3:16. 

H'YMN,  a  religious  canticle,  song,  or 
psalm.  Eph.  5:19;  Col.  3:16.  Paul  bids 
Christians  edify  one  another  with  "psalms 
and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs."  Matthew 
says  that  Christ  and  his  disciples,  having 
sup])ed,  sang  a  hymn— probably  a  part  of 
the  Psalms  which  the  Jews  used  to  sing 
during  the  Passover,  which  they  called  the 
Hallel;  that  is,  the  Hallelujah  Psalms. 
These  are  Psalms  113-118,  of  which  the 
first  2  are  supposed  to  have  been  chanted 
before  the  Passover  was  eaten,  and  the 
others  afterwards.  Paul  and  Silas  sang 
hymns  in  prison,  Acts  16:25,  R.  V.  Pliny 
relates  that  the  early  Christians  sang  hymns 
to  Christ  as  (^od. 

H'yp'OCRITE,  one  who,  like  a  stage- 
246 


player,  feigns  to  be  what  he  is  not.  The 
epithet  is  generally  applied  to  those  who 
assume  the  appearance  of  virtue  or  piety, 
without  possessing  the  reality.  Our  Sa- 
viour accused  the  Pharisees  of  hypocrisy, 
Luke  12:1.  Besides  the  self- deceived, 
writers  distinguish  4  sorts  of  hypocrites : 
"  worldly,"  professing  religion  for  selfish 
purposes.  Matt.  23:5;  "  legal,"  obeying  the 
law  to  merit  heaven,  without  a  renew^a 
heart,  Rom.  10:3;  "  evangelical,"  rejoicing 
in  the  idea  that  Christ  died  for  them,  with- 
out a  life  that  proves  a  genuine  faith,  2  Pet. 
2:20;  "enthusiastic."  trusting  in  frames 
and  feelings,  without  the  fruits  of  the  Spir- 
it, 2  Cor.  II :  13-15. 


THE    CAl'FARIS   SPINOSA,  OR    CAPRR-PLANT. 

HYS'SOP  was  used  in  the  ist  celebration 
of  the  Passover,  Exod.  12:22,  and  in  the 
ceremonial  purifications  of  the  Israelites, 
Lev.  14:4-7,  49-52;  Num.  19:6,  18,  19;  Heb. 
9: 19-21 ;  compare  Psa.  51  -.j.  It  sometimes 
grew  on  walls,  i  Kin.  4:33.  It  appears  to 
have  had  a  long  stem,  John  19:29,  though 
sprigs  of  it  may  have  been  bound  around 
the  sponge,  and  both  fastened  to  a  reed  or 
stick.  Matt.  27:48.  It  was  perhaps  a  spe- 
cies of  marjoram.  Origanum  viaru,  a  plant 
with  a  strong  straight  stalk,  small  downy 
leaves,  and  a  white  blossom,  with  an  aro- 
matic odor  and  a  pungent  taste,  abundant 
in  Syria,  and  sometimes  found  on  tlie  walls 
of  terraces.  Others  have  thought  that  the 
caper-plant  was  intended,  which  is  found 
in  Palestine,  grows  on  walls,  has  detergent 
qualities,  and  may  furnish  a  stalk  3  or  4 
feet  long. 


IBL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDo 


L 

IB'LEAM,  people-waster,  a  city  of  Ma- 
nasseh,  in  the  territory  of  Issachar  or  Ash- 
er,  Josh.    17:11;  Judg.   i :  27 ;  2  Kin.  9  :  27 ; 

1  Chr.  6:70.  Supposed  to  be  Jelama,  2 
miles  north  of  Jenin. 

IB'ZAN,  illustrious,  the  loth  "judge  of 
Israel,"  born  at  Bethlehem  in  Zebulun. 
He  held  office  7  years,  and  was  noted  for 
iiis  large  and  prosperous  family,  B.  C.  1182, 
Judg.  12:8. 

ICH'ABOD,  Where  is  the  glory?  a  son  of 
Phinehas,  and  grandson  of  Eli,  both  of 
whom,  and  his  mother  also,  died  on  the 
day  of  his  birth,  i  Sam.  4 :  19-22 ;  14:3. 

ICO'NIUM,  a  large  and  opulent  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  generally  assigned  by  ancient 
writers  to  Lycaonia,  but  by  some  to  Phry- 
gia  or  Pisidia.  It  was  at  the  foot  of  the 
Taurus  range,  surrounded  by  mountains 
except  on  the  east,  where  was  a  large  and 
fertile  plain.  Lying  on  the  great  Roman 
highway  that  connected  Ephesus  with  Tar- 
sus, Antioch,  and  the  East,  and  at  the  in- 
tersection of  several  important  roads,  it 
was  a  favorable  centre  for  the  spread  of 
the  gospel,  which  was  preached  here  by 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  A.  D.  45,  on  Paul's  ist 
missionary  journej^  Acts  13:51.  He  made 
many  converts,  both  Jews  and  Greeks,  but 
the  unbelievers  not  only  expelled  him,  but 
pursued   him   to  Lystra,  Acts    14:1-6,   19; 

2  Tim.  3  ■  II.  Paul,  however,  revisited  the 
city  later.  Acts  14:21.  On  his  2d  circuit, 
with  Silas,  A.  D.  51,  he  seems  to  have  been 
again  at  Iconium,  Acts  16  : 1-3,  and  associ- 
ated Timothy  with  him;  also  again  on  his 
3d  circuit.  Acts  18:23.  The  church  thus 
planted  flourished  until  extinguished  by 
the  persecutions  of  the  Saracens,  and  later 
of  the  Seljukian  Turks,  whose  sultans  re- 
sided at  Iconium  and  surrounded  it  with 
strong  walls,  still  standing,  and  108  square 
towers.  It  is  now  called  Konieh,  and  is 
the  capital  of  Caramania,  having  a  popula- 
tion of  30,000,  composed  of  Turks,  Arme- 
nians, Greeks,  and  Jews. 

ID'DO,  timely,  I.,  a  prophet  of  Judah,  who 
prophesied  against  Jeroboam,  and  wrote 
thehistoriesofRehoboamandAbijah,2Chr. 
9:29;  12:15;  13:22;  identified  by  Josephus 
and  others  with  the  prophet  sent  to  Jerobo- 
am at  Bethel,  and  killed  by  a  lion,  i  Kin.  13  ; 
but  this  is  a  mere  conjecture. — II.  Grand- 
father of  the  prophet  Zechariah,  Zech.  1:1, 
7;  compare  Ezra  5:1;  6:14.  He  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  12:4, 
16.— III.  I  Kin.  4:14.— IV.  A  Levite,  i  Chr. 


6:21. — V.  Mishap, E.zra.i -.17-20.  B.C. 459. — 
VI. /.cc'.?/}',  I  Chr.  27:21.  B.C.  1014.  Three 
difierent  words  in  Hebrew  are  translated 
alike  in  English,  meaning  as  above. 

I'DLE,  in  Matt.  12:36,  means  empty  and 
fruitless.  The  "idle  word"  which  Christ 
condemns  is  a  word  morally  useless  and 
evil. 

I'DOL,  IDOL'ATRY.  The  word  idol  sig- 
nifies literally  a  representation  or  figure. 
It  is  always  employed  in  Scripture  in  a  bad 
sense,  for  representations  of  heathen  dei- 
ties of  what  nature  soever.  In  many  pas- 
sages idols  are  called  devils.  Lev.  17:7; 
Deut.  32:17;  2  Chr.  11:15;  Psa.  106:37; 
I  Cor.  10:20;  Rev.  9:20.  God  forbids  all 
sorts  of  idols,  or  figures  and  representa- 


THE  IDOL  JUGGERNAUT. 

tions  of  creatures,  formed  or  set  up  with 
intention  of  paying  superstitious  worship 
to  them,  Exod.  20:3-5;  34:13:  Deut.  4:16- 
19;  7:25,26.  He  also  forbids  all  attempts 
to  represent  him  by  any  visible  form,  Exod. 
32:4,5;  Deut.  4:15;  Neh.  9:18. 

The  heathen  had  idols  of  all  sorts — paint- 
ings, bas-reliefs,  and  all  varieties  of  sculp- 
ture— and  these  of  many  kinds  of  materi- 
als, as  gold,  silver,  brass,  stone,  wood,  pot- 
ter's earth,  etc.  Stars,  spirits,  men,  ani- 
mals, rivers,  plants,  and  elements  were  the 
subjects  of  them.  Scarcely  an  object  or 
power  in  nature,  scarcely  a  faculty  of  the 
soul,  a  virtue,  a  vice,  or  a  condition  of 
human  life,  has  not  received  idolatrous 
worship.  See  Stars.  Some  nations  wor- 
shipped a  rough  stone.  Such  is  the  black 
stone  of  the  ancient  Arabs,  retained  by 
Mohammed,  and  now  kept  in  the  Caaba  at 
Mecca. 

It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  period  at 
247 


IDO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDO 


which  the  worship  of  false  gods  and  idols 
was  introduced.     No  mention  is  made  of 


THE  HINDOO   IDOL   PULLIAR. 

such  worship  before  the  deluge ;  though 
from  the  silence  of  Scripture  we  cannot 
argue  that  it  did  not  exist.  Josephus  and 
many  of  the  fathers  were  of  opinion  that 
soon  after  the  deluge  idolatry  became  prev- 
alent; and  certainly,  wherever  we  turn  our 
eyes  after  the  time  of  Abraham,  we  see 
only  a  false  worship.  That  patriarch's 
forefathers,  and  even  he  himself,  were  im- 
plicated in  it,  as  is  evident  from  Josh. 
24:2,  14. 

The  Hebrews  had  no  peculiar  form  of 
idolatry;  they  imitated  the  superstitions  of 
others,  but  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
the  inventors  of  any.  When  they  were  in 
Egypt,  many  of  them  worshipped  Egyptian 
deities,  Ezek.  20:8;  in  the  wilderness  they 
worshipped  those  of  the  Canaanites,  Egyp- 
tians, Ammonites,  and  Moabites;  in  con- 
quered Canaan,  those  of  the  Phcenicians, 
Syrians,  and  other  people  around  them. 
Num.  25;  Judg.  10:6;  Amos  5:26;  Acts  7:43. 
Rachel,  it  may  be,  had  adored  idols  at  her 
father  Laban's,  since  she  carried  off  his 
teraphim.  Gen.  31:19,  30.  Jacob,  after  his 
return  from  Mesopotamia,  required  his  peo- 
ple to  reject  the  strange  gods  from  among 
them,  and  also  the  superstitious  pendants 
worn  by  them  in  their  ears,  which  he  hid 
under  a  terebinth  near  Shechem,  Gen. 
35:2-4.  He  preserved  his  family  in  the 
worship  of  God  while  he  lived. 

Under  the  government  of  the  judges, 
"  the  children  of  Israel  did  evil  in  the  sight 
248 


of  the  Lord,  and  served  Baalim.  They  for- 
sook the  Lord  (iod  of  their  fathers,  and  fol- 
lowed other  gods — of  the  gods  of  the  people 
that  were  round  abfjut  them  ;  and  they  for- 
sook the  Lord,  and  served  Baal  and  Ashta- 
roth,"Judg.  2:11-13.  Gideon,  after  he  had 
been  favored  by  God  with  a  miraculous 
deliverance,  made  an  ephod,  which  en- 
snared the  Israelites  in  unlawful  worship, 
Judg.  8:27.  Micah's  teraphim  also  were 
the  objects  of  idolatrous  worship  till  the 
captivity  of  Israel  under  the  Philistines, 
Judg.  17:5;  18:30,31;  I  Sam.  4.    See  Tkr- 

AI'HI.M. 

During  the  times  of  Samuel,  i  Sam.  7:3, 
4,  Saul,  and  David,  the  worship  of  God 
seems  to  have  been  preserved  compara- 
tively pure  in  Israel,  tliough.  judging  from 
the  presence  of  "  teraphim  "  in  the  home  of 
the  daughter  of  Saul  and  wife  of  David, 
I  Sam.  19:13,  some  veneration  for  these 
images  then  existed.  Solomon,  seduced  by 
complaisance  to  his  strange  wives,  caused 
temples  to  be  erected  in  honor  of  Ashto- 
reth  goddess  of  the  Phoenicians,  Moloch 
god  of  the  Ammonites,  and  Chemosh  god 
of  the  Moabites.  His  son  and  successor  in 
Judah,  Rehoboam,  continued  the  worship 
of  heathen  divinities,  i  Kin.  14:21-24;  and 
Jeroboam,  king  of  the  northern  tribes,  set 
up  golden  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  and 
made  Israel  to  sin,  i  Kin.  12:20,26-33.  The 
people,  no  longer  restrained  by  royal  au- 
thority, worsliipped  not  only  these  golden 
calves,  but  many  other  idols,  particularly 
Baal  and  Ashtoreth.  Under  the  reign  of 
Ahab,  idolatry  reached  its  height.  The 
impious  Jezebel  endeavored  to  extinguish 
the  worship  of  the  Lord,  by  jwrsecuting  his 
prophets  (who,  as  a  barrier,  still  retained 
some  of  the  people  in  the  true  religion),  till 
God,  incensed  at  their  idolatry,  abandoned 
Israel  to  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Chal- 
daea,  who  transplanted  them  beyond  the 
Euphrates.  Judah  was  almost  equally  cor- 
rupted. The  descriptions  given  by  the 
prophets  of  their  irregularities  and  idola- 
tries, of  their  abominations  and  lascivious 
ness  on  the  high  places  and  in  woods  con- 
secrated to  idols,  and  of  their  human  sac- 
rifices, fill  us  with  dismay,  and  unveil  the 
awful  corruption  of  the  heart  of  man.  See 
Moloch.  The  tendency  to  idolatry  was 
not  wholly  eradicated  by  the  severe  disci- 
pline of  the  Babylonish  Captivity.  Many 
of  the  Hebrews,  even  priests  and  Levites, 
after  the  return  married  heathen  women 
and  followed  them  in  their  abominations ; 
yet  they  repented  at  the  remonstrance  of 


IDO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDU 


Ezra,  Ezra  9;  10.  Later,  at  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.  C.  167,  we  find 
some  of  the  Jews  apostatizing  to  Greek 
idolatry,  voluntarily  or  under  compulsion, 
though  many  remained  faithful  to  their 
God,  I  Mace,  i ;  2.  Even  in  the  army  of 
the  noble  Judas  Maccabeus,  men  were 
found  who  engaged  in  idolatrous  practi- 
ces, 2  Mace.  12:39,  40.  The  sufferings  in- 
flicted on  the  Jews  by  heathen  persecu- 
tors, and  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
gained  by  their  perusal  in  the  synagogues 
every  Sabbath,  Acts  15:21,  at  length  ban- 
ished all  forms  of  heathen  idolatry,  and 
made  them  abhor  the  images  adored  by 
their  Roman  masters. 

As  the  maintenance  of  the  worship  of 
the  only  true  God  was  one  of  the  funda- 
mental objects  of  the  Mosaic  polity,  and  as 
God  was  regarded  as  the  king  of  the  Isra- 
elitish  nation,  so  we  find  idolatry,  that  is, 
the  worship  of  other  gods,  occupying,  in 
the  Mosaic  law,  the  first  place  in  the  list 
of  crimes.  The  only  living  and  true  God 
was  also  the  civil  legislator  and  ruler  of  Is- 
rael, and  accepted  by  them  as  their  king ; 
and  hence  idolatry  was  a  crime  against 
the  state,  and  therefore  just  as  deservedly 
punished  with  death  as  high  treason  is  in 
modern  times.  By  the  Mosaic  law  an 
idolater  was  to  be  stoned  to  death,  and  an 
idolatrous  city  must  be  wholly  destroyed, 
with  all  it  contained,  Deut.  13:12-18;  17:2- 
5.  Another  aspect  of  the  idolatry  of  Israel 
is  that  of  adultery  against  Jehovah,  who 
represents  himself  as  the  Husband  of  his 
chosen  race,  Isa.  54:5;  Jer.  3;  Ezek.  16. 
By  the  Mosaic  law  this  crime  also  was  pun- 
ished with  death. 

Of  the  19  Hebrew  words  translated 
"  idol  "  or  "  image  "  in  A.  V.,  many  express 
in  the  original  the  foolishness  of  idolatry, 
the  abhorrence  against  it  which  should  ex- 
ist, the  shame  connected  with  its  rites  and 
in  which  it  involves  its  votaries,  and  the 
suffering  consequent  upon  its  practice.  Its 
folly  is  graphically  set  forth  in  Isa.  40:18- 
20;  44:9-20;  Jer.  10:2-16;  and  its  unrea- 
sonableness and  immorality  by  Paul  in 
Rom.  1 :  18-32.  John  warns  the  Christians 
against  every  form  of  it,  i  John  5:21,  and 
announces  the  terrible  doom  of  idolaters. 
Rev.  21:8. 

At  the  present  day  idolatry  prevails  over 
a  great  portion  of  the  earth,  and  is  prac- 
tised by  about  800,000,000,  or  nearly  two- 
thirds,  of  the  human  race.  In  some  lands 
professedly  Christian,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
the  adoration  of  crucifixes  and  paintings 


is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  idol-worship. 
But  as  idolatry  consists  not  merely  in  the 
external  worship  of  false  gods,  but  in  the 
preference  of  and  devotion  to  something 
else  than  the  Most  High,  many  in  Chris- 
tian lands  must  fall  under  this  charge. 
Whoever  loves  this  world,  or  the  pursuits 
of  wealth  or  honor  or  ambition,  or  selfish- 
ness in  any  form,  and  for  these  forgets  or 
neglects  God  and  Christ,  such  a  one  is  an 
idolater  as  truly  as  the  ancient  Israelites, 
and  cannot  hope  to  escape  an  awful  con- 
demnation, 1  Sam.  15:23;  Col.  3:5. 

IDUM.ffi'A,  Isa.  34: 5,  6,  in  Hebrew  E'dom, 
and  so  usually  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  Idu- 
maea  originally  extended  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba,  and  from  the  Arabah  valley  on  the 
west  to  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  east,  100 
miles  by  20.  At  a  later  period  a  portion  of 
Southern  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  region 
of  Arabia  Petraea  was  won  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  Ezek.  36:5;  i  Mace.  5:65;  Mark  3:8. 
The  original  Edom  is  a  rugged  mountain 
district  whose  highest  elevation,  3,000  feet, 
is  a  limestone  range  on  the  east,  bordering 
the  Arabian  plateau,  into  which  it  gently 
sinks;  limestone  hills  skirt  the  Arabah 
valley  on  the  west,  and  the  mid-chain  is 
formed  of  porphyritic  rocks  surmounted 
by  sandstone.  Abrupt  cliffs  and  deep  ra- 
vines abound,  and  the  sandstone  portion  is 
gorgeously  colored  with  yellow,  pink,  blue, 
purple,  and  brown,  a  deep  crimson  pre- 
dominating— whence  the  name  of  Edom, 
red,  was  readily  transferred  to  his  land. 
In  the  valleys  and  on  the  broad  heights 
grass,  flowers,  and  trees  grow  luxuriantly, 
nourished  by  many  springs  and  a  fertile 
soil,  Gen.  27:39;  Num.  20: 17;  and  crops  of 
grain  are  raised  by  the  fellahin  or  semi- 
Bedouin  peasants.  The  chief  cities  were 
Bozrah,  the  ancient  capital,  Elath,  Maon, 
Ezion-geber,  and  the  later  capital  Sela. 
(See.)  The  country  is  now  divided  into  2 
provinces,  the  northern  called  Jebal,  per- 
haps the  ancient  Gebal,  the  southern  Esh- 
Sherah.  The  prophecies  which  foretold 
the  destruction  of  Edom  have  been  stri- 
kingly fulfilled,  as  every  traveller  testifies. 
See  Jer.  49:7-22;  Ezek.  25:12-14;  35:3-15- 
The  ruins  of  many  cities  are  visible,  and  a 
few  villages  are  inhabited  by  the  fellahin 
who  cultivate  the  soil ;  and  hordes  of  tur- 
bulent Bedouins  roam  through  the  region. 

Dwelling  "  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks  "  here 
were  first  the  Horites,  Gen.  14:6,  whose 
ancestor  Seir  gave  it  its  name  Mount  Seir, 
rugged,  Gen.  36:20-30.     The  Horites  were 

249 


IDU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IMA 


probably  cave-dwellers,  and  cave-dwellings  ■ 
abound  in  Southern  Edom.  They  were 
dispossessed  by  Esau,  Gen.  32:3;  36:1,  8, 
9;  Deut.  2:5,  12,  22.  The  "  dukes"  of  Idu- 
maea  were  probably  much  the  same  as  the 
Bedouin  sheikhs  of  modern  times,  and  also 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  an  emir  or 
king.  Gen.  36:31-43;  E.xod.  15:15;  Num. 
20:14.  The  enmity  of  Jacob  and  Esau  was 
perpetuated  in  their  descendants.  On  Is- 
raei's  approach  from  the  west,  the  Edom- 
ites  refused  a  peaceful  passage  through 
their  country.  Num.  20:14-21,  but  after- 
wards granted  it,  Deut.  2:28,  29.  Israel 
was  commanded  to  preserve  friendly  rela- 
tions with  them,  Deut.  2:4-7;  '^i'-l-  Yet 
hostilities  seemed  inevitable.  Saul  warred 
with  them,  i  Sam.  14:47;  David  subdued 
them,  2  Sam.  8:14;  i  Kin.  11:15;  i  Chr. 
18:11-13,  fulfilling  Isaac's  prophecy.  Gen. 
27:29.  Under  Hadad  they  revolted  against 
Solomon,  i  Kin.  11:14-22,  but  helped  Isra- 
el and  Judah  against  Moab,  2  Kin.  3.  They 
joined  other  enemies  of  Judah  against  Je- 
hoshaphat,  2  Chr.  20:1,  10,  11;  Psa.  83:6, 
but  were  miraculously  overthrown,  2  Chr. 
20:14-29,  and  subjected  to  Judah,  1  Kin. 
22:47.  In  the  reign  of  Jehoram  they  as- 
serted their  independence,  2  Kin.  8:20-22; 
2  Chr.  21:8,  10,  fulfilling  Isaac's  2d  proph- 
ecy, Gen.  27:40.  Amaziah  chastised  them, 
and  took  Sela,  2  Kin.  14:7;  2  Chr.  25:10, 
12,  but  adopted  their  idolatry,  ver.  14,  20. 
They  were  successful  against  Judah  in  the 
days  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr.  28: 17,  and  encouraged 
Nebuchadnezzar  against  Jerusalem,  Psa. 
137:7.  Punishment  for  their  violence  was 
often  denounced  against  them,  Joel  3:19; 
Amos  1 :  1 1 ;  Jer.  49 : 1 7  ;  Ezek.  25 : 1 2-14 ;  35 ; 
Obad.  After  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, according  to  Josephus,  hum- 
bled all  the  states  around  Judah,  though 
he  did  not  carry  them  captive,  Jer.  27 :  i-i  i ; 
Mai.  1:3,  4.  Subsequently  the  Edomites 
seized  the  southern  part  of  Judah,  and  were 
succeeded  in  their  proper  domain,  Mount 
Seir,  by  the  Nabatheans,  descendants  of 
Nebajoth.son  of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25: 13.  Thus 
the  country  between  the  Arabah  valley 
and  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Elath 
to  Eleutheropolis  northwest  of  Hebron, 
gained  the  name  of  Idumcea.  In  Edom 
proper  the  Nabatheans  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Arabia  Petrcea,  and  were  ruled 
by  kings,  some  of  whom  have  the  name  of 
Aretas,  2  Cor.  11:32.  The  true  Idumaeans, 
in  the  south  of  Judah,  were  defeated  by 
Judas  Maccabeus,  and  subjugated  and  for- 
cibly proselyted  by  John  Hyrcanus,  B.  C. 
250 


130.  Antipater,  governor  of  Judaea,  B.  C. 
47,  and  his  son  Herod  the  Great,  were  Idu- 
maeans.  Twenty  thousand  Iduma;ans  were 
invited  into  Jerusalem  previous  to  its  siege 
by  Titus,  but  instead  of  defending  the  city 
they  gave  themselves  up  to  rapine  and 
murder.  After  Edom  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans  under  Trajan,  A.  D.  105,  its 
commerce  and  wealth  increased,  roads 
were  made  to  enlarge  its  old  trade  be- 
tween India  and  Persia  and  the  Levant, 
and  the  wonderful  temples,  palaces,  tombs, 
and  stairways  of  the  rock  city  Petra  were 
carved  out  of  the  solid  cliffs.  Christianity 
was  planted  here,  and  Petra  had  its  bishop. 
Before,  but  still  more  after,  the  Mohamme- 
dan conquest  of  Idumaea,  its  prosperity 
declined  and  its  cities  became  ruins,  as 
had  been  predicted.  The  Crusaders  pen- 
etrated to  Petra,  whose  site  they  called 
"  the  valley  of  Moses,"  a  name  which  the 
Arabs  retain,  VVady  Musa.  The  first  mod- 
ern traveller  who  traversed  Idumaea  was 
Burckhardt  in  1812;  he  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed by  many  others,  though  the  work  of 
exploration  is  rendered  difficult  by  the 
rival  tribes  of  warlike  Bedouins,  who  ex- 
act the  utmost  possible  from  the  traveller 
whom  they  allow  to  cross  their  borders. 

I'lM,  ruins,  I.,  Num.  33:45,  a  shorter  form 
of  Ije-abarim. — II.  Josh.  15:29,  a  town  in 
the  south  of  Judah. 

I'JE-ABA'RIM,  ruins  of  the  Abarim,  Num. 
21:11;  33:44,  a  station  in  the  border  of 
Moab,  near  Aineh,  at  the  southern  end  of 
the  Abarim  range. 

rjON,  ruins,  a  city  of  Naphtali,  smitten 
by  Ben-hadad,  i  Kin.  15:20;  2  Chr.  16:4, 
and  by  Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29.  Its 
site  is  found  in  the  ruin-covered  hill  Tell 
Dibbin,  on  the  plain  Merj  Ayfin,  not  far 
from  the  river  Leontes. 

ILLYR'ICUM,  a  country  of  Europe,  lying 
east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  north  of  Epirus, 
and  west  of  Macedonia.  It  was  anciently 
divided  into  Liburnia.  now  Croatia,  on  the 
north,  and  Dalmatia  on  the  south,  which 
still  retains  its  name.  See  D.\lmati.\.  The 
limits  of  lUyricum  varied  much  at  different 
times.  It  was  reached  by  Paul,  preaching 
the  gospel  of  Christ,  and  probably  trav- 
ersed in  part,  A.  D.  57,  Rom.  15:19. 

IM'AGE,  I.,  a  pillar  erected  in  honor  of 
a  false  god,  or  a  representation  of  a  god, 
painted,  graven,  molten,  etc.,  Dan.  3.  All 
use  of  images  as  objects  of  religious  wor- 
ship was  strictly  prohibited,  E.xod.  20:4,  5; 
23:24;  Lev.  26:1;  Deut.  16:22,  and  their 
original  adoption  is  condemned  as  "  with- 


IMA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IMM 


out  excuse,"  Rom.  i :  18-23.  See  Idol. 
The  "image  of  jealousy,"  Ezek.  8:3,  5,  is 
referred  to  Tammuz  in  verse  14.  The 
"  chambers  of  imagery,"  Ezek.  8:7-12,  had 
their  walls  covered  with  idolatrous  paint- 
ings, such  as  are  found  on  the  ancient  stone 
walls  of  Egyptian  temples  and  in  Assyrian 
ruins.     See  Nineveh. 

II.  Likeness.  The  "image  of  God"  in 
which  man  was  created,  Gen.  i :  26,  27 ;  5:1; 
9:6,  was  a  spiritual,  intellectual,  and  moral 
likeness  to  the  Creator.  The  traces  of  this 
image  which  survive  the  fall  should  rebuke 
idolatry,  and  constrain  men  to  mutual  re- 
spect and  charity.  Acts  17:28,  29;  Jas.  3:9, 
10;  I  Pet.  2:17.  Adam's  posterity  are  born 
in  his  fallen  and  sinful  likeness.  Gen.  5:3, 
needing  to  be  regenerated  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  the  moral  likeness  of  God,  "  in 
righteousness  and  true  holiness,"  Eph. 
4:24;  Col.  3:10.  As  all  men  naturally  bear 
the  image  of  the  sinful  Adam,  so  all  be- 
lievers are  moulded  into  the  moral  like- 
ness of  the  2d  Adam,  even  their  bodies 
being  destined  to  bear  the  likeness  of  his 
glorified  body,  Rom.  8:29;  i  Cor.  15:47-49; 
2  Cor.  3:18;  Phil.  3:21.  Christ  is  "the 
image  of  God,"  2  Cor.  4:4;  Col.  1:15,  being 
the  same  in  divine  nature  and  attributes, 
and  manifesting  "  the  invisible  God "  as 
the  perfect  impress  of  a  seal  shows  every 
trait  of  the  seal  itself,  Heb.  1:3.  Compare 
John  14:9. 

In  Psa.  73:20,  "thou  shalt  despise  their 
image,"  is  denoted  the  unreal  and  transi- 
tory prosperity  of  the  wicked,  which  God 
cuts  short  by  death,  ver.  3-19.  Compare 
Psa.  39:6,  where  the  same  word  is  trans- 
lated "  vain  show." 

Image-worship — of  paintings  and  carv- 
ings— was  borrowed  in  Christian  churches 
from  the  surrounding  heathen  customs  and 
influence,  about  the  close  of  the  2d  century. 
The  innovation  was  at  first  strenuously 
resisted  by  church  synods,  but  so  increased 
that  it  was  authorized  by  the  2d  Council  of 
Nice,  A.  D.  787,  and  in  spite  of  sundry  pro- 
tests and  laws  became  general  throughout 
the  Roman  Church  after  the  9th  century. 
Images  were  rejected,  more  or  less  com- 
pletely, by  the  Reformers  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. In  the  Romish  Church  the  Council 
of  Trent,  A.  D.  1545-1563,  decreed  the  re- 
tention of  them,  and  the  paying  of  "due 
honor  and  veneration  "  to  them,  making 
a  subtile  distinction  between  this  and  the 
adoration  of  the  divine  or  human  persons 
thus  represented — a  distinction  not  appre- 
ciated by  the  great  mass  of  worshippers  in 


*  that  church,  nor  always  even  by  its  theolo- 
gians. Images  are  now  universally  used 
by  Papists,  often  in  private  worship  as  well 
as  in  churches ;  by  most  in  a  gross  breach 
of  the  2d  commandment,  and  by  the  best 
in  opposition  to  both  the  letter  and  the 
spirit  of  the  Bible,  Exod.  20:4,  5;  Deut. 
4: 15;  John  4:24;  Rev.  22:8,  9. 

On  Gen.  31:19  see  Teraphim. 

IMMAN'UEL,  Matt.  1:23;  in  A.  V.  Em- 
manuel, which  see. 

.IMMORTAL'ITY,  undyingness,  in  God  is 
underived  and  absolute,  "  who  only  hath 
immortality,"  i  Tim.  6:16.  In  creatures  it 
is  dependent  on  the  Creator's  will.  The 
immortality  of  the  human  soul  is  argued 
from  its  boundless  desires  and  capacities, 
its  unlimited  improvement,  its  desert  of 
punishment  or  reward  here  unsatisfied, 
etc.  The  doctrine  has  been  popularly  held 
among  almost  all  nations  and  tribes,  and 
was  taught  more  or  less  confidently  by 
some  of  the  wisest  ancient  philosophers. 
All  arguments  for  it,  however,  are  unsatis- 
factory without  the  testimony  of  Scripture. 
It  is  sometimes  alleged  that  the  Old  Testa- 
ment contains  no  distinct  intimations  of 
it;  but  Christ  refuted  the  Sadducees,  who 
held  that  death  put  an  end  to  man  in  every 
sense.  Matt.  22:23;  Acts  23:8,  by  showing 
from  the  Old  Testament  that  the  dead  pa- 
triarchs still  lived,  Exod.  3:6.  The  ancient 
Hebrew  belief  in  the  continued  existence 
of  the  soul  after  death  is  shown  in  the  oft- 
recurring  expression,  used  by  God  himself, 
"gathered  to  his  people,"  which  evidently 
does  not  apply  to  the  body,  whose  burial  is 
spoken  of  in  other  terms.  Gen.  25:8,  9; 
35:29;  49:29,  33;  Num.  20:24-26;  27:12, 
13;  Deut.  32:50;  34:5,  6.  Other  declara- 
tions evince  the  writers'  assurance  that  the 
death  of  the  body  did  not  terminate  the 
life  of  the  soul,  Psa.  17:15;  73:24-26;  Dan. 
12:2,  3.  But  it  was  reserved  for  Christ,  by 
his  clear  and  authoritative  teachings,  rais- 
ing the  dead  and  rising  from  the  dead 
himself,  to  "  bring  life  and  incorruption  to 
light,"  2  Tim.  i :  10.  He  assumed  the  soul's 
immortality  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus,  Luke  16:19-31,  and  predict- 
ed the  everlasting  woe  of  the  wicked  and 
the  everlasting  blessedness  of  the  right- 
eous, Matt.  25:46;  John  5:28,  29.  His  apos- 
tles, taught  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  spoke  posi- 
tively in  terms  implying  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
Acts  7:55-60;  10:42;  I  Cor.  15;  2  Cor.  5:1- 
S;  Phil.  1:21-23;  I  Thess.  4:13-18.  The 
immortal  blessedness  of  the  redeemed  is 

251 


IMP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


\S\i 


the  gift  of  God  through  Christ,  enjoyed  by 
them  through  their  union  with  him  by 
faith,  John  10:27,  2cS;  11:25:  Rom.  6:23; 
I  John  5:11-13.  The  terms  rendered  in 
the  A.  V.  "immortal"  and  "immortality" 
are  in  other  passages  rightly  translated 
"incorruptible"  and  " incorruption,"  as 
uniformly  in  the  R.  V. 

IMPLEAD',  Acts  19:38,  prosecute  at  law. 

IM'POTENT,  strengthless,  either  through 
disease  or  natural  malformation,  John  5:3; 
Acts  4:9;   i4:cS. 

IMPRECA'TION.     See  Oath. 

IMPUTE',  to  count  or  reckon  to  one — to 
put  to  his  account  something  that  does  or 
does  not  belong  personally  to  him.  Num. 
18:27;  Psa.  32:2;  Phile.  iS.  Thus  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  is  put  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  believer  in  him,  Rom.  3:22;  4 
(where  the  same  verb  is  translated  "im- 
pute," "reckon,"  and  "count"),  the  sin  of 
the  believer  being  put  to  the  account  of 
Christ  and  atoned  for  by  his  sacrifice,  Isa. 
53:5;  Luke  22:37;  Rom.  5;  10:4;  i  Cor. 
1 :  30  ;  2  Cor.  5 :  19-21  ;   i  Pet.  2 :  24. 

IN'CENSE,  the  sacred  perfume  offered  to 
God  by  burning,  on  the  incense-altar.  The 
gums  which  composed  it  are  mentioned  in 
Exod.  30:34-38,  including  salt,  if  the  word 
"tempered"  in  ver.  35  should  read  "salt- 
ed," as  in  the  margin.  See  Frankincense, 
Stacte,  Galbanum,  Onvcha.  Incense 
was  offered  on  the  incense-altar  in  the 
holy  place  every  morning  and  evening,  by 
the  priests,  with  fire  taken  from  the  altar 
of  burnt -offering,  E.xod.  30:1,  6-8;  Luke 
1:9;  and  on  the  annual  Day  of  Atonement 
the  high-priest  burned  incense  in  the  holy 
of  holies,  Lev.  16:12,  13.  The  offering  of 
incense  pertained  to  the  priests,  the  sons 
of  Aaron,  alone;  the  Levite  Korah,  with 
the  Reubenites  Dathan  and  Abiram,  and 
their  followers,  were  killed,  and  king  Uz- 
ziah  was  severely  punished,  for  claiming 
this  priestly  prerogative.  Num.  16:1-10,  39, 
40;  2  Chr.  26:16-19.  While  the  officiating 
priest  was  offering  incense,  the  congrega- 
tion prayed  silently  in  the  court  without, 
Luke  1:10,  their  prayers  ascending  with 
the  fragrance  and  smoke  of  the  incense 
until  the  priest  reappeared  and  gave  them 
the  blessing,  Num.  6:22-27,  after  which  the 
Levites  burst  into  song.  Incense  is  re- 
garded by  some  as  a  symbol  of  prayer, 
Psa.  141:2;  Rev.  5:8;  but  still  more  aptly 
it  represents  that  which  accompanies  every 
prayer  of  faith  and  makes  it  acceptable  to 
God,  namely,  the  merits  of  Christ,  made 
effectual  for  the  believer's  acceptance  by 
252 


His  propitiatory  death — symbolized  by  the 
burning  of  incense  by  fire  from  the  altar  of 
burnt-offering.  So  in  Rev.  8:3,  4,  "much 
incense"  is  said  to  be  "added"  to  the 
"prayers  of  all  the  saints."  Such  prayer 
is  to  be  offered  in  every  place,  Mai.  i :  11. — 
Israel  and  Judah  were  reproached  by  the 
prophets  for  offering  incense  to  idols,  Jer. 
11:12-17;  Ezek.  8:11;  16:18. 

The  early  Christians  dropped  the  offer- 
ing of  incense,  with  the  other  superseded 
types  of  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  their  de- 
fenders claimed  that  they  did  not  "  burn 
incense  "  like  pagans.  Later  on  the  prac- 
tice seems  to  have  been  adopted  under  the 
plea  of  i)urifying  the  unwholesome  air  of 
the  places  in  which  persecuted  Christians 
assembled  for  secresy  and  safety.  With 
other  superstitious  usages  derived  from 
heathenism,  incense-burning  became  es- 
tablished in  the  Latin  Church  by  the  close 
of  the  6th  century,  and  is  now  universal. 
The  gum  olibanum  is  used,  or  some  imita- 
tion of  it. 

IN'DIA,  Esth.  1:1;  8:9,  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  the  kingdom  of  Xerxes  ;  not  the  pen- 
insula of  Hindostan,  but  the  Punjab  or  re- 
gion around  the  Indus,  perhaps  including 
Scinde— north  and  west  of  modern  India. 
The  people  and  productions  of  this  region 
must  have  been  known  to  the  Jews,  for  an 
active  trade  was  often  carried  on  between 
India  and  Western  Asia.  The  imports  of 
Solomon's  navy  were  chiefly  of  Indian  arti- 
cles, I  Kin.  10:  II,  22. 

INDITE',  Psa.  45:  i,  Heb.  to  bubble  tip. 

INGATH'ERING,  Feast  of,  Exod.  23:16; 
34:22.     See  Taiu;rn.\cles. 

INHER'ITANCE.  The  laws  of  inherit- 
ance among  the  Hebrews  were  very  sim- 
ple. Land  might  be  mortgaged,  but  could 
not  be  alienated.  Num.  36:6-9.  See  Jubi- 
lee. The  only  permanent  right  to  prop- 
erty was  by  heritage,  or  lineal  succession. 
The  eldest  son  had  a  double  portion,  Deut. 
21:15-17.  Females  had  no  territorial  pos- 
session; but  if  a  man  left  no  sons,  his 
daughters  inherited— on  condition  of  their 
marrying  into  a  family  within  the  tribe  to 
which  their  father  belonged.  If  a  man  had 
no  children,  his  land  passed  to  distant  rel- 
atives, according  to  a  law  laid  down  in 
Num.  27:8-11.  The  law  of  Moses  rendered 
wills  unnecessary;  they  were  introduced, 
however,  at  a  later  period,  Gal.  3:15;  Heb. 
9: 17.  Property  was  sometimes  distributed 
among  children  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
father  :  thus  in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal 
son,  the  father  divided  his  property  between 


INI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


INS 


the  2  sons,  Luke  15:12.  The  inheritance 
of  the  believer  in  Christ  is  eternal  salva- 
tion, Heb.  1:14;  9:15,  and  "the  kingdom 
of  God,"  Luke  12:32;  Jas.  2:5.  As  a  child 
of  God,  he  is  an  heir,  and  a  joint-heir  with 
Christ  his  elder  Brother,  Rom.  8:17. 

INIQ'UITY,  erring  from  the  law  of  right 
and  of  God.  To  "  bear  iniquity,"  means  to 
have  guilt  laid  to  one's  charge.  Lev.  5:17; 
16:22;  Num.  14:34.  The  priests  were  ap- 
pointed thus  to  assume  the  guilt  of  the  con- 
gregation and  "make  atonement  for  them," 
Lev.    10:17,  by  the  prescribed  sacrifices. 


In  this  the  priests  were  types  of  Christ, 
Isa.  53:6,  II  ;  I  Pet.  2:24;  the  completeness 
of  their  typical  assumption  of  the  people's 
sins  being  symbolized  by  their  eating  in 
some  cases  of  the  people's  sin-oftering. 
Lev.  6: 25,  26,30.  The  iniquity  of  the  priests 
themselves.  Num.  18:  i,  was  otherwise  e.xpi- 
ated.  Lev.  8:2,  14-17;  9:2,  7;  16:3,6;  Heb. 
5:1-3;  9:7.  The  superiority  of  Christ's 
priesthood  is  apparent  in  that  he,  being 
sinless,  needed  no  sacrifice  for  himself, 
Heb.  4:15;  7:26;  9:14. 
INK.     See  next  page. 


INTERIOR    OF   VIZIR 

INN,  sometimes  merely  a  station  where 
caravans  used  to  halt  for  the  night,  at  a 
convenient  distance  for  a  day's  journey  be- 
tween two  points,  near  water  if  possible,  but 
not  necessarily  containing  any  buildings, 
Gen.  42:27;  Exod.  4:24;  Josh.  4:3.  At  such 
points  caravansaries  or  khans  were  some- 
times built,  Jer.  9:2.  These  were,  and  still 
are,  large  buildings,  with  rooms  for  travel- 
lers and  stalls  for  their  beasts,  around  a 
square  uncovered  court,  and  a  fountain  if 
possible;  but  travellers  must  carry  their 
own  provisions.  In  such  a  stall  perhaps 
our  Saviour  was  born,  if  not  in  the  tradi- 
tional cave,  Luke  2:7.  Another  kind  of 
inn,  mentioned  in  Luke  10:34,  was  in  the 
charge  of  a  host,  ver.  35,  probably  paid  for 
his  attendance  on  travellers,  as  well  as  for 
such  provisions  and  provender  as  he  fur- 
nished. 

INSPIRA'TION,  that  supernatural  influ- 
ence exerted  on  the  minds  of  the  sacred 


KHAN,    AT   ALEPPO. 

writers  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  virtue  of 
which  they  unerringly  declared  his  will. 
Whether  what  they  wrote  was  previously 
familiar  to  their  own  knowledge,  or,  as  in 
many  cases  it  must  have  been,  an  immedi- 
ate revelation  from  heaven ;  whether  his 
influence  in  any  given  case  was  dictation, 
suggestion,  or  superintendence  ;  and  how- 
ever clearly  we  may  trace  in  their  writings 
the  peculiar  character,  style,  mental  en- 
dowments, and  circumstances  of  each  ;  yet 
the  whole  of  the  Bible  was  written  under 
the  unerring  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
2  Tim.  3: 16. 

Christ  everj'where  treats  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  as  infallibly  true,  and  of 
divine  authority — the  word  of  God.  To 
the  New  Testament  writers  inspiration  was 
promised.  Matt.  10:19,  29;  John  14:26; 
16:13;  and  they  wrote  and  prophesied  un- 
der its  direction,  i  Cor.  2:10-13;  14:37;  Gal. 
1:12;  2  Pet.  1:21;  3:15;  Rev.  1:1,  10-19. 

253 


INK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISA 


INK,  Jer.  36: 18.  The  ink  of  the  ancients 
was  much  thicker  than  ours.  It  was  com- 
posed of  powdered  charcoal,  or  lampblack, 
or  ivory-black,  mixed  with  gum  and  water, 
and  sometimes  an  acid  to  make  it  perma- 
nent. The  black  liquid  contained  in  the 
cuttle-fish  was  also  used.  Often  it  could 
be  washed  off  with  water,  Num.  5:23.    The 


ink-horn  (on  the  floor  in  the  cut)  was,  and 
is,  a  small  vessel  attached  to  the  long  case 
for  reed-pens,  and  when  not  in  use  was 
carried  within  the  girdle  or  suspended  from 
it,  Ezek.  9.2.     See  Girdle  and  Writing. 

IN'STANT,  IN'STANTLY,  urgent,  ear- 
nestly Luke  7:4;  23:23;  Acts  26:7;  Rom. 
12: 12  ;  2  Tim.  4:2. 

INTEND',  Psa.  21:11,  not  only  desire, 
but  plot. 

INTERCES'SION,  pleading  in  behalf  of 
others.  As  the  antitypical  High -priest, 
Christ  intercedes  with  God  for  men  :  gen- 
erally, Isa.  53:12;  Luke  23:34;  and  special- 
ly, as  the  Advocate  of  his  believing  people, 
Rom.  8:34;  Heb.  7:25;  9:24;  i  John  2:1. 
His  intercession,  begun  upon  earth,  John 
17,  is  continued  in  heaven,  where  he  pre- 
sents before  the  Father  his  finished  and 
accepted  work  of  obedience  and  sacrifice, 
and  obtains  the  bestowal  of  salvation,  with 
all  it  includes  of  present  and  eternal  good, 
upon  all  those  who  come  to  God  through 
him — the  "  one  Mediator  between  God  and 
men,'  i  Tim.  2:5.  The  Holy  Spirit,  called 
by  Christ  "the  Advocate,"  John  14:16,  26, 
is  also  said  to  intercede  for  believers,  Rom. 
8:26,  27 — dwelling  in  their  hearts,  giving 
them  desires  and  words  they  would  other- 
wise fail  of,  which  are  according  to  the  will 
of  God  and  acceptable  to  him  through 
254 


Christ.  It  is  also  the  privilege  and  duty 
of  believers  to  intercede  for  others,  Gen. 
18:23-33;  I  Tim.  2:1. 

IN'TEREST.     See  Usury. 

INTERPRETA'TION,  revealing  the  true 
meaning  (jf  supernatural  dreams,  Gen.  41  ; 
Dan.  2;  4,  or  of  unknown  tongues,  etc., 
I  Cor.  12:10,  30;  14:5,  13. 

For  the  right  interpretation  of  the  Word 
of  God,  the  chief  requisites  are,  a  renewed 
heart,  supremely  desirous  to  learn  and  do 
the  will  <i{  (iod  ;  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
sought  and  gained;  a  firm  conviction  that 
the  Word  of  (iod  should  rule  the  erring  rea- 
son and  heart  of  man  ;  a  diligent  compari- 
son of  its  diflerent  parts,  for  the  light  they 
throw  upon  each  other;  all  reliable  infor- 
mation as  to  the  history  and  geography, 
the  customs,  laws,  and  languages,  the  pub- 
lic, domestic,  and  inner  life  of  Bible  times. 
Thus  to  study  the  Bible  for  one's  self  is  the 
privilege  and  duty  of  every  one. 

IR'ON  was  early  known  and  wrought, 
Gen.  4:22;  Job  28:2.  Moses  compares  the 
bondage  in  Egypt  to  a  furnace  for  smelt- 
ing iron,  Deut.  4:20,  and  speaks  of  Canaan 
as  containing  iron  ore,  Deut.  8:9.  It  is 
now  f  )und  abundant  in  Northern  Palestine. 
Many  different  articles  and  tools  were  an- 
ciently made  of  iron,  Deut.  3:11;  27:5; 
I  Sam.  17:7;  2  Sam.  12:31;  war-chariots 
were  plated  with  it,  or  armed  with  iron 
spikes  and  scythes,  Josh.  17: 16.  See  Ch.-vr- 
lOTS.  Large  quantities  of  iron  were  pro- 
vided for  the  temple,  i  Chr.  29:2,  7.  From 
its  hardness  and  heaviness  iron  aptly  illus- 
trates drought.  Lev.  26:19,  slavery,  Deut. 
28:48,  strength.  Job  40:18;  Dan.  2:33;  Rev. 
2:27,  obstinacy,  Isa.  48:4,  fortitude,  Jer. 
1 :  18,  and  by  the  process  of  its  manufacture, 
affliction,  Kzek.  22:18,  20.  As  the  Philis- 
tines restricted  the  Hebrews  in  their  use 
of  iron  to  agricultural  implements,  i  Sam. 
13:19-22,  so  Porsena  dealt  with  the  con- 
quered Romans.  In  Jer.  15:12  the  "north- 
ern iron"  is  supposed  to  denote  iron  of 
a  superior  quality,  such  as  the  Chalybes, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Eu.xine  Sea,  were  early 
noted  for.  Iron  mines  still  e.xist  there.  The 
ancient  mode  of  smelting  iron  may  have 
been  similar  to  the  rude  and  simple  but 
effective  method  still  in  use  among  the  na- 
tives of  India.     See  Steel. 

I'RON.  God-fcarinir,  Josh.  19:38,  a  city 
in  Naphtali,  now  probably  Yarfln. 

IR-SHE'MESH,  Josh.  19:41.  See  Beth- 
SHEMKSH  and  Heres. 

I'SAAC,  laughter.  Gen.  17:17;  18:12; 
21:6,  one  of  the  patriarchal   ancestors  of 


ISA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISA 


the  Hebrew  nation  and  of  Christ,  son  of 
Abraham  and  Sarah,  B.  C.  1896-1716.  His 
history  is  related  in  Gen.  21 ;  24-28;  35:27- 
29.  He  is  memorable  for  the  circum- 
stances attending  his  birth,  as  a  child  of 
prophecy  and  promise,  in  the  old  age  of  his 
parents.  Even  in  childhood  he  was  the 
object  of  dislike  to  his  brother  Ishmael,  son 
of  the  bondwoman ;  and  in  this  a  type  of 
all  children  of  the  promise,  Gal.  4:28,  29. 
Trained  in  the  fear  of  God  to  early  man- 
hood, he  showed  a  noble  trust  and  obedi- 
ence in  his  conduct  during  that  remarkable 
trial  of  faith  which  established  Abraham  as 
the  "  father  of  the  faithful,"  and  in  his  meek 
submission  to  all  the  will  of  God  prefigured 
the  only-begotten  Son  of  the  Father.  At 
the  age  of  40  he  married  his  cousin  Rebek- 
ah  of  Mesopotamia.  Most  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  the  southern  part  of  Canaan  and 
its  vicinity.  At  the  burial  of  his  father,  he 
was  joined  by  his  outcast  brother  Ishmael. 
Two  sons  of  Isaac  are  named  in  Scripture. 
The  partiality  of  the  mother  for  Jacob,  and 
of  the  father  for  Esau,  led  to  unhappy  jeal- 
ousies, discord,  sin,  and  long  separations 
between  the  brothers,  though  all  were  over- 
ruled to  accomplish  the  purposes  of  God. 
At  the  age  of  137,  Isaac  blessed  Jacob  and 
sent  him  away  into  Mesopotamia.  At  the 
age  of  180  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  the 
tomb  of  Abraham  by  his  2  sons.  In  his 
natural  character  Isaac  was  humble,  tran- 
quil, and  meditative;  in  his  piety,  devout, 
full  of  faith,  and  eminently  submissive  to 
the  will  of  God. 

ISA'IAH,  Jehoi'aWs  salvation,  the  son  of 
Amoz  (not  Amos),  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  He  be 
gan  to  prophesy  at  Jerusalem  towards  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  about  the  year 
759  B.  C,  and  exercised  the  prophetical 
office  some  60  years,  under  the  3  following 
monarchs.Jotham,  Ahaz,and  Hezekiah,  Isa. 
1:1.  Compare  2  Kin.  15-20;  2  Chr.  26-32. 
The  first  12  chapters  of  his  prophecies  re- 
fer to  the  kingdom  of  Judah ;  then  follow 
chapters  13-23,  directed  against  foreign 
nations,  except  chapter  22  against  Jerusa- 
lem. In  chapters  24-35,  which  would  seem 
to  belong  to  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  the 
prophet  appears  to  look  forward  in  pro- 
phetic vision  to  the  times  of  the  exile  and 
of  the  Messiah.  Chapters  36-39  give  a  his- 
torical account  of  Sennacherib's  invasion, 
and  of  the  advice  given  by  Isaiah  to  Heze- 
kiah. This  account  is  parallel  to  that  in 
2  Kin.  18:13,  to  20:19;  and  indeed  chapter 
37  of  Isaiah  is  almost  word  for  word  the 


same  with  2  Kin.  19.  The  remainder  of 
the  book  of  Isaiah,  chapters  40-66,  contains 
a  series  of  oracles  referring  to  the  future 
times  of  temporal  exile  and  deliverance, 
and  expanding  into  glorious  views  of  the 
spiritual  deliverance  to  be  wrought  by  the 
Messiah. 

Isaiah  seems  to  have  lived  and  prophe- 
sied whollj^  at  Jerusalem,  and  disappears 
from  history  after  the  accounts  contained 
in  chapter  39.  A  tradition  among  the  Tal- 
mudists  and  fathers  relates  that  he  was 
sawn  asunder  during  the  reign  of  Manas- 
seh,  Heb.  11:37;  and  this  tradition  is  em- 
bodied in  an  apocryphal  book,  called  the 
"  ascension  of  Isaiah;"  but  it  seems  to  rest 
on  no  certain  grounds.  The  traditional 
site  of  his  martyrdom  in  the  Kidron  valley 
is  marked  by  a  mulberry-tree. 

Some  commentators  have  proposed  to 
divide  the  book  of  Isaiah  chronologically 
into  3  parts,  as  if  composed  under  the  3 
kings,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah.  But 
this  is  of  very  doubtful  propriety,  since 
several  of  the  chapters  are  evidently  trans- 
posed and  inserted  out  of  their  chronologi- 
cal order.  But  a  very  obvious  and  striking 
division  of  the  book  into  2  parts  exists:  the 
ist  part  including  the  first  39  chapters,  and 
the  2d,  the  remainder  of  the  book,  or  chap- 
ters 40-66. 

The  ist  part  is  made  up  of  those  prophe- 
cies and  historical  accounts  which  Isaiah 
wrote  during  the  period  of  his  active  exer- 
tions, when  he  mingled  in  the  public  con- 
cerns of  the  rulers  and  the  people,  and 
acted  as  the  messenger  of  God  to  the  na- 
tion in  reference  to  their  internal  and  exter- 
nal existing  relations.  These  are  single 
prophecies,  published  at  different  times 
and  on  different  occasions;  afterwards,  in- 
deed, brought  together  into  one  collection, 
but  still  marked  as  distinct  and  single, 
either  by  the  superscriptions,  or  in  some 
other  obvious  and  known  method. 

The  2d  part,  on  the  contrary,  is  occu- 
pied wholly  with  the  future.  It  was  appar- 
ently written  in  the  later  years  of  the 
prophet,  when,  having  left  all  active  exer- 
tions in  the  theocracy  to  his  younger  asso- 
ciates in  the  prophetical  office,  he  trans- 
ferred his  contemplations  from  the  present 
to  that  which  was  to  come.  In  this  part, 
therefore,  which  was  not,  like  the  first,  oc- 
casioned by  external  circumstances,  it  is 
not  so  easy  to  distinguish  in  like  manner 
between  the  different  single  prophecies. 
The  whole  is  more  like  a  single  gush  of 
prophecy.     The  prophet  first  consoles  his 

255 


ISH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISH 


people  by  announcing  their  deliverance 
from  the  approaching  Babylonish  exile, 
which  he  had  himself  predicted,  ch.  39:6, 
7;  he  rtames  the  monarch  whom  Jehovah 
will  send  to  punish  the  insolence  of  their 
oppressors,  and  lead  back  the  people  to 
their  home,  ch.  44:28;  45:1-5,  13.  But  he 
does  not  stop  at  this  inferior  deliverance. 
With  the  j)rospect  of  freedom  from  the 
Babylonish  exile  he  connects  the  prospect 
of  deliverance  from  sin  and  error  through 
the  Messiah.  Sometimes  both  objects  seem 
closely  interwoven  with  each  other;  some- 
times one  of  them  appears  alone  with  par- 
ticular clearness  and  prominence.  Espe- 
cially is  the  view  of  the  prophet  sometimes 
so  exclusively  directed  upon  the  latter  ob- 
ject that,  filled  with  the  contemplation  of 
the  glory  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  God 
and  of  its  exalted  Founder,  he  loses  sight 
for  a  time  of  the  less  distant  future.  In 
the  description  of  this  spiritual  deliverance, 
also,  the  relations  of  time  are  not  observed. 
Sometimes  the  prophet  beholds  the  Author 
of  this  deliverance  in  his  humiliation  and 
sorrows;  and  again,  the  remotest  ages  of 
the  Messiah's  kingdom  present  themselves 
to  his  enraptured  vision — when  man,  so 
long  estranged  from  God,  will  have  again 
returned  to  him;  when  everything  opposed 
to  God  shall  have  been  destroyed,  and  in- 
ternal and  external  peace  universally  pre- 
vail ;  and  when  all  the  evil  introduced  by 
sin  into  the  world  will  be  for  ever  done 
away.  Elevated  above  all  space  and  time, 
the  prophet  contemplates  from  the  height 
on  which  the  Holj'  Spirit  has  thus  placed 
him  the  whole  development  of  the  Messi- 
ah's kingdom,  from  its  smallest  beginnings 
to  its  glorious  completion. 

Isaiah  is  appropriately  named  "the  evan- 
gelical prophet,"  and  the  fathers  called  his 
book  "the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Isaiah." 
In  it  the  wonderful  person  and  birth  of 
"  Emmanuel — God  with  us,"  his  beneficent 
life,  his  atoning  death,  and  his  triumphant 
and  everlasting  kingdom,  are  minutely 
foretold,  Isa.  7:14-16;  9:6,  7;  11:1-10;  32; 
42;  49;  52:13-15;  53;  60;  61:1-3.  The  sim- 
plicity, purity,  sweetness,  and  sublimity  of 
Isaiah,  and  the  fulness  of  his  predictions 
respecting  the  Messiah,  give  him  the  pre- 
eminence among  the  Hebrew  prophets  and 
poets. 

ISH'BAK,  leaving  behind,  a  son  of  Abra- 
ham and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:2;  i  Chr.  1:32, 
progenitor  of  northern  Arabians. 

ISH'BI-BE'NOB,  dweller  at  Nob,  a  giant 
who  was  on  the  point  of  killing  David  in 
256 


battle,  but  was  slain  by  Abishai,  2  Sam. 
21 :  16,  17. 

ISH'BOSHETH,  vtan  of  shame,  son  and 
successor  of  Saul.  Abner,  Saul's  kinsman 
and  general,  so  managed  that  Ishbosheth 
was  acknowledged  king  at  Mahanaim  by 
the  greater  part  of  Israel,  while  David 
reigned  at  Hebron  over  Judah.  He  was 
44  years  of  age  when  he  began  to  reign, 
and  he  reigned  2  years  peaceably;  after 
which  he  was  involved  in  a  long  and  un- 
successful war  against  David.  Being  aban- 
doned by  Abner,  whom  he  had  provoked, 
he  became  more  and  more  feeble,  and  was 
at  last  assassinated,  2  Sam.  2:8-11;  3;  4. 
See  EsHB.\AL. 

rSHI,  my  husband,  Hos.  2:16,  the  name 
which  repentant  and  faithful  Israel  was 
encouraged  to  apply  to  Jehovah,  in  exclu- 
sion of  B.\.\Li,  ;;/)'  lord,  which  was  sugges- 
tive of  former  Baal-worship,  ver.  17. 

ISH'MAEL,  I.,  Gen.  16-21,  son  of  Abra- 
ham and  Hagar,  B.  C.  191 1.  His  name 
signifies  God  hears,  Gen.  16;  11;  17:21; 
21:17.  Though  ill-treated  by  Sarah,  he 
was  at  first  regarded  as  "  the  son  of  prom- 
ise "  by  Abraham,  notwithstanding  the 
prediction.  Gen.  16:12;  but  after  the  birth 
and  weaning  of  Isaac  he  was  driven  from 
home,  at  the  age  of  about  17,  and  took  with 
his  mother  the  way  to  Egypt,  Hagar's  na- 
tive land.  Overcome  with  heat  and  thirst, 
and  then  miraculously  relieved,  he  re- 
mained in  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  adopt- 
ed a  hunter's  life,  took  a  wife  from  Egypt, 
and  became  the  father  of  12  sons,  heads  of 
Arab  tribes.  Gen.  25: 13-16,  and  of  a  daugh- 
ter afterwards  married  to  fesau.  Gen.  28:9. 
He  joined  with  Isaac  in  the  burial  of  their 
father.  Gen.  25:9,  and  himself  died  at  the 
age  of  137,  ver.  17. 

The  Ishmaelites,  his  descendants,  "  dwelt 
from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  that  is  before 
Egypt,"  Gen.  25:18,  i.  e.,  probably  in  the 
north-middle  part  of  Arabia,  between  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  head  of  the  Persian  (lulf. 
See  Havilah,  IV.  Subsequently  they, 
with  the  descendants  of  Joktan,  the  4th 
from  Shem,  of  Jokshan  a  son  of  Abraham 
by  Keturah,  25:3,  and  perhaps  also  of  some 
of  the  brethren  of  Joktan  and  Jokshan, 
besides  Cushite  tribes  in  the  south,  10:7, 
occupied  the  whole  Arabian  peninsula. 
See  Arabia.  The  Ishmaelites  became  very 
numerous  and  powerful,  according  to  God's 
promise,  17:20.  The  prediction  that  Ish- 
mael  should  be  "a  wild  man,"  literally  "a 
wild-ass  man,"  16:12  (compare  Job  39:5-8), 
has  been  verified  in  the  history  of  his  de- 


ISH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


I3R 


scendaiits.  "  Dwelling  in  the  midst  of  their 
brethren,"  maintaining  a  distinct  life  in  the 
midst  of  kindred  peoples,  their  "  hand 
against  every  man  and  every  man's  hand 
against"  them,  in  perpetual  feud  even 
among  themselves,  they  have  always  led  a 
roving,  wild,  and  predatory  life.  The 
roaming  Bedouin  tribes,  who  claim  Ish- 
mael  as  their  chief  progenitor,  are  to  this 
day,  though  nominally  subject  to  Ottoman 
rule,  the  untamed  masters  of  the  desert, 
against  whose  robbery  and  violence  travel- 
lers have  to  protect  themselves  by  secu- 
ring from  them  an  escort  and  guard  of 
their  own  blood.  The  term  "  Ishmaelites  " 
was  applied  later  to  the  Midianites,  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  Gen. 
37:25,  28;  Judg.  8:22,  24,  the  name  of  the 
greater  tribe  being  extended,  probably,  as 
a  general  term,  to  neighboring  nomads. 

II.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  fled  to  the 
Ammonites  when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed 
by  the  Chaldaeans.  Soon  after,  he  returned 
and  treacherously  assassinated  Gedaliah 
the  governor  and  many  others,  Chaldaeans 
and  Jews,  including  70  pilgrims  on  their 
way  to  the  temple  with  offerings ;  he  made 
off  with  prisoners  and  spoil  towards  Am- 
nion, but  was  overtaken  by  Johanan,  de- 
prived of  his  prey,  and  obliged  to  flee  for 
liis  life,  Jer.  40;  41.  The  fast  of  the  7th 
month,  instituted  in  memory  of  the  calam- 
ities he  brought  upon  Judah  and  Israel, 
Zech.  7:5;  8:19,  is  still  observed  by  the 
Jews  on  the  3d  of  Tishri. 

ISH'-TOB,  ma7i  of  Tob,  some  small  king- 
dom of  Aram  or  Syria.  See  Tob.  Men  of 
Tob,  12,000  in  number,  joined  the  Ammon- 
ites in  war  with  David,  and  were  defeated, 
2  Sam.  10:6,  8. 

IS'LAND,  ISLE.  The  Hebrew  word 
means  primarily  habitable  land,  in  oppo- 
sition to  seas  and  rivers,  Isa.  42:15:  land 
bordering  on  the  sea,  whether  mainland 
coast,  Isa.  20:6;  23:2,  6,  or  island,  Esth. 
10:1;  land  separated  from  Palestine  by 
sea,  Gen.  10:5;  Psa.  72:10;  Isa.  24:15; 
66:19;  J^''-  25:22;  Ezek.  27:3.  "The  isles 
of  the  Gentiles,"  Gen.  10:5,  are  supposed 
to  denote  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  Black,  and  Caspian  Seas; 
Ezek.  27:15,  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.  See  Caphtorim,  Chittim,  Elishah. 
Many  Scripture  promises  concerning  "the 
isles,"  read  in  the  light  of  the  conquests  of 
the  gospel  in  Great  Britain,  Madagascar, 
Hawaii,  Japan,  etc.,  encourage  efforts  to 
extend  its  triumphs  to  all  habitable  lands, 
Psa.  97:1;  Isa.  42:4,  10,  12;  Zeph.  2:11. 

17 


IS'RAEL,  who  prevails  with  God,  a  name 
given  to  Jacob  after  having  wrestled  with 
the  Angel-Jehovah  at  Penuel,  Gen.  32:1,  2, 
28,  30;  Hos.  12:3.  See  Jacob.  By  the 
name  Israel  is  sometimes  understood  all 
the  posterity  of  Israel,  the  seed  of  Jacob, 
I  Cor.  10:18;  sometimes  all  true  believers, 
his  spiritual  seed,  Rom.  9:6;  and  some- 
times the  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  the  10 
tribes,  as  distinct  from  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah. 

IS'RAEL,  Kingdom  of,  at  first  a  desig- 
nation of  the  12  tribes  under  one  king, 
I  Sam.  15:28;  24:20,  including  David's 
reign  at  Hebron  over  a  portion  of  the 
tribes,  2  Sam.  2:8-11;  i  Chr.  12;  but  usu- 
ally, after  the  division  of  the  kingdom  un- 
der Rehoboam,  i  Kin.  12:20-24,  the  title  of 
the  northern  section,  10  tribes  or  portions 
of  tribes,  as  opposed  to  the  smaller  king- 
dom of  Judah.  (See.)  The  division,  a 
punishment  for  Solomon's  idolatry,  i  Kin. 
11:9-13,  resulted  naturally  from  Rehobo- 
am's  folly,  and  the  ambition  of  Ephraim, 
the  leading  tribe  among  the  10 — prominent 
in  the  blessings  of  Jacob  and  Moses,  by  its 
great  leader  Joshua,  its  central  and  fruit- 
ful territory,  and  its  long  custody  of  the 
ark  at  Shiloh.  Reduced  to  a  secondary 
position  by  God's  choice  of  Judah  as  the 
royal  tribe  and  Jerusalem  as  the  temple- 
city,  Psa.  78:67,  68,  Ephraim  with  the  north- 
ern tribes  threw  off  the  civil  sway  of  Ju- 
dah, chose  Jeroboam  as  king,  and  rival 
idolatrous  sanctuaries,  feasts,  and  priests 
were  established  for  the  new  kingdom, 
I  Kin.  12:25-33.     See  Kings. 

The  area  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  varied 
at  different  times,  2  Kin.  10:32;  13:25; 
14:25.  At  the  outset  it  has  been  estimated 
at  about  9,000  square  miles,  nearly  that  of 
New  Hampshire,  with  a  population  of 
3,000,000.  The  duration  of  the  kingdom 
was  254  years,  B.  C.  975-721,  the  Assyrians 
ending  it  135  years  before  the  Babylonians 
terminated  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The 
capitals  were  successively  Shechem,  1  Kin. 
12:25,  Tirzah,  14:17,  and  Samaria,  16:24. 
Jezreel  was  also  a  favorite  royal  residence, 
21 : 1. 

Without  counting  Tibni,  Omri's  rival,  19 
kings,  of  9  different  houses,  reigned  over 
Israel.  Of  these,  7  usurped  the  throne  by 
bloodshed.  All  were  ungodly,  following 
the  first  king,  Jeroboam,  who  instituted  the 
worship  of  the  golden  calves.  Baal-wor- 
ship was  established  by  Ahab,  the  7th  king. 
The  idolatry  and  corruption  of  Israel  were 
rebuked  by  successive  prophets,  and  chas- 

257 


ISR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISS 


tised  by  sword,  famine,  anarchy,  captivity, 
etc.  Partial  and  temporary  reformations 
were  effected  by  Elijah,  P^lisha,  and  oth- 
ers; but  idolatry  was  never  eradicated. — 
B.  C.  975-929.  Judah  and  Israel,  whose  re- 
lations were  at  first  hostile,  i  Kin.  15:6,  16, 
became  allies  during  the  reign  of  the  house 
of  Omri  over  Israel,  i  Kin.  22:44,  B.  C. 
929-8S4,  Ahab's  daughter  Athaliah  becom- 
ing the  wife  of  Jehoram  king  of  Judah — a 
demoralizing  alliance  to  Judah,  2  Kin.  8:18, 
26,  27.— B.  C.  884-772.  Under  Jehu,  the 
slayer  of  Ahab's  house  at  the  divine  com- 
mand through  Elisha,  2  Kin.9:  i-io,  and  the 
exterminator  of  Baal-worshippers,  10: 18-28, 
and  under  Jehu's  son  Jehoahaz,  Syria,  Isra- 
el's enemy  of  old,  greatly  oppressed  both 
Israel  and  Judah,  2  Kin.  10:32,  ^^^  13:3, 
but  was  repulsed  by  Jehu's  grandson  Je- 
hoash,  ver.  25,  who  was  also  successful  in  a 
war  against  Judah,  14:8-14.  Under  Jeho- 
ash's  son  Jeroboam  II.,  contemporary  with 
the  prophet  Jonah,  Israel — pitied  by  God 
and  tested  by  his  mercy — rose  for  a  time  to 
unparalleled  prosperity,  14:23-28.  From 
this  height,  however,  it  quickly  sank  under 
the  last  of  Jehu's  line  Zachariah. — B.  C. 
772-721.  The  unsuccessful  usurper  Shal- 
lum  was  himself  deposed  by  the  cruel 
Menahem,  who  gathered  from  his  people 
the  tribute  e.xacted  by  the  ist  Assyrian  in- 
vader, Pul,  2  Kin.  15:13-20.  Menahem'sson 
Pekahiah  was  slain  by  the  usurper  Pekah. 
whose  20  years'  reign  was  marked  by  the 
deportation  of  northern  and  trans-Jordanic 
Israel,  and  by  the  alliance  of  Pekah  with 
the  Syrian  king  Rezin  against  Judah,  which 
was  relieved  by  Tiglath -pileser,  2  Kin. 
15:23-29;  16:5-9.  Hoshea,  tlie  ne.xt  and 
last  usurper  of  the  throne  of  Israel,  became 
tributary  to  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria, 
conspired  with  Egypt  against  him,  and  was 
punished  by  imprisonment  and  the  capture 
of  his  capital,  Samaria,  after  a  3  years' 
siege.  Then,  in  the  final  deportation,  by 
Sargon,  B.  C.  721,  of  the  remnant  of  the 
people  of  Israel  to  Assyria,  was  fulfilled 
Ahijah's  prediction,  i  Kin.  14:15,  and  the 
threats  of  preceding  and  subsequent  proph- 
ets, Deut.  28:58,  63;  Josh.  23:15;  Hos.  1:4- 
6;  9: 16,  17;  Amos  5:27;  7:11;  Mic.  i  :6. 

The  land  of  Israel  was  ne.\t  occupied  bj' 
heathen  from  the  Assyrian  king's  domin- 
ions, who  joined  a  partial  recognition  of 
Jehovah  with  their  own  idolatries,  2  Kin. 
17:24-41  ;  Ezra  4:1,  2,  9,  10,  and  who,  with 
the  Israelitish  remnant,  were  the  i)rogeni- 
tors  of  the   Samaritans   of  our  Saviour's 


day. 


258 


Israel  never  returned  as  a  nation  from 
captivity,  and  has  long  been  accounted 
"lost."  Not  only  the  tribe  of  Levi,  but 
many  godly  members  of  other  tribes,  early 
associated  themselves  with  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, 2  Chr.  11:13,  14,  16;  and  doubtless 
some  descendants  of  Israelitish  e.xiles  re- 
turned with  Judah  from  captivity  by  per- 
mission of  the  Persian  monarchs,  Jer.  50:  i- 
5,  and  at  other  times.  The  posterity  of  all 
these  constituted  "Israel"  or  "the  Jews" 
of  the  post-e.xilian  period  and  our  Saviour's 
time,  Ezra  3:1;  5:1;  Luke  2 :  36 ;  Acts  26 : 7 ; 
Jas.  1:1. 

"  Ephraim,"  because  of  the  prominence  of 
the  tribe,  is  often  a  synonym  for  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  Isa.  11:13;  Ezek.  37:16-22. 

There  are  prophecies  pointing,  many 
think,  to  the  restoration  of  portions  of  botli 
houses  of  Israel  to  Palestine — of  Ephraim, 
preserved  in  their  e.xile  to  be  converted  to 
Christ,  increased  to  a  "  fulness  of  nations," 
and  at  length  summoned  from  the  north 
and  the  west,  Gen.  48: 19;  Jer.  31 :6-8  ;  Hos. 
11:9-11;  Zech.  10:6-10;  and  of  Judah,  "the 
Jews,"  reunited  to  "  Israel,"  Jer.  3:17,  18, 
and  loyally  serving  their  once  rejected  Mes- 
siah, Isa.  11:11-13;  Ezek.  37:15-27;  Hos. 
i:  10,  II  ;  Rom.  11. 

IS'SACHAR,  recompense,  I.,  so  named  by 
Leah  his  mother.  Gen.  30:18,  the  9th  son 
of  Jacob,  born  B.  C.  1749.  The  character 
of  his  posterity  was  foretold  by  Jacob  and 
by  Moses,  Gen.  49:14,  15;  Deut.  33:18,  19. 

The  TRIBE  OF  IssACHAR,  of  4  families 
named  Tola,  Phuvah,  Job,  and  Shimron, 
Gen.  46:13,  numbered  54,000  men  in  the 
desert,  and  on  entering  Canaan  was  the  3d 
in  population,  64,300,  Num.  1:28;  26:25. 
Their  portion.  Josh.  19:17-23,  having  the 
Jordan  on  the  east,  Manasseh  on  the  west, 
Zebulun  north,  and  Ephraim  south,  inclu- 
ded a  considerable  jiart  of  the  fine  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  the  most  fertile  in  the  country. 
They  were  industrious  agriculturists.  Gen. 
49:14,  15,  and  are  mentioned  with  honor 
for  their  brave  and  wise  patriotism,  Judg. 
5:15;  I  Chr.  7:1-5;  12:32.  They  stood  with 
Judah  on  Mount  Cjerizim,  when  the  bless- 
ings and  curses  were  announced,  Deut. 
27:12.  Tola  the  Judge  was  of  this  tribe, 
Judg.  10: 1,  and  2  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  the 
usurper  Baasha  and  his  son  Elah,  i  Kin. 
15:27;  16:6.  Members  of  this  tribe  attend- 
ed Hezekiah's  great  passover,  2  Chr.  30: 18. 

II.  A  Korhite  Levite,  son  of  Obed-edom, 
I  Chr.  26:5. 

IS'SUE  OF  BLOOD,  Mark  5:25,  a  disease 
requiring  special   purifications  under  the 


ITA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAA 


Mosaic  law,  Lev.  15:19.  28-30,  and  signifi- 
cant of  spiritual  uncleanness. 

IT'ALY  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, unless  under  general  terms,  as 
Chittim,  Isles  of  the  Sea.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Acts  18:2;  27:1,  6;  Heb.  13:24,  it 
is  chiefly  of  interest  on  account  of  Rome, 
which  see.  The  Italian  band,  mentioned 
in  Acts  10: 1,  was  probably  a  Roman  cohort 
from  Italy,  stationed  at  Caesarea ;  so  called 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  troops, 
which  were  drawn  from  Syria  and  the  ad- 
jacent regions. 

ITH'AMAR,  palm-tree  isle,  the  4th  and 
youngest  son  of  Aaron,  consecrated  to  the 
priesthood,  Exod.  6:23;  Num.  3:2,  3.  His 
posterity  took  charge  of  the  tabernacle  in 
the  wilderness,  Exod.  38:21;  Num.  4:28. 
After  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Lev. 
10:1,  2,  without  children,  Num.  3:4,  Elea- 
zar  and  Ithamar  were  appointed  to  take 
their  places  in  the  priesthood,  i  Chr.  24:2; 
and  for  a  time  members  of  the  family  of 
Ithamar — namely,  Eli,  Ahitub,  Ahimelech, 
and  Abiathar — held  the  office  of  high-priest ; 
but  under  Solomon  it  reverted  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Eleazar,  i  Kin.  2:27.  See  Abiathar, 
Zadok. 

ITH'RA.    SeejETHRO. 

IT'TAI,  near,  I.,  a  native  of  Gath,  and  so 
a  "stranger"  in  Judah.  A  devoted  friend 
of  David,  he  could  not  be  dissuaded  from 
following  him  when  fleeing  from  Absalom, 
2  Sam.  15:19-22;  compare  Ruth  1:15-18; 
and  was  put  in  command  of  one-third  of 
the  army,  2  Sam.  18:2,  5,  12.     B.  C.  1024. 

II.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  30  heroes  of  Da- 
vid's guard,  2  Sam.  23:29;  called  Ithai  in 
I  Chr.  II  :3i. 

ITURiE'A,  a  region  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Palestine,  perpetuating  the  name  of 
Jetur  a  son  of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25:15,  16,  and 
belonging  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh, 
I  Chr.  1:31;  5:19.  The  name  Jedur  still 
remains  there.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  Itu- 
rjea  was  in  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  Luke  3:1. 
It  lay  between  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  Da- 
mascus, having  Hermon  on  the  west,  Tra- 
chonitis  on  the  east,  and  Auranitis  on  the 
south.  About  B.  C.  20  it  came  under  Ro- 
man sway  and  was  given  to  Herod.  Its 
inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  skilful 
archers  and  dexterous  robbers.  It  is  a 
rugged  land,  except  the  southern  part,  and 
contains  about  30  poor  and  small  villages. 

I'VAH,  2  Kin.  18:34;  19: 13,  supposed  by 
Rawlinson  to  be  Ava  and  Ahava,  which 
see. 

I'VORY,  Heb.  tooth,  i.  e.,  tusk,  is  men- 


tioned in  the  reign  of  Solomon,  and  referred 
to  in  Psa.  45:8,  as  used  in  decorating  pala- 


IVOR\':    ^"ROM    EGVPTIAN    RUINS. 

ces.  Solomon,  who  traded  to  India,  brought 
thence  ivorj^  to  Judaea,  i  Kin.  10:22;  2  Chr. 
9:21.  Solomon  had  a  throne  decorated 
with  ivory  and  inlaid  with  gold,  these  beau- 
tiful materials  relieving  the  splendor  and 
heightening  the  lustre  of  each  other,  i  Kin. 
10:18. 

"  Ivory  houses,"  i  Kin.  22:39;  Amos  3:15, 
may  have  had  ornaments  of  ivory  in  such 
abundance  as  to  be  named  from  the  arti- 
cle of  their  decoration.  We  read  also  of 
"benches"  of  ivory,  "beds,"  and  all  sorts 
of  "vessels,"  Ezek.  27:6,  15;  Amos  6:4; 
Rev.  18:12. 

J. 

JA'AKAN,  wrest er,  in  i  Chr.  1:42,  A.  V., 
Jakan,  ancestor  of  the  tribe  Bene-jaakan, 
whose  name  marks  one  of  the  stations  of 
the  Israelites' journey.  Num.  33:31.  There 
were  wells  there,  Deut.  10:6,  and  it  seems 
to  have  been  twice  visited. 

JA'ARE-O'REGIM,  or  JAIR,  father  of  El- 
hanan,  who  slew  Lahmi  the  brother  of 
Goliath,  I  Chr.  20:5.  Compare  i  Sam. 
17:7;  2  Sam.  21  :i9. 

JAAZANI'AH,  or  Jezaniah,  Jehovah 
hears,  I.,  a  captain  associated  with  Geda- 
liah  and  Johanan,  2  Kin.  25:23,  and  active 
in  the  pursuit  of  Ishmael,  afterwards  going 
to  Egypt,  Jer.  40:7-10,  13;  41:11,  16;  42:1; 

43:5-7- 

II.  A  prominent  Rechabite  in  Jeremiah's 
time,  Jer.  35:3. 

III.  One  of  the  70  elders  of  Israel  who 
profaned  the  temple  in  Ezekiel's  vision, 
Ezek.  8:11.  Perhaps  the  son  of  Azur, 
against  whom  and  his  24  companions  woe 
was  denounced,  Ezek.  11  :i. 

JA'AZER  and  JA'ZER,  helper,  an  Amor- 
ite  city  near  Gilead,  i  Chr.  26:31,  taken  by 

259 


JAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAC 


Israel,  between  Heshbon  and  Bashan,  Num. 
21:32,  occupied  by  Gad,  Num.  32:1,  3,  35; 
Josh.  13:25;  2  Sam.  24:5,  and  assigned  to 
the  Merari  Levites,  Josh.  21:39.  Later  it 
was  denounced  as  a  Moabite  city,  Isa.  16:8, 
9;  Jer.  48:32.  See  Sib.m.\h.  Its  ruins  are 
seen  at  Es-Szir,  west  of  Ammon  and  13 
miles  north  of  Hesban,  on  a  small  stream 
flowing  into  the  Jordan. 

JA'BAL,  a  stream,  son  of  Lamech  and 
Adah,  and  a  descendant  of  Cain.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  to  adopt 
the  nomadic  mode  of  life — Abel  being  a 
stationary  shepherd — and  to  have  invented 
portable  tents,  perhaps  of  skins.  Gen.  4: 2, 20. 

JAB'BOK,  pouring  out,  now  the  Zerka,  a 
perennial  stream,  flowing  into  the  Jordan 
at  a  point  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
after  a  westerly  course  of  some  60  miles. 
It  traverses  at  first  an  elevated  and  desert 
region,  and  receives  small  streams  from 
the  north  and  from  the  south.  A  southern 
branch  separated  the  Ammonites  from  Is- 
rael. The  eastern  part  of  the  Jabbok  is 
dry  in  summer.  Towards  the  west  it  flows 
through  a  deep  ravine.  Penuel,  where  Ja- 
cob wrestled  with  the  Angel,  was  a  ford- 
ing-place  of  the  Jabbok,  Gen.  32:22,  now 
pointed  out  at  Kalaat  Zerka,  on  the  great 
Damascus  road  through  Gilead.  This 
stream  divided  the  territory  of  Og  from 
that  of  Sihon,  Josh.  12:2,  5,  and  traversed 
the  region  afterwards  assigned  to  the  tribe 
of  Gad. 

JA'BESH,  dr\',  I.,  father  of  Shallum,  15th 
king  of  Israel,  2  Kin.  15:10,  13,  14. 

II.  I  Sam.  11;  31:11-13;  I  Chr.  10:12, 
elsewhere  Jabesh-gilead,  the  chief  city  in 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, situated  within  the  territory  commonly 
called  Gilead.  Eusebius  places  it  6  miles 
from  Pella,  towards  Gerasa.  It  was  sacked 
by  the  Israelites  for  refusing  to  aid  in  chas- 
tising the  Benjamites,  Judg.  21:8-14.  At  a 
later  day  it  was  besieged  by  the  Ammon- 
ites, and  relieved  by  Saul ;  in  gratitude  for 
which  service  the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead  res- 
cued the  dead  bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons 
from  the  insults  of  the  Philistines,  2  Sam. 
2:5.  It  ruins  are  on  Wady  Yabes,  south- 
east of  Pella. 

JA'BEZ,  sorrowful,  I.,  a  descendant  of 
Judah,  whose  high  distinction  among  his 
brethren  seems  to  have  been  owing  to  his 
prevalence  in  prayer.  His  prayer  is  a 
model,  asking  and  obtaining  such  mercies 
as  God  knew  to  be  blessings  "  indeed," 
spiritual  as  well  as  temporal,  i  Chr.  4:9,  10. 
260 


II.  A  town  in  Judah,  i  Chr.  2:55. 

JA'BIN,  intelligent,  I.,  a  powerful  king  in 
the  time  of  Joshua,  at  Hazor  in  the  north 
of  Canaan.  The  league  which  he  organ- 
ized to  crush  Joshua  only  made  his  own 
ruin  more  complete,  Josh.  11.  B.  C.  1450. 
Josephus  reckons  his  army  at  300,000  foot- 
men, 10,000  cavalry,  and  20,000  chariots; 
see  ver.  4.  The  war  continued  "  a  long 
time,"  ver.  18,  and  Joshua  "  turned  back  " 
against  Hazor  and  burned  it,  ver.  10,  13. 

II.  Another  king  of  Hazor  a  century  and 
a  half  later,  who  sorely  oppressed  Israel 
for  20  years,  till  Deborah  and  Barak  were 
raised  up  as  deliverers,  Judg.  4;  Psa.  83:9. 

JAB'NEEL,  building  of  God,  I.,  a  city  on 
the  border  of  Judah,  not  far  from  the  Med- 
iterranean, Josh.  15:11,  and  much  exposed 
to  the  Philistines.  They  were  in  posses- 
sion of  it  in  Uzziah's  time,  and  were  ex- 
pelled by  him  and  its  fortifications  destroy- 
ed, 2  Chr.  26:6 — where  it  is  called  Jabneh. 
Its  Greek  name  was  Jamnia.  In  our  Sa- 
viour's day  it  was  a  large  city ;  now  a  vil- 
lage called  Yebna,  12  miles  south  of  Jaffa 
and  3  from  the  sea. 

II.  A  place  in  the  boundary  of  Naphtali, 
Josh.  19:33;  perhaps  Jaauneh,  southwest 
of  Lake  Merom. 

JA'CHIN,7frw/,  I.,  the  name  of  the  right- 
hand,  i.  e.,  southern,  bronze  column  in  the 
porch  or  entrance  of  Solomon's  temple, 
I  Kin.  7:21;  2  Kin.  25:17;  2  Chr.  3:15-17; 
4:12;  Jer.  52:22.    See  Boaz,  Temple. 

II.  Simeon's  4th  son,  Gen.  46:10;  Exod. 
6:15;  called  Jarib  in  i  Chr.  4:24.  His  de- 
scendants are  named  in  Num.  26:12. 

III.  The  head  of  a  course  of  priests  in 
David's  reign.  Some  of  the  line  returned 
from  the  Captivity,  i  Chr.  9:10;  24:17; 
Neh.  II  :io. 

JA'CINTH,  or  Hv'acinth,  a  flower  of 
deep  purple  or  reddish  blue  color,  Rev. 
9:17;  also  a  precious  stone  of  similar  colors 
in  the  foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem, 
Rev.  21 :2o. 

JA'COB,  heel-holder,  supplanter,  I.,  son 
of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  born  after  his  twin 
brother  Esau,  probably  at  Lahai-roi,  Gen. 
25:11,  26,  when  Isaac  was  56  and  Abraham 
159  years  old,  B.  C.  1836.  His  character 
and  life  were  foreshown  both  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  birth  and  name  and  in 
the  previous  divine  prediction  to  his  mo- 
ther, the  fulfilment  of  which  they  secured 
by  unjustifiable  means.  Jacob,  though  far- 
sighted  and  energetic,  was  quiet  and  peace- 
able, living  a  shepherd  life  at  home.  Esau 
was  more  turbulent  and  fierce,  and  passion- 


JAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAD 


ately  fond  of  hunting.  Isaac  was  partial  to 
Esau,  Rebekah  to  Jacob.  Jacob  first  took 
advantage  of  his  brother's  heedlessness  as 
to  things  future  and  of  lasting  importance, 
to  purchase  the  birthright  from  him  for  a 
good  meal  when  he  was  faint  with  hunger, 
afterwards,  with  his  mother's  help,  profit- 
ed by  his  brother's  absence  and  his  father's 
infirmity  to  obtain  the  blessing  of  the  birth- 
right, and  was  compelled  to  fly  into  Meso- 
potamia to  avoid  the  consequences  of  his 
brother's  wrath.  Gen.  27:28.  He  was  then 
"j-j  years  old.  On  his  journey  the  Lord 
appeared  to  him  in  a  dream,  promised  him 
His  protection,  and  declared  His  purpose 
relative  to  his  descendants'  possessing  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  the  descent  of  the 
Messiah  through  him,  Gen.  28:10,  etc.  In 
consecrating  himself  afresh  to  God  he  says, 
ver.  21,  22,  if  Jehovah  will  thus  continue  a 
gracious  God  to  me,  then  this  spot  shall  be 
a  temple  to  him.  Compare  Gen.  35:6,  7. 
His  subsequent  days,  which  he  calls  "few 
and  evil,"  were  clouded  with  many  sor- 
rows, yet  amid  them  all  he  was  sustained 
by  the  care  and  favor  of  God.  On  his  sol- 
itary journey  of  600  miles  into  Mesopota- 
mia, and  during  the  toils  and  injuries  of 
his  20  years'  service  with  Laban,  God  still 
prospered  him,  and  on  his  return  to  the 
land  of  promise  inclined  the  hostile  spirits 
of  Laban  and  of  Esau  to  peace.  He  had 
then  2  wives,  Leah  and  Rachel,  2  half- 
wives,  Bilhah  and  Zilpah,  11  sons  and  a 
daughter,  and  large  possessions,  chiefly  in 
flocks  and  herds.  On  the  border  of  Ca- 
naan the  angels  of  God  met  him,  and  the 
God  of  angels  wrestled  with  him  at  Pen- 
uel,  yielded  him  the  blessing,  and  gave 
him  the  honored  name  of  Israel.  The  bet- 
ter traits  of  his  character  had  developed 
under  the  providence  and  grace  of  God, 
and  the  "supplanter"  had  become  a 
"prince,"  having  "power  with  God."  Yet 
further  trials  awaited  him  :  his  mother  was 
no  more ;  his  sister-wives  imbictered  his 
life  with  their  jealousies;  his  children  Di- 
nah, Simeon,  Levi,  and  Reuben  filled  him 
with  grief  and  shame;  his  beloved  Rachel 
and  his  father  were  removed  by  death; 
Joseph  his  favorite  son  he  had  given  up  as 
slain  by  wild  beasts;  and  the  loss  of  Ben- 
jamin threatened  to  bring  his  gray  hairs 
with  sorrow  to  the  grave.  But  the  sunset 
of  his  life  was  majestically  calm  and  bright. 
For  17  years  he  enjoyed  in  the  land  of  Go- 
shen a  serene  happiness :  he  gave  a  dying 
blessing  in  Jehovah's  name  to  his  assem- 
bled sons ;  visions  of  their  future  prosper- 


ity rose  before  his  eyes,  especially  the  long 
line  of  the  royal  race  of  Judah,  culminating 
in  the  glorious  kingdom  of  Shiloh.  "  He 
saw  it,  and  was  glad."  Soon  after,  at  the 
age  of  147,  he  was  gathered  to  his  fathers, 
and  his  body  was  embalmed,  and  buried 
with  all  possible  honors  in  the  burial-place 
of  Abraham  near  Hebron,  B.  C.  1689.  In 
the  history  of  Jacob  we  observe  that  in 
repeated  instances  he  used  unjustifiable 
means  to  secure  promised  advantages,  in- 
stead of  waiting,  in  faith  and  obedience, 
for  the  unfailing  providence  of  God.  We 
observe  also  the  divine  chastisement  of  his 
sins,  and  his  steadfast  growth  in  grace  to 
the  last.  The  record  occupies  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  2d  half  of  the  book  of  Genesis, 
ch.  25-50.  See  also  Bethel,  Ladder,  La- 
ban, Peniel,  etc.  His  name  is  found  in 
the  New  Testament,  illustrating  the  sov- 
ereignty of  God  and  the  power  of  faith, 
Rom.  9:13;   Heb.  11:9,  21. 

II.  The  father  of  Joseph  the  husband  of 
Mary,  Matt,  i :  15,  16. 

Jacob's  Well,  excavated  by  the  patri- 
arch when  he  set  up  his  home-altar  at 
Shechem,  Gen.  ^^y.  18-20;  John  4:5,  6,  12,  to 
make  sure  of  a  water-supply  near  the  field 
he  there  purchased.  Josh.  24:32.  Compare 
Gen.  21:25-30;  26:13-22.  It  is  memorable 
as  the  authentic  site  of  the  interview  of 
Christ  with  the  Samaritan  woman :  in  which 
he  revealed  his  omniscience,  and  his  power 
to  convince,  convict,  convert,  and  save,  an- 
nounced himself  as  the  promised  Messiah, 
and  showed  that  the  time  had  come  for 
abolishing  the  formal  temple-service  with 
its  types  and  sacrifices,  and  for  a  more 
spiritual  and  world-wide  worship.  The 
well  is  at  the  southeast  extremity  of  She- 
chem, now  Nablus,  where  it  opens  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Gerizim  into  the  large  and 
fertile  plain  El  Mukhna.  It  is  a  mile  and 
a  half  from  the  present  town,  and  is  now 
75,  formerly  more  than  100,  feet  deep,  7^ 
feet  in  diameter,  lined  with  stone  masonry, 
the  mouth  4  feet  in  diameter  in  solid  rock, 
surrounded  by  the  ruins  of  a  vaulted  cham- 
ber that  once  covered  it,  and  within  the 
fragments  and  traces  of  a  large  inclosure, 
probably  a  church  of  the  4th  century.  The 
spot  is  recognized  as  the  true  "Jacob's 
well"  by  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Chris- 
tians alike.     See  Shechem. 

JAD'DUA,  knowing,  I.,  one  who  sub- 
scribed Nehemiah's  covenant,  Neh.  10:21. 

II.  Son  of  Johanan,  and  the  last  Old 
Testament  high-priest  named  in  Neh.  12:11, 
12.     If  he  was  the  Jaddua  of  whom  the  leg- 

261 


JAE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAM 


end  of  Josephus  is  that  he  went  forth  from 
Jerusalem  at  the  head  of  the  priests  to  meet 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  tender  to  him 
the  submission  of  the  citj",  his  name  must 
have  been  subsequently  added  to  the  list 
as  made  up  by  Ezra. 

JA'EL,  a  wild  goat,  wife  of  Heber  the 
Kenite,  slew  Sisera,  general  of  the  Canaan- 
itish  army,  who  had  fled  to  her  tent,  which 
was  then  near  Kedesh-naphtali.  (See.) 
Jael  took  her  opportunity,  and  while  he 
was  sleeping  drove  a  large  nail  or  tent-pin 
through  his  temples,  Judg.  4:17-23,  appar- 
ently a  most  treacherous  violation  of  the 
rights  of  hospitality.  But  the  life  of  Sisera 
was  undoubtedly  forfeited  to  the  Israelites 
by  the  usages  of  war  and  the  prescription 
of  Jehovah,  and  probably  to  society  by  his 
crimes.  Besides  this,  the  life  or  honor  of 
Jael  may  have  been  in  danger,  or  her  feel- 
ings of  hospitality  may  have  been  over- 
powered by  a  sudden  impulse  to  avenge 
the  oppressed  Israelites,  with  whom  she 
was  allied  by  blood.  The  song  of  Deborah 
celebrates  the  act  as  one  which  Jewish  pa- 
triotism would  honor,  and  as  a  divine  judg- 
ment which,  as  well  as  the  defeat  of  Sise- 
ras  host,  was  the  more  disgraceful  to  him 
for  being  wrought  by  a  woman,  Judg.  5:1, 

24-27,31- 

JAH  or  JAHU,  ancient  Hebrew  for  Jeho- 
\XH,  Psa.  68:4.  It  is  often  found  in  Hebrew 
compound  words,  as  in  Adonijah,  Hallelu- 
jah, Isa-iah.  It  occurs  usually  in  poetic 
passages,  and  is  often  translated  Lord, 
like  Jehovah,  Psa.  104:35;  105:45;  iii:i, 
and  in  the  2d  clause  of  Psa.  89:8.  In  Isa. 
12:2  we  read,  "Jah-Jehovah  is  my  strength 
and  song,"  and  in  Isa.  26:4,  "  in  Jah-Jeho- 
vah is  the  Rock  of  ages." 

JA'HAZ,  JAHA'ZAH,  JAH'ZAH,  trodden 
dozen,  a  city  on  the  southern  border  of  Am- 
nion, on  the  north  of  the  Arnon  and  Moab, 
where  Moses  defeated  Sihon  king  of  the 
Amorites — from  the  west  of  the  Jordan — 
who  was  then  in  possession,  Num.  21 :23,  26. 
It  seems  to  have  lain  on  the  western  bor- 
der of  Ammon,  and  was  within  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Le- 
vites,  Josh.  21:36;  i  Chr.  6:78.  The  chil- 
dren of  Ammon  asserted  their  claim  to  it 
in  Jephthah's  time,  Judg.  1 1 :  13-20,  but  were 
defeated,  ver.  32.  In  the  period  of  Judah's 
decline  we  find  it  again  in  the  hands  of 
Moab,  Isa.  15:4;  Jer.  48:21,  34. 

JAHA'ZIEL,  beheld  hv  God,  a  Levite  of 
the  sons  of  Asaph,  whose  confident  predic- 
tion of  Jehoshaphat's  victory  over  the  Mo- 
abite  hosts  is  recorded  in  2  Chr.  20:14-17. 
262 


Others  of  this  name  are  briefly  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  12:4;  16:6;  23:19;  Ezra  8:5. 

JA'IR,  he  will  enlighten.  I.  The  son  of 
Segub,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  but  reckoned 
to  Manasseh.  See  Adoption.  He  took 
part  in  the  conquest  of  the  trans-Jordanic 
region,  Gilead  and  Bashan,  captured  23 
towns  in  Argob  which  were  called  after  his 
name.  Num.  32:41 ;  Deut.3:i4;  1  Kin. 4:13; 
I  Chr.  2:22. 

II.  A  Gileadite,  of  Manasseh,  8th  judge 
of  Israel,  for  22  years.  B.  C.  1210-1188. 
He  had  30  sons,  rulers  of  30  cities,  Judg. 
io'3-5>  including  probably  the  23  con- 
quered by  the  former  Jair,  supposed  to 
have  been  his  ancestor.  A  descendant  is 
mentioned  in  2  Sam.  20:26.     See  Havoth- 

JAIR. 

III.  Father  of  Mordecai,  a  Benjamite, 
Esth.  2:5. 

IV.  (A  different  word  in  Hebrew)  awake, 

1  Chr.  20:5.  See  Jaare-oregim. 
JAI'RUS,  or  Ja'ir,  a  ruler  of  the  syna- 
gogue at  Capernaum,  memorable  for  his 
faith  in  Christ.  His  deceased  daughter,  12 
years  of  age,  was  restored  to  life  and 
health  by  the  Saviour,  Mark  5:22;  Luke 
8:41.     Compare  Matt.  9: 18. 

JA'KEH,  pious,  the  father  of  Agur,  Prov. 
30:1.  ■« 

JAM'BRES.     See  Jaxnes. 

JAMES,  raiher  ]xco}i,suf>piante7-,  I.,  sur- 
named  the  greater,  or  elder,  to  distinguish 
him  from  James  the  younger,  was  one  of 
the  12  apostles,  elder  brother  of  John  the 
evangelist,  and  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome, 
Matt.  4:21;  27:56.  Compare  Mark  15:40. 
James  was  of  Bethsaida  in  Galilee.  His 
mother  Salome  was  one  of  those  women 
who  occasionally  attended  our  Saviour  in 
his  journeys,  and  one  day  desired  that  her 

2  sons  might  be  seated  at  his  right  and  left 
hand  in  his  kingdom,  Matt.  20:20-23.  See 
Salome. 

James  and  John  were  originally  fisher- 
men, with  Zebedee  their  father,  Mark  i :  19. 
Like  Andrew  and  Peter,  they  had  accept- 
ed Jesus  as  the  Messiah  before  they  were 
summoned  to  follow  him  as  disciples.  Matt. 
4: 18-22,  with  John  i :  40-42.  They  seem  to 
have  been  ardent  and  impetuous:  and  when 
certain  Samaritans  refused  to  receive  him, 
James  and  John  wished  for  fire  from  heaven 
to  consume  them,  Luke  9: 54.  For  this  rea- 
son, or  because  of  their  zeal  and  energy  as 
ministers  of  Christ,  the  name  of  Boanerges, 
or  sons  of  thunder,  was  afterwards  given 
to  them,  Mark  3:17.  Together  with  Peter 
they  appear  to  have  enjoyed  specixil  honors 


JAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAP 


and  privileges  among  the  disciples:  they 
alone  were  with  Christ  at  his  transfigura- 
tion, Matt.  17:1;  Mark  9:2;  Luke  9:28,  at 
the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter,  Mark  5:37- 
42;  Luke  8:51,  and  at  the  agony  in  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane,  Matt.  26:37;  Mark 
14' 33-  These  3,  with  Andrew,  witnessed 
the  restoration  of  the  mother  of  Peter's 
wife,  Mark  1:29-31,  and  interviewed  him 
as  to  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  Mark 
13:3.  After  the  ascension  of  our  Lord,  at 
which  James  was  present,  he  appears  to 
have  remained  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  put 
to  death  by  Herod,  about  A.  D.  44,  the  first 
martyr  among  the  apostles,  Acts  12:1,  2. 
Compare  Mark  10:39.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, A.  D.  195,  relates  that  one  of  the  offi- 
cers at  his  execution  was  convinced  and 
led  to  avow  himself  a  Christian  by  his 
faithful  testimony,  and  was  beheaded  with 
him. 

IL  Another  apostle,  son  of  Alphaeus,  or 
Clopas,  Matt.  10:3;  Mark3:i8;  Luke  6:15. 
His  mother's  name  was  Mary  (IIL),  and 
his  brethren  were  Joses  and  Judas  (IIL), 
Matt.  27:56;  Mark  15:40.  He  is  here  called 
THE  LESS,  or  the  small,  to  distinguish  him 
from  James  the  son  of  Zebedee.  He  was 
9th  in  the  list  of  the  apostles,  at  the  head 
of  the  3d  quaternion,  and  is  not  mentioned 
after  Acts  i :  13,  unless  he  is  the  same  as 
"James  the  Just." 

III.  "The  Lord's  brother,"  Gal.  1:19; 
either  a  brother  of  Christ,  being  a  son  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  or,  as  many  think,  a 
cousin  of  Christ,  and  identical  with  the 
James  above,  II.  He  resided  at  Jerusalem, 
seems  to  have  been  married,  i  Cor.  9:5, 
and  was  early  a  recognized  leader  in  the 
church.  Acts  12:17;  21  :i8;  Gal.  2:9,  12.  He 
appears  to  have  seen  Christ  shortly  before 
his  ascension,  i  Cor.  15:7,  and  to  have  pre- 
sided over  the  council  held  at  Jerusalem, 
A.  D.  49,  Acts  15:13.  In  Gal.  1:19  he  is 
apparently  called  or  classed  as  an  apostle, 
perhaps  loosely,  though  this  interpretation 
of  the  passage  is  not  imperative.  Compare 
John  17:12.  He  is  called  "the  Just"  by 
Josephus,  and  by  Hegesippus  of  the  2d 
century,  who  says  that  he  was  celebrated 
for  his  integrity  and  zeal,  and  was  slain  by 
the  Jewish  rulers,  A.  D.  69.  Josephus  says 
he  was  stoned  to  death  about  A.  D.  62. 
The  Epistle  of  James  is  ascribed  to  him  by 
those  who  distinguish  him  from  James  the 
Less.  The  question  of  his  true  relation- 
ship to  Christ  is  involved  in  much  doubt. 
The  gospels  repeatedly  mention  James,  Jo- 
ses. Judas,  and  Simon  as  "  brothers  "  of  our 


Lord,  and  speak  in  the  same  connection 
of  his  "  mother  "  and  his  "  sisters,"  Matt. 
12:46;  13:56;  Mark  3:31;  6:3;  Luke  8:19; 
moreover,  the  inspired  writers  expressly 
distinguish  the  brothers  of  Christ  from  the 
apostles,  while  they  include  among  the 
apostles  both  James  the  Less  and  Judas, 
John  2:12;  7:3-10;  Acts  1:13,  14,  thus  fur- 
nishing strong  reasons,  as  many  believe, 
for  the  opinion  that  James  the  Just  was 
literally  a  brother  of  our  Lord.  See  Bro- 
ther. 

The  Epistle  of  James  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  at  Jerusalem, 
about  A.  D.  61,  by  James  the  Just,  shortly 
before  his  death.  It  is  addressed  particu- 
larly to  converted  or  professedly  Christian 
Jews,  but  was  intended  for  the  benefit  of 
Ciiristians  generally.  It  is  therefore  one  of 
"  the  Catholic  Epistles,"  so  called,  i.  e.,  gen- 
eral. It  has  often  been  regarded  as  teach- 
ing a  different  doctrine  in  respect  to  faith 
and  works  from  what  Paul  teaches  in  his 
epistle  to  the  Romans.  But  the  doctrine  of 
the  2  apostles  is  at  bottom  the  same,  only 
that  Paul  dwells  more  on  faith,  the  sole  ori- 
gin of  good  works ;  and  James  dwells  more 
on  good  works,  which  result  from  true  faith. 
According  to  Paul,  there  can  be  no  true 
faith  which  does  not  manifest  itself  in  good 
works  ;  and  according  to  James,  there  can 
be  no  truly  good  works  which  do  not  spring 
from  true  faith.  His  style  is  bold,  rapid, 
terse,  and  figurative,  with  much  fine  im- 
agery; and  the  epistle  is  one  of  the  highest 
in  value. 

JAN'NES  and  JAM'BRES  were  2  of  the 
principal  Egyptian  magicians,  who  with- 
stood Moses  and  Aaron  by  attempting  to 
imitate  the  miracles  which  they  exhibited. 
See  Exod.  7:11,  etc.  These  names  are  not 
found  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  rabbinical  books,  2  Tim. 

3:8.9- 

JANO'AH,  rest,  a  town  of  Naphtali,  be- 
tween Abel  and  Kedesh,  2  Kin.  15:29. 

JANO'HAH,  rest,  Josh.  16:6,  7,  a  town  in 
the  northeast  border  of  Ephraim,  now  Ya- 
nun,  about  8  miles  southeast  of  Nablijs. 

JA'PHETH,  enlargement,  the  eldest  of 
Noah's  3  sons,  Gen.  9:24;  10:21,  born  100 
years  before  the  flood,  and  preserved  with 
his  wife,  2  out  of  8  persons,  in  the  ark, 
Gen.  7:7;  I  Pet.  3:20.  He  was  perhaps  the 
liipetos  whom  Greek  legends  represent  as 
the  progenitor  of  the  Greek  race.  His  7 
sons,  Gen.  10:2-5;  i  Chr.  1:5,  occupied 
with  their  posterity  the  north  of  Asia  and 
most  of  Europe.     The  probable  location  of 

263 


JAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEB 


each  of  the  7  is  described  in  its  jjlace.  In 
later  years  the  (jreeks  and  Romans  sub- 
dued large  portions  of  Southern  and  West- 
ern Asia,  in  accordance  with  the  ])rediction 
of  Noah,  Gen.  9:27.  The  "enlargement" 
of  Japheth  now  extends  over  America  and 
Australia  also. 

JAPHI'A,  spleiidid,  I.,  king  of  Lachish, 
one  of  the  5  Amorite  princes  who  united 
under  Adoni-zedek  to  attack  Gibeon,  but 
were  defeated  near  Beth-horon  by  Joshua, 
with  miraculous  aid,  and  slain  at  the  cave 
of  Makkedah,  Josh.  10:3. 

II.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem, 
2  Sam.  5:15;  otherwise  unknown. 

III.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  on  the 
south,  between  Daberath  and  Gath-he- 
pher,  Josh.  19:12;  now  Yafa,  a  hamlet  of 
30  houses,  a  mile  and  a  half  southwest  of 
Nazareth. 

JA'PHO,  Josh.  19:46.     SeeJoppA. 

JA'REB,  avenger,  Hos.  5:13;  10:6,  not 
the  name  of  a  king,  but  "  hostile  "  king, 
meaning  Pul,  whose  aid  Ephraim  sought 
and  found  it  a  chastisement,  2  Kin.  15:19, 
20;  compare  2  Kin.  16:7,  8. 

JA'RED,  in  I  Chr.  1:2  Je'red,  descent, 
the  4th  in  the  line  of  patriarchs  after  Seth, 
between  Mahalaleel  and  Enoch,  Gen.  5: 15- 
20;  Luke  3:37. 

JAR'HA,  an  Egyptian  slave,  made  free 
by  marrying  Ahlai,  the  daughter  of  his 
master  Sheshan,  who  had  no  sons,  i  Chr. 
2:31-41. 

JAR'MUTH,  height,  I.,  a  town  in  the  low 
hills  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:35.  Pirani  its  king 
was  confederate  with  Adoni-zedek.  See 
Japhia.  It  was  repeopled  after  the  Cap- 
tivity, Neh.  11:29;  now  Yarmuk,  16  miles 
south  of  west  from  Jerusalem. 

II.  A  Levitical  (Gershonite)  city  in  Issa- 
char.  Josh.  21:29,  called  Remeth  and  Ra- 
moth,  Josh.  19:21;  I  Chr.  6:73;  apparently 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  plain  of  Jez- 
reel. 

JASH'ER,  THE  BOOK  OF,  the  hook  of  the 
?</!»r/^///, e.xcellentand  noble-minded.  This 
wrork  is  mentioned  in  Josh.  10: 13  and  2  Sam. 
1 :  18,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  collection 
of  national,  historical,  triumphal,  and  ele- 
giac songs,  still  extant  in  the  time  of  David, 
but  nothing  is  known  respecting  it.  The 
book  published  under  this  name  in  1751  is 
a  gross  forgery. 

JASHO'BEAM,  to  zfhom  the  people  turn, 
a  Korhite,  descendant  of  Hachmon,  who 
enlisted  with  his  followers  under  David  at 
Ziklag,  I  Chr.  12:6;  27:2,  famous  for  his 
great  exploit  in  slaying  300  or  800  foes,  per- 
264 


haps  with  the  help  of  his  companions.  He 
is  conjectured  to  be  identical  with  Adino. 
2  Sam.  23:8,  and  to  have  been  one  of  the  3 
brave  men  wlio  broke  through  the  Philis- 
tine camp  at  Bethlehem  to  bring  water  for 
David,  I  Chr.  11: 11,  15-19. 

JA'SON,  a  healer,  a  Jewish  convert,  a 
"  kinsman  "  and  host  of  Paul,  at  Thessa- 
lonica.  His  person  and  goods  were  inter- 
posed to  shield  the  apostle  from  the  rabble 
at  his  first  visit  there,  A.  D.  52,  Acts  17:5-10. 
He  seems  also  to  have  been  with  him  at 
Corinth,  5  years  afterwards,  Rom.  16:21. 

JAS'PER,  a  precious  stone  of  various  col- 
ors, as  green,  purple,  etc.,  often  clouded 
with  white,  and  beautifully  striped  with  red 
or  yellow,  the  ist  gem  in  the  high-priest's 
breastplate,  Exod.  28:20,  and  the  ist  foun- 
dation-stone of  the  New  Jerusalem,  called 
"  most  precious  "  b}-  John,  Rev.  4:3 ;  21 :  11. 
See  also  Ezek.  28:13. 

JA'VAN,  I.,  the  4th  son  of  Japheth,  Gen. 
10:2,  4.  This  name  is  the  same  as  the 
Greek  Ion,  whence  comes  Ionia,  and  it  is 
understood  that  Javan  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  Greeks.  His  sons  were  Elishah. 
Tarshish,  Kittim,  and  Dodanim.  Greece- 
is  meant  in  "king  of  Javan  "  (Heb.)  in  Dan. 
8:2t ;  and  "sons  of  Javan  "  in  Zech.  9: 13. 

II.  In  Ezek.  27: 19,  a  Greek  city  in  South- 
ern Arabia. 

JA'ZER.     SeejAAZER. 

JEAL'OUSY.  See  Adultery.  The  idol 
of  jealousy,  Ezek.  8:3,  5,  is  the  same  with 
Tammuz  in  ver.  14.     See  Tammuz. 

JE'ARIM  (forests),  MOUNT,  in  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:10;  ap- 
parently a  ridge  the  northern  shoulder  of 
which  was  Chesalon,  now  Kesla,  7  miles 
west  of  Jerusalem. 

JEBERECHI'AH,  whom  the  Lord  will 
bless,  Isa.  8:2,  the  father  of  a  Zechariah  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz,  Isaiah's  witness. 

JE'BUS,  a  trodden  place,  an  old  name  of 
Jerusalem,  Judg.  19:10,  11;  i  Chr.  11:4,  5; 
also  called  Jebusi,  Josh.  15:8;  18:16,  28. 
"The  Jrbusite,"  always  in  the  singular 
in  Hebrew,  the  3d  son  of  Canaan,  whose 
posterity  dwelt  in  Canaan  between  the 
Hittites  and  the  Amorites,  Gen.  10:16; 
I  Chr.  1 :  14.  See  Canaanite.s.  Traces  of 
them  are  found  40  years  before  the  con- 
quest, Num.  13:29,  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest. Josh.  10: 1,  5,  26;  11:3,  and  later,  they 
not  having  been  thoroughly  expelled  by 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  Josh.  15:8,63;  Judg. 
1:21;  19:11.  See  Araunah.  Jerusalem, 
then  even  a  stronger  and  higher  fortress 
than  afterwards,  was  captured  by  David, 


JEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEH 


2  Sam.  5:6-9;  I  Chr.  11 :4-8.  The  Jebusites 
were  bond-servants  under  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
9:20,  21;  2  Chr.  8:7,  8;  and  some  of  them, 
"Solomon's  servants,"  returned  from  the 
Babylonish  exile,  Neh.  7:57.  See  also  Ezra 
9:1,  2  ;  Zech.  9:7. 

JECONI'AH.      See  JEHOIACHIN. 

JEDI'DAH,  beloved,  wife  of  king  Amon, 
daughter  of  Adaiah  of  Boscath,  and  mo- 
ther of  king  Josiah,  2  Kin.  22:1,  who  did 
signal  honor  to  her  pious  training. 

JEDIDI'AH,  or  Jedid'jah,  beloved  of  Ike 
Lofd,  a  name  given  to  Solomon  at  his  birth 
by  Nathan  the  prophet— a  special  token  of 
God's  returning  favor  to  his  penitent  ser- 
vant David  after  the  death  of  Bathsheba's 
1st  son,  2  Sam.  12:24,  25. 

JEDU'THUN,  who  gives  praise,  a  Merar- 
ite  Levite,  a  director  of  the  music  of  the 
tabernacle  in  David's  time,  with  Heman 
the  Kohathite,  and  Asaph  the  Gershonite, 
I  Chr.  23:6;  apparently  the  same  as  Ethan, 
I  Chr.  15: 17.  See  Ethan.  His  special  ser- 
vice was  "  to  sound  with  cymbals  of  brass," 
ver.  19.  The  "  sons  of  Jeduthun  "  "  prophe- 
sied with  the  harp,"  i  Chr.  25:3,  9,  etc.,  and 
officiated  as  musical  leaders  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  temple,  2  Chr.  5:12,  at  Hezeki- 
ah's  purifying  of  the  temple,  2  Chr.  29:14, 
at  Josiah's  passover,  2  Chr.  35: 15,  and  after 
the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:17.  The  name  of 
one  of  them  appears  in  the  title  of  Psalms 
39,  62,  77.    See  Asaph. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA,  heap  of  witness, 
a  Chaldee  name,  equivalent  to  Galeed  in 
Hebrew,  both  marking  the  scene  of  the 
covenant  between  Jacob  and  Laban,  Gen. 
31:47.     See  MizPEH. 

JEHO'AHAZ,  Jehovah  sustains,  I.,  a  son 
and  successor  of  Jehu  king  of  Israel,  B.  C. 
856-840,  reigned  17  years.  In  punishment 
for  his  sins  and  those  of  his  people,  Israel 
was  invaded  and  reduced  to  great  extrem- 
ities by  the  Syrians  under  Hazael  and 
Ben-hadad.  The  king  humbled  himself 
before  God,  and  deliverance  came  by  the 
hand  of  Joash  his  son,  2  Kin.  13:1-9,  24,  25. 

II.  Also  called  Shallum,  i  Chr.  3:15,  the 
3d  son  and  successor  of  Josiah  king  of 
Judah,  B.  C.  609,  reigned  about  3  months 
in  Jerusalem,  disappointing  the  popular 
hopes  by  his  oppressive  spirit,  Ezek.  19:3. 
He  was  deposed  by  Pharaoh-necho,  and 
died  in  Egypt,  2  Kin.  23:30-34;  2  Chr. 
36:1-4.  See  also  Jer.  22: 10-13.  See  Shal- 
lum. 

III.  A  name  once  given,  2  Chr.  21:17,  to 
Ahaziah,  which  see. 

JEHO'ASH.     See  JOASH. 


JEHOHA'NAN,/^Aoz/aA'j  gift,  often  writ- 
ten Johanan,  now  John.  I.  A  Korhite  Le- 
vite, doorkeeper  in  the  tabernacle  in  Da- 
vid's time,  I  Chr.  26:3. 

II.  A  chief  captain  under  Jehoshaphat, 
2  Chr.  17:15,  in  command  of  280,000  men 
around  Jerusalem,  ver.  13,  19.  Probably 
an  ally  of  Jehoiada  in  bringing  David's 
descendant  Joash  to  the  throne,  2  Chr. 
23:1. 

Others  are  mentioned,  Ezra  10:28;  Neh. 
12:13,42.     See  Johanan. 

JEHOI'ACHIN,  appointed  by  Jehovah,  son 
and  successor  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah, 
B.  C.  509,  reigned  3  months,  and  was  then 
carried  away  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar in  person,  to  avenge  the  alliance  of  his 
father  with  Egypt  against  Babylon;  with 
him  went  all  his  family,  the  flower  of  the 
people,  and  the  sacred  and  royal  treasures. 
In  Babylon  he  was  imprisoned  for  36  years, 
and  then  released  and  favored  by  Evil- 
merodach,  2  Kin.  24:6-16;  25:27;  2  Chr. 
36:9,  10.  In  this  last  passage  he  is  said  to 
have  been  8  years  old  at  the  commence- 
ment of  his  reign.  If  the  text  has  not  here 
been  altered  from  18  years,  as  it  stands  in 
the  first  passage,  we  may  conclude  that  he 
reigned  lo  years  conjointly  with  his  father. 
He  is  also  called  Coniah  and  Jeconiah, 
I  Chr.  3:16;  Jer.  27:20;  37:1.  The  predic- 
tion in  Jer.  22:30  signified  that  no  son  of 
his  should  occupy  the  throne,  i  Chr.  3:17, 
18;  Matt.  1:12.  He  was  the  last  of  Solo- 
mon's line  of  kings,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Salathiel,  a  descendant  of  David  by  Solo- 
mon's brother  Nathan.  See  also  Jer.  29:2; 
Ezek.  17: 12;   19:9. 

]EH01' AT> A,  Je/iovah  knows,  I.,  the  father 
of  Benaiah,  who  was  one  of  David's  he- 
roes, 2  Sam.  8:18;  I  Kin.  i ;  2.  He  seems 
to  have  joined  David  at  Hebron,  a  chief 
priest  at  the  head  of  3,700  armed  Aaronites, 
I  Chr.  12:27.  In  I  Chr.  27:34  the  names 
appear  to  have  been  transposed. 

II.  A  high-priest  during  Athaliah's  usur- 
pation, who  with  his  wife  Jehosheba  pre- 
vented the  threatened  extinction  of  the  line 
of  David  by  saving  the  infant  prince  Joash, 
and  secluding  him  in  the  temple  for  6  years. 
Jehoiada  then  quietly  secured  the  aid  of 
the  friends  of  David  and  of  God,  collected 
the  Levites  at  Jerusalem,  armed  them  with 
David's  captured  weapons  then  stored  in 
the  temple,  and  in  a  full  assembly  of  the 
people  led  forth  the  young  prince,  crowned 
and  anointed  him  as  king,  and  gave  him 
the  book  of  the  law  which  was  to  be  his 
guide,  Deut.  17:18-20.     He   caused   Atha- 

265 


JEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEH 


liah  to  be  put  to  death  without  the  temple 
gates.  He  then  covenanted  with  the  peo- 
ple for  the  abandonment  of  Baal-worship 
and  the  full  reestablishment  of  the  worship 
of  God.  He  long  continued  to  be  the 
young  king's  adviser,  and  his  wisdom  and 
piety  greatly  conserved  and  blessed  the 
nation  till  he  died,  B.  C.  834,  aged  130. 
He  was  buried  with  royal  honors,  but  both 
king  and  people  quickly  fell  away  from 
his  ways.     See  Joash,  Zach.\ri.\h. 

III.  A  sagan  or  2d  priest,  an  aid  of  the 
high-priest  under  the  reign  of  Zedekiah, 
Jer.  29:25-29,  deposed  for  adhering  to  Jer- 
emiah. 

IV.  A  helper  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  3:6. 

JEHOI'AKIM,  Jehovah  will  establish,  first 
called  Eli'akim;  the  2d  sonofjosiah,  bro- 
ther and  successor  of  Jehoahaz  or  Shallum, 
king  of  Judah,  for  whom  he  with  his  new 
name  was  substituted  by  the  king  of  Egypt. 
He  was  king  during  11  years  of  luxury, 
extortion,  and  idolatry.  He  murdered  the 
faithful  Urijah  and  insulted  his  corpse.  In 
the  3d    year,    Nebuchadnezzar    carried  to 


Babylon  a  part  of  his  princes  and  treasures. 
A  year  after,  his  allies  the  Egyptians  were 
defeated  on  the  Euphrates ;  yet  he  de- 
spised the  warnings  of  Jeremiah,  and  cast 
his  book  into  the  fire.  At  length  he  re- 
belled against  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was 
defeated  and  ingloriously  slain,  and  buried 
like  an  ass,  B.  C.  599,  2  Kin.  23:34,  36; 
24:6;  2  Chr.  36:4-8;  Jer.  22;  26;  36. 

JEHOI'ARIB,  God  a  defender,  usually 
JoiAKiB,  I  Chr.  9:10.  Head  of  the  ist  of 
David's  24  courses  of  priests.  Some  of  the 
sons  of  Joiarib  returned  after  the  Captiv- 
ity, Neh.  II :  10. 

JEHON'ADAB,  lo  whom  God  is  liberal, 
often  Jon'ad.\b,  a  chief  among  the  de- 
scendants of  Rechab,  who  were  under  life- 
vows  to  abstain  from  wine  and  to  dwell 
in  tents,  Jer.  35:6,  7.  See  Rechabites. 
He  joined  Jehu  in  the  slaughter  of  the 
Baal-worshippers,  2  Kin.  10:15-23.  It  is 
the  full  name  in  Hebrew  of  Jonadab, 
which  see. 

JEHO'RAM.     SeeJo'RAM. 

JEHOSHA'BEATH,  2  Chr.  22:  II.  See 
Jehosheba. 


VALLEY   OF   JEHOSHAPHAT  :    TOMBS   AND   JEWISH    BURIAL-GROUND. 


JEHOSH'APHAT,  God  judges,  the  4th 
king  of  Judah  after  Solomon,  the  pious  son 
and  successor  of  Asa.  He  began  to  reign 
at  the  age  of  35,  about  the  year  914  B.  C, 
and  reigned  25  years.  His  history  is  found 
in  I  Kin.  15:24;  22;  2  Chr.  17-20.  He  was 
distinguished  by  his  zeal  for  true  religion 
and  his  firm  trust  in  (iod.  He  thoroughly 
cleansed  the  land  from  idolatry,  restored 
the  divine  ordinances,  filled  the  high  oosts 
266 


in  church  and  state  with  the  best  men,  and 
provided  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
people.  His  government  was  highly  pros- 
pered at  home  and  abroad.  The  great  error 
of  his  life  was  an  entangling  alliance  with 
the  wicked  Ahab,  whose  infamous  daughter 
Athaliah  early  began  to  afflict  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  of  which  she  was  afterwards  the 
queen,  through  her  marriage  with  Jehosh- 
aphat's  eldest  son  Jehoram.    Jehoshaphat 


JEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEH 


was  beguiled  by  Ahab  into  an  unsuccess- 
ful war  with  the  Syrians,  but  soon  resumed 
his  labors  in  behalf  of  religion  and  justice. 
Having  failed  in  a  commercial  enterprise 
with  Ahaziah,  he  declined  a  second  trial, 
I  Kin.  22:48,  49,  but  united  with  Joram,  his 
successor,  in  a  war  with  Moab.  This 
seems  to  have  led  to  his  being  assailed  by 
a  vast  host  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edom- 
ites,  and  Syrians;  but  again  he  was  victo- 
rious through  his  faith  in  God,  in  which  he 
cheered  his  people  after  a  memorable  fast 
and  prayer  in  the  temple.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  60  years. 

Four  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  2  Sam.  8: 16;  i  Kin.  4:3,  17 ;  2  Kin.  9:2, 
14. 

Jehoshaphat,  valley  of,  or  valley  of 
ilie  judgment  of  God,  a  metaphorical  name 
of  some  place  where  God  would  judge  the 
foes  and  oppressors  of  his  people,  Joel 
3:2,  12.  There  is  no  ground  for  applying 
it  to  any  known  locality,  or  for  connecting 
it,  except  for  illustration,  with  the  great 
battle  of  Jehoshaphat  described  in  2  Chr. 
20.  Since  the  3d  century,  however,  the 
name  has  been  appropriated  to  the  deep 
and  narrow  glen  east  of  Jerusalem,  run- 
ning north  and  south  between  the  city  and 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  called  in  the  Bible  the 
brook  Kidron.     See  Jerusalem. 

JEHOSH'EBA,  Jehovah's  oath,  the  aunt 
of  Joash,  king  of  Judah,  whose  life  in  in- 
fancy and  childhood  she  saved,  in  spite  of 
the  designs  of  Athaliah,  2  Kin.  1 1 : 1-3.  Her 
husband  was  Jehoiada,  the  noble  high- 
priest,  the  only  one  known  to  have  mar- 
ried into  the  royal  family. 

JEHOSH'UA,  Num.  13:16;  I  Chr.  7:27. 
See  Joshua. 

JEHO'VAH,  the  ineffable  name  of  God 
among  the  Hebrews.  It  never  has  the 
article  before  it,  nor  is  it  found  in  the  plu- 
ral form.  -  The  Jews,  out  of  reverence, 
never  pronounced  this  name;  and  wher- 
ever it  occurs  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
they  substituted  for  it,  in  reading,  the  word 
Adonai,  Lord,  or  Elohim,  God.  See  God. 
In  the  Hebrew  Bible  it  is  always  written 
with  the  vowels  of  one  or  the  other  of 
these  words.  Its  ancient  pronunciation  is 
thought  to  have  been  Yahveh,  he  shall 
BE,  but  this  is  not  certain.  The  meaning  of 
Jehovah  is  He  is;  the  same  as  I  am,  the 
person  only  being  changed.  Thus  it  de- 
notes the  self-existence,  independence,  im- 
mutability, and  infinite  fulness  of  the  divine 
Being,  which  is  a  pledge  that  he  will  fulfil 
all  his  promises.     Compare  Exod.  3:14,  "I 


AM  THAT  I  AM,"  the  meaning  of  which  see 
under  the  article  God.  In  Exod.  6:3  God 
says,  "I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto 
Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob,  by  the  name  of  God 
Almighty — El  Shaddai ;  but  by  my  name 
Jehovah  was  I  not  known  to  them;''  yet 
the  appellation  Jehovah  appears  to  have 
been  known  from  the  beginning.  Gen.  4:1 ; 
Exod.  3:16,  and  its  derivation  from  a  root 
havah,  to  be,  found  only  in  the  oldest  He- 
brew and  obsolete  in  Moses'  time,  shows 
its  high  antiquity.  We  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  God  himself,  who  named  man 
Adam,  named  himself  Jehovah  ;  but  in 
his  revelation  to  the  patriarchs  he  had  not 
appropriated  to  himself  this  name  in  a  pe- 
culiar way,  as  he  now  did,  nor  unfolded  the 
deep  meaning  contained  in  it.  He  had  said 
to  them,  "  I  am  God  Almightj^,"  El  Shad- 
dai, and  under  this  name  and  that  of  Elo- 
him, God,  he  was  in  the  thoughts  and  on 
the  lips  of  his  people  as  the  Creator  and 
Lord  of  the  universe,  the  God  of  nature,  of 
providence,  and  of  mankind;  but  Jeho- 
vah— a  "proper  noun" — was  a  more  defi- 
nite name  of  God,  the  personal  covenant 
God  of  his  redeemed  people,  the  God  of 
grace.  In  John  8:58  it  is  noteworthy  that 
2  different  Greek  verbs  are  used,  signify- 
ing that  while  Abraham  "  came  into  being," 
God  always  existed. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  Eng- 
lish A.  V.  translates  Jehovah  by  the  word 
Lord,  in  small  capitals — retaining  it  un- 
translated only  in  4  passages,  Exod.  6; 3; 
Psa.  83:18;  Isa.  12:2;  26:4,  except  in  com- 
pound words,  as  below. 

Jeho'vah-ji'reh,  Jehovah  will  provide, 
the  name  given  by  Abraham  to  the  place 
where  he  had  been  on  the  point  of  slaying 
his  son  Isaac,  Gen.  22:14.  In  it  he  alludes 
to  his  answer  to  Isaac's  question  in  ver.  8, 
that  God  would  provide  a  victim  for  the 
sacrifice — an  unconscious  prophecy  of  the 
Lamb  of  God.  His  expression  became  a 
common  Hebrew  proverb  :  God  will  so  pro- 
vide for  his  people  in  every  extremity. 

Jeho'vah-nis'si,  Jehovah  my  banner, 
Exod.  17:15,  the  name  Moses  gave  to  the 
altar  in  memory  of  Israel's  victory  over 
Amalek.  God's  people,  rallying  around 
this  banner,  go  on  to  assured  victory,  Psa. 
60:4;  Prov.  18:10;  Isa.  11:10. 

Jeho'vah-sha'lom,  Jehovah  of  peace,  or 
prosperity,  the  name  given  by  Gideon  to 
an  altar  which  he  built  in  Ophrah,  where 
the  Angel-Jehovah  had  appeared  to  him, 
and  saluted  him  by  saying,  "  Peace  be  unto 
thee,"  Judg.  6:24. 

267 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JER 


Jeho'vah-sham'mah,  Jehovah  is  there, 
the  name  given  by  Ezekiel,  48:35,  margin, 
to  a  future  holy  c\\.y. 

Jeho'vah-tsidke'nu,  yMoz'aA  our  right- 
eousness, the  name  given  to  the  Saviour, 
and  through  him  to  his  church,  Jer.  23:6; 
33:16,  margin. 

JEHOZ'ABAD,  God-given,  often  Joz'- 
ABAD,  I.,  2d  son  of  Obed-edom,  a  Levite, 
keeper  of  the  storehouse  of  the  tabernacle, 

1  Chr.  26:4,  15.     See  Asuppim. 

II.  A  Benjamite  general  of  Jehoshaphat, 

2  Chr.  17:18. 

III.  Son  of  Shomer,  a  Moabitess,  one  of 
2  servants  of  Joash  who  killed  him  in  his 
bed,  2  Kin.  12:21 ;  2  Chr.  24:26. 

JEHOZ'ADAK,  justified  by  God,  often 
Joz'adak  or  Jos'edech,  son  of  Seraiah,  a 
high-priest  under  Zedekiah,  i  Chr.  6:14,  15. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  who  was  slain  at 
Riblah,  2  Kin.  25:18-21,  but  was  immedi- 
ately carried  captive  and  died  in  exile. 
See  Jeshua,  IV. 

]K'H\J,  Jehovah  is  he,  or  living,  I.,  a  de- 
scendant of  Sheshan,  tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr. 
2:38. 

II.  A  warlike  Benjamite,  of  Anathoth, 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag,  i  Chr.  12:1-3. 

III.  The  son  of  Hanani,  a  prophet,  sent 
with  messages  from  God  to  Baasha  king  of 
Israel,  and  30  years  afterwards  to  Jehosh- 
aphat king  of  Judah,  i  Kin.  16:1-7;  2  Chr. 
19:1-3,  whose  life  he  wrote,  2  Chr.  20:34. 

IV.  The  "son"  of  Jehoshaphat  and 
grandson  of  Nimshi  (compare  i  Kin.  19:16 
and  2  Kin.  9:2),  a  general  of  the  army  of 
Joram,  slew  his  master,  and  usurped  the 
throne  of  Israel,  B.  C.  884.  He  reigned  28 
years.  See  his  history  in  1  Kin.  19:16,  17; 
2  Kin.  9;  10.  He  slew  Jezebel,  and  ful- 
filled the  divine  purpose  in  extirpating  the 
family  of  the  impious  Ahab;  he  also  zeal- 
ously destroyed  the  priests  of  Baal  and 
many  other  friends  of  Ahab.  But  his  heart 
was  not  right  with  God  ;  his  "  zeal  for  the 
Lord"  was  really  a  zeal  for  himself;  he 
continued  the  worship  of  the  golden  calves, 
and  Jehovah  began  to  cut  Israel  short.  The 
Syrians  possessed  themselves  of  his  east- 
ern frontier,  and  his  dynasty,  the  5th  after 
Solomon,  was  extinguished  in  the  4th  gen- 
eration, Hos.  1 :4. 

V.  A  prominent  Simeonite  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah,  i  Chr.  4:35,  38-41. 

JE'HUD,  a  border  town  of  Dan,  Josh. 
19:45,  now  Yehudiyeh,  8  miles  east  from 
Jaffa. 

JEHU'DI,  a  Jew,  who  brought  Tiaruch  to 
read  the  prophet  Jeremiah's  roll  to  the 
268 


princes,  and  himself  read  it  to  king  Jehoi- 
akim.Jer.  36:14,  21-23. 

JEHUDI'JAH,  the  Jewess,  2d  wife  (see 
BiTHiAH)  of  Mered,  whose  sons  founded 
Gedor,  Socoh,  etc.,  i  Chr.  4:17-19. 

JEMI'MA,  dove,  Job's  daughter,  the  first 
of  3  born  after  his  trials,  Job  42: 14. 

JEPH'THAH,  opener,  9th  judge  of  Israel, 
between  Jair  and  Ibzan.  Being  the  son  of 
a  concubine,  Gilead's  other  sons  excluded 
him  from  home,  and  he  gathered  a  band 
in  the  region  east  of  Gilead;  when  the 
time  was  ripe,  called  of  God,  he  took  the 
lead  of  the  Gileadites  in  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  Ammon,  signally  defeated  the  Am- 
monites, captured  20  of  their  cities,  chas- 
tised the  envious  and  invading  Ephraim- 
ites,  and  judged  Israel  beyond  Jordan  for 
6  years,  B.  C.  1188-1182.  His  history  is 
told  in  Judg.  11 ;  12.  A  most  affecting  in- 
cident in  it  is  his  devoting  his  daughter  to 
God  as  a  sacrifice,  in  consequence  of  a 
rash  vow. 

The  arguments  on  the  question  whether 
Jephthah's  daughter  was  actually  sacrificed 
or  not  cannot  here  be  cited.  That  he  in- 
tended a  real  sacrifice  is  clear,  Judg.  11 :3i ; 
and  it  seems  certain  that  he  "  did  with  her 
according  to  his  vow,"  ver.  39.  Only  the 
natural  repugnance  which  more  enlight- 
ened people  feel  to  such  a  vow  and  its  ful- 
filment has  led  many  interpreters  to  adopt 
the  less  obvious  theory  that  she  was  only 
condemned  to  live  and  die  unmarried. 
There  is  no  intimation  in  Scripture  that 
God  approved  of  his  vow,  whatever  it  was. 
Paul  numbers  Jephthah  among  the  saints 
of  the  Old  Testament  distinguished  for 
their  faith,  Heb.  11:32. 

JEPHUN'NEH,  may  he  be  seen,  I.,  a  Ke- 
nezite,  the  father  of  Caleb,  Joshua's  faith- 
ful comrade.  Num.  13:6;  14:6,30,38;  32:12; 
I  Chr.  6:56.     See  Caleb  and  Kenaz. 

II.  A  son  of  Jether,  tribe  of  Asher,  i  Chr. 

JE'RAH,  nczv  vioo7i,  4th  son  of  Joktan, 
founder  of  an  Arab  tribe.  Gen.  10:26,  30; 
I  Chr.  1:20.  Their  abode  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  Southeastern  Arabia. 

JERAH'MEEL,  mercy  of  God,  I.,  Hez- 
ron's  eldest  son,  father  of  Ram,  living  in 
Southern  Judah  on  a  plateau  southwest  of 
Arad,  i  Chr.  2:9-42.  See  i  Sam.  27:10; 
30:29. 

II.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Kish,  i  Chr. 
24:29. 

III.  Son  of  Hammelech,  sent  by  Jehoia- 
kim  to  arrest  Jeremiah  and  Baruch,  Jer. 
36:26. 


JER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JER 


JEREMI'AH,  Jehovah  throws  down,  I., 
son  of  Hilkiah;  the  second  of  the  "greater 
prophets,"  and  one  of  the  chief  Old  Testa- 
ment seers.  He  prophesied  under  Josiah, 
Jehoiakim,  and  Zedekiah,  and  also  after 
the  captivity  of  the  latter.  He  was  born 
at  Anathoth  in  Benjamin,  of  the  race  of  the 
Abiathar  priests,  and  was  destined  of  God 
to  be  a  prophet,  and  consecrated  for  that 
object  before  his  birth,  Jer.  i:i,  5-  At  an 
early  age  he  was  called  to  act  as  a  prophet, 
B.  C.  628,  in  the  13th  year  of  king  Josiah, 
first  at  Anathoth,  where  his  townsmen  and 
kindred  persecuted  him,  Jer.  11:18-21; 
12:6,  and  afterwards  at  Jerusalem.  He  re- 
mained unmarried  for  prophetic  reasons, 
Jer.  16:2.  The  pious  king  Josiah  coopera- 
ted with  him  in  abolishing  idolatry  and 
promoting  a  general  reformation,  2  Kin. 
23:1-25,  and  his  death,  B.  C.  609,  was  la- 
mented as  a  grievous  loss,  2  Chr.  35:20-25; 
Jer.  22:10,  15,  16.  After  the  brief  reign  of 
Jehoahaz  the  scene  greatly  changed;  idol- 
atry revived,  and  the  subsequent  life  of  the 
prophet  was  full  of  afflictions  and  persecu- 
tions. In  the  4th  year  of  Jehoiakim  he 
wrote  his  first  roll  of  warnings  and  predic- 
tions, which  the  king  burned  piecemeal, 
and  sought  the  prophet's  life,  Jer.  35.  He 
wrote  his  predictions  a  2d  time,  foretelling 
among  other  things  the  speedy  captivity  of 
Judah  in  Babylon  70  years,  Jer.  25:8-12, 
and  the  fall  of  Babylon,  ver.  13-38.  But 
his  warnings  were  little  heeded.  Zedeki- 
ah was  kindly  instructed  by  him,  and 
warned  of  the  woes  impending  over  his 
guilty  people,  but  to  no  purpose.  The 
fidelity  of  the  prophet  often  endangered 
his  life,  and  he  was  in  prison  when  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  That 
monarch  released  him,  and  offered  him  a 
home  in  Babylon;  but  he  chose  to  remain 
with  the  remnant  of  the  Jews,  and  was  car- 
ried by  them  erelong  into  Egypt,  B.  C.  586, 
still  faithfully  advising  and  reproving  them 
till  he  died.  For  42  years  he  steadfastly 
maintained  the  cause  of  truth  and  of  God 
against  his  rebellious  people.  Though 
naturally  mild,  sensitive,  and  retiring,  he 
shrank  from  no  danger  when  duty  called; 
threats  could  not  silence  him,  nor  ill-usage 
alienate  him.  Tenderly  compassionate  to 
his  infatuated  countrymen,  he  shared  with 
them  the  woes  which  he  could  not  induce 
them  to  avert  from  their  own  heads. 

The  BOOK  OF  Jeremiah,  in  the  chrono- 
logical order  of  its  several  predictions  and 
divine  messages,  is  somewhat  difficult  of 
arrangement;   but   may  be  divided,  by  a 


natural  and  sufficiently  accurate  method, 
into  4  general  sections,  containing  sever- 
ally the  prophecies  uttered  in  the  reigns  of 
Josiah,  Jehoiakim,  Zedekiah,  and  Gedaliah. 
The  last  chapter  of  the  book  appears  to 
have  been  added,  perhaps  by  Ezra;  it  is 
taken  almost  verbatim  from  2  Kin.  24:18- 
20,  and  ch.  25.  See  Jer.  51:64.  Messianic 
predictions  are  found  in  Jer.  23:1-8;  31 :3i- 
40;  33:14-26.  New  Testament  recogni- 
tions of  him  are  found  in  Matt.  2:17; 
16:14;  Heb.  8:8-12. 

Jeremiah  wrote  also  the  book  of  Lamen- 
tations, in  which  he  utters  the  most  plain- 
tive and  pathetic  sentiments  over  the  ca- 
lamities of  his  people.  See  Lamenta- 
tions. 

There  is  an  apocryphal  "  Epistle  of  Jer- 
emiah," warning  his  captive  countrymen 
against  Babylonish  idolatry.  It  was  writ- 
ten in  Greek,  not  in  Hebrew,  and  was  nev- 
er included  in  the  Jewish  canon,  nor  ac- 
cepted as  genuine  by  the  early  Christian 
fathers. 

Seven  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned. 
II.  2  Kin.  24:18.-111.  I  Chr.  5:24.— IV„  V., 
VI.  I  Chr.  12:4,  10,  13. — VII.  Neh.  10:2; 
12:1,  34.— VIII.  Jer.  35:3. 

JEREMI'AS,  Matt.  16:14,  and  JER'EMY, 
Matt.  2: 17,  are  put  in  A.  V.  for  Jeremiah. 

JER'ICHO,/>/ac^  offragT'ance,  a  rich  and 
strong  city  in  the  Jordan  valley,  in  the  lim- 
its assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  15 
miles  east-northeast  from  Jerusalem  and  5 
miles  from  the  Jordan,  Josh.  16:7;  18:21, 
opposite  the  crossing-place  of  the  Israel- 
ites, Josh.  3:16.  It  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  story  of  the  Hebrew  spies  and  Rahab, 
Josh.  2:1-21.  It  was  the  first  city  in  Ca- 
naan taken  by  Joshua,  who  being  miracu- 
lously aided  by  the  downfall  of  its  walls, 
totally  destroyed  it,  sparing  only  Rahab 
and  her  household,  and  pronounced  a  curse 
upon  the  person  who  should  ever  rebuild 
it — perhaps  as  a  walled  city — which  was 
more  than  500  years  afterwards  fulfilled  on 
Hiel,  Josh.  6:26;  i  Kin.  16:34.  Meanwhile 
a  new  Jericho  had  been  built  on  some 
neighboring  site,  Judg.  3:13;  2  Sam.  10:5. 
Jericho  was  also  called  the  "  city  of  palm- 
*trees,"  Deut.  34:3;  Judg.  1:16,  and  became 
afterwards  flourishing  and  second  in  im- 
portance only  to  Jerusalem.  It  contained 
a  school  of  the  prophets,  and  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Elisha,  2  Kin.  2:4,  5,  18.  Oppo- 
site to  it,  beyond  the  Jordan,  Elijah  ascend- 
ed to  heaven,  ver.  1-22;  and  in  its  plain 
king  Zedekiah  was  seized  by  the  Chaldae- 
ans,  2  Kin.  25:5;  Jer.  39:9.     Men  of  Jericho 

269 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JER 


THE   PLAIN   OF    JERICHO 

returned  from  the  Captivity,  and  helped  to 
fortify  Jerusalem,  Ezra  2:34;  Neh.  3:2; 
7:36.  Here  also  Christ  healed  two  blind 
men,  Matt.  20:29-34,  and  forgave  Zacchae- 
us,  Luke  19:1-10. 

The  site  of  Jericho  has  usually  been  fixed 
at  er-Riha,  a  mean  and  foul  Arab  hamlet 
of  some  200  inhabitants.  Recent  travel- 
lers, however,  show  that  the  probable  loca- 
tion of  Jericho  was  2  miles  west  of  er-Riha, 
at  the  mouth  of  VVady  Kelt,  and  where  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  comes  into  tlie  plain. 
The  city  destroyed  by  Joshua  may  have 
been  near  to  the  fountain  of  FZlisha,  sup- 
jjosed  to  be  the  present  Ain  es-Sultan,  2 
miles  northwest  of  er-Riha.  On  the  west 
and  north  of  Jericho  rise  high  limestone 
hills,  one  of  which,  the  dreary  Quarantana, 
1,200  or  1,500  feet  high,  derives  its  name 
from  the  modern  tradition  that  it  was  the 
scone  of  our  Lord's  "  forty  days'  "  fast  and 
temptation.  Between  the  hills  and  the 
Jordan  lies  "the  plain  of  Jericho,"  Josh. 
4:13,  over  against  "the  plains  of  Moab  " 
east  of  the  river.  It  was  anciently  well 
watered  and  amazingly  fruitful,  and  might 
easily  be  made  so  again,  but  now  lies  neg- 
lected, and  the  palm-trees,  balsam,  and 
lioney,  for  which  it  was  once  famous,  have 
disappeared. 

The  road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem  as- 
cends through  narrow  and  rocky  passes 
amid  ravines  and  precipices.  It  is  a  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous  route,  and  is  still  in- 
270 


FROM   THE   HILLS  ON   THE  WEST. 

fested  by  robbers,  as  in  the  time  of  the  good 
Samaritan,  Luke  10:30-34. 

JEROBOAM,  -whose  people  are  many,  I., 
the  first  king  of  Israel  after  its  separation 
from  Judah,  an  Ephraimite,  the  son  of  Ne- 
bat  and  Zeruah,  i  Kin.  11:26.  During  the 
latter  part  of  Solomon's  reign,  and  while 
an  officer  under  him,  ver.  28,  he  plotted 
against  him,  and  was  obliged  to  flee  into 
Egypt  to  Shishak,  after  a  memorable  in- 
terview with  Ahijah  the  prophet,  foreshad- 
owing the  future,  ver.  29-40.  On  the  death 
of  Solomon  he  was  summoned  by  the  10 
tribes  to  return  and  present  their  demands 
to  Rehoboam ;  and  when  these  were  re- 
fused, he  was  chosen  king  of  the  revolted 
tribes,  B.  C.  975,  i  Kin.  12: 1-3,  20.  He  thus 
e.vecuted  the  divine  judgment  on  Judah 
and  Solomon,  though  himself  moved  by  an 
unprincipled  ambition,  and  pursuing  the 
same  ungodly  course  that  had  brought 
ciiastisement  on  Judah.  He  reigned  22 
years.  The  only  notable  act  of  his  reign 
marked  him  with  infamy,  as  the  man  "  who 
made  Israel  to  sin."  It  was  the  idolatrous 
establishment  of  golden  calves  at  Bethel 
and  Dan,  that  the  people  might  worship 
there  and  not  at  Jerusalem.  He  also  su- 
perseded the  sons  of  Aaron  by  priests  cho- 
sen from  "  the  lowest  of  the  people."  This 
God-defying  but  effective  measure,  in  which 
he  was  followed  by  all  the  kings  of  Israel, 
was  a  confession  of  weakness  as  well  as 
of  depravity.     Neither  miracles  nor  warn- 


JER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JER 


ings,  nor  the  premature  death  of  Abijah 
his  son,  could  dissuade  him.  Great  disas- 
ters befell  him  in  his  own  lifetime;  he  was 
at  war  with  Judah  all  his  days,  i  Kin. 
14:1-20,  30;  2  Chr.  13:1-20,  and  with  the 
brief  reign  of  Nadab  his  son  the  doomed 
family  became  extinct,  i  Kin.  15:25,  28. 

II.  Jeroboam  Second,  the  13th  king  of 
Israel,  son  and  successor  of  Joash,  B.  C. 
825.  He  was  the  4th  of  the  5  kings  of  Je- 
hu's dynasty,  which  was  the  4th  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  and  his  reign  was  the 
most  prosperous  of  all,  and  continued  41 
3'ears.  He  followed  up  his  father's  suc- 
cesses over  the  Syrians,  took  Hamath  and 
Damascus,  and  all  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  down  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  ad- 
vanced to  its  highest  point  the  prosperity 


of  that  kingdom.  Yet  his  long  reign  added 
heavily  to  the  guilt  of  Israel,  by  increased 
luxury,  oppression,  and  vice.  After  him, 
the  kingdom  rapidly  declined,  and  his  own 
dynasty  perished  within  a  year,  fulfilling 
the  prediction  of  Jonah,  2  Kin.  14:23-29; 
15:8-12.  See  also  the  contemporary  proph- 
ets, particularly  Amos  and  Hosea. 

JERUB'BAAL,  conlender  with  Baal,  the 
name  given  by  the  men  of  Ophrah  to  Gid- 
eon, when  he  destroyed  Baal's  altar,  Judg. 
6:31,  32.     See  Gideon. 

JERUB'BESHETH,  contende?-  with  the 
idol,  another  name  of  Jerubbaal,  given  to 
avoid  mentioning  Baal,  2  Sam.  11:21. 

]E,Yt\J''E,\^,  founded  by  God,  a  small  desert 
place  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jerusalem, 
2  Chr.  20:16,  with  a  watch-tower,  ver.  24. 


JERUSALEM    FROM    THE    BETHANY    ROAD,    ON    THE    SOUTH    PART   OF    MOUNT    OLIVET. 


JERU'SALEM,  foiindaiion  of  peace,  the 
chief  city  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  to  the 
Christian  the  most  illustrious  in  the  world. 
It  is  situated  in  310  46'  35"  N.  lat.,  and  350 
18'  30"  E.  long.,  on  elevated  ground  south 
of  the  centre  of  the  country,  about  33  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  and  about  19  from 
the  Jordan.  Its  site  was  early  hallowed  by 
God's  trial  of  Abraham's  faith.  Gen.  22; 
2  Chr.  3:1.  It  was  on  the  border  of  the 
tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  mostly  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  former,  but  reckoned  as 
belonging  to  the  latter,  because  conquered 
by  it.  Josh.  15:8;  18:16,  28;  Judg.  1:1-8. 
The  most  ancient  name  of  the  city  was 
Salem,  Gen.  14:18;  Psa.  76:2;  Heb.  7:2; 
and  it  afterwards  was  called  Jebus,  as  be- 


longing to  the  Jebusites,  Judg.  19:10,  11. 
Several  other  names  were  given  it:  Ariel, 
Isa.  29:1,  2,  7;  the  city  of  the  Great  King, 
Psa.  48:2;  Matt.  5:35;  the  Holy  City,  Neh. 
ii:i;  Matt.  4:5;  27:53;  Rev.  11:2.  Being 
a  very  strong  position,  it  resisted  the  at- 
tempts of  the  Israelites  to  become  the  sole 
masters  of  it.  Josh.  15:63,  the  "lower  city" 
being  first  captured,  Judg.  1:3-8,  21,  until 
at  length  its  fortress  was  stormed  by  Da- 
vid, 2  Sam.  5:6-9;  after  which  it  received 
its  present  name,  and  was  also  called  "the 
city  of  David."  It  now  became  the  reli- 
gious and  political  centre  of  the  kingdom 
by  divine  appointment,  i  Kin.  11:36,  and 
was  greatly  enlarged,  adorned,  and  forti- 
fied.     But  its  chief  glory  was  that  in   its 

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magnificent  temple  the  one  living  and 
TRUK  God  dwelt  and  revealed  himself. 

After  the  division  of  the  tribes,  it  con- 
tinued the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
was  several  times  taken  and  plundered, 
and  at  length  was  destroyed  at  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  2  Kin.  14:13;  2  Chr.  12:9; 
2i:i6;  24:23;  25:23;  36:3,  10,  17-20.  In  all 
it  has  been  17  times  captured  and  despoiled. 
After  70  years  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Jews 
on  their  return  from  captivity  about  536  B. 
C,  who  did  much  to  restore  it  to  its  former 
splendor.  About  332  B.  C.  the  city  yielded 
to  Alexander  of  Macedon ;  and  not  long 
after  his  death,  Ptolemy  Soter  of  Egypt 
took  it  by  an  assault  on  the  Sabbath,  when 
it  is  said  the  Jews  scrupled  to  fight,  B.  C. 
320.  In  170  B.  C,  Jerusalem  fell  under  the 
tyranny  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  razed 
its  walls,  set  up  an  image  of  Jupiter  in  the 
temple,  and  used  every  means  to  force  the 
people  into  idolatry.  Under  the  Macca- 
bees, however,  the  Jews,  in  163  B.  C,  re- 
covered their  independence.  Just  a  cen- 
tury later  it  w-as  conquered  by  the  Romans 
under  Pompey.  It  was  plundered  by  Cras- 
sus,  B.  C.  54,  but  Herod  the  Great  e.\pend- 
ed  vast  sums  in  its  embellishment,  his 
greatest  work  being  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple,  commenced  B.  C.  19  or  20.  To  the 
city  and  temple  thus  renovated  the  ever- 
blessed  Messiah  came,  in  the  fulness  of 
time,  and  made  the  place  of  his  feet  glori- 
ous. By  his  rejection  and  crucifi.xion  Jeru- 
salem filled  up  the  cup  of  her  guilt;  the 
Jewish  nation  perished  from  off  the  land 
of  their  fathers,  and  the  city  and  temple 
were  taken  by  Titus  and  totally  destroj'ed, 
A.  D.  70-71.  Of  all  the  structures  of  Jeru- 
salem, only  3  towers  and  a  part  of  the 
western  wall  were  left  standing.  Still,  as 
the  Jews  began  to  return  thither,  and  mani- 
fested a  rebellious  spirit,  the  emperor  Adri- 
an planted  a  Roman  colony  there  in  A.  D. 
135,  and  banished  the  Jews,  prohibiting 
their  return  on  pain  of  death.  He  changed 
the  name  of  the  city  to  -Elia  Capitolina, 
consecrated  it  to  heathen  deities,  in  order 
to  defile  it  as  much  as  possible,  and  did 
what  he  could  to  obliterate  all  traces  both 
of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  From  this 
period  the  name  ^lia  became  so  common 
that  the  name  Jerusalem  was  preserved 
only  among  the  Jews  and  better  informed 
Christians.  In  the  time  of  Constantine, 
however,  it  resumed  its  ancient  name, 
which  it  has  retained  to  the  present  day. 
Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  built  2 
churches  in  Bethlehem  and  on  Mount  Oli- 


vet, about  A.  D.  326;  and  Julian,  who,  after 
his  father,  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  his 
uncle  Constantine,  endeavored  to  rebuild 
the  temple ;  but  his  design  and  that  of  the 
Jews,  whom  he  patronized,  was  frustrated, 
as  contemporary  historians  relate,  by  an 
earthquake,  and  by  balls  of  fire  bursting 
forth  among  the  workmen,  A.  D.  363. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Jerusalem  may 
be  told  in  a  few  words.  In  614  it  was  ta- 
ken by  Chosroes  II.  king  of  Persia,  who 
slew',  it  is  said,  90,000  men,  and  demolished, 
to  thfe  utmost  of  his  power,  whatever  the 
Christians  had  venerated :  in  627  Heraclius 
defeated  Chosroes,  and  Jerusalem  was  re- 
covered by  the  Greeks.  Soon  after  com- 
menced the  long  and  wretched  era  of  Mo- 
hammedanism. About  637  the  city  was 
taken  from  the  Christians  by  the  caliph 
Omar,  after  a  siege  of  4  months,  and  con- 
tinued under  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad  till  868, 
when  it  was  taken  by  Ahmed,  a  Turkish 
sovereign  of  Egypt.  During  the  space  of 
220  years  it  was  subject  to  several  masters, 
Turkish  and  Saracenic,  and  in  1099  it  was 
taken  by  the  Crusaders  under  Godfrey 
Bouillon,  who  was  elected  king.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Baldwin,  who 
died  in  11 18.  In  1187,  Saladin,  sultan  of 
the  East,  captured  the  city,  assisted  by  the 
treachery  of  Raymond,  count  of  Tripoli, 
who  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  on  the 
morning  of  the  day  in  which  he  was  to 
have  delivered  up  the  city.  It  was  re- 
stored, in  1242,  to  the  Latin  princes,  by 
Saleh  Ismael,  emir  of  Damascus;  they  lost 
it  in  1291  to  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  who  held 
it  till  1382.  Selim,  the  Turkish  sultan,  re- 
duced Egypt  and  Syria,  including  Jerusa- 
lem, in  1517,  and  his  son  Solyman  built  or 
reconstructed  the  present  walls  in  1542. 
Since  then  it  has  remained  under  the  do- 
minion of  Turkey,  except  when  held  for  a 
short  time,  1832-4,  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  son 
of  Mohammed  AH  of  Egypt.  At  present, 
this  city  is  included  in  the  pashalic  of  Da- 
mascus, though  it  has  a  resident  Turkish 
governor. 

Jerusalem  is  situated  on  the  central  ta- 
ble-land of  Judaea,  in  the  line  of  the  long 
ridge  which  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Jordan,  the  body 
of  the  city  being  2,593  feet  above  the  Med- 
iterranean, and  the  Mount  of  Olives  2,683. 
The  average  temperature  for  5  years  was 
in  January  49°,  Feb.  540,  Mar.  55°,  April 
610,  May  730,  June  75°,  July  790,  Aug.  79°, 
Sept.  770,  Oct.  74,  Nov.  630,  Dec.  54°.  It 
lies  on  ground  which  slopes  gently  down 


272 


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towards  the  east,  the  slope  being  termina- 
ted by  an  abrupt  declivity,  in  some  parts 
precipitous,  and  overhanging  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat  or  of  the  Kidron.  This  slo- 
ping ground  is  also  terminated  on  the 
south  by  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  of 
Hinnom,  which  constituted  the  ancient 
southern  boundary  of  the  city,  and  which 
also  ascends  on  its  west  side,  and  comes 
out  upon  the  high  ground  on  the  north- 
west. See  GiHON.  But  in  the  city  itself 
there  were  also  2  ravines  or  smaller  val- 
leys, dividing  the  land  covered  by  build- 
ings into  3  principal  parts  or  hills.  Zion, 
the  highest  of  these,  was  in  the  southwest 
quarter  of  the  city,  skirted  on  the  south 
and  west  by  the  deep  valley  of  Hinnom. 
On  its  north  and  east  sides  lay  the  smaller 
valley  "of  the  cheesemongers,"  or  Tyro- 
poeon,  opening  on  the  southeast  into  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron.  The  Tyropoeon  also 
united,  near  the  northeast  foot  of  Zion, 
with  a  valley  coming  down  from  the  north. 
Zion  was  also  called  The  city  of  David ; 
and  by  Josephus,  "the  upper  city."  Sur- 
rounded anciently  by  walls  as  well  as  deep 
valleys,  it  was  the  strongest  part  of  the 
city,  and  contained  the  citadel  and  the 
king's  palace.  The  Tyropoeon  separated 
it  from  Acra  on  the  north  and  Moriah  on 
the  northeast.  Acra  was  less  elevated 
than  Zion,  or  than  the  ground  to  the  north- 
west beyond  the  walls.  It  is  called  by  Jo- 
sephus "  the  lower  city."  Moriah,  the 
sacred  hill,  lay  northeast  of  Zion,  with 
which  it  was  anciently  connected  at  its 
nearest  corner  by  a  bridge  over  the  Tyro- 
poeon, some  of  the  huge  stones  in  its  east- 
ern arch  having  been  identified  by  Dr. 
Robinson,  projecting  from  the  western  wall 
of  the  sacred  area  39  feet  from  its  south- 
west corner,  and  the  buttress  or  pier  which 
supported  the  western  end  of  the  bridge 
having  been  more  recently  disinterred  at 
the  depth  of  60  feet,  together  with  stones  of 
the  pavement  of  this  causeway,  worn  it 
may  be  by  the  feet  of  our  Lord  and  his  dis- 
ciples. The  arch  was  51^  feet  wide  and 
over  300  feet  long  across  the  Tyropoeon. 
Moriah  was  at  first  a  small  eminence,  but 
its  area  was  greatly  enlarged  to  make  room 
for  the  temple.  It  was  but  a  part  of  the 
continuous  ridge  on  the  east  side  of  the 
city,  overlooking  the  deep  valley  of  the 
Kidron ;  rising  on  the  north,  after  a  slight 
depression,  into  the  hill  Bezetha,  the  "new 
city  "  of  Josephus,  and  sinking  away  on 
the  south  into  the  hill  Ophel.  On  the  east 
of  Jerusalem,  and  stretching  from  north  to 

18 


south,  lies  the  Mount  of  Olives,  divided 
from  the  city  by  the  valley  of  the  Kidron, 
and  commanding  a  noble  prospect  of  the  city 
and  surrounding  country.  Over  against 
Moriah,  or  a  little  farther  north,  lies  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane,  with  its  olive-trees, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Just 
below  the  city,  on  the  east  side  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Kidron,  lies  the  miserable  village 
of  Siloa;  farther  down,  this  valley  unites 
with  that  of  Hinnom,  at  a  beautiful  spot 
anciently  "the  king's  garden,"  Neh.  3:15; 
still  below,  is  the  well  of  Nehemiah,  an- 
ciently En-rogel ;  and  from  this  spot  the 
united  valley  winds  among  mountains 
southward  and  eastward  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
In  the  mouth  of  the  Tyropoeon,  between 
Ophel  and  Zion,  is  the  pool  of  Siloam.  In 
the  valley  west  and  northwest  of  Zion  are 
the  2  pools  of  Gihon,  the  lower  being  now 
broken  and  dry.  In  the  rocks  around  Je- 
rusalem, and  chiefly  in  the  sides  of  the  val- 
leys of  the  Kidron  and  Hinnom  opposite 
the  city,  are  many  excavated  tombs  and 
caves,  and  here  was  always  the  burial- 
place  of  the  city.    See  Jehoshaphat. 

Of  the  WALLS  of  ancient  Jerusalem,  the 
most  ancient,  that  of  David  and  Solomon, 
encircled  the  whole  of  Mount  Zion,  and 
was  also  continued  around  Moriah  and 
Ophel.  The  depth  of  the  valleys  south 
and  east  of  Jerusalem  rendered  it  com- 
paratively easy  to  fortify  and  defend  it  on 
these  sides.  This  southern  wall,  in  the 
period  of  the  kings  and  of  Christ,  traversed 
the  outmost  verge  of  those  hills,  inclosing 
the  pool  of  Siloam,  Ophel,  and  portions 
apparently  of  the  valleys  of  Hinnom  and 
Kidron,  2  Chr.  33:14;  Neh.  2:14;  3:15. 

A  2d  wall,  built  by  Jotham,  Hezekiah, 
and  Manasseh,  made  some  changes  on  the 
southern  line,  and  inclosed  a  large  addi- 
tional space  on  the  north.  It  commenced 
somewhat  east  of  the  tower  of  Hippicus, 
on  the  northwest  border  of  Zion,  included 
Acra  and  part  of  Bezetha,  and  united  with 
the  old  wall  on  the  east.  This  wall  was 
destroyed,  as  well  as  the  first,  at  the  Cap- 
tivity, but  both  were  afterwards  reerected, 
it  is  believed,  on  nearly  the  same  lines, 
and  were  substantially  the  same  at  the 
time  of  Christ.  The  precise  course  of  the 
2d  wall  may  perhaps  be  ascertained  by  fu- 
ture excavations,  but  is  now  more  dispu- 
ted than  any  other  point  of  the  topogra- 
phy of  Jerusalem.  To  ascertain  the  exact 
location  of  "  the  gate  Gennath,"  where  this 
wall  began,  and  trace  its  course  "  in  a  cir- 
cuit" to  Antonia,  would  show  whether  the 

273 


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traditional  site  of  Calvarj',  now  far  within 
the  city  limits,  lay  within  or  without  the 
ancient  wall.  The  arguments  from  topog- 
raphy are  strongly  against  the  tradition; 
and  it  would  seem  that  this  whole  region, 
if  not  actually  within  the  wall,  must  have 
been  at  least  occupied  by  the  city  suburbs 
at  that  time ;  for 

The    3d    wall,    commenced    by    Herod 

Agrippa  only  10  years  after  the  crucifixion 

of  Christ,   ran   from   the   tower    Hippicus 

nearly  half  a  mile  northwest  to  the  tower 

274 


of  Psephinos,  and  sweeping  round  by  the 
"  tombs  of  the  kings,"  passed  down  east 
of  Bezetha,  and  joined  the  old  eastern  wall. 
The  whole  circumference  of  the  city  at  that 
time  was  a  little  over  4  miles.  Now  it  is 
only  2%  at  the  most;  and  the  large  space 
on  the  north,  which  the  wall  of  Agrippa  in- 
closed, is  proved  to  have  been  built  upon 
by  the  numerous  cisterns  which  yet  re- 
main and  the  marble  fragments  which  the 
plough  often  turns  up. 

The  city  had  in  its  various  walls  many 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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^ates,  i8  or  20  names  being  found,  some  of 
them  no  doubt  belonging  to  the  same  gate ; 
among  them  are  the  gate  of  Ephraim, 
2  Chr.  25:23,  the  fish-gate,  33:14,  the  sheep- 
gate,  Neh.  3:1. 

The  preceding  plan  of  ancient  Jerusa- 
lem exhibits  the  walls,  gates,  towers,  and 
other  prominent  objects  in  and  around  the 
■city,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  can  be  se- 
cured, now  that  it  has  borne  the  ravages 
of  so  many  centuries,  been  nearly  a  score 
of  times  captured,  and  often  razed  to  the 
ground.     Fuller  descriptions  of  many  of 


the  localities  referred  to  may  be  found  un- 
der their  respective  heads. 

Water  seems  to  have  always  abounded 
in  Jerusalem.  In  the  various  sieges  it  sus- 
tained, however  tormented  with  hunger  the 
besieged  may  have  been,  they  had  all  the 
water  they  needed,  while  the  besiegers 
were  in  distress  for  want  of  it.  See  Cis- 
terns and  Pools. 

Modern  Jerusalem,  called  by  the  Arabs 
El-Kuds,  the  holy,  occupies  unquestiona- 
bly the  site  of  the  Jerusalem  of  the  Bible. 
It  is  still    "  beautiful   for  situation,"  and 


DOMK   OF    THE    ROCK, 

■Stands  forth  on  its  well-defined  hills  "  as  a 
■city  that  is  compact  together,"  Psa.  48:2, 
12;  122:3,4;  125:1,2.  The  distant  view  of 
its  stately  walls  and  numerous  domes  and 
minarets  is  highly  imposing.  But  its  old 
glory  has  departed;  its  thronging  myriads 
are  no  more ;  desolation  covers  the  barren 


OR  MOSQUE  OF  OMAR. 

mountains  around  it,  and  the  tribes  go  up 
to  the  house  of  the  Lord  no  longer.  She 
that  once  sat  as  a  queen  among  them,  now 
sitteth  solitary,  "  trodden  down  of  the  Gen- 
tiles," "  'reft  of  her  sons,  and  'mid  her  foes 
forlorn."  "  Zion  is  ploughed  as  a  field," 
and  the  soil  is  mixed  with  the  rubbish  of 

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ages  to  the  depth  in  some  places  of  40 

feet. 

The  modern  wall,  built  in  1542,  varies 
from  20  to  60  feet  in  height,  and  is  about 
2M  miles  in  circuit.  On  the  eastern  and 
shortest  side  its  course  is  nearly  straight  ; 
and  it  coincides,  in  the  southern  half  on 
this  side,  with  the  wall  of  the  sacred  area 
now  called  El-Haram,  llie  sacred,  forming 
about  one-eighth  of  the  modern  city.  This 
area,  510  to  534  yards  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  307  to  344  yards  in  breadth,  is 
inclosed  by  high  walls,  the  lower  stones  of 
which  are  in  many  parts  very  large,  and 
much  more  ancient  than  the  superstruc- 
ture. It  is  occupied  by  the  great  octago- 
nal mosque  called  Kubbet  es-Sukhrah,  or 
Dome  of  the  Rock,  and  another  mosque 
el-Aksa,  at  the  southwest  corner,  270  feet 
by  200,  with  their  grounds.  It  covers  the 
site  of  the  ancient  temple  and  of  the  great 
tower  Antonia.  See  Tkmple.  The  Dome 
of  the  Rock,  also  called  the  Mosque  of 
Omar,  is  only  less  revered  among  Moslems 
than  that  at  Mecca,  and  probably  covers 
the  site  of  Solomon's  temple.  Its  8  sides 
are  each  66  feet  long,  and  its  dome,  rising 
to  the  height  of  170  feet,  is  the  most  prom- 
inent object  in  every  view  of  Jerusalem. 
The  sacred  rock  under  the  dome,  57  feet 
by  43,  is  said  to  mark  the  spot  where  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  once  stood.  At  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  Haram  area,  where 
the  wall  is  jj  feet  high,  the  ground  at  its 
base  is  150  feet  above  the  dry  bed  of  the 
Kidron.  From  this  corner  the  wall  runs 
irregularly  west  by  south,  crosses  Mount 
Zion,  leaving  the  greater  part  of  it  unin- 
closed  on  the  south,  and  at  its  western 
verge  turns  north  to  the  Jaffa  gate,  where 
the  lower  part  of  a  very  old  and  strong 
tower  still  remains.  The  upper  part  of  this 
tower  is  less  ancient  and  massive.  It  is 
known  as  "the  Tower  of  David,"  and  is 
generally  thought  to  have  been  the  Hippi- 
cus  of  Josephus.  Thence  the  wall  sweeps 
irregularly  round  to  the  northeast  corner. 
It  is  flanked  at  unequal  distances  by  square 
towers,  and  has  battlements  running  all 
around  on  its  summit,  with  loop-holes  in 
them  for  arrows  or  muskets.  There  are 
now  in  use  only  4  gates:  the  Jaffa  or  Beth- 
lehem gate  on  the  west,  the  Damascus  gate 
on  the  north,  St.  Stephen's  gate  on  the  east, 
and  Zion  gate  on  the  south.  In  the  eastern 
wall  of  el-Haram  is  the  Golden  gate,  long 
since  blocked  up,  and  in  the  city  wall  2 
smaller  gates,  more  recently  closed,  name- 
ly, Herod's  gate  on  the  northeast,  and  dung- 
276 


gate  in  the  Tyropoeon  on  the  south.  See 
Kidron. 

Within  the  city  walls  are  seen  narrow 
and  often  covered  streets,  with  no  level 
ground,  ungraded,  ill-paved,  and  in  some 
parts  filthy,  though  less  so  than  in  most 
Oriental  cities.  The  houses  are  of  hewn 
stone,  often  built  on  ruins  many  feet  deep, 
Jer.  30:18,  with  few  windows  towards  the 
streets.  Their  flat  roofs  are  strengthened 
and  ornamented  by  many  small  domes. 
The  most  beautiful  part  of  the  city  is  the 
area  of  the  great  mosque — from  which  un- 
til recently  all  Christians  have  been  rigor- 
ously excluded  for  6  centuries— with  its 
lawns  and  cypress-trees,  and  the  noble 
dome  rising  high  above  the  wall.  On  Mount 
Zion  much  of  the  space  within  the  wall  is 
occupied  by  the  huge  Armenian  convent, 
with  the  Syrian  convent  and  the  church  of 
St.  James.  See  Zion.  Beyond  the  wall 
and  far  to  the  south  is  a  Mohammedan 
mosque,  professedly  over  the  tomb  of  Da- 
vid. This  is  more  jealously  guarded  against 
Christians  than  even  the  mosque  of  Omar. 
Near  it  is  the  small  cemetery  of  the  Amer- 
ican missionaries.  At  the  northwest  cor- 
ner of  Zion  rises  the  high  square  citadel 
above  referred  to,  ancient  and  grand.  Still 
farther  north  is  the  Latin  (Franciscan)  con- 
vent, in  the  most  westerly  part  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  between  it  and  the  centre  of  the 
city  stands  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, over  the  traditional  scenes  of  the  cru- 
cifixion, burial,  and  resurrection  of  our 
Lord.  See  Calvary.  In  various  parts  of 
the  city  the  minarets  of  11  mosques  arise, 
amid  an  assemblage  of  about  2,000  dwell- 
ings, not  a  few  of  which  are  much  dilapi- 
dated. Under  the  city  were  large  irregu- 
lar excavations,  to  which  one  descends  from 
a  narrow  20-inch  opening  near  the  Damas- 
cus gate ;  they  run  southeast  600  feet,  and 
are  200  feet  wide,  with  many  rock  masses 
left  untouched  as  supports.  Here  were 
quarried  many  of  the  stones  used  in  build- 
ing the  city,  and  vast  cisterns  were  formed 
for  storing  water. 

The  present  population  of  Jerusalem 
may  be  some  20,000  souls,  of  whom  about 
two-fifths  are  Jews,  and  the  remainder  Mos- 
lems and  Christians  in  nearly  equal  num- 
bers. There  is  also  a  considerable  garri- 
son, 800  to  1,000,  stationed  there;  and  in 
April  of  each  year  many  thousands  of  pil- 
grims from  foreign  lands  make  a  flying 
visit  to  the  sacred  places.  The  spoken 
language  in  Jerusalem  is  the  Arabic.  The 
Moslems  reside  in  the  centre  of  the  city, 


MOSQUE  OF  OMAR. 


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and  towards  the  north  and  east.  The  Jews' 
quarter  is  on  the  northeast  side  of  Zion. 
The  Greek,  Latin,  Armenian,  Syrian,  and 
Coptic  Christians  are  located  chiefly  around 
their  respective  convents,  and  their  burial- 
places  are  on  Mount  Zion,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  American  Protestant  mission.  The 
Jews  bury  on  Mount  Olivet,  and  the  Mo- 
hammedans in  several  places,  though  pre- 
ferring the  eastern  brow  of  Moriah.  Jeru- 
salem is  but  the  melancholj'  shadow  of  its 
former  self.  The  nominal  Christians  resi- 
ding there  are  in  a  state  of  degraded  and 
ignorant  subjection  to  the  Mohammedans, 
and  their  petty  discords  and  superstitions 
are  a  reproach  to  the  Christian  name.  The 
Jews,  about  8,000  in  number,  are  still  more 
oppressed  and  abject.  Most  of  them  were 
born  in  other  lands,  and  have  come  here 
to  die,  in  a  city  no  longer  their  own.  Dis- 
couraged by  endless  exactions,  they  subsist 
on  the  charities  of  their  brethren  abroad. 
It  is  only  as  a  purchased  privilege  that  they 
are  allowed  to  approach  the  foundations  of 
the  sacred  hill  where  their  fathers  wor- 
shipped the  only  true  Ciod.  Here,  in  a 
small  area  near  some  huge  and  ancient 
stones  in  the  base  of  the  western  wall  of 
Moriah  at  el-Aksa,  they  gather,  on  Fridays 
and  other  sacred  days,  to  sit  weeping  and 
wailing  on  the  ground,  taking  up  the  heart- 
breaking lamentations  of  Jeremiah — living 
witnesses  of  the  truth  of  God's  word  ful- 
filled in  them.     See  Wall. 

The  New  Jerusalem  is  a  name  given 
not  to  a  place  but  to  a  community,  the 
■church  of  Christ,  and  signifying  its  firm 
foundations  in  the  love,  choice,  and  cove- 
nant of  God  in  Christ,  i  Pet.  2:6;  its  strong 
bulwarks,  living  fountains,  and  beautiful 
palaces;  its  thronging  thousands,  its  in- 
dwelling God,  and  its  consummated  glory 
in  heaven,  Gal.  4:26;  Heb.  12:22;  Rev. 
3:12,  21. 

JERU'SHA,  possessed,  wife  of  Uzziah  and 
mother  of  Jotham,  kings  of  Judah,  2  Kin. 
15:33;  2  Chr.  27:1. 

JESHA'NAH,  old,  a  city  taken  from  Jero- 
boam by  Abijah,  with  Bethel  and  Ephraim, 
2  Chr.  13:19. 

JESH'IMON,  desert,  found  in  the  Hebrew 
in  Deut.  32:10;  Psa.  78:40;  106:14;  107:4." 
Isa.  43:19,  20.  With  the  article  prefixed  it 
denotes  apparently  the  waste  strip  of  land 
on  the  northwest  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
perhaps  with  the  adjacent  heights.  Num. 
21:20;  23:28;  I  Sam.  23: 19,  24;  26:1,3. 

JESH'UA,  a  later  Hebrew  form  of  Josh- 
ua, whose  salvation  Jehovah  is,  I.,  given  in 


Neh.  8:17  to  Joshua,  son  of  Nun,  which 
see. 

n.  A  priest  in  the  9th  course  in  David's 
time,  I  Chr.  24:  II ;  Ezra  2:36. 

ni.  A  trusted  Levite  in  the  time  of  Hez- 
ekiah,  2  Chr.  31:15. 

IV.  The  son  of  Josedech  or  Jozadak, 
high-priest  of  the  Jews  at  their  return  from 
the  Captivity.  He  opposed  the  schemes  of 
the  Samaritans,  and  acted  well  his  part  in 
the  restoration  of  the  city,  the  temple,  and 
the  divine  worship,  Ezra  4:3;  5:2.  His 
name  occurs  in  the  prophecies  of  the  time. 
Hag.  1:1,  12;  2:2;  Zech.  3;  6:11-15. 

V.  Several  others  of  this  name  are  men- 
tioned in  Ezra  2:6,  40;  8:33;  Neh.  3:19; 
7:11,43;  8:7;  9:4,5;  10:9;  12:8,24. 

VI.  A  town  of  Judah  after  the  Captivity, 
Neh.  II : 26,  probably  the  modern  Yeshu'a, 
near  the  spot  between  Beth-horon  and  So- 
coh,  so  memorable  in  Joshua's  history.  Josh. 
10:11-14,  6  miles  east  of  Ekron. 

JESH'URUN,  a  poetical  name  of  Israel, 
probably  derived  from  a  root  meaning  to 
be  upright,  and  applied  to  the  people  of 
God  as  the  objects  of  his  justifying  love, 
which  does  not  "  behold  iniquity  in  Jacob," 
Deut.  32:15;  33:5,  26;  Isa.  44:2. 

JES'SE,  living  or  manly,  a  Bethlehemite, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  son  of  Obed  and  fa- 
ther of  David.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Ruth 
the  Moabitess,  and  in  her  native  land  he 
and  his  wife  found  an  asylum  while  David 
was  most  in  danger  from  the  jealous  pur- 
suit of  Saul,  Ruth  4:17;  I  Sam.  16;  17:12; 
22:3;  Matt.  1:5.  His  wife,  name  unknown, 
we  infer  from  Psa.  86:16;  116:16,  was  a 
pious  woman,  and  trained  David  to  wor- 
ship and  obey  the  God  of  his  fathers.  He 
had  8  sons,  a  large  flock  which  they  tended 
in  turn,  and  ample  means.  His  promi- 
nence is  implied  in  the  frequency  with 
which  his  name  appears,  David  being  often 
called  "the  son  of  Jesse,"  even  as  late  as 
Isa.  II  :i,  10,  where  he  is  mentioned  as  an 
ancestor  of  our  Lord. 

JE'SUS  CHRIST,  the  Son  of  God,  the 
Messiah,  and  Saviour  of  the  world,  the  first 
and  principal  object  of  the  prophecies ;  who 
was  prefigured  and  promised  in  the  Old 
Testament;  was  expected  and  desired  by 
the  patriarchs ;  the  hope  and  salvation  of 
the  Gentiles;  the  glory,  happiness,  and  con- 
solation of  Christians.  The  name  JESUS, 
in  Hebrew  Jehoshuah  or  Joshua,  signifies 
Saviour,  or  Jehovah  saz'es.  No  one  ever 
bore  this  name  with  so  much  justice,  nor 
so  perfectly  fulfilled  the  signification  of  it, 
as  Jesus  Christ,  who  saves  from  sin  and 

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hell,  and  has  merited  heaven  for  us  by  the 
price  of  his  blood.  It  was  given  to  him  j 
by  divine  appointment,  Matt.  1:21,  as  the 
proper  name  for  the  Saviour  so  long  de- 
sired, and  whom  all  the  myriads  of  the 
redeemed  in  heaven  will  for  ever  adore  as 
their  only  and  all-glorious  Redeemer.  For 
Old  Testament  predictions  of  him  see 
Prophkts. 

Jesus  was  the  common  name  of  the  Sa- 
viour; while  the  name  Christ,  meaning 
The  Anoinled  One,  The  Messiah,  was  his 
official  name.  Both  names  are  used  sep- 
arately, in  the  gospels  and  also  in  the  epis- 
tles; but  Jksus  generally  stands  by  itself 
in  the  gospels,  which  are  narratives  of  his 
life;  while  in  the  epistles,  which  treat  of 
his  divine  nature  and  of  his  redeeming 
work,  he  is  called  Christ,  Christ  Jesus, 
or  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  See  Christ 
and  Titles  of  Christ. 

Here,  under  the  Redeemer's  human 
name,  belong  the  facts  relating  to  his  hu- 
man nature  and  the  history  of  his  life 
upon  earth,  which  forms,  with  the  truths 
flowing  from  it,  the  theme  of  the  whole 
New  Testament.  His  true  and  complete 
humanity,  having  the  soul  as  well  as  the 
body  of  man,  is  everywhere  seen  in  the 
gospel  history.  He  who  is  "  God  over  all, 
blessed  for  ever,"  was  an  Israelite  as  "  con- 
cerning the  flesh,"  Rorn.  9:5,  and  took  upon 
him  our  whole  nature,  in  order  to  be  a  per- 
fect Saviour.  His  favorite  title,  "  Son  of 
man,"  used  81  times  in  the  gospels  in  speak- 
ing of  himself,  implies  his  thorough  and 
hearty  identification  with  the  human  family, 
as  well  as  his  headship  of  it  for  his  purposes 
of  redemption.  As  a  man,  Jesus  was  the 
King  of  men.  No  words  can  describe  that 
character  in  which  such  firmness  and  gen- 
tleness, such  dignity  and  humility,  such 
enthusiasm  and  calmness,  such  wisdom 
and  simplicity,  such  holiness  and  charity, 
such  justice  and  mercy,  such  sympathy 
with  heaven  and  with  earth,  such  love  to 
God  and  love  to  man,  blended  in  perfect 
harmony.  Nothing  in  it  was  redundant, 
and  nothing  was  wanting.  The  world  had 
never  produced,  nor  even  conceived  of 
such  a  character,  and  its  portraiture  in  the 
gospels  is  a  proof  of  their  divine  origin 
which  the  infidel  cannot  gainsay.  Could 
the  whole  human  race,  of  all  ages,  kin- 
dreds, and  tongues,  be  assembled  to  see 
the  crucified  Redeemer  as  he  is,  and  com- 
pare earth's  noblest  benefactors  with  him, 
there  would  be  but  one  voice  among  them. 
Everv  crown  of  glory  and  every  meed  of 
278 


praise  would  be  given  to  Him  who  alone 
is  worthy — for  perfection  of  character,  for 
love  to  mankind,  for  sacrifices  endured, 
and  for  benefits  bestowed.  His  glory  will 
for  ever  be  celebrated  as  the  Friend  of 
man,  the  Lamb  sacrificed  for  us. 

But  his  absolute  and  perfect  divinity  is 
as  clearly  and  fully  asserted  and  proved 
as  his  humanity — by  iiis  own  manifold 
declarations,  his  countless  and  stupendous 
miracles,  the  testimony  of  all  nature  that 
on  the  instant  obeyed  his  commands  given 
in  his  own  name,  of  men  and  demons  that 
felt  his  power,  of  angels  who  ministered 
unto  him,  and  of  the  Father  himself. 

The  visit  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  earth 
has  made  it  for  ever  glorious  above  less 
favored  worlds,  and  forms  the  most  signal 
event  in  its  annals.  The  time  of  his  birth 
is  commemorated  by  the  Christian  era, 
the  first  year  of  which  corresponds  to 
about  the  year  754  from  the  building  of 
Rome.  It  is  generally  conceded,  however, 
that  the  Saviour  was  born  4  years  before 
A.  D.  I,  and  4,000  years  after  the  creation 
of  Adam.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah^ 
on  the  part  of  both  Joseph  and  Mary,  and 
of  the  royal  line  of  David.  His  birth  pre- 
ceded the  death  of  Herod  only  a  few 
months.  Joseph  seems  to  have  been  in 
moderate  circumstances,  a  carpenter,  and 
Jesus  himself  followed  the  same  trade.  His 
public  ministry  commenced  when  he  was 
30  years  of  age,  and  continued,  according 
to  the  received  opinion,  about  3'/2  years. 
Respecting  his  ancestors  and  family,  see 
Genealogy  and  Brother. 

Of  his  personal  appearance  he  has  wisely 
chosen  to  give  no  description,  and  no  reli- 
able likeness  has  been  preserved.  From 
the  gospel  indications  we  infer  that,  like 
the  sacrifices  prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  rit- 
ual as  types  of  him,  the  great  Antitype 
was  without  bodil\-  defects,  as  he  was  pure 
from  all  sin.  He  is  believed  to  have  been 
not  marked  in  his  exterior,  of  vigorous 
health  through  his  freedom  from  the  sins 
which  occasion  most  diseases,  and  able  to 
endure  the  journeys  and  labors  narrated 
of  him;  and  while  veiling  his  divine  glo- 
ries, except  by  partial  disclosures  from 
time  to  time,  yet  something  divine  must 
always  have  appeared  in  his  aspect  of  no- 
bleness, wisdom,  purity,  and  benignity. 

The  life  of  the  Redeemer  must  be  stud- 
ied in  the  4  gospels,  where  it  was  recorded 
under  the  guidance  of  supreme  wisdom. 
Many  efforts  have  been  made,  with  valua- 
ble results,  to  arrange  the   narrations   of 


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the  evangelists  in  the  true  order  of  time. 
But  as  neither  of  the  gospels  follows  the 
exact  course  of  events,  many  incidents  are 
very  indeterminate,  and  are  variously  ar- 
ranged by  different  harmonists.  No  one, 
however,  has  been  more  successful  than 
Dr.  Robinson;  and  we  borrow  from  his 
valuable  "Harmony  of  the  Gospels"  the 
following  elaborate  table,  presenting  in  a 
condensed  form  the  various  events  of  our 
Saviour's  life,  with  the  supposed  place  and 
period  of  their  occurrence. 

PART  I. 

EVENTS     CONNECTED     WITH     THE     BIRTH     AND 
CHILDHOOD   OF   OUR    LORD. 

Time:  About  thirteen  and  a  half  years. 

An  ange!  appears  to  Zacharias — yerusalem. 

An  angel  appears  to  Mary — Nazareth. 

Mary  visits  Elisabeth — yutlah. 

Birth  of  John  the  Baptist— T/^/ZaA. 

An  angel  appears  to  Joseph — Nazareth. 

The  birth  of  iesus— Bethlehem. 

An  angel  appears  to  the  shepherds — Near  Beth- 
lehem. 

The  circumcision  of  Jesus,  and  his  presentation 
in  the  temple — Bethlehem;   yerusalem. 

The  Magi — yerusalem  ;  Bethlehem. 

The  flight  into  Egypt.  Herod's  cruelty.  The 
return — Bethlehem;  Egypt;  Nazareth. 

At  twelve  years  of  age  Jesus  goes  to  the  Pass- 
over— yerusalem. 

Return  to  his  horns— Nazareth. 

PART   11. 

ANNOUNCEMENT    AND    INTRODUCTION    OF    OUR 
lord's  public  MINISTRY. 

Time  :  About  one  year. 
The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist— 77^^  Desert; 

The  yordan. 
The  baptism  of  Jesus — The  yordan. 
The  fasting  and  temptation — Desert  of  yudcea. 
Preface  to  John's  gospel. 
Testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  to  Jesus — Bethany 

beyond  yordan. 
Jesus  gains  disciples — The  yordan;  Galilee. 
The  marriage  at  Cana  of  Galilee. 

PART   III. 

our  lord's  first  P.\SS0VER,  AND  THE  SUBSE- 
QUENT TRANSACTIONS   UNTIL   THE   SECOND. 

Time  :  One  year. 

At  the  Passover  Jesus  drives  the  traders  out  of 
the  temple — y erusalem. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  with  Nicodemus — yerusa- 
lem. 

Jesus  remains  in  Judaea  and  baptizes.  Further 
testimony  of  John  the  Baptist. 

Jesus  departs  towards  Galilee  after  John's  impris- 
onment. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  with  the  Samaritan  woman. 
Many  of  the  Samaritans  believe  on  him — She- 
chem. 

Jesus  teaches  publicly  in  Galilee. 

Jesus  again  at  Cana,  where  he  heals  the  son  of  a 
nobleman  lying  ill  at  Capernaum — Cana  of  Gal- 
ilee, 


Jesus  at  Nazareth  ;  he  is  there  rejected,  and  fixes 

his  abode  at  Capernaum. 
The   call   of  Simon   Peter   and   Andrew,  and   of 

James  and  John,  with  the  miraculous  draught 

of  fishes — Near  Capernaum. 
The  healing  of  a  demoniac  in  the  synagogue — 

Capernaum. 
The  healing  of  Peter's  wife's  mother  and  many 

others — Capernaum. 
Jesus  with  his  disciples  goes  from  Capernaum 

throughout  Galilee. 
The  healing  of  a  leper — Galilee. 
The  healing  of  a  paralytic — Capernaum. 
The  call  of  Matthew — Capernaum. 

PART   IV. 

OUR    lord's   second    PASSOVER,  AND  THE   SUBSE- 
QUENT  TRANSACTIONS    UNTIL   THE   THIRD. 

Time  :  One  year. 

The  pool  of  Bethesda ;  the  healing  of  the  infirm 
man ;  and  our  Lord's  subsequent  discourse — 
yerusalem. 

The  disciples  pluck  ears  of  grain  on  the  Sab- 
bath— On  the  way  to  Galilee. 

The  healing  of  the  withered  hand  on  the  Sab- 
bath—  Galilee. 

Jesus  arrives  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  multitudes — Lake  of  Galilee. 

Jesus  withdraws  to  a  mountain,  and  chooses  the 
twelve;  the  multitudes  follow  him — Near  Ca- 
pernaum. 

The  sermon  on  the  mount — Near  Capernaum. 

The  healing  of  the  centurion's  servant — Caper- 
naum. 

The  raising  of  the  widow's  son— iVam. 

John  the  Baptist  in  prison  sends  disciples  to  Je- 
sus— Galilee;  Capernaum? 

Reflections  of  Jesus  on  appealing  to  his  mighty 
works — Capernaum  P 

While  sitting  at  meat  with  a  Pharisee,  Jesus  is 
anointed  by  a  woman  who  had  been  a  sinner — 
Capernaum  ? 

Jesus,  with  the  twelve,  makes  a  second  circuit  in 
Galilee. 

The  healing  of  a  demoniac.  The  scribes  and 
Pharisees  blaspheme — Galilee. 

The  scribes  and  Pharisees  seek  a  sign.  Our 
Lord's  reflections — Galilee. 

The  true  disciples  of  Christ  his  nearest  relatives — 
Galilee. 

At  a  Pharisee's  table  Jesus  denounces  woes 
against  the  Pharisees  and  others— Galilee. 

Jesus  discourses  to  his  disciples  and  the  multi- 
tude— Galilee. 

The  slaughter  of  certain  Galileans.  Parable  of 
the  barren  fig-tree — Galilee. 

Parable  of  the  sower— Lake  of  Galilee;  Near 
Capernaum ? 

Parable  of  the  tares.  Other  parables— ^V,?ar  Ca- 
pernaum ? 

Jesus  directs  to  cross  the  lake.  Incidents.  The 
tempest  stilled — Lake  of  Galilee. 

The  two  demoniacs  of  G2.d.3X3.—Southeast  coast 
of  the  Lake  of  Galilee. 

Levi's  feast — Capernaum. 

The  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter.  The  woman 
with  a  bloody  flux — Capernaum. 

Two  blind  men  healed,  and  a  dumb  spirit  cast 
out — Capernaum  ? 

Jesus  again  at  Nazareth,  and  again  rejected. 

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A  third  circuit  in  Galilee.  The  twelve  instructed 
and  sent  forth — Galilee. 

Herod  holds  Jesus  to  be  John  the  Baptist,  whom 
he  had  just  before  beheaded— 6"a/j7^^.''  Peraa. 

The  twelve  return,  ami  Jesus  retires  with  them 
across  the  lake.  Five  thousand  are  fed — Caper- 
naum ;  Northeast  coast  of  Ike  Lake  of  Galilee. 

Jesus  walks  upon  the  water— /.a^*?  of  Galilee; 
Gennesaret. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  to  the  multitude  in  the  syn- 
agogue— Capernauni. 

PART   V. 

FROM  OUR  lord's  third  PASSOVER  UNTIL  HIS 
FINAL  DEPARTURE  FROM  GALILEF.  AT  THE  FES- 
TIVAL OF   TABERNACLES. 

Time:  Six^  months. 

Our  Lord  justifies  his  disciples  for  eating  with 
unwashed  hands.  Pharisaic  traditions— Co/^r- 
naiini. 

The  daughter  of  a  Syrophoenician  woman  is 
healed — Region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

A  deaf  and  dumb  man  healed ;  also  many  others. 
Four  thousand  are  fed— 77;?  Decapolis. 

The  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  again  require  a 
sign— AVar  Magdala,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
lake. 

The  disciples  cautioned  against  the  leaven  of  the 
Pharisees,  etc. — Northeast  coast  of  the  Lake  of 
Galilee. 

A  blind  man  W?A^A—Bethsaida  (yttlias). 

Peter  and  the  rest  again  profess  their  faith  in 
Chv'x&i—Regioti  of  Ccesarea  Philippi. 

Our  Lord  foretells  his  own  death  and  resurrec- 
tion, and  the  trials  of  his  followers— i?<^/o«  of 
Ccesarea  Philippi. 

The  transfiguration.  Our  Lord's  subsequent  dis- 
course with  the  three  disciples — Region  of  Cce- 
sarea Philippi. 

The  healing  of  a  demoniac  whom  the  disciples 
could  not  heal — Region  of  Ccesarea  Philippi. 

Jesus  again  foretells  his  own  death  and  resurrec- 
tion— Galilee. 

The  tribute-money  miraculously  provided — Ca- 
pernaum. 

The  disciples  contend  who  should  be  greatest. 
Jesus  exhorts  to  humility,  forbearance,  and  bro- 
therly love — Capernaum. 

The  seventy  instructed  and  sent  out — Capernaum. 

Jesus  goes  up  to  the  festival  of  Tabernacles.  His 
final  departure  from  Galilee.  Incidents  in  Sa- 
maria. 

Ten  lepers  cleansed — Samaria. 

PART  VI. 

THE  FESTIVAL  OF  TABERNACLES,  AND  THE  SUB- 
SEQUENT TRANSACTIONS  UNTIL  OUR  LORD'S 
ARRIVAL  AT  BETHANY,  SIX  DAYS  BEFORE  THE 
FOURTH    PASSOVER. 

Time:  Six  months,  less  one  week. 

Jesus  at  the  festival  of  Tabernacles.  His  public 
teaching — yerusalem. 

The  woman  taken  in  adultery — yeitisalem. 

Further  public  teaching  of  our  Lord.  He  re- 
proves the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  escapes  from 
their  \\2inA°,— yerusalem. 

A  lawyer  instructed.     Love  to  our  neighbor  de- 
fined.   Parable  of  the  good  Samaritan — Near 
yerusalem. 
280 


Jesus  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Marj- — Bethany. 

The  disciples  again  taught  how  to  pray — Near 
yerusalem. 

The  seventy  return — yerusalem  f 

A  man  born  blind  is  healed  on  the  Sabbath.  Our 
Lord's  subsequent  discourses — yerusalem. 

Jesus  in  Jerusalem  at  the  festival  of  Dedication. 
He  retires  beyond  Jordan — yerusalem  ;  Betha- 
ny beyond  yordan. 

The  raising  of  Lazarus — Bethany. 

The  counsel  of  Caiaphas  against  Jesus.  He  re- 
tires (rom  i^ru^aXam— yerusalem  ;  Ephraim. 

Jesus  beyond  Jordan  is  followed  by  multitudes. 
The  healing  of  the  infirm  woman  on  the  Sab- 
bath—  Valley  of  Jordati ;  Percea. 

Our  Lord  goes  teaching  and  journeying  towards 
Jerusalem.  He  is  warned  against  Herod — Pe- 
rcea. 

Our  Lord  dines  with  a  chief  Pharisee  on  the  Sab- 
bath.    Incidents — Percea. 

What  is  required  of  true  disciples — Percea. 

Parable  of  the  lost  sheep,  etc.  Parable  of  the 
prodigal  son — Percea. 

Parable  of  the  unjust  steward — Percea. 

The  Pharisees  reproved.  Parable  of  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus — Percea. 

Jesus  inculcates  forbearance,  faith,  humility — 
Percea. 

Christ's  coming  will  be  sudden — Percea. 

Parables :  The  importunate  widow.  The  Phari- 
see and  publican — Percea. 

Precepts  respecting  divorce — Percea. 

Jesus  receives  and  blesses  little  children — Percea. 

The  rich  young  man.  Parable  of  the  laborers  in 
the  vineyard — Percea. 

Jesus  a  third  time  foretells  his  death  and  resur- 
rection— Percea. 

James  and  John  prefer  their  ambitious  request — 
Percea. 

The  healing  of  two  blind  men  near  yericho. 

The  visit  to  Zacchseus.     Parable  of  the  ten  minae 

— yericho. 

Jesus  arrives  at  Bethany  six  days  before  the  Pass- 
over— Bethany. 

PART   VII. 

OUR  lord's  PUBLIC  ENTRY  INTO  JERUSALEM, 
AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT  TRANSACTIONS  BEFORE 
THE    FOURTH    PASSOVER. 

Time  :  Five  days. 

Our  Lord's  public  entry  into  Jerusalem — Beth- 
any;  yerusalem. 

The  barren  fig-tree.  The  cleansing  of  the  tem- 
ple— Bethany  ;  yerusalem. 

The  barren  fig-tree  withers  away— Between  Beth- 
any and  yerusalem. 

Christ's  authority  questioned.  Parable  of  the  two 
sons — yerusalem. 

Parable  of  the  wicked  h\\sha.nAmen— yerusalem. 

Parable  of  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son— yent- 
saleni. 

Insidious  question  of  the  Pharisees:  Tribute  to 
Caesar — yerusalem. 

Insidious  question  of  the  Sadducees  :  The  resur- 
rection— yerusalem. 

A  lawyer  questions  Jesus.  The  two  great  com- 
mandments— yerusalem. 

How  is  Christ  the  son  of  David  }— yerusalem. 

Warnings  against  the  evil  example  of  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees — y erttsalem. 


JES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JET 


Woes  against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.  Lamen- 
tations over  Jerusalem — ye^-usalem. 

The  widow's  mite — yerusalem. 

Certain  Greeks  desire  to  see  ]&%ws,— yerusalem. 

Reflections  upon  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews— y.?;-"- 
salem. 

Jesus,  on  taking  leave  of  the  temple,  foretells  its 
destruction  and  the  persecution  of  his  Alx^zi- 
p\es— yerusalem  ;  Mount  of  Olives. 

The  signs  of  Christ's  coming  to  destroy  Jerusalem 
and  put  an  end  to  the  Jewish  state  and  dispen- 
sation— Mount  of  Olives. 

Transition  to  Christ's  final  coming  at  the  day  of 
judgment.  Exhortation  to  watchfulness.  Par- 
ables: The  ten  virgins.  The  five  talents— 
Mount  of  Olives. 

Scenes  of  the  judgment-day— yi/07/«/  of  Olives. 

The  rulers  conspire.  The  supper  at  Bethany. 
Treachery  of  Judas — yerusalem ;  Bethany. 

Preparation  for  the  Vz.^^ow>i.x— Bethany ;  yerusa- 
lem. 

PART   VIII. 

THE  FOURTH  PASSOVER  ;  OUR  LORD'S  PASSION, 
AND  THE  ACCOMPANYING  EVENTS  UNTIL  THE 
END   OF   THE  JEWISH    SABBATH. 

Time  :   Two  days. 
The    Passover    meal.      Contention     among    the 

twelve — yerusalem. 
Jesus  washes  the  feet  of  his  disciples — yerusalem. 
Jesus  points  out  the  traitor.    Judas  withdraws — 

yerusalem. 
Jesus  foretells  the  fall  of  Peter  and  the  dispersion 

of  the  twelve — yerusalem. 
The  Lord's  Supper — yerusalem. 
Jesus  comforts  his  disciples.     The   Holy   Spirit 

promised — yerusalem. 
Christ  the  true  Vine.     His  disciples  hated  by  the 

world — yerusalem. 
Persecution    foretold.      Further  promise  of  the 

Holy  Spirit.     Prayer  in  the  name  of  Christ — 

yerusalem. 
Christ's  last  prayer  with  his  disciples — yerusalem. 
The  agony  in  Gethsemane— 71/o?<w<  of  Olives. 
Jesus  betrayed    and    made    prisoner — Motint  of 

Olives. 
Jesus  before  Caiaphas.    Peter  thrice  denies  him — 

yerusalem. 
Jesus  before  Caiaphas  and  the  Sanhedrin.    He 

declares  himself  to  be  the  Christ ;  is  condemned 

and  mocked — yerusalem. 
The  Sanhedrin  lead  Jesus  away  to  Pilate — yeru- 
salem. 
Jesus  before  Herod — yerusalem. 
Pilate  seeks  to  release  Jesus.    The  Jews  demand 

Barabbas — yerusalem. 
Pilate  delivers  up  Jesus  to  death.    He  is  scourged 

and  mocked — yerusalem. 
Pilate  again  seeks  to  release  Jesus — Jerusalem. 
Judas  repents  and  hangs  h\m%fi\{—yerusale7n. 
Jesus  is  led  away  to  be  crucified — Jerusalem. 
The  crucifixion — Jerusalem. 

The  Jews  mock  at  Jesus  on  the  cross.  He  for- 
gives the  penitent  thief.      He  commends  his 

mother  to  John — Jerusalem. 
Darkness  prevails.     Christ  expires  on  the  cross — 

Jerusaleyn. 
The  veil  of  the  temple  rent  and  graves  opened. 

Judgment  of  the  centurion.     The  women  at  the 

cross — Jerusalem. 


The  taking  down  from  the  cross.     The  burial — 

Jerusalem. 
The  watch  at  the  sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

PART   IX. 

OUR      lord's     RESURRECTION,     HIS     SUBSEQUENT 
APPEARANCES,    AND    HIS   ASCENSION. 

Time:  Forty  days. 

The  morning  of  the  resurrection — Jerusalem. 

Visit  of  the  women  to  the  sepulchre.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene x&\.ViXW^— Jerusalem . 

Vision  of  angels  in  the  sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

The  women  return  to  the  city.  Jesus  meets  them — 
Jerusaleyn. 

Peter  and  John  run  to  the  sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  by  Mary  Magdalene  at  the  sep- 
ulchre— Jerusalem. 

Report  of  the  wa.\.ch.—yerttsalem. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  of  Peter.  Then  by  two  disciples 
on  the  way  to  Emmaus — yerusalem  ;  Emmaus. 

Jesus  appears  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles,  Thomas 
being  absent — yerusalem. 

Jesus  appears  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles,  Thomas 
being  pv&s^nt— yerusalem. 

The  apostles  go  away  into  Galilee.  Jesus  shows 
himself  to  seven  of  them  at  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias— Galilee. 

Jesus  meets  the  apostles  and  above  five  hundred 
brethren  on  a  mountain  in  Galilee — Galilee. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  of  James  ;  then  of  all  the  apos- 
tles— yerusalem. 

The  ascension — Near  Bethany. 

Studying  the  gospels  by  the  guidance  of 
the  above  tables  one  may  trace  with  a  good 
degree  of  accuracy  the  radiant  pathway  of 
the  Saviour  from  his  birthplace  to  his  tomb  ; 
can  follow  him  in  thought  through  his  jour- 
neys on  foot,  associating  with  each  spot  the 
words  of  divine  truth  there  spoken  and  the 
wonders  of  healing  mercy  there  wrought. 
For  further  helps  see  Miracles  and  Par- 
ables. 

The  divine  wisdom  is  conspicuous  not 
only  in  what  is  taught  us  respecting  the 
life  of  Jesus,  but  in  what  is  witliheld.  Cu- 
riosity, and  the  higher  motives  of  warm 
affection,  raise  numerous  questions  to  which 
the  gospels  give  no  reply;  and  in  propor- 
tion as  men  resort  to  dubious  traditions 
they  lose  the  power  of  a  pure  and  spiritual 
gospel.  See  further,  concerning  Christ, 
Messiah,  Redeemer,  etc. 

Jesus  was  not  an  uncommon  name 
among  the  Jews.  It  was  the  name  of  the 
father  of  Elymas  the  sorcerer.  Acts  13:6, 
and  of  Justus,  a  fellow-laborer  and  friend 
of  Paul,  Col.  4:11.  It  is  the  Greek  form  of 
the  Hebrew  name  Joshua,  or  Jeshua,  borne 
by  the  high-priest  in  Ezra's  time,  and  by 
the  well-known  leader  of  the  Jews  into  the 
promised  land.  Acts  7:45;  Heb.  4:8. 

JE'THER,  abt(7idance,  I.,  son  of  Jada, 
I  Chr.  2:32. 

2S1 


JET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEZ 


II.  Son  of  Ezra,,  tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr. 
4:17. 

III.  Eldest  son  of  Gideon,  who  shrank 
from  executing  the  captured  Midianite 
kings  Zebah  and  Zahnunna,  Judg.  <S:2o; 
afterwards  slain  by  Abinielech  with  his  6S 
brothers,  Judg.  9:5. 

IV.  Father  of  David's  general  Amasa, 
and  husband  of  David's  sister  Abigail, 
I  Chr.  2:17.  He  is  here  called  an  Ishmael- 
ite,  perhaps  from  having  lived  in  the  land 
of  Ishmael.  In  2  Sam.  17:25  he  is  named 
"  Ithra  an  Israelite." 

V.  An  Asherite,  1  Chr.  7:38;  perhaps 
Ithran,  ver  37. 

JETH'RO,  excellence,  a  shepherd  prince 
or  priest  of  Midian,  who  hospitably  wel- 
comed Moses  when  a  fugitive,  gave  him 
his  flocks  to  tend  and  his  daughter  Zippo- 
rah  in  marriage,  Exod.  2:16-22;  3:1;  4:18. 
He  was  also  named  Raguel,  and  was  the 
father  of  Hobab,  which  see.  He  became  a 
worshipper  of  the  true  God,  and  offered 
sacrifices  when  he  visited  Moses  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai,  restoring  to  him  his 
wife  and  sons.  He  gave  Moses  judicious 
counsel  as  to  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, and  returned  to  his  home  in  peace, 
Exod.  18. 

JE'TUR,  an  iticlosure,  or  camp,  son  of 
Ishmael,  Gen.  25:15;  i  Chr.  1:31,  father  of 
the  Ituraeans,  i  Chr.  5:19;  Luke  y.i. 

JEU'EL,  protected  by  God,  1  Chr.  9:6, 
son  of  Zerah. 

JEWELS  in  the  A.  V.  is  used  for  4  He- 
brew words,  denoting  (i)  rings:  noserings, 
as  in  Prov.  11:22;  Isa.  3:21;  Ezek.  16:12; 
earrings,  as  in  Gen.  24:22,  30,  47;  35:4; 
Exod.  32:2,  3,  etc.;  (2)  necklaces  or  orna- 
mental trinkets,  Song  7:1;  (3)  vessels  of 
silver,  etc.',  as  in  Gen.  24:53;  Exod.  3:22; 
11:2;  I  Sam.  6:8,  15,  or  costly  articles  of 
dress,  as  in  Isa.  61:10;  Ezek.  16:7,  39; 
23:26;  and  (4)  treasure,  as  in  Exod.  19:5; 
Mai.  3:17. 

JEWRY,  Dan.  5:13;  John  7:1,  Jud^a. 

JE'WS,  the  people  of  Judah  after  the  di- 
vision of  the  kingdom,  2  Kin.  16:6;  25:25; 
Jer.  32:12;  34:9;  38:19,  etc.  After  the  Cap- 
tivity applied  to  all  the  Hebrews,  espe- 
cially those  living  in  Palestine.  It  was  a 
familiar  name  in  Roman  writings.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  term  is  contrasted  on 
the  one  hand  with  heathen  and  on  the  other 
with  Christians,  Rom.  i :  16;  2:9;  Col.  3:11. 
See  Hebrews. 

JEZ'EBEL,  untouched,  daughter  of  Eth- 
baal  king  of  Tyre  and  Zidon,  and  wife  of 
Ahab  king  of  Israel,  i   Kin.  16:31.     She 
282 


spent  herself  in  efforts,  with  her  husband's 
connivance,  and  then  his  active  coopera- 
tion, to  establish  idolatry  in  Samaria,  and 
exterminate  the  worship  of  (iod  and  the 
lives  of  his  servants.  Ubadiah  saved  100 
of  them  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life.  Jezebel 
herself  maintained  400  priests  of  Astarte. 
When  Ahab's  450  prophets  of  Baal  i)er- 
ished  at  Carmel,  at  the  word  of  Elijah,  she 
sought  to  avenge  herself  on  him.  After- 
wards she  secured  the  vineyard  of  Naboth 
for  her  husband  by  perjuries  and  murder; 
and  her  tragical  death  at  the  order  of  Jehu, 
the  fitting  close  of  a  bloody  life,  took  place, 
according  to  the  prediction  of  Elijah,  near 
the  scene  of  this  crime,  i  Kin.  18;  19;  21; 
2  Kin.  9.  Her  evil  influence,  through  her 
daughter  Athaliah,  diffiised  the  poison  of 
idolatry  in  Judah  and  through  her  son  Je- 
horam  in  Israel.  She  survived  Ahab  14 
years.  Her  name  has  become  a  proverb, 
and  is  given  by  John,  probably  as  a  de- 
scriptive epithet,  to  a  person  or  party  at 
Thyatira  in  his  day  holding  a  like  bad  pre- 
eminence in  station  and  profligacy,  in  mal- 
ice, and  in  ruin.  Rev.  2:20. 

JEZ'REEL,  sowing  of  God,  I.,  a  celebra- 
ted city  of  Issachar,  10  miles  south  of  Naz- 
areth, Josh.  19:18,  II  miles  northwest  of 
Beth-shean,  2  Sam.  4:4.  Ahab  had  here  a 
palace,  i  Kin.  18:45;  22:39;  ^"d  this  city 
became  famous  on  account  of  his  seizure 
of  Naboth's  vineyard,  i  Kin.  21,  and  the 
vengeance  executed  on  Ahab,  2  Kin.  9:10, 
14-37;  10:1-11.  The  palace  seems  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  eastern  wall  overlook- 
ing the  open  plat  called  the  "portion"  of 
Jezreel,  and  the  site  of  the  watch-tower, 
2  Kin.  9:17,  may  be  marked  by  a  large 
tower  now  standing  in  Zerin.  Jezreel  was 
called  Esdraela  in  the  time  of  the  Macca- 
bees, and  is  now  replaced  by  a  small  and 
ruinous  Arab  village,  called  Zerin,  at  the 
northwest  point  of  Mount  Gilboa.  Its  ele- 
vated site  gives  one  a  fine  view  of  the  great 
plain  of  Esdraelon  on  the  west,  and  the 
hills  that  border  it;  and  towards  the  east 
it  overhangs  the  wide  and  fertile  "  valley 
of  Jezreel,"  Josh.  17:16;  Judg.  6:33;  Hos. 
1:5,  which  runs  down  east-southeast  from 
the  great  plain  to  the  Jordan,  between  Gil- 
boa  and  Little  Hermon.  The  "  fountain  " 
of  Jezreel  is  a  fine  perennial  spring  flow- 
ing from  the  rocky  base  of  Gilboa  20  min- 
utes' walk  east  of  Zerin,  and  forming  a 
large  pool.  Here  Saul  encamped  before 
the  battle  at  Gilboa,  i  Sam.  29:1;  31:1-10, 
and  Gideon  before  the  battle  with  the  Mid- 
ianites,  Judg.  7:1,4-     See  Harod. 


JEZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOA 


JEZREEL,  NOW  ZERIN,  OVERLOOKING  THE  PLAIN  OF  ESDRAELON. 


II.  The  great  plain  lying  between  Jez- 
reel  and  Acre,  called  from  2  cities  on  its 
border  in  one  part,  "the  valley  of  Megid- 
do,"  2  Chr.  35:22,  and  in  its  western  part 
or  branch  the  "  plain  or  valley  oi  Jezreel ;^' 
afterwards  Esdraelon,  Judith  i:8;  now 
Merj  Ibn  'Amir.  The  body  of  this  beauti- 
ful plain  forms  a  triangle,  rising  gradually 
from  the  Mediterranean  400  feet,  and  being 
about  13  or  14  miles  long  on  the  north  side, 
17  on  the  east,  and  20  on  the  southwest. 
The  western  part  is  level ;  on  the  east  it  is 
more  undulating,  and  is  at  length  broken 
by  Mount  Gilboa  and  "  Little  Hermon  "  into 
3  valleys,  2  or  3  miles  wide,  which  sink 
down  into  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  Of 
these,  the  middle  valley,  described  above, 
is  the  proper  "valley  of  Jezreel."  The 
river  Kishon  traverses  this  plain  to  the 
northwest.  It  was  formerly  well  watered 
and  astonishingly  fertile,  but  is  now  under 
the  blight  of  tyranny  and  insecurity,  com- 
paratively uncultivated  and  deserted.  The 
highways  are  unoccupied,  the  villages  have 
ceased  in  Israel,  Judg.  5:6.  There  are  a 
few  small  hamlets,  particularly  on  the 
higher  grounds  that  border  it,'  and  the 
abundant  crops  which  it  yields,  even  with 
poor  cultivation,  show  that  it  might  again 
be  made  the  granary  of  Syria.  Across  this 
plain,  from  Carmel  to  Jezreel,  Elijah  ran 
before  the  chariot  of  Ahab,  i  Kin.  18:46. 
It  has  been  the  chosen  battle-ground  of 
many  armies,  as  of  the  Midianites  and 
Amalekites,  Judg.  6:33;   7:1,  etc.;  of  the 


Philistines  at  Gilboa,  i  Sam.  29;  31 ;  of  the 
Syrians,  i  Kin.  20:26-30.  Here  the  hosts 
of  Sisera  were  swept  away,  Judg.  4;  and 
here  Josiah  fell,  fighting  against  Pharaoh- 
necho,  2  Kin.  23:29.  Battles  were  fought 
here  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Romans 
and  of  the  Crusaders ;  and  in  our  own  cen- 
tury, near  Mount  Tabor,  1,500  French  un- 
der General  Kleber  sustained  the  assault 
of  25,000  Turks  for  half  a  day,  and  were 
succored  by  Napoleon. 

III.  A  town  of  Judah,  southeast  of  He- 
bron, perhaps  now  Zurtut,  the  birthplace 
of  Ahinoam,  David's  wife,  Josh.  15:56; 
I  Sam.  25:43;  27:3. 

IV.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  4:3, 
probably  the  founder  of  III.  above. 

V.  A  name  given  by  Hosea  to  his  infant 
son,  symbolizing  the  great  slaughter  he 
was  predicting,  the  "blood  of  Jezreel" 
recalling  the  former  battles  on  that  plain, 
Hos.  1:4,  5.  The  significance  of  his  name 
is  evident  in  the  promised  sowing  and  fruit- 
fulness  of  God's  people  in  later  days,  2:21- 
23.  Compare  Jer.  31:27;  Ezek.  36:9,  10; 
Zech.  10:9. 

JIPH'THAH-EL,  God  opens  ,  a  valley  on 
the  north  of  Zebulun,  separating  it  from 
Asher  and  Naphtali.  The  name  appears 
in  the  modern  Jefat,  formerlj-  Jotap'ata,  9 
miles  north  of  Nazareth,  the  famous  height 
overlooking  the  valley,  fortified  and  long 
defended  against  the  Romans  by  Josephus. 

]0'AB,  Jehoi'ah  his  fat  her,  I.,  son  of  Ze- 
ruiah,  David's  sister,  and  brother  of  Abishai 

283 


JOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOB 


and  Asahel,  the  commander  of  David's 
army  during  almost  the  whole  of  his  reign, 
2  Sam.  2:13,  28;  10:7;  I  Kin.  11:15;  i  Chr. 
27:34.  He  was  a  valiant  warrior,  an  able 
general,  and  a  shrewd  statesman,  and  his 
great  influence  on  public  affairs  was  often 
e.xerted  for  good,  as  in  the  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom and  the  numbering  of  Israel,  2  Sam. 
18;  19;  24.  But  as  a  man  he  was  imperi- 
ous, revengeful,  and  unscrupulous :  wit- 
ness his  treacherous  assassination  of  his 
rival  Abner,  and  of  his  cousin  Amasa, 
2  Sam.  3:27;  20:9,  10;  his  bearing  towards 
David,  2  Sam.  3:39;  19:5,  and  connivance 
with  him  in  the  matter  of  Uriah ;  his  slaj'- 
ing  Absalom,  and  conspiring  with  Adoni- 
jah  against  the  divinely-appointed  heir  to 
the  throne;  for  all  which  he  was  at  length 
put  to  death  by  order  of  Solomon,  at  the 
side  of  the  altar,  i  Kin.  2.     B.  C.  1013. 

II.  Son  of  Seraiah,  whose  descendants 
were  craftsmen,  Heb.  charashim,  in  a  val- 
ley north  of  Jerusalem,  i  Chr.  4:14;  Neh. 
11:34. 

III.  Head  of  a  family  returning  after  the 
Captivity,  Ezra  2:6;  8:9;  Neh.  7:11. 

]0'A.¥i,  Jehovah  his  b7-other,  I.,  Hezekiah's 
recorder,  son  of  Asaph,  one  of  3  commis- 
sioners to  Rabshakeh,  2  Kin.  18:18,  26,  :^-j; 
Isa.  36:3,  II,  12.     B.  C.  712. 

II.  Third  son  of  Obed-edom,  a  Korhite 
porter,  i  Chr.  26:4. 

III.  Also  called  Ethan,  i  Chr.  6:21,  42,  a 
Gershonite  Levite,  B.  C.  726.  See  also 
2  Chr.  29: 12. 

IV.  Son  of  Joahaz,  recorder  or  chronicler 
for  king  Josiah,  and  a  repairer  of  the  tem- 
ple, 2  Chr.  34:8.     B.  C.  623. 

JO'AHAZ,Jehoahaz  abridged,  2  Chr.  34:8. 

JOAN'NA,  gracious  gift  of  God,  I.,  an 
ancestor  of  our  Lord,  probably  Hananiah, 
I  Chr.  3:19;  Luke  3:27,  in  R.  V.  Jo.^n.'VN. 

II.  Wife  of  Chuza,  probably  a  widow,  one 
of  the  faithful  women  who  ministered  to 
Christ  while  living,  and  brought  spices  to 
his  tomb.  Her  husband  Chuza  had  been 
a  steward  of  Herod  Antipas,  Luke  8:3; 
24:  i-io. 

JO'ASH,  or  Jeho'ash, /<?Aoz'a//  bestowed, 
I.,  the  father  of  Gideon,  of  the  family  of 
Abiezer,  in  Manasseh.  For  a  long  time  he 
was  a  worshipper  of  Baal ;  but  when  his 
son  boldly  attacked  idolatry,  he  also  came 
out  on  the  Lord's  side,  Judg.  6:11,  25-32. 
B.  C.  1249. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Shelah,  i  Chr.  4:22, 
an  early  ruler  in  Moab. 

III.  A  brave  Benjamite  who  joined  Da- 
vid at  Ziklag,  i  Chr.  12:3. 

284 


IV.  Son  of  Ahab,  appointed  as  keeper 
of  the  prophet  Micaiah  during  Ahab's  dis- 
astrous war  with  Syria,  i  Kin.  22:26; 
2  Chr.  18. 

V.  The  7th  king  of  Judah,  B.  C.  878-838. 
He  was  the  only  son  of  Ahaziah  who  was 
not  slain  by  the  usurping  Athaliah,  his 
grandmother.  Being  rescued  by  Jehoshe- 
ba  his  aunt,  and  secluded  6  years  in  the 
temple,  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  when  7 
years  of  age  through  the  faithful  care  of 
Jehoiada;  and  while  this  venerable  man 
survived,  23  years,  Joash  served  God  and 
prospered.  Idols  were  banished  and  the 
temple  was  repaired.  But  aftewards  he 
followed  less  wholesome  counsels;  idolatry 
revived;  and  when  Zechariah  the  high- 
priest  rebuked  the  guilty  people,  the  un- 
grateful king  caused  this  servant  of  God, 
the  son  of  his  benefactor,  to  be  stoned  to 
death,  Matt.  23:35.  Misfortunes  soon  mul- 
tiplied on  his  head ;  he  was  repeatedly 
humbled  by  the  Syrians  under  Hazael, 
and  gave  them  the  temple  treasures  as  a 
ransom;  a  loathsome  disease  imbittered 
his  life,  which  was  very  soon  cut  short  by 
a  conspiracy  of  his  servants,  and  he  was 
not  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  the  kings, 
2  Kin.  11:12;  2  Chr.  23 ;  24,  on  Mount  Zion 
at  Jerusalem. 

VI.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz, 
king  of  Israel,  B.  C.  840-825.  There  was 
much  in  his  conduct  to  commend.  He  had 
a  great  regard  for  the  prophet  Elisha,  and 
visited  him  on  his  death-bed,  where  by  a 
divine  oracle  he  was  assured  of  3  victories 
over  the  Syrians.  He  was  also  victorious 
when  forced  to  give  battle  to  Amaziah  king 
of  Judah,  when  he  broke  down  the  north 
wall  of  Jerusalem  and  despoiled  the  tem- 
ple. He  died  in  the  15th  year  of  Amazi- 
ah's  reign,  and  was  one  of  the  best  of  the 
kings  of  Israel.  The  worship  of  the  gold- 
en calf,  however,  still  continued  during  his 
reign,  2  Kin.  13:9-25;  14:1-8;  2  Chr.  25. 

JO'ASH,  a  different  word  in  Hebrew,  to 
whom  God  hastens,  I.,  a  leader  of  a  Benja- 
mite family  in  David's  reign,  i  Chr.  7:8. 

II.  An  official  of  David,  1  Chr.  27:28. 

JOB,  one  afflicted,  a  patriarch  distin- 
guished for  his  integrity  and  piety,  his 
wealth,  honors,  and  domestic  happiness, 
whom  God  permitted,  for  the  trial  of  his 
faith,  to  be  deprived  of  friends,  property, 
and  health,  and  at  once  plunged  into  deep 
affliction.  He  lived  in  the  land  of  \Jz. 
lying,  it  is  generally  thought,  in  Eastern 
Edom,  probably  not  far  from  Bozrah. 

The  BOOK  OF  Job  has  originated  much 


JOB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOB 


criticism,  and  on  many  points  a  considera- 
ble diversity  of  opinion  still  exists.  Skep- 
tics have  denied  its  inspiration,  and  called 
it  a  mere  philosophical  romance;  but  no 
one  who  respects  revelation  can  entertain 
this  notion,  or  doubt  that  Job  was  a  real 
person.  Inspired  writers  testify  to  both. 
See  Ezek.  14:14,  16-20;  Jas.  5:11;  and 
compare  i  Cor.  3:19  with  Job.  5:13.  The 
book  itself  specifies  persons,  places,  and 
circumstances  in  the  manner  of  true  his- 
tory. Moreover,  the  name  and  history  of 
Job  are  spread  throughout  the  East;  Ara- 
bian writers  mention  him,  and  many  Mo- 
hammedan families  perpetuate  his  name. 
Five  different  places  claim  the  possession 
of  his  tomb. 

The  precise  period  of  his  life  cannot  be 
ascertained,  yet  no  doubt  can  exist  as  to  its 
patriarchal  antiquity.  The  book  seems  to 
allude  to  the  flood,  Job  22: 15-17,  but  not  to 
the  Israelites  as  a  nation,  to  the  destruction 
of  Sodom,  to  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  or 
the  giving  of  the  law.  No  reference  is 
made  to  any  order  of  priesthood,  Job  him- 
self being  the  priest  of  his  household,  like 
Noah  and  Abraham.  There  is  allusion  to 
the  most  ancient  form  of  idolatry,  star- 
worship,  31 :  26-28,  and  to  the  earliest  mode 
of  writing,  19:24.  The  longevity  of  Job 
also  places  him  among  the  patriarchs.  He 
survived  his  trial  140  years,  and  was  prob- 
ably 60  or  80  years  old  before  his  trial 
began,  for  his  children  were  established 
each  at  the  head  of  his  own  household.  Job 
1:4;  42 :  16.  He  must  have  been  200  or  220 
years  old  at  death,  whereas  Abraham  died 
at  the  age  of  175,  "an  old  man  and  full  of 
years."  The  period  of  long  lives  had  not 
wholly  passed  away,  15:10.  Hales  places 
the  trial  of  Job  before  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham, and  Usher  about  30  years  before  the 
exodus,  B.  C.  1521. 

As  to  the  authorship  of  the  book,  many 
opinions  have  been  held.  It  has  all  the 
freedom  of  an  original  composition,  bear- 
ing no  marks  of  its  being  a  translation ; 
and  if  so  it  would  appear  that  its  author 
must  have  been  a  Hebrew,  since  it  is  writ- 
ten in  the  purest  Hebrew.  It  exhibits, 
moreover,  the  most  intimate  acquaintance 
with  both  Egyptian  and  Arabian  scenery, 
and  is  in  the  loftiest  style  of  Oriental  po- 
etry. All  these  circumstances  are  consist- 
ent with  the  views  of  those  who  regard  it 
as  having  been  written  by  Moses,  in  Mid- 
ian.  It  has,  however,  been  ascribed  to 
Job  himself  and  to  various  other  persons. 
It  presents  a  beautiful  exhibition  of  patri- 


archal religion.  It  teaches  the  being  and 
perfections  of  God,  his  creation  of  all 
things,  and  his  universal  control ;  the  apos- 
tasy and  guilt  of  evil  spirits  and  of  man- 
kind; the  sovereignty  of  divine  providence  ; 
the  mercy  of  God,  on  the  basis  of  a  sacri- 
fice, and  on  condition  of  repentance  and 
faith,  33:27-30;  42:6,  8;  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
14:7-15;  19:25-27. 

The  book  is  an  elaborate  poem  on  a  true 
historical  basis.  Its  theme  is  the  severe 
test  of  Job's  piety:  is  it  only  a  refined  self- 
ishness? and  he  is  tried  first  by  the  loss  of 
his  vast  property,  his  servants,  and  his 
sons ;  then  by  the  loss  of  his  health,  by  the 
censures  of  his  wife  and  friends,  and  the 
apparent  withdrawal  of  the  friendship  of 
God.  He  bitterly  implores  a  refuge  in  the 
grave,  and  a  vindication  after  the  resurrec- 
tion and  judgment,  ch.  14:13,  15;  see  espe- 
cially after  the  2d  aggravated  charges  of 
his  3  friends,  ch.  16:18,  19;  17:8,  9;  19:25- 
27.  The  main  problem  discussed  in  the 
book  is  the  justice  of  God  in  suffering  the 
righteous  to  be  afflicted,  while  the  wicked 
prosper.  It  is  settled  by  showing  that, 
while  the  hand  of  a  just  God  is  manifest 
in  his  providential  government  of  human 
affairs,  it  is  his  sovereign  right  to  choose 
his  own  time  and  mode  of  retribution  both 
to  the  evil  and  the  good,  and  to  subject  the 
graces  of  his  people  to 'whatever  trials  he 
deems  best.  The  solution  of  the  problem 
by  the  retributions  of  the  future  life  is  but 
hinted  at,  immortality  and  the  way  of  life 
being  more  clearly  brought  to  light  in  the 
gospel. 

The  conference  of  Job  and  his  friends 
may  be  divided  into  3  parts.  In  the  first, 
Eliphaz  addresses  Job,  and  Job  replies; 
then  Bildad  and  Job,  and  Zophar  and  Job, 
speak  in  turn.  In  the  second  part,  the 
same  order  is  observed ;  and  in  the  third 
also,  except  that  after  Job's  reply  to  Bil- 
dad, the  3  friends  have  no  more  to  urge, 
and  instead  of  Zophar,  a  4th  friend  named 
Elihu  takes  up  the  word ;  and  the  whole  is 
concluded  by  the  decision  of  Jehovah  him- 
self. The  friends  of  Job  argue  that  his  re- 
markable afflictions  must  have  been  sent 
in  punishment  of  highly  aggravated  trans- 
gressions, and  urge  him  to  confession  and 
repentance.  The  pious  patriarch,  conscious 
of  his  own  integrity  and  love  to  God,  cast 
down  and  bewildered  by  his  sore  chastise- 
ments, and  pained  by  the  suspicions  of  his 
friends,  warmly  vindicates  his  innocence, 
and  shows  that  the  best  of  men  are  some- 

285 


JOC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOH 


times  the  most  afflicted ;  but  forgets  that 
his  inward  sins  merit  far  heavier  punish- 
ment, and  though  he  repels  Satan's  as- 
sault, and  still  maintains  faith  in  (iod,  yet 
he  charges  Him  foolishly.  Afterwards  he 
humblj'  confesses  his  wrong,  and  is  cheered 
by  the  returning  smile  of  God,  while  his 
uncharitable  friends  are  reproved.  The 
whole  book  is  written  in  the  highest  style 
of  Hebrew  poetry,  except  the  two  introduc- 
torj-  chapters  and  part  of  the  last,  which 
are  prose.  As  a  poem,  it  is  full  of  sublime 
sentiments  and  bold  and  striking  images. 

The  DisE.\sE  of  Job  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  elephantiasis,  or 
black  leprosy.  The  word  rendered  "  boils  " 
does  not  necessarily  mean  abscesses,  but 
burning  and  inflammation ;  and  no  known 
disease  better  answers  to  the  description 
given, Job  2:7,  8;  7:5,13,14;  19:17;  30-i7, 
than  the  leprosy  referred  to  above.  See 
Lkper. 

JOCH'EBED,  laliose  glorv  is  Jehovah,  wife 
of  Amram,  and  mother  of  Moses,  Aaron, 
and  Miriam,  Num.  26:59.  She  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Levi,  and  her  husband's  aunt,  Exod. 
6:20,  though  such  marriages  were  after- 
wards prohibited.  Lev.  18:12. 

JO'EL,  Jehovah  is  God,  I.,  son  of  the 
prophet  Samuel,  made  judge  of  Israel  with 
his  younger  brother  Abiah,  by  their  father 
in  his  old  age,  but  shamefully  corrupt  in 
office,  I  Sam.  8:2-'5.  Heman  the  singer 
was  his  son,  i  Chr.  6:33;  15:17.  In  i  Chr. 
6:28  he  appears  in  A.  V.  as  Vashni,  which 
means  second,  and  belongs  to  Abiah,  the 
name  of  Joel  having  dropped  out. 

II.  One  of  the  12  minor  prophets,  of 
whom  nothing  is  known  beyond  the  few 
hints  furnished  in  his  brief  but  valuable 
prophecy.  He  lived  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  and  at  a  time  when  the  temple  and 
temple-worship  still  existed,  Joel  1:14;  2:1, 
15.  32;  3:1.  Different  authors  assign  to 
his  prophecy  different  dates,  but  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  is  that  he  was  the  first  of 
the  canonical  prophets  except  Jonah,  and 
prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  nearly 
800  B.  C. 

The  BOOK  OF  Joel  opens  with  a  most 
graphic  and  powerful  description  of  the 
devastation  caused  by  swarms  of  divers 
locusts,  accompanied  by  a  terrible  drought. 
The  plague  of  locusts,  one  of  the  most 
dreadful  scourges  of  the  East  (see  Lo- 
cu.sTs),  is  highly  suggestive  of  an  invasion 
of  hostile  legions  such  as  have  often  rav- 
aged Judaea;  and  many  have  understood, 
by  the  locusts  of  Joel,  the  Assyrian  and 
286 


other  invaders  from  the  north,  ch.  1:6; 
2:17,  20.  The  prophet,  however,  adheres 
to  his  figure,  if  it  be  one ;  depicts  the  land 
as  stripped  of  its  verdure  and  parched  with 
drought,  summons  the  stricken  people  to 
fasting  and  penitence,  and  encourages  them 
by  promising  the  removal  of  the  divine 
judgments  and  the  return  of  fertility.  While 
describing  this  returning  plenty  and  pros- 
perity, the  prophet  casts  his  view  forward 
on  a  future  still  more  remote,  and  predicts 
the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the 
signs  and  wonders  and  spiritual  prosperity 
of  the  Messiah's  reign,  Joel  2:28.  This 
passage  is  quoted  by  the  apostle  Peter,  in 
Acts  2: 16,  where  its  fulfilment  began,  to  be 
completed  hereafter.  The  style  of  Joel  is 
exceedingly  poetical  and  elegant ;  his  de- 
scriptions are  vivid  and  sublime,  and  his 
prophecy  ranks  among  the  gems  of  He- 
brew poetry.  It  is  well  fitted  to  cheer  the 
church  militant  in  all  ages. 

Ten  or  1 1  others  of  this  name  are  men- 
tioned in  I  Chr.  4:35,  41-43;  5:4,  8,  11,  12; 
7:3,  4;  11:38;  15:7,  11;  23:8  and  26:22; 
27:20;  2  Chr.  29:12,  15;  Ezra  10:19,  43; 
Neh.  11:3,  4,  9. 

JOG'BEHAH,  lojly,  a  city  of  Gad,  east  of 
the  Jordan,  Num.  32:35,  probably  Jebaiha, 
4  miles  north  of  Amman.  The  Jogbehah 
through  which  Gideon  pursued  the  defeat- 
ed Midianites,  Judg.  8:11,  seems  to  have 
lain  farther  north,  on  the  Damascus  road, 
and  in  the  territory  of  Manasseh,  where  a 
village  called  Tell  Jabieh  is  now  found. 

JOHA'NAN,  or  Jehoha'nan,  God's Javor, 
I.,  son  of  Azariah,  of  Zadok's  line,  high- 
priest  probably  in  Rehoboam's  reign,  i  Kin. 
4:2;  I  Chr.  6:9,  10. 

II.  Son  of  kareah,  a  leading  captain  of 
the  Jews,  who  took  refuge  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  the 
Chaldaeans,  B.  C.  588,  and  returning  after 
their  withdrawal,  recognized  the  authority 
of  Gedaliah,  warned  him  in  vain  of  the  plot 
of  Ishmael,  and  avenged  his  murder;  but 
afterwards  carried  the  remnant  of  the  peo- 
ple to  Egypt  against  the  remonstrances  of 
Jeremiah,  who,  unable  to  check  his  rebel- 
lious and  idolatrous  course,  foretold  divine 
judgments,  which  in  due  time  were  fulfilled, 
2  Kin.  25:23-26;  Jer.  40-44. 

Others  of^  this  name  are  mentioned  in 
I  Chr.  3:15,  24;  12:4,  12;  2  Chr.  28:12;  Ezra 
8:12;  Neh.  12:22,  23. 

JOHN,  in  Hebrew  Jehohanan,  in  Greek 
'Iuuvv7/f,  (rod's  j^racioiis  f^ijt,  I.,  the  Bap- 
tist, /.  e.,  the  haptizer,  noble  in  character, 
and  preeminent  in  his  great  office  as  the 


JOH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOH 


forerunner  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He 
was  the  son  of  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth, 
both  in  the  priestly  line,  Luke  1:5,  emi- 
nently pious  and  devout,  and  was  born 
about  6  months  before  Christ,  as  Reland 
and  Robinson  suppose  at  Juttah,  Josh. 
21:16;  Luke  1:39,  a  town  some  5  miles 
south  of  Hebron,  but  according  to  tradi- 
tion at  a  place  about  4  miles  west  of  Jeru- 
salem. Several  Old  Testament  predic- 
tions found  their  fulfilment  in  him.  See 
Isa.  40:3,  and  Matt.  3:3;  also  Mai.  3:1;  4:5, 
and  Matt.  11:14.  His  birth,  name,  and 
office  were  also  foretold  by  the  angel  Ga- 
briel to  his  father  Zacharias  while  minis- 
tering at  the  temple  altar.  Several  other 
supernatural  incidents  attended  the  visit 
of  Mary  to  Elisabeth,  her  "cousin,"  and 
the  birth,  circumcision,  and  naming  of 
John,  Luke  i.  He  passed  his  early  life 
among  the  crags  of  Eastern  Judaea,  and 
when  not  far  from  30  years  of  age  appeared 
as  a  prophet  of  the  Lord.  Being  also  a 
priest  by  birth,  and  an  austere  Nazarite  in 
appearance,  dress,  food,  Matt.  3:4,  and 
mode  of  life,  he  was  like  a  reproduction  of 
Elijah  of  old.  Compare  Lev.  11:22;  2  Kin. 
1:8;  Psa.  81:16.  Crowds  flocked  from  all 
quarters  to  hear  the  word  of  God  from  his 
lips  boldly  denouncing  their  sins,  and  to 
receive  the  baptism  of  repentance  prepar- 
atory to  the  full  revelation  of  grace  in 
Christ.  Among  others,  the  Saviour  at 
length  came,  and  was  baptized  as  an  ex- 
ample of  obedience  to  all  divine  enjoin- 
ments.  John  was  at  once  satisfied  that 
Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  but  "knew  him 
not  "  by  any  divine  intimation  till  he  saw 
the  appointed  sign,  the  descending  Spirit, 
John  1:31.  He  then  stood  forth  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  "all  the  law  and  the  proph- 
ets," pointing  the  world  to  Christ,  not  as  a 
wise  teacher,  nor  as  a  perfect  e.xemplar  of 
holiness,  but  as  an  atoning  Savioiij-,  and 
thus  introduced  Him  to  His  public  minis- 
try: "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  ta- 
keth  away  the  sin  of  the  world,"  John  i :  29 ; 
Gal.  3:24. 

Like  his  Old  Testament  counterpart, 
Elijah,  John  was  fearless  and  faithful  in 
summoning  his  countrymen  to  repentance, 
charging  each  one  with  the  sins  he  was 
most  addicted  to,  Luke  3:12-14,  and  up- 
braiding the  leaders  with  especial  sever- 
ity, Matt.  3:7.  Yet  he  enjoyed  at  this  time 
a  high  degree  of  popular  veneration,  Mark 
1:5;  II  :32;  Luke  3: 15;  the  Sanhedrin  sent 
a  deputation  to  question  him,  John  1:19- 
28;   king  Herod   "did   many   things,   and 


heard  him  gladly."  But  his  modesty  was 
as  notable  as  his  fidelity.  Though  honored 
with  the  extraordinary  mission  of  being 
the  Messiah's  herald,  he  was  but  a  "  voice ;" 
he  laid  all  he  had  at  the  Saviour's  feet, 
John  1 :  27 ;  3 :  28-33.  We  read  several  times 
of  his  "disciples,"  Matt.  9:14;  Luke  5:33; 
John  3:23-25;  4:1;  and  meet  with  subse- 
quent traces  of  the  wide  extent  of  his  influ- 
ence, Acts  18:25;  19:3.  It  was  for  good 
reasons,  no  doubt,  that  he  continued  for  a 
time  his  separate  ministry,  instead  of  at- 
tending Christ.  He  persevered,  however, 
in  his  faithful  labors  for  reformation ;  and 
these,  in  the  second  year  afterwards,  led  to 
his  imprisonment  by  Herod  Antipas.  See 
Herod  IV.  He  was  confined  in  the  castle 
of  Machaerus,  east  of  the  head  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  was  while  he  was  in  prison  that  he 
sent  2  of  his  disciples  to  Christ  to  inquire, 
"  Art  thou  he  that  should  come,  or  do  we 
look  for  another?"  Matt.  11:3.  He  may 
have  been  moved  to  send  this  message  by 
some  lingering  Jewish  views  as  to  a  tem- 
poral Messiah,  who  would  right  all  their 
national  wrongs;  or  by  some  temporary 
unbelieving  haste  to  have  Christ  publicly 
announce  his  Messiahship ;  or  by  a  desire 
to  transfer  his  disciples  to  Christ,  and  pre- 
vent their  forming  a  sect  by  themselves. 
Compare  Acts  19:1-7.  It  was  on  this  oc- 
casion that  Christ  calls  him  greater  than 
any  other  prophet;  because,  of  all  the 
prophets  of  the  Messiah,  he  alone  saw  Him 
entering  on  his  work  whom  all  "desired  to 
see;"  yet  he  was  less  than  the  "least  in 
the  kingdom  of  God,"  inasmuch  as  he  died 
without  seeing  that  kingdom  established 
in  the  death  and  resurrection  of  his  Lord. 
But  his  earthly  work  was  soon  done.  Her- 
od, according  to  Josephus,  feared  his  great 
influence  over  the  people,  and  the  implaca- 
ble Herodias  was  enraged  by  his  bold  fidel- 
ity to  her  husband.  The  dancing  of  her 
daughter  Salome,  and  the  hasty  vow  of  the 
besotted  king,  furnished  a  pretext.  John 
was  beheaded  in  prison  ;  his  disciples  bur- 
ied his  remains  with  honor,  and  "  went  and 
told  Jesus,"  Matt.  14:3-12.  The  miracle 
which  followed  soon  after,  ver.  13-21,  re- 
corded also  in  John  6:5-14,  seems  to  date 
his  death  as  shortly  before  the  Passover, 
ver.  4,  one  year  before  Christ's  death. 

II.  The  Apostle  and  Evangelist,  son 
of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida  in  Galilee.  Compare  Luke  5:10; 
John  1:44.  Zebedee  and  his  sons,  James 
and  John,  were  fishermen,  and  appear  to 
have   been    in  easy  circumstances,  Mark 

287 


JOH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOK 


1:20;  15:40;  Luke  8:3;  24:1;  John  18:15; 
19:27.  In  John's  character  there  was  an 
admirable  mixture  of  gentleness  and  force. 
The  picture  which  the  Bible  gives  of  him 
has  a  peculiar  charm,  so  much  peace,  hu- 
mility, charity,  and  brotherly  love  glow  in 
it.  His  affectionate,  meditative,  spiritual 
character  had  also  the  elements  of  vigor 
and  decision,  Luke  9:54.  Though  amia- 
ble, he  was  firm  and  fearless.  He  and 
Peter  followed  Christ,  seized  by  the  Jews, 
when  the  other  disciples  fled ;  and  he  was 
present  at  the  scene  of  the  Saviour's  cruci- 
fixion, which  he  describes  as  an  eye-wit- 
ness, John  19:35.  He  was  early  at  the 
tomb  of  the  Redeemer,  and  after  His  as- 
cension boldly  proclaimed  the  gospel  at 
Jerusalem,  Acts  4:13,  though  imprisoned, 
scourged,  and  threatened  with  death.  He 
was  remarkable  for  devotion  to  Christ; 
and  it  was  this,  perhaps,  as  much  as  ambi- 
tion, or  false  views  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
that  led  him  to  request  a  place  at  His  right 
hand.  Matt.  20:20-24.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  youngest  of  the  apostles. 
He  had  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist; but  on  being  directed  to  Christ,  at 
once  attached  himself  to  him,  John  i : 35-39. 
For  a  time  he  returned  to  his  emploj'ment 
by  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  but  was  soon  called 
to  leave  all  and  attend  the  Saviour,  Luke 
5:5-10.  Christ  had  a  particular  friendship 
for  this  lovely  and  zealous  disciple,  John 
13:23:  19:26;  20:2;  21:7.  At  the  last  sup- 
per, he  reclined  next  to  the  Saviour,  and 
to  his  care  the  dying  Redeemer  commit- 
ted his  mother.  Together  with  Peter  and 
James  he  witnessed  the  raising  of  Jairus' 
daughter,  the  transfiguration,  and  the  ago- 
ny in  the  garden.  See  J.\mes.  In  still 
other  events  he  is  associated  with  Peter, 
John  20:2-8:  21:7,  20;  Acts  3: 1  ;  4:13;  8:14. 
He,  with  Peter  and  James,  welcomed  Paul 
to  the  church,  and  gave  him  a  commission, 
Acts  9:27-31.  He  took  part  in  the  first 
council  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  15:6.  and  for 
many  years  continued  to  reside  there,  rec- 
ognized as  one  of  the  chief  pillars  of  the 
church,  Gal.  2:9.  Yet  he  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  there  at  Paul's  last  visit,  A.  D. 
60;  nor  do  any  of  the  epistles  mention  him 
at  Ephesus,  where  most  of  his  later  life 
was  spent.  After  Paul's  death,  however, 
he  was  at  Ephesus,  supervising  the  diffu- 
sion of  the  gospel  in  Asia  Minor,  where  for 
many  years  his  great  personal  and  apos- 
tolic influence  was  widely  exerted.  About 
A.  D.  95  he  was  banished,  probably  by 
Domitian,  to  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  where  he 
288 


had  the  visions  described  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse. He  afterwards  returned  to  Ephe- 
sus, where  he  lived  to  a  very  great  age,  so 
that  he  could  not  go  to  the  assembly  of  the 
church  without  being  carried  by  his  disci- 
ples. Being  now  unable  to  make  long  dis- 
courses, his  custom  was  to  say  in  all  assem- 
blies, "  Little  children,  love  one  another;" 
and  when  they  wondered  at  his  frequent 
repetition  of  this  concise  exhortation,  his 
answer  was,  "  This  is  what  the  Lord  com- 
mands you;  and  this,  if  you  do  it,  is  suffi- 
cient." Chrysostom,  Clement,  and  Euse- 
bius  relate  that,  having  found  that  a  young 
man  of  promise  committed  by  him  to  the 
charge  of  a  neighboring  pastor  had  been 
misled,  and  had  organized  a  band  of  rob- 
bers, the  aged  apostle  sought  him  out  in 
his  mountain  haunts,  and  by  the  blessing 
of  God  on  his  fearless  and  faithful  love, 
reclaimed  his  soul  from  death.  He  died 
at  Ephesus  in  the  3d  year  of  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  A.  D.  100,  being  then,  according  to 
Epiphanius,  94  years  of  age.  He  was  bur- 
ied near  that  city,  and  several  of  the  fa- 
thers mention  his  sepulchre  as  being  there. 
Besides  the  invaluable  Gospel  and  the 
Apocalypse,  which  bear  his  name  (see 
Gospel  and  Afocalypsk),  we  have  three 
Epistles  of  John.  The  first  is  a  catholic 
or  general  letter,  designed  apparently  to 
go  with  his  gospel,  and  refute  certain 
Gnostic  errors  as  to  the  person  of  Christ; 
but  also  and  chiefly  to  build  up  the  church 
universal  in  truth  and  grace,  and  especial- 
ly in  holy  love.  The  second  epistle  is 
addressed  "  to  the  elect  lady,"  or  the  ex- 
cellent Kuria,  who  was  probably  some 
Christian  woman  eminent  for  piety  and 
usefulness.  The  third  is  directed  to  Gai- 
us,  the  Latin  Caius,  whom  John  praises  for 
his  fidelity  and  hospitality,  and  exhorts  to 
persevere  in  every  good  work.  The  Rev- 
elation and  epistles  of  John,  it  is  generally 
believed,  were  written  at  Ephesus  about 
96-98  A.  D.  They  are  the  latest  books  of 
the  New  Testament  canon,  which,  as  the 
last  surviving  apostle,  he  must  have  greatly 
aided  in  settling. 

III.  Surnamed  M.\rk.     See  Mark. 

IV.  A  kinsman  of  Annas  the  high-priest, 
Acts  4:6. 

JOK'MEAM,  assembled  by  the  people,  a 
citvof  Kohathite  Levites  in  Ephraim,  i  Chr. 
6:68,  called  Kibzaim  in  Josh.  21:22,  and 
Jokneam  in  A.  V.,  i  Kin.  4:12. 

iOK'U'E.Mn..  possessed  by  the  people,  a  city 
of  Zebulun,  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Le- 
vites, Josh.   19:11;  21:34.     See  also  Josh. 


JOK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JON 


12:22.     It  is  now  Tell  Kaimon,  a  height 
near  the  east  end  of  Mount  Carmel. 

JOK' SHAN,  fowler,  the  2d  son  of  Abra- 
ham and  Keturah,  ancestor  of  the  Sabeans 
and  Dedanites  of  Southern  Arabia,  Gen. 

25:1-3- 

JOK'TAN,  di»iinished,  son  of  Eber,  and 
by  him  connected  with  the  Hebrews  and 
other  Shemite  families,  Gen.  10:25-30; 
I  Chr.  1 :  19-23.  He  had  13  sons,  and  is 
believed  to  be  the  Kahtan,  or  Yektan,  to 
whom  Arabian  writers  trace  their  purest 
and  most  ancient  genealogies,  in  Arabia 
Felix. 

JOK'THEEL,  subdued  by  God,  I.,  a  city 
in  the  Shephelah  or  low  land  of  Judah,  now 
Keitulaneh,   not   far    from   Lachish,  Josh. 

15:38- 

n.  A  name  given  to  Sela  by  Amaziah, 
who  subjugated  Edom  for  80  years,  2  Kin. 
14:7;  16:6;  2  Chr.  28:17.     See  Sela. 

JO'NA,  in  R.  V.  Jo'nah,  the  father  of 
Simon  Peter,  Matt.  16: 17,  Bar  meaning  son. 
In  John  1 : 42  he  is  called  John  in  R.  V. 

JON'ADAB,  God  is  liberal,  I.,  a  son  of 
Shinieah,  the  cunning  and  unprincipled 
nephew  of  David,  and  the  false  friend  of 
Amnon,  2  Sam.  13:3-5.  He  seems  to  have 
been  long  aware  of  the  purpose  of  Absa- 
lom to  avenge  his  sister's  dishonor  upon 
Amnon,  and  verj^  coolly  excused  the  assas- 
sination of  his  friend,  ver.  32-35. 

II.  A  son  of  Rechab,  a  Kenite,  descend- 
ed from  Hobabthe  brother-in-law  of  Moses. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  the  Rechabites  in 
the  time  of  Jehu,  and  seems  to  have  given 
them  a  command  to  abstain  from  wine, 
I  Chr.  2:55;  Jer.  35:6-19.  See  Rech.\- 
BiTES.  Jehu  invited  him,  as  a  man  of  in- 
fluence, to  witness  his  "  zeal  for  the  Lord  " 
in  the  slaughter  of  Baal-worshippers,  2  Kin. 
10:15-23. 

JO'NAH,  a  dove,  the  son  of  Amittai,  and 
5th  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  a  native  of 
Gath-hepher,  in  Zebulun,  2  Kin.  14:25.  Be- 
ing ordered  of  God  to  prophesy  against 
Nineveh,  probably  in  or  before  the  reign 
of  Jeroboam  II.,  which  began  825  B.  C, 
he  endeavored  to  evade  the  command  by 
embarking  at  Joppa  for  Tarshish,  in  order 
to  fly  as  far  as  possible  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. Compare  Gen.  3:8-10;  Psa.  139:7- 
12;  Jer.  23:24.  But  being  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  he  was  thrown  overboard  at  his  own 
request,  and  miraculouslj'  preserved  by  be- 
ing swallowed  by  a  large  fish.  See  Whale. 
Several  Greek  and  Roman  legends  seem 
to  have  been  borrowed  from  this  source. 
After  3  days,  typical  of  our  Saviour's  stay 

19 


in  the  tomb,  Luke  11:29-32;  i  Cor.  15:4, 
the  fish  cast  Jonah  out  upon  the  shore,  per- 
haps near  Zidon ;  the  word  of  the  Lord  a 
2d  time  directed  him  to  go  to  Nineveh,  and 
he  obeyed.  The  allusions  of  the  narrative 
to  the  vast  extent  and  population  of  this 
city  are  confirmed  by  other  ancient  ac- 
counts and  by  modern  investigations.  See 
Nineveh.  Jonah's  miraculous  deliverance 
seems  to  have  been  known,  and  to  have 
prepared  the  way  for  his  mission,  Luke 
II  :3o;  at  the  warning  word  of  the  prophet 
the  king  proclaimed  a  rigid  fast,  the  Nine- 
vites  repented,  and  the  destruction  threat- 
ened was  postponed;  but  the  feelings  of 
Jonah  at  seeing  his  predictions  unfulfilled 
and  the  enemies  of  God's  people  spared 
for  the  time,  rendered  necessary  a  further 
exercise  of  the  forbearance  of  God  to  him. 
See  Gourd.  The  general  opinion  of  com- 
mentators is  that  in  point  of  time  Jonah 
was  the  ist  of  the  canonical  prophets,  and 
had  prophesied  in  Israel  manj^  years  be- 
fore he  was  sent  to  Nineveh. 

The  literal  truth  of  the  narrative  is  es- 
tablished by  our  Saviour's  repeated  quota- 
tions. Matt.  12:39-41;  16:4;  Luke  11:29-32. 
It  is  highly  instructive,  as  showing  that  the 
providential  government  of  God  extends  to 
all  heathen  nations,  and  that  his  grace  has 
never  been  confined  to  his  covenant  peo- 
ple. , 

JO'NAN,  in  R.  V.  Jo'nam,  God-given,  an 
ancestor  of  Christ,  Luke  3:30. 

JO'NAS,  Greek  form  of  Jona  or  Jonah, 
given,  I.,  to  the  prophet  Jonah,  Matt.  12:39- 
41;  16:4;  Luke  11:29-32. 

II.  The  father  of  Peter  and  Andrew,  John 
21:15-17,  called  John  in  R.  V.  He  was 
probably  a  fisherman  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

JO'NATH-ELEM-RECHO'KIM,  the  dave 
diimb  among  stratigers,  title  of  Psalm  56, 
perhaps  written  at  Gath  to  a  plaintive  mel- 
ody expressive  of  the  feelings  of  an  exile 
from  home  and  the  temple. 

JON'ATHAN,  the  gift  of  fehovah,  I.,  a 
Levite,  son  of  Gershom,  who  after  the  death 
of  Joshua  impiously  served  as  a  priest,  first 
to  Micah,  and  then  to  the  Danites  in  Laish 
or  Dan,  where  his  posterity  succeeded  him 
for  a  long  period,  Judg.  17;  18. 

II.  The  eldest  of  the  4  sons  of  Saul,  i  Chr. 
8:33,  and  one  of  the  loveliest  characters  in 
Old  Testament  history.  The  narrative  of 
his  brilliant  exploit  in  Michmash,  i  Sam. 
13  and  14,  illustrates  his  pious  faith,  his 
bravery  (see  also  i  Sam.  13:3,  when  he  was 
about  30  years  old),  and  the  favor  borne 
him  by  the  people,  who  would  not  suffer 

289 


JOP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOP 


him  to  be  put  to  death  in  consequence  of 
Saul's  fooUsh  vow.  This  valiant  and  gen- 
erous prince,  "  strong  like  a  lion  and  swift 
like  an  eagle,"  2  Sam.  i  ;23,  loved  David  as 
his  own  soul,  i  Sam.  18:1-4;  19:2;  20;  and 
though  convinced  that  his  friend  was  cho- 
sen of  God  for  the  throne,  nobly  yielded  his 
own  pretensions,  and  reconciled  fidelity  to 
his  father  with  the  most  pure  and  disinter- 
ested friendship  for  David,  i  Sam.  23: 16-18. 
He  was  a  type  of  the  faithful  and  cove- 
nant-keeping friends  of  God,  while  Saul 
was  a  type  of  false  and  apostate  Israel. 
He  perished  with  his  father,  in  battle  with 
the  Philistines  at  Mount  Gilboa;  and  noth- 
ing can  surpass  the  beauty  and  pathos  of 


the  elegy  in  which  David  laments  his  friend, 
2  Sam.  I,  whose  only  son  Mephibosheth 
he  afterwards  sought  out  and  befriended, 
2  Sam.  9. 

HI.  David's  nephew,  son  of  Shimeah, 
2  Sam.  2i;2i;  i  Chr.  20:7.  Perhaps  Da- 
vid's "  uncle,"  /.  c,  relative,  in  i  Chr.  27:32. 

IV.  Son  of  Abiathar  the  high-priest,  a 
swift  and  faithful  messenger,  2  Sam.  15:27, 
36;  17:15-21;  1  Kin.  1:41-49. 

V.  Son  and  successor  of  Joiada  the  high- 
priest,  Neh.  12:11. 

Eight  others  are  named  in  2  Sam.  23:32 
with  I  Chr.  1 1 :  34 ;  i  Chr.  2 :  32,  12,  \  Ezra 
8:6;  10: 15;  Neh.  12: 14,  35;  Jer.  37:15,  20; 
40:8.     Compare  2  Kin.  25:23. 


YAFA,  THE   MODERN   JOPPA,  FROM   THE   NORTH. 


JOP'PA,  Hebrew  Japho,  beauty,  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  seaports  in  the  world.  It 
was  a  border  town  of  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
Josh.  19:46;  Judg.  5: 17,  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  30  miles  south  of  Caesarea, 
and  about  35  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  Its 
harbor  is  shoal  and  unprotected  from  the 
winds;  but  on  account  of  its  convenience 
to  Jerusalem,  it  became  the  principal  port 
of  Judaea,  and  is  still  the  great  landing- 
place  of  pilgrims.  Here  the  materials  for 
building  both  the  ist  and  the  2d  temple, 
sent  from  Lebanon  and  Tyre,  were  landed, 
2  Chr.  2:16;  Ezra  y.-].  Here  Jonah  em- 
barked for  Tarshish.  Here,  too,  Peter 
raised  Dorcas  from  the  dead,  and  in  the 
house  of  Simon  the  tanner,  by  the  seaside, 
was  taught  by  a  heavenly  vision  that  salva- 
290 


tion  was  for  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews,  Acts 
9-1 1.  Joppa  was  twice  destroyed  by  the 
Romans,  under  Cestius  and  Vespasian, 
having  become  a  den  of  pirates.  It  was 
the  seat  of  a  Christian  church  for  some 
centuries  after  Constantine.  During  the 
Crusades  it  several  times  changed  hands; 
and  in  modern  times,  1799,  it  was  stormed 
and  sacked  by  the  French,  and  1,200  Turk- 
ish prisoners,  said  to  have  broken  their 
parole,  were  put  to  death. 

The  present  town  of  Jaffa,  or  Yafa,  is  sit- 
uated on  a  promontory  jutting  out  into  the 
sea,  rising  to  the  height  of  about  150  feet, 
crowned  with  a  fortress,  and  offering  on 
all  sides  picturesque  and  varied  prospects. 
Towards  the  west  is  extended  the  open 
sea  ;  towards  the  south  are  spread  the  fer- 


JOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOR 


tile  plains  of  Philistia,  reaching  as  far  as 
Gaza ;  towards  the  north,  as  far  as  Carmel, 
the  flowery  meads  of  Sharon  present  them- 
selves ;  and  to  the  east  the  hills  of  Ephraim 
and  Judah  raise  their  towering  heads.  The 
town  is  walled  round  on  the  south  and 
east,  towards  the  land,  and  partially  so  on 
the  north  and  west,  towards  the  sea.  Its 
environs,  away  from  the  sand-hills  of  the 
shore,  are  full  of  gardens  and  orchards. 
From  the  sea  the  town  looks  like  a  heap  of 
buildings  crowded  as  closely  as  possible 
into  a  given  space  ;  and  from  the  steepness 
of  its  site  they  appear  in  some  places  to 
stand  one  on  the  other.  The  streets  are 
very  narrow,  uneven,  and  dirty,  and  might 
rather  be  called  alleys.  The  inhabitants 
are  estimated  at  about  15,000,  of  whom 
more  than  half  are  Turks  and  Arabs. 
There  are  several  mosques ;  and  the  Lat- 
ins, Greeks,  and  Armenians  have  each  a 
church,  and  a  small  convent  for  the  recep- 
tion of  pilgrims. 

JO'RAM,  or  Jeho'ram,  exalted  by  Jeho- 
vah, I.,  son  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel  and 
Jezebel,  succeeded  his  older  brother  Aha- 
ziah  in  the  throne,  B.  C.  896,  and  reigned  12 
years.  He  discontinued  the  worship  of 
Baal,  but  followed  the  "sin  of  Jeroboam," 
2  Kin.  3:2,  3.  During  his  reign  the  Moab- 
ites  revolted.  Joram  secured  the  aid  of 
Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  and  after  re- 
ceiving for  his  allies'  sake  a  miraculous 
deliverance  from  drought,  defeated  the  Mo- 
abites  with  great  slaughter,  2  Kin.  3:4-27, 
though  he  retired  without  a  permanent 
conquest.  Not  long  after  he  was  involved 
in  war  with  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria,  and 
Hazael  his  successor;  and  in  this  time  oc- 
curred the  miraculous  deliverance  of  Sama- 
ria from  siege  and  famine,  and  also  vari- 
ous miracles  of  Elisha,  including  the  heal- 
ing of  Naaman,  2  Kin.  4-8.  Joram  was 
wounded  in  a  battle  with  Hazael,  2  Kin. 
8:28,  29,  and  met  his^Jeath,  in  the  suburbs 
of  Ramoth-gilead,  by  the  hand  of  Jehu  his 
general.  His  body  was  thrown  into  the 
field  of  Naboth  at  Jezreel,  and  with  him 
perished  the  race  of  Ahab,  2  Kin.  9:14-26. 
Compare  i  Kin.  21:18-29. 

II.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jeho§ha- 
phat  king  of  Judah.  He  reigned  with  his 
father,  from  B.  C.  889,  4  years,  and  4  years 
alone;  in  all  8  years.  Unhappily  he  was 
married  to  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab  and 
Jezebel,  whose  evil  influence  did  much  to 
render  his  reign  a  curse  to  the  land.  He 
slew  his  own  brothers,  5  in  number,  and 
seized  their  possessions.     He  also  intro- 


duced Phoenician  idols  and  their  worship 
into  Judah.  The  divine  wrath,  threatened 
by  Elijah,  was  shown  in  leaving  him  un- 
aided under  a  successful  revolt  of  the 
Edomites,  and  repeated  invasions  of  the 
Philistines  and  Arabians.  His  country, 
the  city,  and  his  own  household  were  rav- 
aged, his  body  was  afflicted  with  a  fright- 
ful dysenteric  illness,  and  after  death  a 
burial  in  the  royal  sepulchres  was  denied 
him,  2  Kin.  8:16-24;  2  Chr.  21. 

JOR'DAN,  descender,  always  "  (he  Jor- 
dan"  in  Hebrew,  except  in  Job  42:23;  Psa. 
42:6,  the  chief  river  of  Palestine,  running 
from  north  to  south,  and  dividing  the  Holy 
Land  into  2  parts,  of  which  the  larger  and 
more  important  lay  on  the  west.  There 
are  2  small  streams,  each  of  which  claims 
to  be  its  source.  One  of  these,  near  Bani- 
as,  anciently  Caesarea  Philippi,  issues  from 
a  large  cave  in  a  rocky  mountain  side,  and 
flows  several  miles  towards  the  southwest, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  second  and  larger 
stream,  which  originates  in  a  fountain  at 
Tell-el-Kad}^  3  miles  west  of  Banias.  But 
besides  these,  there  are  several  mountain 
brooks  on  the  west,  and  especially  a  third 
and  longer  stream,  the  Hasbany,  which 
rises  beyond  the  northern  limit  of  Pales- 
tine, near  Hasbeiya  on  the  west  side  of 
Mount  Hermon,  1,700  feet  above  the  Med- 
iterranean, flows  24  miles  to  the  south,  and 
unites  with  the  other  streams  before  they 
enter  the  "waters  of  Merom,"  now  Lake 
Huleh.  This  marshy  lake,  when  full,  is 
about  7  miles  long,  and  receives  several 
other  but  smaller  streams,  chiefly  from  the 
west.  See  Merom.  Issuing  from  Lake 
Huleh,  the  Jordan  flows  about  9  miles 
southward,  falling  690  feet,  to  the  Sea  of 
Tiberias,  through  which  its  course  may  be 
traced  12  miles  to  the  lower  end.  Hence 
it  pursues  its  sinuous  way  to  the  south,  65 
miles  in  a  straight  line,  till  its  pure  waters 
are  lost  in  the  bitter  Sea  of  Sodom  :  a  won- 
derful transit  within  140  miles  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  snows  of  Hermon  to  the  val- 
ley of  Jericho,  one  of  the  hottest  places  on 
the  globe,  a  descent  of  nearly  3,000  feet. 

Between  these  2  seas,  that  of  Tiberias 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  lies  the  great  valley  or 
plain  of  the  Jordan,  2  Kin.  25:4;  2  Chr. 
4:17,  called  by  the  Arabs  el-Ghor,  the  hol- 
low. Its  average  width  is  about  5  miles, 
but  near  Jericho  it  is  12  miles.  It  is  termi- 
nated on  both  sides,  through  almost  its 
whole  length,  by  hills,  which  rise  abruptly 
on  the  western  border  1,000  or  1,200  feet 
high,  and  more  gradually  on  the  east,  but 

291 


JOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOR 


twice  as  high.  This  valley  is  excessively 
hot,  and  except  where  watered  by  fountains 
or  rivulets,  is  sandy  and  destitute  of  foli- 
age. It  is  covered  in  many  parts  with  in- 
numerable cone-like  mounds,  and  some- 
times contains  a  lower  and  narrow  terrace 
of  similar  character,  perhaps  an  eighth  of 
a  mile  wide.  Through  this  lower  valley 
the  river  takes  its  serpentine  course  in  a 
channel  from  15  to  50  feet  below  the  gen- 
eral level.  Its  immediate  banks  are  thick- 
ly covered  with  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as 


the  willow,  tamarisk,  and  oleander;  and 
often  recede,  and  leave  a  larger  space  for 
vegetation.  In  its  upper  part  it  is  fertile 
and  cultivated,  while  the  lower  Jordan  is 
bordered  by  numerous  canebrakes.  The 
thickets  adjoining  the  river  were  formerly 
the  retreat  of  wild  beasts,  which  of  course 
would  be  driven  out  by  a  freshet;  hence 
the  figure,  "  He  shall  come  up  like  a  lion 
from  the  swelling  of  Jordan,"  Jer.  49:19; 
50:44.  The  channel  of  the  river  may  be 
deeper  sunk  than  of  old,  but  even  now  not 


only  the  intervales  within  the  banks  are 
overflowed  in  spring,  but  in  many  places 
the  banks  themselves,  i  Chr.  12:15.  Lieut. 
Lynch  of  the  United  States  Navy,  who 
traversed  the  Jordan  in  1848,  ascertained 
that,  although  the  distance  from  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea  is  but  65  miles  in 
a  straight  line,  it  is  200  miles  by  the  course 
of  the  river,  which  has  innumerable  curves. 
Its  width  varies  at  different  points  from  75 
to  200  feet,  and  its  depth  from  3  to  12  feet. 
Its  volume  of  water  differs  exceedingh'  at 
different  seasons  and  from  year  to  year. 
The  current  is  usually  swift  and  strong; 
and  there  are  numerous  rapids  and  falls, 
of  which  no  less  than  27  are  specified  by 
Lieut.  Lynch  as  dangerous  even  to  his 
metallic  boats.  The  Sea  of  Tiberias  lies 
6S2  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  the  Dead  Sea  1,292  feet;  hence 
the  fall  of  the  Jordan  between  the  2  seas 
is  610  feet.  The  waters  of  the  Jordan  are 
cool  and  soft,  though  turbid,  and  like  the 
292 


Sea  of  Galilee,  it  abounds  in  fish.  It  is 
crossed  by  an  ancient  stone  bridge  below 
Lake  Huleh,  and  the  fragments  of  another. 
Just  south  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  still  re- 
main. Several  fords,  available  in  ordinary 
seasons,  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  Judg. 
3:28;  12:5;  2  Sam.  17:22-24  :  one  was  over 
against  Jericho,  another  just  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Jabbok  and  another  between 
Succoth  and  Jerash.  Ferry-boats  were  also 
used,  2  Sam.  19:17,  18,  39.     See  Sea,  IV. 

It  was  during  the  annual  "swelling  of 
the  Jordan  "  that  Joshua  and  the  Israelites 
crossed  it,  Josh.  3:15.  Yet  the  swift  and 
swc^len  current  was  arrested  in  its  course 
opposite  to  Jericho;  and  while  the  waters 
below  the  city  rolled  on  to  the  sea,  those 
above  it  were  miraculously  stayed,  and  left 
in  the  river, bed  a  wide  passage  for  the 
hosts  of  Israel.  Twice  afterwards  the  Jor- 
dan was  miraculously  crossed,  by  Elijah 
and  Elisha,  2  Kin.  2:8,  14.  In  its  waters 
the  leprosy  of  Naaman  was  healed,  and  the 


JOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOS 


lost  axe-head  floated  at  the  word  of  Elisha, 
2  Kin.  5:14;  6:6.  Here,  too,  our  Saviour 
was  baptized,  Matt.  3:13;  and  this  event 
is  commemorated,  in  the  middle  of  April 
of  each  year,  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  of 
various  sects  of  nominal  Christians,  who 
on  a  given  day,  and  under  the  protection 
of  a  strong  Turkish  escort,  visit  the  sacred 
river,  drink  and  bathe  in  its  waters,  and 
after  an  hour  or  two  return  to  Jerusalem. 
See  Akabah. 

The  principal  branches  of  the  Jordan  are 
the  Yermak,  anciently  Hieromax,  a  large 
stream,  and  the  Jabbok,  both  on  the  east. 
There  are  several  small  rivulets  and  many 
mountain  brooks,  which  dry  up  more  or 
less  early  in  the  summer.  The  phrase, 
"  beyond  Jordan,"  usually  indicates  the 
east  side  of  the  river,  but  before  the  con- 
quest of  Joshua  it  meant  the  west  side. 

At  the  present  day  the  Jordan  is  lost  in 
the  Dead  Sea;  but  many  have  supposed 
that  in  very  ancient  times,  before  the  de- 
struction of  the  cities  in  the  vale  of  Sodom, 
the  Jordan  passed  through  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  vale  of  Siddim,  and  continued  its 
course  southward  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf  of 
the  Red  Sea.  The  southern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  found  to  be  connected  with 
the  Elanitic  Gulf,  or  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  by 
the  great  valley  called  el-Arabah,  forming 
a  prolongation  of  el-Ghor,  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan.  See  map  in  Exodus.  The 
course  of  this  valley  is  between  south  and 
south-southwest.  Its  length,  from  the  Dead 
Sea  to  Akaba,  is  about  100  miles  in  a  direct 
line.  From  the  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
a  sandy  plain  extends  southward  between 
hills,  and  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  for  the 
distance  of  8  or  10  miles,  where  it  is  inter- 
rupted by  a  chalky  cliff,  from  60  to  80  feet 
high,  which  runs  nearly  across  the  valley, 
but  leaves  at  its  western  end  the  opening 
of  a  valley  nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  which 
runs  up  for  many  miles  to  the  south  within 
the  broad  and  desert  valley  el-Arabah,  upon 
which  it  at  length  emerges,  and  the  water 
of  which  it  conveys  to  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
cliff  above  referred  to,  perhaps  the  Akrab- 
bim  of  the  Bible,  marks  the  termination  of 
el-Ghor  and  the  commencement  of  el-Ara- 
bah, which  is  thence  prolonged  without 
interruption  to  Akaba.  It  is  skirted  on 
each  side  by  a  chain  of  mountains;  but  the 
streams  which  descend  from  these  are  in 
summer  lost  in  their  gravelly  beds  before 
they  reach  the  valley  below;  so  that  this 
lower  plain  is  in  summer  entirely  without 
water,  which  alone  can  produce  verdure 


in  the  Arabian  deserts  and  render  them 
habitable.  There  is  not  the  slightest  ap- 
pearance of  a  road,  or  of  any  other  work 
of  human  art,  in  any  part  of  the  valley. 
The  opinion  that  the  Jordan  formerly  trav- 
ersed this  great  valley  is  rendered  untena- 
ble by  the  fact  that  the  Dead  Sea  lies  nearly 
1,300  feet  lower  than  the  Gulf  of  Akaba, 
and  that  most  of  the  intervening  region 
now  pours  its  streams  north  into  the  Dead 
Sea.  Of  course  the  Jordan  must  also  have 
stopped  there  of  old,  as  it  does  now,  un- 
less, according  to  the  somewhat  startling 
theory  of  Lieut.  Lynch  and  others,  the 
Dead  Sea — and  with  it,  though  less  deeply, 
the  whole  valley  to  the  north  and  south — 
sank  down  from  a  higher  level  into  its  pres- 
ent deep  chasm,  perhaps  long  before  that 
appalling  catastrophe  from  which  Lot  found 
refuge  in  "the  mountain,"  Gen.  19:17-28, 
30.     See  Sea,  III. 

JOS'APHAT,  Matt.  1:8,  Jehoshaphat. 

JO'SE,  Luke  3:29,  Joses;  in  R.  V.  Jesus, 
an  ancestor  of  our  Lord. 

JOS'EDECH,  a  high-priest,  father  of  Jesh- 
ua,  Hag.  1:1.     See  JpiHOZADAK. 

JO'SEPH,  removal  and  increase,  both 
meanings  being  implied  in  Gen.  30:23,  24 — 
the  taking  away  of  reproach,  and  the  hope 
of  another  son,  Gen.  35:17.  He  was  the 
elder  of  Jacob's  2  sons  by  his  beloved  Ra- 
chel, a  son  of  his  old  age,  JH-i^  and  for  these 
reasons,  as  well  as  for  his  admirable  dis- 
position, especially  beloved  by  his  father — 
who  perhaps  intended,  with  the  gift  of  the 
new  robe,  to  endue  him  with  the  rights  of 
primogeniture,  as  the  son  of  his  first  wife, 
in  lieu  of  Reuben  who  had  forfeited  them, 
Gen.  35:22;  I  Chr.  5:1.  He  was  born  in 
Mesopotamia,  Gen.  30:22-24,  B.  C.  1747. 
He  is  memorable  for  the  wonderful  provi- 
dence of  God  which  raised  him  from  a 
prison  to  be  the  grand-vizier  of  Egypt,  and 
made  him  the  honored  means  of  saving 
countless  human  lives.  The  story  of  his 
father's  fondness,  of  his  protest  against  sin 
among  his  brothers,  of  their  jealous  hostil- 
ity and  his  prophetic  dreams,  of  his  sale  by 
his  brethren  to  Midianites  and  by  them  to 
Potiphar  in  Egypt,  of  the  divine  favor  on 
his  pure  and  prudent  life,  his  imprison- 
ment for  3  to  12  years  for  virtue's  sake, 
his  wonderful  exaltation  to  power  and  his 
wise  use  of  it  for  the  good  of  the  nation,  of 
his  tender  and  reverent  care  of  his  father, 
his  magnanimity  to  his  brethren,  and  his 
faith  in  the  future  of  God's  chosen  people, 
is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  instructive 
in  the  Bible,  and  is  related  in  language 

293 


JOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOS 


inimitably  natural,  simple,  and  touching,      much  light  on   the  superintending  provi- 


It  is  too  beautiful  for  abridgment,  and  too 
familiar  to  need  full  rehearsal.     It  throws 


dence  of  God,  as  embracing  all  things,  great 
and  small,  in  the  perpetual  unfolding  of  his 


STORING   GRAIN   IN  GRANARIES. 


universal  plan.  No  narrative  in  the  Bible 
more  strikingly  illustrates  the  protective 
and  elevating  power  of  the  fear  of  God,  and 
its  especial  value  for  the  young.  To  be- 
hold this  lovely  image  of  filial  piety  and 
unwavering  faith,  of  self-control  in  youth 
and  patience  in  adversity,  of  discretion  and 
fidelity  in  all  stations  of  life,  serenely  walk- 
ing with  God  through  all,  and  at  death  in- 
trusting soul  and  body  alike  into  his  hands, 
Heb.  II :  12,  may  well  lead  the  young  read- 
er to  cry,  Oh,  that  the  God  of  Joseph  were 
my  God!  Gen.  2)7 \  39-50.  There  are  sev- 
eral points  of  striking  resemblance  in  Jo- 
seph's history  to  that  of  Christ :  Joseph  was 
specially  beloved  of  his  father,  rejected 
by  his  brethren,  and  a  servant  for  their 
good ;  he  was  obedient  to  the  law,  endowed 
with  heavenly  wisdom,  tempted  of  the 
world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil,  but  victori- 
ous; he  was  imprisoned  for  a  time,  as 
Christ  was  in  the  tomb,  and  yet  e.xalted  to 
bring  the  bread  of  life  and  salvation  to  his 
people.  He  was  about  17  years  old  when 
sold,  30  when  he  became  the  lord  of  Egypt, 
39  when  his  father  and  brethren  came  to 
dwell  in  Goshen.  He  died,  aged  no,  B.  C. 
1637;  and  when  the  Israelites,  a  century 
and  a  half  later,  went  up  from  Egypt,  they 
took  his  bones,  and  at  length  buried  them 
in  Shechem,  Exod.  13:19;  Josh.  24:32.  A 
Mohammedan  sacred  tomb  covers  the  spot 
regarded  generally,  and  it  may  be  correctly, 
as  the  place  of  his  burial.  It  is  a  low  stone 
inclosure,  and  stands  in  quiet  seclusion 
among  high  trees,  at  the  eastern  entrance 
of  the  valley  of  Shechem,  at  the  right  of 
294 


the  traveller's  path  and  nearer  Mount  Ebal 
than  Mount  (ierizim. 

The  history  of  Joseph  is  strikingly  con- 
firmed by  the  Egyptian  monuments,  which 
have  preserved  for  us  very  many  traits  of 
the  national  life  in  that  early  age  just  as 
they  are  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  Bi- 
ble. Joseph  married  the  princess  Asenath, 
daughter  of  Potipherah,  priest  of  On;  and 
his  2  sons,  Manasseh  and  F^phraim,  Gen. 
41:50,  whom  Jacob  adopted,  48:5,  became 
the  heads  of  two  of  the  12  tribes  of  Israel. 

II.  Theson  of  Heli ;  the  husband  of  Mary, 
Christ's  mother.  His  genealogy  is  traced 
in  Matt,  i :  1-15,  to  David,  Judah,  and  Abra- 
ham, and  he  was  recognized  as  of  the  line- 
age of  David,  Matt.  1:20;  Luke  2:4;  John 
1:45.  See  Genealogy.  His  residence 
was  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  where  he  fol- 
lowed the  occupation  of  a  carpenter,  to 
which  Christ  also  was  trained,  Mark  6:3. 
He  was  a  pious  and  honorable  man,  as  ap- 
pears from  his  whole  course  towards  Mary 
and  her  son,  Matt,  i :  18-25.  He  received  4 
distinct  intimations  of  God's  will  concern- 
ing him,  Matt.  1:20;  2:13,  19,  22,  and 
promptly  obeyed  them  all.  Both  he  and 
Mary  attended  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem, 
when  Christ  was  12  years  old,  Luke  2:41-51 ; 
and  as  no  more  is  said  of  him  in  the  sacred 
narrative,  and  as  Christ  committed  Mary 
to  the  care  of  one  of  the  disciples,  he  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  died  before 
Christ  began  his  public  ministry.  He 
seems  to  have  been  well  known  among  the 
Jews,  Mark  6:3;  John  6:42. 

III.  A  native  of  Arimathiea,  but  at  the 


JOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOS 


time  of  Christ's  crucifixion  a  resident  at 
Jerusalem.  He  was  doubtless  a  believer  in 
the  Messiah,  and  "waited  for  the  kingdom 
of  God."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Jew- 
ish Sanhedrin,  and  opposed  in  vain  their 
action  in  condemning  the  Saviour,  Luke 
23:51.  When  all  was  over,  he  "went  in 
boldly  unto  Pilate,  and  craved  the  body  of 
Jesus."  It  was  now  night,  and  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  at  hand.  He  therefore,  with 
Nicodemus,  wrapped  the  body  in  spices  for 
the  time,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  tomb,  Matt. 
27:58-60;  Luke  23:50-53;  Mark  15:43-46; 
John  19:38-42.     Compare  Isa.  53:9. 

IV.  Justus,  a  disciple  of  Christ,  also 
named  Barsabas.     See  Barsabas. 

Si.\'  others  are  mentioned  in  Num.  13:7; 
Ezra  10:42;  Neh.  12:14;  Luke  3:24,  26,  30. 

Joseph  is  also  substituted  for  Joses  in 
the  R.  V.  in  Matt.  13:55  and  Acts  4:36. 

JO'SES,  Jehovah  saves,  I.,  in  the  R.  V. 
Joseph,  one  of  the  brethren  of  our  Lord, 
Matt.  13:35;  Mark  6:^.  Christ's  brethren 
did  not  at  first  believe  on  him,  but  after 
his  resurrection  they  are  found  among  his 
•disciples,  John  2: 12  ;  7:5;  Acts  i :  14. 

II.  A  son  of  Clopas  and  Mary,  identified 
by  some  with  the  above.  Matt.  27:56.  See 
James,  II.  and  III. 

III.  In  Acts  4:36,  R.  v.,  Joseph.  See 
Barnabas. 

JOSH'UA.  I.,  the  son  of  Nun,  a  distin- 
guished leader  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
successor  of  Moses.  His  name  at  first  was 
Oshea  or  Hoshea,  he  saves,  Num.  13:8, 
and  afterwards,  ver.  16,  Jehoshua,  Jehovah 
saves;  in  the  New  Testament,  A.  V.,  he  is 
called,  as  in  Gr.,  Jesus,  Acts  7:45;  Heb.  4:8. 
See  Jesus.  Joshua  was  about  44  years  old 
at  the  exodus,  and  was  early  welcomed  as 
the  special  friend  and  attendant  of  Moses, 
and  his  destined  successor.  He  first  ap- 
pears as  the  leader  of  the  host  in  battle 
with  the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim,  Exod. 
17:8-16.  He  accompanied  Moses  into  the 
fiery  mount,  was  faithful  in  attendance  on 
the  tabernacle  when  Moses  removed  it,  and 
was  uncontaminated  by  the  idolatry  of  the 
golden  calf,  Exod.  24:9, 13-15;  32:17;  33:11. 
By  faithful  service  he  learned  how  to  com- 
mand. He  and  Caleb  alone  of  the  12  ex- 
ploring princes  urged  the  Hebrews  to  enter 
the  promised  land  at  once.  Num.  14:6-10, 
30.  38;  32:11,  12.  Compare  Josh.  14:6-9. 
Chosen  of  God  for  the  service  which  Mo- 
ses forfeited  at  Meribah,  Num.  20:11,  12; 
27: 15-23,  he  was  solemnly  inaugurated  and 
charged  by  Moses,  Dent.  34:9,  10,  and  also 
by  Jehovah,  Josh,  i :  1-9. 


Joshua  led  the  people  over  the  Jordan, 
and  in  6  years  subjugated  Canaan,  from 
Kadesh-barnea  and  Gaza  on  the  south  to 
Zidon  and  Mount  Lebanon  on  the  north, 
though  many  sections  here  and  there  were 
still  in  the  hands  of  the  Canaanites.  Yet 
having  gone  over  the  country  as  a  con- 
queror, he  and  Eleazar  next  apportioned  it 
among  the  12  tribes,  giving  to  the  Levites 
48  cities,  and  designating  6  cities  of  refuge. 
At  the  passage  over  Jordan  he  was  84  years 
of  age ;  and  after  about  26  years  employed 
in  his  appointed  work,  and  then  judging 
Israel  at  his  possession  at  Timnath-serah, 
he  died,  B.  C.  1426.  During  his  life  the  He- 
brews were  preeminently  the  people  of  God, 
Josh.  11:15;  24:31.  His  last  grand  convo- 
cation of  all  Israel,  at  Shechem,  and  his  sol- 
emn address  to  them,  warning  them  against 
idols  in  the  heart,  and  summoning  them  to 
a  fresh  covenant  with  God,  form  the  wor- 
thy close  of  a  life  on  which  in  the  sacred 
records  no  blot  rests.  He  seems  to  have 
served  the  Lord  with  singular  fidelity.  No 
man  witnessed  more  or  greater  miracles 
than  he  ;  and  in  his  life  maybe  found  many 
points  of  resemblance  to  that  of  the  greater 
"  Captain  of  the  Lord's  host,"  who  estab- 
lishes his  people  in  the  true  promised  land, 
Heb.  4:8.  Moses,  the  lawgiver,  led  Israel 
to  the  border ;  Joshua,  the  prototype  of 
Jesus,  brought  them  over. 

The  BOOK  OF  JosHu.v  contains  the  narra- 
tive of  all  these  transactions,  and  was  writ- 
ten by  Joshua  himself,  or  under  his  direc- 
tion, B.  C.  1427.  The  first  12  chapters  nar- 
rate the  conquest  of  Canaan;  the  next  10 
describe  the  apportionment  of  the  land; 
the  last  2  give  Joshua's  farewell  appeals. 
From  ch.  24:27  on,  was  of  course  added  by 
a  later  hand ;  but  all  was  done  under  the 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  2  Tim.  3:16. 
Frequent  allusions  to  its  events  are  found, 
both  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  Psa. 
44:2-4;  68:13-15;  78:54,  55;  114:1-8;  Hab. 
3:8,  13,  and  in  the  New,  Acts  7:45;  Heb. 
4:8;  11:30-32;  Jas.  2:25. 

II.  Son  of  Josedech.     See  Jeshua,  IV. 

Two  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  1  Sam.  6:14;  2  Kin.  23:8. 

JOSI'AH,  whom  Jehovah  heals,  I.,  son  of 
the  short-lived  Amon  and  the  pious  Jedi- 
dah,  and  great-grandson  of  Hezekiah  ;  the 
15th  king  of  Judah  after  Solomon,  and  one  of 
the  noblest  of  the  line.  He  began  to  reign 
B.  C.  641,  at  the  age  of  8  years,  and  reigned 
31  years,  during  which  he  accomplished 
great  reforms  in  the  temple  worship  and 
in  the  religious  character  of  the  nation  in 

293 


JOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOU 


general.  No  king  set  himself  more  ear- 
nestly to  destroy  every  vestige  of  idolatry 
out  cf  the  land.  He  began  this  work  when 
he  was  only  i6  years  old,  2  Chr.  34:3,  and 
at  20  took  the  most  resolute  measures,  ex- 
tending his  iconoclastic  zeal  even  into  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  as  far  north  as  Naphtali, 
2  Kin.  23:15-20;  2  Chr.  34:6,  defiling  the 
altars  of  the  idols  at  Bethel  by  burning 
upon  them  the  bones  from  the  tombs  of 
their  deceased  priests;  as  had  been  fore- 
told more  than  3  centuries  before,  i  Kin. 
13:2.  From  this  epoch  Jeremiah  dates 
some  of  his  predictions,  Jer.  25:3.  In  the 
i8th  year  of  his  reign,  while  they  were 
cleansing  and  repairing  the  temple  at  his 
command,  Hilkiah  the  high-priest  found 
the  temple  copy  of  the  5  books  of  the  law, 
perhaps  the  original  copy  from  Moses'  own 
hand,  2  Chr.  34:14.  The  sacred  book  was 
too  much  neglected  in  those  days  of  de- 
clension ;  and  even  the  pious  Josiah  seems 
to  have  been  impressed  by  the  closing 
chapters  of  Deuteronomy  as  though  he  had 
never  read  them  before.  To  avert  the 
judgments  there  threatened,  he  humbled 
himself  before  God,  and  sought  to  bring 
the  people  to  repentance.  He  assembled 
the  people,  read  to  them  portions  of  the 
book  of  the  law,  caused  tiiem  to  renew 
their  covenant  with  Jehovah,  and  celebra- 
ted the  Passover  with  a  solemnity  like  that 
of  its  first  institution.  But  the  repentance 
of  the  people  was  superficial,  and  did  not 
avert  the  divine  judgments.  Josiah,  how- 
ever, was  taken  away  from  the  evil  to 
come,  according  to  the  prediction  of  Hul- 
dah,  2  Chr.  34:22-28.  He  met  death  in 
battle  with  Pharaoh-necho  king  of  Egypt, 
whose  passage  across  his  territory  to  at- 
tack the  kingof  Assyria,  Josiah  felt  obliged 
to  resist,  not  consulting  Jeiiovah,  nor  even 
the  prudent  counsel  of  Solomon,  Prov. 
17:14;  26:17.  Pharaoh-necho  came  by  sea 
to  Accho,  and  warned  him  "  from  the 
mouth  of  God ;"  yet  Josiah  met  him  on  the 
great  battle-field  of  Esdraelon,  received  a 
mortal  wound  near  Megiddo,  and  died 
soon  after  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem.  The 
death  of  this  wise  and  pious  king  was 
deeply  lamented  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
and  all  the  people.  Jeremiah  composed 
an  elegy  for  their  use,  2  Chr.  35:25,  and 
their  mourning  is  mentioned  in  Zech.  12:10, 
II,  as  a  type  of  the  mourning  of  penitent 
Israel  for  the  Messiah.  His  history  is  nar- 
rated in  2  Kin.  22;  23;  2  Chr.  34;  35,  and 
probably  Jer.  1-12.  Its  unhappy  close  may 
warn  us  against  jiresumption  and  the  pur- 
296 


suit  of  even  good  ends  by  carnal  means. 
During  his  reign  a  horde  of  Scythians 
overran  Western  Asia,  leaving  their  traces 
in  the  city  Beth-shan,  thence  called  Scyth- 
opolis.  In  the  middle  of  his  reign  also 
Nineveh  was  destroyed  and  Assyria  divi- 
ded by  the  Babylonians  and  Medes. 

II.  Son  of  Zephaniah,  Zech.  6:9-15.  In 
his  house  at  Jerusalem  Joshua  the  high- 
priest  was  crowned  as  a  type  of  the  Mes- 
siah. 

JOT,  a  word  which  comes  from  the  name 
of  the  Greek  letteroSra  ( i)  and  the  Hebrew 
j'od  (  T  ).  It  is  the  smallest  letter  of  these 
alphabets,  and  is  therefore  put  for  the 
smallest  thing  or  particle,  Matt.  5:18.  See 
Tittle. 

JOT'BAH,  goodness,  2  Kin.  21 :  19,  the 
home  of  king  Amon's  mother,  probably  et- 
Taiyibeh,  in  Benjamin,  4  miles  east-north- 
east of  Bethel. 

JOT'BATH AH,  goodness,  "  a  land  of  win- 
ter-brooks," Deut.  10:7,  the  34th  and  41st 
station  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  desert,  Num. 
33 '33.  34-  Probably  the  broad  Wady  el- 
Adhbeh,  northwest  of  Elath. 

JO"I*IAM,  Jehovah  is  upright,  I.,  the 
youngest  son  of  Gideon,  who  escaped  the 
massacre  of  his  69  brethren  by  Abimelech, 
and  afterwards  boldly  and  prophetically 
denounced  the  Shechemites  from  Mount 
Gerizim  in  the  beautiful  jjarable  of  the 
bramble  and  the  other  trees.  He  escaped 
to  Beer,  and  probably  lived  to  see  his 
threatenings  fulfilled,  Judg.  9.  See  Abim- 
elech, III. 

II.  The  son  and  successor  of  Uzziah,  or 
Azariah,  and  the  loth  king  of  Judah,  B.  C. 
758.  He  appears  to  have  been  for  sorne 
years  regent  before  the  death  of  Uzziah  his 
leprous  father,  but  ascended  the  throne  at 
the  age  of  25  years,  and  reigned  16  years 
in  the  fear  of  God.  The  history  of  his 
wise  and  prosperous  reign,  his  resubjuga- 
tion  of  the  Ammonites,  and  his  useful  pub- 
lic works,  is  found  in  2  Kin.  15:5,  7,  32-3^; 
2  Chr.  26:21-23  ;  27:1-9. 

III.  Son  of  Jahdai,  tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr. 
2:47. 

JOUR'NEY.  A  "  sabbath-day's  journey, 
among  the  Jews,  seems  to  have  been  reck- 
oned at  about  7  furlongs,  or  nearly  i  mile, 
Matt.  24:20;  Acts  1 :  12.  An  ordinary  day's 
journev  is  15  to  20  miles,  with  a  rest  in 
the  middle  of  the  day.  Persons  starting  on 
a  journey  in  the  East  usually  make  their 
first  stage  a  short  one,  that  they  may  the 
more  easily  send  back  for  any  forgotten 
article  or  supplies.    This  may  perhaps  ap- 


JOY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUD 


ply  to  the  "  day's  journey  "  of  the  parents 
of  Jesus,  mentioned  in  Luke  2:44. 

For  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelites,  see 
Exodus  and  Wanderings. 

JOY,  a  passing  emotion  or  a  permanent 
affection,  more  marked  than  peace,  con- 
tent, cheerfulness,  or  gladness,  and  differ- 
ent from  mirth  or  exultation.  It  may  spring 
from  natural  or  from  religious  sources,  and 
may  be  right  or  wrong  in  its  moral  charac- 
ter. True  spiritual  joy  is  a  "  fruit  of  the 
Spirit,"  Gal.  5:22,  and  is  a  delight  in  God 
and  all  his  works  and  ways — his  word,  his 
worship,  and  his  service,  Psa.  5:11;  43:4; 
Isa.  61:10,  in  Christ,  Phil.  5: 5;  1  Pet.  1:8, 
and  in  all  the  graces,  duties,  promises,  and 
hopes  of  the  gospel ;  so  that  the  believer, 
pardoned  and  in  union  with  Christ,  ought 
always  to  possess  and  show  it,  Psa.  32 : 1 1 ; 
Isa.  35:10;  Phil.  3:1;  4:4,  even  in  tribula- 
tion, Hab.  3:17,  18;  Rom.  5:1-3.  All  other 
joy  is  superficial  and  short-lived.  Job  20:5  ; 
Eccl.  7:6.  Hence  the  chief  thing  on  earth 
that  gives  joy  to  heaven  is  the  turning  of  a 
soul  from  sin  unto  God,  Luke  15:7,  lo. 

JOZ'ABAD,  God-given,  contracted  from 
Jehozabad.  Eight  of  this  name  are  men- 
tioned: I  Chr.  12:4;  12:20,  Iwo ;  2  Chr. 
31-13;  35-9)  Ezra  8:33;  10:22;  10:23  with 
Neh.  8:7. 

JOZ'ACHAR,  remembered  of  God,  a  Mo- 
abite,  one  of  the  murderers  of  Joash,  who 
was  slain  by  foreign  hands,  as  he  had  wor- 
shipped foreign  gods,  2  Kin.  12:21. 

JOZ'ADAK,  Ezra  3:2,8;  5:2;  10:18;  Neh. 
12:26.     See  Jehoz.\d.\k. 

JU'BAL,  vmsic,  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah, 
and  a  descendant  of  Cain.  He  invented 
the  lyre  and  the  shepherd's-pipe,  stringed 
and  wind  instruments,  Gen.  4:21. 

JU'BILEE,  a  Hebrew  festival,  celebrated 
in  every  50th  year,  which  apparently  oc- 
curred the  year  after  7  weeks  of  years,  or  7 
times  7  years.  Lev.  25:10.  Its  name  Jubi- 
lee, an  impetuous  sound  or  clangor-,  was 
significant  of  the  joyful  trumpet-peals  that 
announced  its  arrival.  During  this  year 
(i)  no  Hebrew  sowed  or  reaped,  but  all 
were  satisfied  with  what  the  earth  and  the 
trees  produced  spontaneously,  Lev.  25:11, 
12.  (2)  Each  resumed  possession  of  his 
inheritance,  whether  it  were  sold,  mort- 
gaged, or  otherwise  alienated,  25:13-34; 
27:16-24.  Houses  in  walled  cities — not  in 
open  villages — were  excepted :  the  seller 
might  buy  them  back  within  a  year  from 
the  sale,  and  if  he  did  not  they  became  the 
purchaser's  own.  Levites  also  could  buy 
back  their  houses  at  any  time,  and  claimed 


them  without  price  at  the  year  of  Jubilee. 
If  a  man  sanctified  his  land  to  Jehovah,  he 
could  redeem  it  before  the  year  of  Jubilee 
on  fixed  terms,  otherwise  it  remained  sanc- 
tified for  ever.  And  (3)  Hebrew  servants 
of  every  description  were  set  free,  with 
their  wives  and  children.  Lev.  25:39-54. 
This  law  seems  to  apply  to  Hebrew  bond- 
men who  had  not  served  out  their  regular 
periodof  6  years,  Exod.  21:1,  2,  and  had 
not  declined  manumission,  ver.  5,  6.  The 
first  9  days  of  the  Jubilee  year  were  spent 
in  festivities,  during  which  no  one  worked, 
and  every  one  wore  a  crown  on  his  head. 
On  the  loth  day,  which  was  the  day  of  sol- 
emn expiation,  the  Sanhedrin  ordered  the 
trumpets  to  sound,  and  instantly  the  slaves 
were  declared  free,  and  the  lands  returned 
to  their  hereditary  owners.  This  law  was 
mercifully  designed  to  prevent  the  rich 
from  oppressing  the  poor,  and  getting  pos- 
session of  all  the  lands  by  purchase,  mort- 
gage, or  usurpation ;  to  cause  that  debts 
should  not  be  multiplied  too  much,  and  that 
slaves  should  not  continue,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  in  perpetual  bondage.  It 
served  to  maintain  a  degree  of  equality 
among  the  Hebrew  families;  to  perpetuate 
the  division  of  lands  and  households  ac- 
cording to  the  original  tribes.  Num.  36,  and 
secure  a  careful  registry  of  the  genealogy 
of  every  family.  It  gave  an  opportunity 
for  the  land  to  rest,  and  to  the  people  a 
special  time  for  instructing  the  young,  and 
for  the  reading  of  the  law.  They  were  also 
thus  reminded  that  Jehovah  was  the  great 
Proprietor  and  Disposer  of  all  things,  and 
they  but  his  tenants.  "The  land  is  mine; 
for  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with 
me,"  Lev.  25:23.  And  this  memento  met 
them  constantly  and  pointedly;  for  every 
transfer  of  land  was  valuable  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  years  remaining  be- 
fore the  Jubilee.  Though  the  Bible  con- 
tains no  record  of  any  regular  observance 
of  this  Jubilee  year,  yet  it  was  doubtless 
duly  kept,  i  Kin.  21:3;  Ezek.  46:17  (where 
it  is  called  "the  year  of  liberty").  See 
also  allusions  to  it  in  2  Chr.  36:21;  Neh. 
5-3-13 ;  Jer.  32:6-12;  Ezek.  7:12,  13.  The 
Jews  affirm  that  it  was  kept  until  "the  Cap- 
tivity." Isaiah  clearly  refers  to  this  pecu- 
liar and  important  festival  as  foreshadow- 
ing the  glorious  dispensation  of  gospel 
grace,  Isa.  61 : 1,  2  ;  Luke  4:17-21. 

See  also  the  notice  of  a  similar  institu- 
tion under  Sabbatical  Year. 

JU'DA,  I.,  Luke  3:26,  in  R.  V.  Joda,  an 
ancestor  of  Christ,  perhaps   the  same  as 

297 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUD 


Abiud,  Matt,  i :  13,  and  Obadiah,  i  Chr. 
3:21. — II.  Luke  3:30,  in  R.  V.  Judas,  prob- 
ably Adaiah,  2  Chr.  23:1.-111.  Luke  1:39, 
in  R.  V.  JuDAH,  the  tribe.. 

JUD/E'A,  or  Juuk'a,  the  land  of  the  Jews, 
a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  southern 
part  of  the    Holy  Land,   and   sometimes, 
especially  by  foreigners,  to  the  whole  coun- 
try.     In   the  general   division   of  Canaan 
among  the  tribes,  the  southern  part  fell  to 
the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.     The  original 
territory  of  the  tribe  was  an  elevated  plain, 
much  broken  by  frequent  hills,  ravines,  and 
valleys,  and  sinking  into  fine  plains  and 
pasture-grounds   on  the   west   and   south, 
Zech.  7:7.     It  was  a  healthy,  pleasant,  and 
fruitful  land.      The  valleys  yielded  large 
crops  of  grain  ;  and  the  hills  were  terraced, 
watered,  covered  with  vines.  Gen.  49:11, 
12,  and  rich  in  olives,  figs,  and  many  other 
fruits.     See  Canaan.     Its  bounds  are  fully 
specified   in  Josh.   15:21-63,  extending  at 
first  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  by  the 
road   ascending   from  Jericho,  traversing 
Jerusalem  south  of  Mount  Moriah,  and  by 
way  of  Kirjath-jearim  and  Bethshemesh  to 
Jabneh  on  the  Mediterranean ;    and  from 
the  foot  of  the  Dead  Sea  westward  to  el- 
Arish,  "the  river  of  Egypt."      This  lower 
portion,   "the   south    country,"   was  soon 
after  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  Josh. 
19:1-9.     The   larger  and  more   important 
part  of  Judah,  known  as  "  the  hill-coiintry 
of  Judah,"  Luke  i  :39,  65,  lay  south  of  Jeru- 
salem, from   the   heights   overlooking  the 
Dead  Sea  westward  to  the  Mediterranean, 
including  Hebron,  Bethlehem,  and  36  other 
cities,  Josh.  15:48-60.    Indeed  almost  every 
hill-top  now  shows  the  remains  of  an  an- 
cient town.     Towards  the  west  this  region 
fell  off  by  a  range  of  lower  hills  into  the 
lowland  or  Shephelah,  called  in  Josh.  15:33 
"the  valley  "—extending  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean.     It  was  the  prolongation  southerly 
of  the  fertile  plain  of  Sharon,  and  was  the 
granary  of  Judah.    The  42  cities,  with  their 
villages,  named  in  Josh.  15:33-47,  included 
Philistia,  which  see.     "The  ivilderness  of 
Jiidcca"  in  which  John  began  to  preach, 
and  where  Chrisc  was  tempted,  seems  to 
have  been  in  the  eastern  part  of  Judah,  the 
slope  adjacent  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  stretch- 
ing towards  Jericho,  2  Sam.  15:28.     It  had 
only6  towns,  Josh.  15:61,62,  and  is  still  one 
of  the  most  dreary  and  desolate  regions  of 
the  whole  country,  Matt.  3:1;  4:1.     "The 
plain"  refers   usually  to  the  low  ground 
near  the  Jordan,  2  Sam.  2:8q:  2  Kin.  25:4, 
5.     The  territory  of  the  tribe   may  have 
298 


averaged  45  miles  from  east  to  west  and  25 
from  north  to  south.     With  the  increasing 
ascendancy  of  that  tribe  the  name  of  Ju- 
dah  covered   a   more  extended   territory, 
2  Sam.  5:5;  and  after  the  secession  of  the 
10  tribes,  the  kingdom  of  Judah  included 
the  territory  of  the  tribes  of  Judah   and 
Benjamin,  with  a  part  of  that  of  Simeon 
and    Dan.     Judah  thus    occupied    all    the 
southern   portion   of   Palestine,  while  the 
northern  part  was  called  Galilee,  and  the 
middle  Samaria.      The   population  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  in  its  palmy  days  must 
have  been  vast,  judging  from  the  size  of 
its  armies,  i  Chr.  21:5;  2  Chr.  13:3;  14:8; 
17:14-19;  and  its  wealth  great,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  amount  expended  upon  the 
temple,  and  the  spoils  exacted  by  succes- 
sive conquerors.     Its  area  was  some  4,000 
square  miles.    The  kingdom  endured  from 
the  accession  of  Rehoboam,  B.  C.  975,  to 
the  Captivity,   B.  C.  588,   387  years.      See 
Kings.      After   the   Captivity,  as  most  of 
those  who  returned  were  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  the  name  Judah,  or  Judaea,  was 
applied  generally  to  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine,  Hag.   1:1,    14;  2:2;   and  this  use  of 
the  word  has  never  wholly  ceased.     When 
the  whole  country  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  Romans,  the  former  division  into  Gali- 
lee, Samaria,  and  Judaea  seems   to   have 
again  become  current,  Luke  2:4;  John  4:3, 
4.    Josephus  describes  Judaja  in  his  day  as 
bounded   north   by  Samaria,   east   by  the 
Jordan,  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 
south  by  the  territory  of  the  Arabs.     These 
boundaries  seem  to  include  a  part  of  Idu- 
maea.    Judaea  in  this  extent  constituted  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Herod  the   Great,  and 
afterwards  belonged  to  his  son  Archelaus. 
When  the  latter  was  banished  for  his  cruel- 
ties, Judaea  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a 
Roman   province,  annexed  to  the  procon- 
sulate of  Syria,  and  governed  by  procura- 
tors, until  it  was  at  length  given  as  part  of 
his  kingdom  to  Herod  Agrippa  II.    During 
all  this  time  the  boundaries  of  the  province 
were  often  varied  by  the  addition  or  ab- 
straction of  different  towns  and  cities. 

JU'DAH,  celebrated,  the  same  as  Ji'de. 
JUHA,  or  Jt'OAS,  which  see.  I.  The  4th  son 
of  Jacob  and  Leah,  Reuben,  Simeon,  and 
Levi  being  older  than  he,  Issachar  and 
Zebulun  vounger.  Gen.  35: 23,  born  in  Mes- 
opotamia^ B.  C.  1755,  Gen.  29:35.  His  name 
appears  honorably  in  the  history  of  Jo- 
seph, Gen.  37:26,  27;  43:3-10;  44:16-34; 
46:28;  but  disgracefully  in  that  of  Tamar 
his  daughter-in-law,  Gen.  38.     The  dying 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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benediction  of  Jacob  foretells  the  superior 
power  and  prosperity  of  the  family  of  Ju- 
dah,  and  their  continuance  as  chief  of  the 
Jewish  race  until  the  time  of  Christ,  Gen. 
49:8-12.  Five  sons  of  Judah  are  men- 
tioned, of  whom  Pharez  and  Zerah  were 
most  prominent.  Reuben  having  forfeited 
his  birthright,  Judah  soon  came  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  chief  of  Jacob's  children, 
and  his  tribe  was  the  most  powerful  and 
numerous,  numbering  74,000  adult  males 
at  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  nearly  12,000 
more  than  any  other  tribe.  They  took  the 
lead  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  Judg.  i :  i, 
2,  8-10,  17,  18.  The  southern  part  of  Pal- 
estine fell  to  their  lot.  See  Jud/EA.  On 
the  northern  border  of  their  territory  was 
Jerusalem,  the  seat  of  the  Jewish  worship; 
and  from  Judah  sprang  David  and  his 
royal  race,  from  which  descended  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  world. 

After  the  return  from  the  Captivity,  this 
tribe  in  some  sort  united  in  itself  the  whole 
Hebrew  nation,  who  from  that  time  were 
known  only  as  Judaei,  Jews,  descendants 
of  Judah.  Judah — when  named  in  contra- 
distinction to  Israel,  Ephraim,  the  kingdom 
of  the  10  tribes,  or  Samaria— denotes  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  and  of  David's  descend- 
ants. See  Hebrews  and  Kings.  One  of 
the  principal  distinctions  of  this  tribe  is 
that  it  preserved  the  true  religion,  and  the 
public  exercise  of  the  priesthood,  with  the 
legal  ceremonies  in  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem ;  while  the  10  tribes  gave  themselves 
up  to  idolatry  and  the  worship  of  the  gold- 
en calves. 

II.  Several  other  men  named  Judah  are 
mentioned  in  Ezra  3:9;  Neh.    11:9;  12:8, 

34.  36. 

III.  2  Chr.  25:28,  supposed  to  be  the  city 
of  David,  in  Jerusalem.     See  Jerusalem. 

IV.  A  town  in  Naphtali,  near  Banias, 
Josh.  19:34. 

JU'DAS,  I.,  IscARiOT,  or  "son  of  Simon 
Iscariot,"  R.  V.,  John  6:71,  that  is,  man  of 
Kerioth,  a  city  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:25.  Be- 
ing one  of  the  12  apostles  of  our  Lord, 
called  bj'  Him  as  a  professed  disciple, 
though  with  a  knowledge  of  his  real  char- 
acter, John  6:64,  70,  Judas  seems  to  have 
possessed  the  full  confidence  of  his  fellow- 
apostles,  and  was  intrusted  by  them  with 
all  the  presents  which  were  made  them 
and  all  their  means  of  subsistence  and 
charity;  and  when  the  12  were  sent  out  to 
preach  and  to  work  miracles,  Judas  ap- 
pears to  have  been  among  them,  and  to 
have  received  the  same  powers.     He  was 


accustomed,  however,  even  at  this  time,  to 
appropriate  part  of  their  common  stock  to 
his  own  use,  John  12:6;  and  at  length 
sealed  his  infamy  by  betraying  his  Lord  to 
the  Jews  for  money.  For  the  paltry  sum 
of  about  $15  he  engaged  with  the  Jewish 
Sanhedrin  to  guide  them  to  a  place  where 
they  could  seize  him  by  night  without  dan- 
ger of  a  tumult.  But  when  he  learned  the 
result,  a  terrible  remorse  took  possession 
of  him ;  not  succeeding  in  undoing  his  fa- 
tal work  with  the  priests,  he  cast  down 
before  them  the  price  of  blood,  crossed  the 
gloomy  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  hung  him- 
self, Matt.  27:3-10.  Luke,  in  Acts  1:18, 
adds  that  he  fell  headlong  and  burst  asun- 
der, probably  by  the  breaking  of  the  rope 
or  branch.  The  steep  hill-side  south  of  the 
valley  of  Hinnom  might  well  be  the  scene 
of  such  a  twofold  deatli.  See  Aceldama. 
The  gospel  narratives  seem  to  place  his 
leaving  the  upper  room  before  the  Lord's 
Supper;  and  otherwise  the  time  for  con- 
summating his  treachery  would  have  been 
short. 

The  prophecy  as  to  the  30  pieces  of  sil- 
ver, quoted.  Matt.  27:9,  as  from  Jeremiah, 
is  found  in  Zech.  11:12,  13;  perhaps  Jere- 
miah was  named  as  including  all  the  proph- 
ets, being  placed  at  their  head  by  the  Jews ; 
or  the  passage  in  Zechariah  is  regarded  as 
included  in  the  earlier  predictions  by  Jer- 
emiah of  the  same  general  tenor.  The 
remorseful  confession  of  Judas  was  a  sig- 
nal testimony  to  the  spotless  innocence  of 
Christ,  Matt.  27:4;  and  his  awful  end  is  a 
solemn  warning  against  avarice,  hypocrisy, 
and  all  unfaithfulness.  Matt.  26:24;  John 
17:12;  Acts  1 :25. 

II.  Matt.  1:2,  3,  the  patriarch  Judah,  as 
in  R.  V. 

III.  One  of  the  apostles,  called  also  Jude, 
Lebbaeus,  and  Thaddaeus,  Matt.  10:3;  Mark 
3:18;  Jude  I,  the  son  of  Alphaeus  and  Mary, 
and  brother  of  James  the  Less.  See  James, 
II.  and  III.  He  was  the  author  of  the  epis- 
tle which  bears  his  name,  Mark  6:3,  R.  V. ; 
Luke  6:16;  John  14:22;  Acts  1:13. 

IV.  The  brother  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  27:56. 
Supposed  by  many  to  have  been  only  a 
cousin,  and  the  same  as  Judas  III.,  the 
apostle.  But  his  "brethren"  did  not  be- 
lieve in  him  until  near  the  close  of  his  min- 
istry. See  James,  III.  Hegesippus  relates 
that  2  grandsons  of  Jude  "the  Lord's  bro- 
ther" were  brought  before  the  emperor 
Domitian  and  examined.  They  confessed 
themselves  to  be  of  David's  posterity,  but 
said  that  they  lived  plainly  by  working 

299 


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their  30  acres  of  land,  and  that  Christ  was 
not  an  earthly  but  a  spiritual  king,  and  the 
final  Judge.    They  were  dismissed  in  peace. 

V.  A  Christian  teacher,  or  "prophet," 
called  also  Barsabas,  sent  from  Jerusalem 
with  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  Silas,  to  convey 
the  decision  of  the  council  to  Antioch, 
where  he  faithfully  performed  his  mission 
and  then  returned  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  15 :  22, 

27,  32.  34- 

VI.  Surnamed  "  the  Galilean,"  called 
also  by  Josephus  the  Gaulonite.  He  was 
born  at  Gamala,  a  city  of  Gaulonitis  near 
the  southeastern  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Ti- 
berias. In  company  with  one  Sadoc,  A.  D. 
6,  he  attempted  to  excite  a  revolt  among 
the  Jews,  but  was  destroyed  by  Quirinus, 
or  Cyrenius,  at  that  time  proconsul  of  Syria 
and  Judaea,  Acts  5.37. 

\TI.  A  Jew  at  Damascus,  with  whom 
Paul  lodged.  Acts  9:11.     See  Damascus. 

JUDE.    See  Judas,  III. 

The  epistle  of  Jude,  assigned  conjec- 
turally  to  the  year  66  A.  D.,  is  a  fervid  and 
vehement  voice  of  warning  against  follow- 
ing certain  false  teachers  in  their  errors 
and  corruptions,  and  so  sharing  their  aw- 
ful doom.  It  resembles  the  2d  Epistle  of 
Peter.  As  to  the  quotation  in  ver.  14,  15, 
see  Enoch,  II. 

JUDE'A.     SeeJuD^'A. 

JUDG'ES,  in  Hebrew  Sho'phetim,  were 
rulers,  chiefs,  or  leaders  of  Israel  during 
the  Theocracy,  from  Joshua  to  Saul.  They 
were  very  different  from  the  ordinary  ad- 
ministrators of  justice  among  the  Hebrews, 
respecting  whom  see  Justice.  Their  au- 
thority resembled  that  of  the  Roman  Dic- 
tators, and  was  often  military  more  than 
judicial,  though  Eli  and  Samuel  were  only 
civil  rulers.  The  Carthaginians,  a  colony 
of  the  Tyrians,  had  likewise  governors, 
whom  they  called  Suffetes,  or  Sophetim, 
with  authority  almost  equal  to  that  of  kings. 
The  dignity  of  judge  was  for  life;  but 
the  succession  was  not  constant.  There 
were  anarchies,  or  intervals,  during  which 
the  commonwealth  was  without  rulers. 
There  were  likewise  long  intervals  of  for- 
eign servitude  and  oppression,  under  which 
the  Hebrews  groaned  without  deliverers. 
Although  God  called  forth  several  of  the 
judges,  yet  the  people  usually  chose,  under 
divine  guidance,  that  individual  who  ap- 
peared to  them  most  proper  to  deliver  them 
from  oppression.  There  was  in  fact  no 
central  government:  too  generally  "every 
man  did  what  was  right  in  his  own  eyes  ;" 
and  as  it  often  happened  that  the  oppres- 
300 


sions  which  occasioned  recourse  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  judge  were  not  felt  over  all  Israel, 
the  power  of  such  judge  e.\tended  only 
over  that  province  which  he  had  delivered. 
Thus  it  was  the  land  east  of  the  Jordan 
that  Ehud,  Jephthah,  Elon,  and  Jair  deliv- 
ered and  governed ;  Barak  and  Tola  gov- 
erned the  northern  tribes,  Abdon  the  cen- 
tral, and  Ibzan  and  Samson  the  southern. 
The  authority  of  judges  was  little  inferior 
to  that  of  kings  :  it  extended  to  peace  and 
war ;  they  decided  causes  with  absolute 
authority ;  were  protectors  of  the  laws,  de- 
fenders of  religion,  and  avengers  of  crimes, 
particularly  of  idolatry.  They  were  with- 
out salary,  pomp,  or  splendor ;  and  without 
guards,  train,  or  equipage,  other  than  that 
their  own  wealth  afforded. 

The  command  of  Jehovah  to  expel  or 
destroy  all  the  Canaanites  was  but  imper- 
fectly executed ;  and  those  who  were  spared 
infected  the  Hebrews  with  the  poison  of 
their  idolatry  and  vice.  The  affair  of  Mi- 
cah  and  the  Levite,  and  the  crime  at  Gib- 
eah  which  led  to  the  ruinous  war  against 
the  Benjamites,  though  recorded  at  the 
close  of  the  book  of  Judges,  ch.  17-21,  oc- 
curred not  long  after  the  death  of  Joshua, 
and  show  how  soon  Israel  began  to  depart 
from  God.  To  chastise  them,  he  suffered 
the  people  of  Mesopotamia  and  of  Moab, 
the  Canaanites,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  and 
Philistines  in  turn  to  oppress  by  their  ex- 
actions a  part  of  the  tribes,  and  sometimes 
the  whole  nation.  But  erelong,  in  pity 
for  their  sufferings,  he  would  raise  up  one 
of  the  military  and  civil  dictators  above 
described.  Fifteen  judges  are  named  in 
the  Bible,  beginning  with  Othniel,  some  20 
years  after  Joshua,  and  continuing  till  the 
coronation  of  Saul.  The  recorded  succes- 
sion of  the  judges,  and  of  the  intervening- 
periods  of  oppression,  is  the  following: 

YEARS. 

Othniel,  about  B.  C.  1405 40 

Under  Eglon • 18 

Ehud,  etc. 80 

I'nder  the  Philistines unknown 

ShatTiKar unknown 

Under  Jabin 20 

Deborah  and  Barak 40 

Under  Midian 7 

Gideon  4«> 

Abimelech 3 

Tola 23 

Jair 22 

Under  the  Ammonites 18 

Jephthah 6 

Ibzan  —    7 

Elon 10 

Abdon 8 

Under  the  Philistines 40 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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YEARS. 

Samson  } 20 

Eli  J 40 

Under  the  Philistines 20 

Samuel,  about 12 

Saul,  the  first  king,  B.  C.  1095. 

The  time  from  Othniel  to  Saul,  according 
to  the  above  table,  would  be  some  490 
years,  compare  Acts  13:20;  according  to 
the  received  chronology  it  is  about  310 
years,  of  which  only  iii  were  years  of  for- 
eign oppression.  It  is  supposed  that  some 
of  the  above  periods  overlap  each  other; 
but  chronologists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
mode  of  reconciling  the  accounts  in  Judges 
with  other  known  dates,  and  with  i  Kin. 
6:1  and  Acts  13:20,  though  several  practi- 
cable methods  are  proposed,  the  examina- 
tion of  which  would  e.\ceed  the  limits  of 
this  work. 

The  BOOK  OF  Judges,  the  7th  in  order  of 
the  Old  Testament  books,  contains  the  an- 
nals of  the  times  in  which  Israel  was  ruled 
by  judges,  and  is  often  referred  to  in  the 
New  Testament  and  other  parts  of  the  Bi- 
ble. It  has  3  parts:  Ch.  i  to  3:6  introduc- 
tory; ch.  3:7  to  16  the  main  narrative,  the 
story  of  6  of  the  judges  being  full  and  the 
others  brief;  ch.  17-21  the  appendix,  con- 
taining two  separate  narratives.  The  book 
shows  the  steps  by  which  the  people  came 
to  reject  God  as  their  ruler,  and  appears 
to  have  been  written  before  David  captured 
Zion,  1:21,  and  yet  after  a  regal  govern- 
ment was  introduced,  17:6;  18:1;  21:25. 
Who  was  its  author  is  unknown ;  the  ma- 
jority of  critics  ascribe  it  to  Samuel,  B.  C. 
1403.  It  illustrates  God's  care  over  his 
people,  mingling  his  longsuffering  with 
timely  chastisements.  On  4  memorable 
occasions  the  Angel-Jehovah  appeared  for 
their  deliverance,  Josh.  2:1-5;  6:11-21; 
10:10-16;  13:3-23.  The  period  of  the 
judges  was,  on  the  whole,  one  of  prosper- 
ity ;  and  while  the  providence  of  God  con- 
firmed his  word,  "If  ye  refuse  and  rebel, 
ye  shall  be  devoured  by  the  sword,"  it  no 
less  faithfully  assured  them,  "  If  ye  be  will- 
ing and  obedient,  ye  shall  eat  of  the  good 
of  the  land." 

JUDG'MENT  is  an  act  of  the  mind  in  dis- 
cerning and  forming  an  opinion  as  to  the 
real  nature  of  anything,  or  the  true  charac- 
ter of  any  person  or  act,  Psa.  119:66;  Prov. 
13:23;  Isa.  56:1.  In  this  familiar  use  of 
the  word  we  should  remember  that  the 
judgment  God  forms  of  us  is  unerringly 
true  to  the  facts;  all  disguises  melt  away 
beneath  his  eye,  and  each  soul  appears  as 


it  is,  Gen.  18:25;  Rom.  2:2,  and  we  are 
warned  to  see  ourselves  as  he  sees  us,  lest 
we  be  condemned  at  the  last,  i  Cor.  11:31. 
Judgment  is  often  used  in  Scripture  for 
God's  vindication  of  his  people,  Psa.  37:6; 
76:9,  and  punishment  of  his  foes,  Rom. 
1:32;  2:3,  5.  His  "judgments"  are  his 
laws,  the  declarations  of  his  will,  Deut. 
7:12;  Neh.  9:13;  Psa.  119,  or  signal  chas- 
tisement of  transgressors,  Exod.  6:6;  Prov. 
19:29;  Ezek.  25:11;   Rev.  16:7. 

The  word  judgment  is  put  in  Matt.  5:21, 
22,  for  a  court  of  judgment,  a  tribunal, 
namely,  the  tribunal  of  7  judges,  which 
Josephus  mentions  as  existing  in  every 
city,  and  which  decided  causes  of  minor 
importance.     See  under  Synagogue. 

For  the  expression,  "judgment-hall,"  see 
Pr.«torium. 

The  DAY  OF  JUDGMENT,  for  whicli  the 
word  "judgment "  alone  is  sometimes  used, 
is  that  great  day,  at  the.  end  of  the  world 
and  of  time,  when  Christ  shall  sit  as  judge 
over  all  the  universe,  Acts  17:31,  and  when 
every  individual  of  the  human  race  will  be 
judged  and  recompensed  according  to  his 
works,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil.  It  is 
a  truth  of  revelation,  powerfully  confirmed 
by  the  forebodings  of  conscience  and  by  a 
contemplation  of  the  inequalities  of  retri- 
bution in  this  life.  Various  books  will  be 
opened :  the  book  of  conscience,  Rom.  2 :  15, 
of  God's  providence,  Rom.  2:4,  5,  of  the 
Law  and  of  the  Gospel,  John  12:48;  Rom. 
2:12,  i6,  and  the  book  of  life,  Luke  10:20; 
Rev.  3:5;  20:12,  15.  The  time  of  its  com- 
ing and  its  duration  are  known  only  to 
God.  It  will  break  upon  the  world  sud- 
denly, and  with  a  glorious  but  awful  maj- 
esty. It  will  witness  the  perfect  vindica- 
tion of  all  the  ways  of  God.  The  revela- 
tion of  his  justice,  appalling  but  unstained, 
will  fill  the  universe  with  approving  won- 
der; but  the  revelation  of  his  yet  more 
amazing  goodness  will  crown  him  with  un- 
utterable glory.  The  Redeemer  especially 
will  then  receive  his  reward,  and  be  glori- 
fied in  his  saints,  who  shall  be  raised  from 
the  dead  in  his  likeness.  He  will  divide 
all  mankind  into  two  classes  :  all  the  right- 
eous will  be  in  one,  and  all  the  wicked  in 
the  other;  all  that  love  God  in  the  one,  and 
all  that  hate  him  in  the  other ;  all  that  pen- 
itently believed  in  Christ  while  they  lived 
in  the  one,  and  all  that  died  impenitent 
and  unbelieving  in  the  other.  And  this 
judgment  and  separation  will  be  eternal ; 
the  former  will  rise  in  holiness  and  joy, 
and  the  latter  sink  in  sin  and  woe  for  ever, 

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Eccl.  II  9;  Dan.  12:2;  Matt.  10:15;  12:36; 
25:31-46;  26:64;  John  5:22;  Rom.  14:10- 
12;  2  Thess.  1:7-10;  2  Pet.  2:9;  3:7;  i  John 
4:17;  Rev.  20:12-15. 

JU'DITH,  the  praised  one,  Gen.  26:34, 
wife  of  Esau.     See  Aholibamah. 

JU'LIA,  a  Christian  woman  at  Rome,  to 
whom  Paul  sent  salutations,  Rom.  16:15. 

JU'LIUS,  a  centurion  of  the  cohort  of 
Augustus,  to  whom  Festus,  governor  of 
Judaea,  committed  Paul  to  be  conveyed 
from  CcEsarea  to  Rome.  Julius  had  great 
regard  for  Paul.  He  suffered  him  to  land 
at  Sidon  and  visit  his  friends;  and  at  Mal- 
ta opposed  the  violence  of  the  soldiers, 
directed  against  the  prisoners  generally, 
in  order  to  save  the  apostle.  Acts  27. 

JU'NIAS,  Rom.  16:7,  A.  V.  JuNiA,  one  of 
Paul's  "  kinsmen  " — perhaps  only  country- 
men, Rom.  9:3 — at  Rome,  an  earlier  disci- 
ple of  Christ  than  he. 


GENISTA   MONOSPERMA,  OR   R^T/EM. 

JU'NIPER  is  found  in  the  English  Bible, 
I  Kin.  19:4,  5;  Job  30:4;  Psa.  120:4.  The 
Hebrew  word,  however,  signifies  the  plant 
Genista,  or  Spanish  broom,  which  is  com- 
mon in  the  desert  regions  of  Arabia,  and 
has  snow-white  blossoms,  streaked  with 
purple,  and  a  bitter  root.  The  Arabs  call 
it  the  retem.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  8  or 
10  feet,  and  is  highly  prized  in  the  desert 
as  food  for  sheep  and  goats,  fuel,  and  shel- 
ter from  sun  and  wind.     See  Rithmah. 

JU'PITER,  the  supreme  god  of  the  heath- 
en Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was  called 
the  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  and  was  said 
302 


to  have  been  born  in  Crete.  The  charac- 
ter attributed  to  him  in  pagan  mythology 
was  a  compound  of  all  that  is  wicked,  ob- 
scene, and  beastly  in  the  catalogue  of  hu- 
man crime,  though  he  was  ever  described 
as  of  noble  and  dignified  appearance  and 
bearing.  Hence,  after  the  miraculous  cure 
of  the  impotent  man  at  Lystra,  the  super- 
stitious populace  recognizing  a  superhu- 
man power,  called  Barnabas  Jupiter,  and 
Paul  Mercury,  and  sought  to  worship  them. 
Acts  14:11-13.  The  Ephesians  imagined 
that  their  wooden  image  of  Diana  was  sent 
down  to  them  by  Jupiter,  Acts  19:35.  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  polluted  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  by  sacrificing  swine  on  the  altar, 
and  changed  it  to  a  temple  of  Olympian 
Jupiter.  This  idol-altar  and  image  were 
supposed  by  the  Jews  to  be  the  "  Abomi- 
nation of  Desolation "  of  Daniel.  See 
Abomination. 

JUS'TICE,  a  principle  of  righteousness 
and  equity,  controlling  our  conduct,  and 
securing  a  due  regard  to  all  the  rights  of 
others — their  persons,  property,  character, 
and  interests.  It  has  to  do,  not  with  pecu- 
niary transactions  alone,  but  with  all  our 
intercourse  with  society.  It  is  one  of  the 
4  cardinal  virtues,  and  requires  not  only 
that  we  abstain  from  doing  others  any 
wrong,  even  in  thought,  but  that  we  recog- 
nize the  brotherhood  of  all  men,  and  their 
consequent  claim  upon  our  good-will  and 
kind  offices.  It  is  U7ijust  not  to  love  our 
neighbor  as  truly  as  ourselves.  Justice 
forms  a  chief  element  of  the  character  ap- 
proved in  God's  Word;  and  a  truly  just 
man  has  but  to  "  love  mercy,  and  walk 
humbly  with  God,"  to  fulfil  all  righteous- 
ness, Luke  2:25.  Justice  in  magistrates, 
rulers,  and  judges  must  be  fearless  and 
impartial,  and  all  its  decisions  such  as  will 
bear  revision  before  the  court  of  heaven, 
Deut.  1 :  16,  17;  2  Sam.  23:3  ;  2  Chr.  19:6-10. 
Judgment  is  peculiarly  the  prerogative  of 
God,  and  every  earthly  tribunal  lies  under 
the  shadow  of  the  "great  white  throne." 
A  just  judgment  is  the  voice  of  God;  and 
hence  an  unjust  one  is  doubly  hateful  in 
his  sight,  Psa.  82. 

The  word  "just  "  is  often  used  to  denote, 
not  the  natural  disposition,  but  the  charac- 
ter and  condition  acquired  by  grace,  Heb. 
12 :  23.  "  The  just  shall  live  by  faith,"  Rom. 
1:17;  Gal.  3:11.    See  Justification. 

The  justice  of  God  is  that  essential 
and  infinite  attribute  which  makes  his  na- 
ture and  his  ways  the  perfect  embodiment 
of  equity,  and  constitutes  him  the  model 


JUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUS 


and  the  guardian  of  equity  throughout  the 
universe,  Deut.  32:4;  Psa.  89:14;  97:2.  The 
justice  of  God  could  not  leave  the  world 
without  laws,  and  cannot  fail  to  vindicate 
them  by  executing  their  penalties;  and  as 
all  mankind  perpetually  break  them,  every 
human  soul  is  under  condemnation,  and 
must  perish,  unless  spared  through  the 
accepted  ransom,  the  blood  of  Christ. 

The  administration  of  justice  among 
the  Hebrews  was  characterized  by  simplic- 
ity and  promptitude.  In  early  times  the 
patriarch  of  each  family  was  its  judge,  Gen. 
38:24.  Afterwards,  in  the  absence  of  more 
formal  courts,  the  elders  of  a  household, 
tribe,  or  city  were  its  judges  by  natural 
right.  In  the  wilderness,  Moses  organized 
for  the  Jews  a  regular  system  of  judges, 
some  having  jurisdiction  over  10  families, 
others  over  50,  100,  or  1,000.  These  must 
be  chosen  "out  of  all  the  people,"  and 
must  be  "  able  men,  such  as  fear  God,  men 
of  truth,  hating  covetousness,"  Exod.  18:21. 
Compare  2  Sam.  23:3;  Prov.  21:15.  The 
difficult  cases  were  referred  to  Moses,  and 
he  often  sought  divine  direction  concern- 
ing them,  Exod.  18:13-26;  Lev.  24:12. 
These  judges  were  perhaps  the  "princes 
of  the  congregation,"  and  the  chiefs  of  the 
families  and  tribes  of  whom  we  afterwards 
read,  Num.  27:3;  i  Chr.  4:38.  They  had 
their  successors  in  Joshua's  day.  Josh.  24 :  i . 
In  the  land  of  Canaan,  local  magistrates 
were  appointed  for  every  city  and  village ; 
and  these  were  instructed  by  and  coopera- 
ted with  the  priests,  as  being  all  together 
under  the  theocracy,  the  actual  govern- 
ment of  Jehovah,  the  supreme  Judge  of 
Israel,  Deut.  16:18;  17:8-10;  19:17;  21:1-6. 
Their  informal  courts  were  held  in  the  gate 
of  the  city,  as  the  most  public  and  conve- 
nient place,  Deut.  21:9;  22:15;  25:7;  and 
in  the  same  place  contracts  were  ratified, 
Ruth  4:1,  9;  Jer.  32:7-15.  Deborah  the 
prophetess  judged  Israel  beneath  a  palm- 
tree,  Judg.  4:5.  Samuel  established  virtu- 
ally a  circuit  court,  i  Sam.  7:16;  8:1;  and 
among  the  kings,  Jehoshaphat  made  spe- 
cial provision  for  the  faithful  administra- 
tion of  justice,  2  Chr.  19.  The  kings  them- 
selves were  supreme  judges,  with  almost 
unlimited  powers,  i  Sam.  22:16;  2  Sam. 
4:9,  10;  I  Kin.  22:26.  They  were  expect- 
ed, however,  to  see  that  justice  was  every- 
where done,  and  to  be  accessible  to  all  who 
were  wronged.  Frequent  complaints  are 
found  of-  the  maladministration  of  judges, 
of  bribery  and  perjury,  i  Sam.  8:3;  i  Kin. 
21:8-14;  Isa.  1:23;  10:1;  Mic.  3:11;  y:;^. 


There  was  no  class  among  the  Jews  ex- 
actly corresponding  to  our  lawyers.  The 
accuser  and  the  accused  stood  side  by  side 
before  the  judge,  with  their  witnesses,  and 
pleaded  their  own  cause.  The  accuser  is 
named  in  several  places  Satan,  that  is,  the 
adversary,  Psa.  109:6;  Zech.  3:1-3.  No 
one  could  be  condemned  without  the  con- 
curring testimony  of  at  least  2  witnesses, 
Num.  35:30;  and  these  failing,  he  was 
obliged  to  make  oath  of  his  innocence, 
Exod.  22:11;  Heb.  6:16.  The  sentence  of 
the  judge  was  instantly  executed ;  and  in 
certain  cases  the  witnesses  cast  the  first 
stone,  Deut.  17:5,  7;  25:2;  Josh.  7:24; 
I  Sam.  22:18;  I  Kin.  2:24;  Prov.  16:14. 
The  same  frightful  celerity  still  marks  the 
administration  of  justice  in  the  East.  The 
application  of  torture  to  extract  evidence 
is  only  once  mentioned,  and  that  under 
the  authority  of  Rome,  Acts  22:24.  See 
Sanhedrin  and  Synagogue. 

JUSTIFICA'TION,  the  being  regarded  and 
treated  as  if  innocent;  or  acquittal  from 
the  consequences  of  guilt  before  the  tribu- 
nal of  God.  It  is  the  opposite  of  condem- 
nation, and  means  acquittal  and  vindica- 
tion, Deut.  25:1;  Psa.  143:2;  Prov.  17:15. 
The  term  is  so  used  40  times  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  often  in  the  New,  as  in 
Luke  18: 14.  "Justification  by  faith  "means 
that  a  person,  on  account  of  true  and  liv- 
ing faith  in  Christ  as  manifested  by  good 
works,  will  be  delivered  from  condemna- 
tion on  account  of  his  sins ;  that  is,  his  sins 
will  be  forgiven,  and  he  be  regarded  and 
treated  as  if  innocent  and  holy.  Thus,  be- 
sides the  remission  of  sins  and  their  pen- 
alty, it  includes  the  restoration  and  ever- 
lasting enjoyment  of  the  favor  of  God. 

We  obtain  justification  hy  faith  hi  Christ. 
Yet  neither  this  nor  any  other  act  of  ours, 
as  a  work,  is  any  ground  of  our  justifica- 
tion. In  acquitting  us  before  his  bar,  God 
regards  not  our  works,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
but  the  atoning  work  and  merits  of  Christ, 
Eph.  1:7;  Col.  1:14:  Rev.  5:9.  He  was 
treated  as  a  sinner  that  we  might  be  treated 
as  righteous.  "  There  is  therefore  now  no 
condemnation  to  them  which  are  in  Christ 
Jesus,"  Rom.  8:1-4;  the  moment  we  be- 
lieve, our  justification  is  as  perfect  as  the 
infinite  worthiness  of  our  Redeemer.  Its 
validity  does  not  depend  on  the  measure 
of  our  assurance  of  hope,  nor  on  spotless 
holiness  of  life.  Sanctification,  indeed,  or 
progressive  growth  in  holiness,  commences 
simultaneously  with  justification,  and  must 
in  the  end  reach  the  same  perfectness.   Yet 

303 


JUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KAN 


it  is  important  to  distinguish  between  the 
two,  and  to  observe  that,  could  the  behev- 
er's  holiness  become  as  perfect  as  an  an- 
gel's, it  could  not  share  with  the  atoning 
merits  of  Christ  in  entitling  him  to  admis- 
sion to  heaven. 

"  The  best  obedience  of  my  hands 

Dares  not  appear  before  thy  throne  ; 
But  faith  can  answer  thy  demands, 
By  pleading  what  my  Lord  hath  done." 

True  justification,  by  the  gratuitous  gift 
of  the  Saviour,  furnishes  the  most  power- 
ful motive  to  a  holy  life.  It  is  followed  by 
adoption,  peace  of  conscience,  and  the 
fruits  of  the  Spirit  in  this  life;  and  by  final 
sanctification,  acquittal  in  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, and  admittance  to  heaven,  Rom. 
3:20-31;  5;  10:4-10;  Gal.  2:16-21;  Eph. 
2:4-10. 

JVS'TVS,  j'usl,  I.,  a  name  of  Joseph  sur- 
named  Barsabas,  Acts  1:23.     See  Barsa- 

BAS. 

II.  A  Corinthian  convert,  in  whose  house 
Paul  preached.  Acts  18:7.  In  the  R.  V. 
Titus  Justus. 

III.  A  Jewish  convert,  also  called  Jesus, 
a  fellow-laborer  at  Rome  with  Paul  and 
Mark,  Col.  4:11. 

JUT'TAH,  inclined,  a  Levitical  city  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:55;  21 :  16,  the 
modern  Yutta,  5  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
This  is  conjectured  to  be  the  "city  of  Ju- 
dah," Luke  1:39,  where  Mary  visited  Elis- 
abeth, and  John  the  Baptist  was  born. 


K. 

KAB'ZEEL,  gathered  by  God,  a  town  of 
Simeon,  towards  Edom  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
Josh.  15: 21,  where  Benaiah  was  born,  2  Sam. 
23:20;  after  the  Captivity,  Jekabzeel,  Neh. 
11:25.  Robinson  found  a  site  for  it  at  a 
fountain  in  Wady  el  Kuseib,  which  runs 
north  into  the  Arabah  several  miles  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

KA'DESH,  holv,  or  Ka'desh -bar'nea, 
called  also  En-mishpat,  Gen.  14:7,  and  Mer- 
ibah-Kadesh,  Ezek.  47:19,  the  name  of  a 
fountain,  a  city,  and  the  desert  around, 
Psa.  29:8,  in  the  southern  border  of  the 
promised  land.  Josh.  15:3,  23.  It  is  said, 
in  Num.  20: 16,  to  lie  in  the  "  uttermost  bor- 
der of  Edotn,"  and  is  generally  believed 
to  have  been  situated  near  the  great  val- 
ley el-Arabah,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Dr. 
Robinson  found  a  watering  place,  'Ain  el 
Weibeh,  which  he  thought  answers  well  to 
the  indications  in  Scripture,  on  the  western 
304 


border  of  el-Arabah,  about  27  miles  from 
the  Dead  Sea.  Some  later  travellers,  how- 
ever, extend  Edom  westward,  as  including 
"the  mount  of  the  Amorites,"  Deut.  1:19, 
and  find  Kadesh  at  'Ain  el  Kadeis,  some  60 
miles  southwest  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  south- 
east of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  on  the 
border  of  the  wilderness  of  Paran  and  that 
of  Zin,  Num.  13:26;  32:8;  Josh.  15:1-3. 
Scripture  mentions  two  periods  when  Ka- 
desh was  visited  by  the  Israelites  in  their 
wanderings ;  once  in  the  year  soon  after 
they  left  Mount  Sinai,  and  again  37  years 
after.  At  the  first  visit  the  mission  and 
return  of  the  12  spies  took  place,  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  people,  and  their  presumptuous 
effort  to  enter  Canaan  by  the  pass  Zephath, 
immediately  north  of  Kadesh,  Num.  13,  14. 
It  may  have  been  their  headquarters  dur- 
ing the  T,y  years  in  the  desert.  At  their  2d 
visit  occurred  the  death  of  Miriam,  the 
murmuring  of  the  people  for  water,  the 
miraculous  supply,  the  sin  of  Aaron  and 
Moses  in  smiting  the  rock,  and  the  fruitless 
request  for  a  passage  through  Edom,  Num. 
20:1-22.  The  southern  border  of  Judah 
reached   to    Kadesh-barnea,   Josh.    12:22; 

15:3- 

KAD'MIEL,  be/ore  God,  a  Levite  who  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel,  and 
took  part  in  the  rebuilding,  confession,  and 
covenant,  Ezra  2:40;  3:9;  Neh.  7:43;  9:4, 
5;  10:9;  12:8. 

KAD'MONITES,  eastern,  or  ancient.  Gen. 
15:19,  a  tribe  of  Canaanites  who  inhabited 
the  promised  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  about 
Mount  Hermon.  Some  have  fancied  that 
Cadmus,  the  supposed  inventor  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  and  who  came  from  the  East,  was 
a  Kadmonite,  and  the  Greek  letters  are 
obviously  derived  from  the  Phoenician  or 
ancient  Hebrew  letters.  Among  the  Nusai- 
riyeh  north  of  Tripoli  Thomson  found  this 
name  preserved,  and  a  tradition  that  their 
ancestors  were  expelled  from  Canaan  by 
Joshua.  He  also  found  other  fragments  of 
this  aboriginal  people  around  Mount  Her- 
mon. 

KA'NAH,  reedy,  I.,  Josh.  16:8;  17:9,  a 
brook  which  separated  Ephraim  on  the 
south  from  Manasseh  on  the  north.  The 
modern  Wady  Kanah,  a  branch  of  the  Nahr- 
el-Aujeh,  seems  too  far  south.  Wady  Fa- 
laik,  or  Khassal,  reedy,  is  very  small,  and 
west  of  Shechem.  North  of  this  are  Nahr 
Iskanderuneh  and  Nahr  Mefjir,  a  branch 
of  either  of  which,  for  part  of  its  course, 
might  suit  the  case. 

II.  A  town  in  the  northwest  boundary  of 


KAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KEN 


Asher,  Josh.  19:24,  28.  A  village  called 
Kana  is  still  found  7  or  8  miles  southeast 
of  Tyre,  with  ancient  ruins  a  mile  north. 

KARE'AH,  A.  V.  Careah  in  2  Kin.  25:23, 
the  father  of  Johanan  and  Jonathan,  adhe- 
rents of  Gedaliah  for  a  time,  Jer.  40-43. 

KAR'KAA,  or  Kar'ka,  a  floor,  a  town 
centrally  on  the  southernmost  border  of 
Judah,  afterwards  Simeon's,  Josh.  15:3. 

KAR'KOR,  foundation,  a  place  beyond 
Jordan,  where  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  took 
refuge  from  Gideon,  but  were  again  de- 
feated and  taken,  Judg.  8:10.  Apparently 
south  of  the  Jabbok,  and  northeast  of  Rab- 
bath-ammon. 

KAR'TAH,  a  city,  and  KAT'TATH,  small. 
Josh.  19:15;  21:34,  a  city  of  Merarite  Le- 
vites  in  Zebulun;  possibly  el-Harteh,  on 
the  Kishon. 

KAR'TAN,  double  city,  a  Levitical  city  of 
refuge  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  21:32;  also  called 
Kirjathaim,  i  Chr.  6:76;  perhaps  el  Kata- 
nah,  north  of  Lake  Tiberias. 

KAT'TATH,  small.     See  Kartah. 

KE'DAR,  dark,  the  2d  son  of  Ishmael, 
Gen.  25:13,  the  father  of  the  Kedarenians, 
or  Cedrei,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  who  dwelt 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Nabatheans,  in 
Arabia  Deserta,  east  of  the  Red  Sea.  They 
were  a  numerous  and  powerful  tribe,  not 
of  the  best  reputation,  Psa.  120:5,  and  their 
name  Kedar  is  sometimes  put  for  the  whole 
of  Arabia  Deserta  and  its  wandering  in- 
habitants, Isa.  21:16,  17;  42:11;  Jer.  2:10. 
They  were  rich  in  flocks  and  camels,  in 
which  they  traded  with  Tyre,  Isa.  60:7; 
Ezek.  27:21.  They  were  despoiled  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  49 :  28,  29.  Their 
black  camel's-hair  tents  are  a  picturesque 
feature  in  a  landscape.  Song  1:5. 

KED'EMAH,  eastward,  youngest  son  of 
Ishmael,  Gen.  25:15;  i  Chr.  1:31. 

KEDE'MOTH,  beginnings,  a  Levitical 
city  and  pasture-ground,  Deut.  2:26,  in 
Reuben,  Josh.  13:18;  21:37;  i  Chr.  6:79. 
It  lay  on  the  north  of  the  Arnon,  in  the 
border  of  Sihon  king  of  Heshbon,  to  whom 
Moses  sent  an  embassage  of  peace. 

KE'DESH,  sanctuary,  I.,  a  city  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Judah,  or  Simeon,  Josh. 
15:23;  19:9,  probably  Kadesh-barnea. 

II.  A  Levitical  city  in  Issachar,  i  Chr. 
6:72. 

III.  Kedesh-naphtali,  a  fortified  and  Le- 
vitical city  of  refuge  in  Naphtali,  Josh. 
19:37;  21:32;  iChr.6:76.  Barak,  judge  of 
Israel,  was  born  here,  and  assembled  here 
his  forces  for  a  decisive  battle  with  Sisera, 
Judg.  4:6,  10.     It  was  ravaged  by  Tiglath- 

20 


pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29.  It  is  to  be  found  in 
the  modern  village  Kades,  4  miles  west  by 
north  of  Lake  el-Huleh,  on  a  hill  overlook- 
ing the  Jordan  plain.     But  see  Zaanaim. 

KE'DRON.     See  KiDRON. 

KEHE'LATHAH,  or  Kehe'lah,  assem- 
bling, 2ist  station  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
Wanderings,  Num.  33:22,  23. 

KEI'LAH,  citadel,  I.,  a  fortified  city  in  the 
plains  of  Judah,  towards  the  south.  Josh. 
15:44;  see  Keilah,  II.,  which  David  once 
relieved  from  a  siege  by  the  Philistines,  but 
a  part  of  whose  people,  the  Baalites,  after- 
wards sought  to  deliver  him  up  to  Saul, 
I  Sam.  23:1-13.  Compare  Psa.  31:6,8,  21. 
Two  of  its  rulers  helped  to  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem, Neh.  3:17.  It  may  be  traced  at 
Khubbet  Kilah,  8  miles  northwest  of  He- 
bron. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,  1  Chr.  4: 15, 19. 

KELA'IAH,  despised  of  the  Lord,  and 
KELI'TA,  a  dwarf,  a  Levite  active  in  Ez- 
ra's reform,  Ezra  10:23;  Neh.  8:7;  10:10. 

KEM'UEL,  helper,  or  assembly  of  God, 
I.,  3d  son  of  Abraham's  brother  Nahor, 
and  father  of  Bethuel,  Gen.  22:21 ;  24:15. 

II.  Num.  34:24. — III.   I  Chr.  27:17. 

KE'NAN,  possessor,  I  Chr.  i  :2.     See  Cai- 

NAN. 

KE'NATH,  possession,  a  city  of  Gilead, 
captured  and  named  by  Nobah,  Num.  32:42, 
and  Jair,  i  Chr.  2:23;  in  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh.     Now  Kunawat,  in  the  Hauran. 

KE'NAZ,  hunter,  I.,  son  of  Eliphaz  and 
grandson  of  Esau,  Gen.  36:11,  15;  i  Chr. 
1:36,  the  head  of  a  tribe  of  Kenezites  in 
Eastern  Arabia,  towards  the  Persian  Gulf; 
traced  by  some  in  the  Anezeh,  now  a  very 
large  and  powerful  tribe  of  the  Eastern 
Bedouins. 

II.  An  Edomitish  prince,  Gen.  36:42; 
I  Chr.  1:53.     See  Josh.  14:14. 

III.  Younger  brother  of  Caleb,  and  father 
of  Othniel,  Josh.  15:17. 

IV.  Grandson  of  Caleb,  i  Chr.  4:15. 

KE'NITES,  'workers  in  iron,  an  aborigi- 
nal people  who  dwelt  west  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  extended  themselves  far  into  Ara- 
bia Petraea,  Gen.  15:19,  associated  with  the 
Amalekites,  and  Midianites,  i  Sam.  15:5. 
Jethro,  a  Midianite,  Num.  10:29,  was  a  Ke- 
nite,  and  his  family  accompanied  the  Israel- 
ites, and  settled  with  other  Kenites  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  Judg.  1:16; 
4:11;  I  Sam.  30:29;  1  Chr.  2:55.  Heber 
and  the  Rechabites  were  their  descend- 
ants, Judg.  5:24.  See  Jonadab  and  Midi- 
AN.  The  Kenites  of  whom  we  read  appear 
to  have  known  and  served  Jehovah,  and  the 

305 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KID 


whole  tribe  were  friendly  to  the  Hebrews. 
Saul  spared  them,  when  sent  by  Samuel 
to  destroy  the  Amalekites  among  whom 
they  dwelt,  i  Sam.  15:6;  and  David  feigned 
an  attack  upon  them,  but  shared  with  them 
his  spoils,  I  Sam.  27:10;  30:29.  The  Ke- 
nites  denounced  by  Balaam,  Num.  24:21, 
22,  and  dispossessed  by  the  Israelites,  Gen. 
15: 19,  appear  to  have  been  an  older  Arabi- 
an tribe. 

KEN'IZZITES,  hunters,  an  ancient  peo- 
ple of  Canaan,  whose  land  (lod  promised 
to  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  Gen.  15: 19. 
They  appear  to  have  mingled  with  other 
Canaanites,  and  lost  their  distinctive  name 
before  the  time  of  Joshua. 

KEPT,  John  17:12,  safely  guarded. 

KER'CHIEF,  a  rich  and  coquettish  veil 
for  the  head,  Ezek.  13:18,  21. 

KE'REN-HAP'PUCH,  horn  for  paint, i.  c, 
cosmetics.  Job's  3d  daughter,  Job  42:14. 
See  Eyk. 

KERI'OTH,  «■//«,  I.,  probably  to  be  joined 
with  Hazor,  Kerioth-hazor,  a  double  town 
in  the  south  or  Simeonite  portion  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:25;  now  Kureitein,  12  miles  south 
of  Hebron.     See  Juda.s,  I. 

n.  A  strong  city  of  Moab,  north  of  Am- 
man and  southwest  of  Bozrah,  taken  by 
Babylon,  Jer.  48:24,  41;  Amos  2:2. 

KE'ROS,  curi'ed,  among  the  Nethinim 
who  returned  after  the  Captivity,  Ezra 
2:44  ;   Neh.  7:47. 

KETU'RAH,yra^ra«c<?,  the  wife  of  Abra- 
ham, after  the  death  of  Sarah,  Gen.  25:1-6. 
Though  she  is  called  a  "  concubine,"  this 
may  have  been  to  distinguish  her  sons  as 
well  as  Ishmael  from  Isaac  the  son  of  prom- 
ise. Gen.  25:6;  I  Chr.  1:32;  Gal.  4:22,  30. 
Her  sons,  named  Zimran,  Jokshan,  Medan, 
Midian,  Ishbak,  and  Shuah,  were  estab- 
lished by  Abraham  in  the  east  country  out 
of  Isaac's  way,  and  became  the  ancestors 
of  many  Arabian  tribes. 

KEY,  Heb.  npenins^,  Gr.  closing,  Judg. 
3:23-25.  Ancient  keys  were  simpler  and 
clumsier  than  ours,  many  consisting  of  a 
straight  piece  of  wood  or  metal,  from  half 
a  foot  to  two  feet  long,  curved  at  the  end, 
and  having  several  teeth  or  pegs  by  which 
the  bars  of  the  lock  within  were  disengaged, 
Song  5:4,  5.  Some — for  the  gates  of  a  city, 
palace,  or  castle — were  large  and  heavy, 
and  their  possession  was  a  symbol  of  au- 
thority, Isa.  22:22;  Rev.  2>''1\  9- 'I  20:1. 
The  scribes  had  authority  to  teach  reli- 
gion, Luke  II  :52.  Christ,  the  head  over  all 
things  for  his  church,  gave  Peter  and  the 
other  apostles  "  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
306 


of  heaven,"  Matt.  16:19;  18:18,  by  direct 
ing  them  to  open  the  church  to  converted 
Gentiles,  and  by  preaching  to  all  men  the 
forgiveness  of  sin  through  Christ's  atone- 
ment, and  the  establishment  of  his  king- 
dom. Matt.  19:28;  21:5;  Rev.  11:15.  They 
could  only  preach  the  ministry  of  reconcili- 
ation, 2  Cor.  5:18-20.  Hence  the  professed 
"  power  of  the  keys,"  the  authority  of  any 
nominally  Christian  church  to  grant  abso- 
lution, and  thus  perform  a  function  belong- 
ing to  God  only,  Mark  2:7;  Acts  5:31,  is  a 
usurpation  of  divine  rights,  and  an  intru- 
sion between  the  sinner  and  his  all-suffi- 
cient Saviour. 

KEZI'A,  cassia,  the  fragrant  name  of  Job's 
2d  daughter,  Job  42: 14. 

KE'ZIZ,  abrupt,  VALLKV  OF,  a  city  on  the 
east  border  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:21,  per- 
haps in  the  valley  called  Kaazis,  between 
Jericho  and  Bethany. 

KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH,  graves  of  the 
longing,  the  14th  of  the  encampments  of 
Israel  in  the  wilderness,  where  they  desired 
of  God  flesh  for  their  sustenance,  declaring 
they  were  tired  of  manna,  Num.  11:34,  35; 
33:16.  Quails  were  sent  in  miraculous 
quantities ;  but  while  the  meat  was  in  their 
mouths,  God  smote  so  great  a  number  of 
them  that  the  place  was  called  "  the  graves 
of  those  who  lusted,"  Psa.  78:30,  31,  a  mon- 
ument to  warn  mankind  against  the  sin  of 
discontent,  Deut.  9:22;  i  Cor.  10:6.  It  was 
near  Taberah,  Num.  11:3,  4,  northeast  of 
Sinai,  towards  the  eastern  fork  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Num.  10:33;  11:22,  31.     See  Quails. 

KIBZA'IM,  tivo  heaps,  a  Kohathite  Levit- 
ical  city  of  refuge  in  Ephraim,  Josh.  21 :22, 
near  the  Kishon  and  the  boundary  of  Zeb- 
ulun;  compare  i  Chr.  6:68,  where  Jokme- 
AM  is  substituted. 

KID,  the  young  of  the  goat.  Num.  15:11 ; 
I  Kin.  20:27;  Song  1:8,  still  a  favorite  food 
of  the  Arabs,  as  of  old  among  the  Jews, 
Luke  15:29,  and  used  in  sacrifices,  Num. 
7:16,  etc.;  Lev.  4:23,  28;  9:3;  16:5;  23:19, 
etc.     See  Goats. 

KID'RON,  or  Cr'dron,  turbid,  black,  a 
winter  torrent,  and  the  valley  in  which  it 
flowed,  east  of  Jerusalem.  This  valley  be- 
gins a  mile  and  a  quarter  northwest  of  the 
city,  passes  easterly  some  200  rods  north 
of  the  present  wall,  full  of  excavated  tombs, 
and  turns  to  the  south.  Here  it  is  wide 
and  open,  with  olive  and  other  fruit-trees; 
but  as  it  runs  south  between  the  city  and 
Mount  Olivet,  it  becomes  narrow  and  deep. 
Opposite  Mount  Moriah  it  is  a  mere  tor- 
rent's bed,  100  feet  below  the  city  wall,  500 


KID 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KID 


JERUSALEM   AND  ITS  VALLEYS,   FROM    THE  SOUTH;    THE  KIDRON  VALLEY    OPENING    ON    THE    RIGHT, 

AND   HINNOM  ON  THE   LEFT. 


feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  Mount  Oli- 
vet. It  sinks  Still  deeper  as  it  passes  Silo- 
am,  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  the  well  of 
Nehemiah,  and  then  winds  southeast,  in  a 
narrow  and  precipitous  gorge,  through  the 
horrid  wilderness  of  St.  Saba,  to  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  Kidron  is  now  a  wady  rather 
than  a  "  brook,"  its  bed  being  dry  most  of 
the  year;  even  in  the  rainy  season  it  has 
no  constant  stream,  though  heavy  and  con- 
tinued rains  create  an  impetuous  but  short- 
lived torrent.  If  its  waters  were  those 
"  running  through  the  midst  of  the  land," 
which  Hezekiah  stopped,  sealing  its  source, 
"the  upper  spring  of  Gihon,"  and  turning 
its  waters  into  the  city,  2  Chr.  32:4,  30,  this 
would  explain  in  part  its  present  dry  con- 
dition. It  is  crossed  by  a  causeway  and  a 
bridge  of  a  single  arch,  between  St.  Ste- 
phen's gate  and  the  garden  of  Gethsem- 
ane,  where  the  valley,  nearly  level,  is  400 
feet  wide.  By  this  route  probably  David 
fled  from  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:23,  30;  and 
the  Saviour  often  passed  this  way  in  go- 
ing to  Bethany,  Mount  Olivet,  and  Geth- 
semane,  Luke  22:39;  John  18:1,  2.  A  2d 
bridge  crosses  the  ravine  1,000  feet  south, 
150  feet  below  the  city  wall.  The  ravine 
runs  on  500  yards  more  to  the  "  fountain  of 
the  virgin"  and  the  village  Siloam;  then 
passes  the  valley  of  the  Tyropoeon,  sloping 
down  from  the  right,  and  then  the  valley 
of  Hinnom,  200  yards  wide,  below  which  is 
en-Rogel,   now    Bir  Ayfib,  or  Job's  well. 


This  region  is  now  fertile  and  cultivated, 
anciently  "the  King's  Garden,"  Neh.  3:15. 
The  historical  part  of  the  Kidron  is  thus 
about  2}i  miles  long.  Its  sides  are  full  of 
tombs,  ancient  and  modern,  the  Jews  still 
coveting  a  burial  on  Mount  Olivet,  and  the 
Moslems  using  the  city  side  of  the  valley. 
In  this  valley  and  in  that  of  Hinnom,  at 
their  confluence,  kings  Asa,  Josiah,  and 
Hezekiah  destoj'ed  the  idols  and  abomi- 
nations by  which  Jerusalem  was  defiled, 
I  Kin.  15: 13;  2  Kin.  23:4,  6,  12 ;  2  Chr.  29: 16; 
30:14.  See  Hinnom  and  Jerusalem.  Its 
whole  length  in  a  straight  line  would  be  15 
miles,  and  it  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea  south 
of  Ras  Feshkhah,  through  a  gorge  600  feet 
high,  having  descended  3,792  feet.  About 
8  miles  from  Jerusalem  stands  the  Greek 
convent  Mar  Saba,  beyond  which  the  ra- 
vine is  named  Wady  en-Nar,  valley  of  fire. 
See  Sea,  HI.  A  part  of  the  waters  of  the 
ancient  Kidron  were  derived  from  the  tem- 
ple itself,  flowing  down  by  several  chan- 
nels to  the  deep  bed  of  the  brook.  The 
prophet  Ezekiel  makes  use  of  this  fact  in  a 
beautiful  and  cheering  allegory,  foretelling 
the  river  of  divine  grace  that  shall  yet  ren- 
ovate the  world.  The  stream  he  describes 
issues  from  the  temple,  beside  the  altar  of 
God ;  it  flows  with  an  ever-increasing  vol- 
ume; it  carries  with  it  into  the  dreary  wil- 
derness verdure,  fruitfulness,  and  melody; 
and  even  heals  the  bitter  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  itself,  Ezek.  47:1-12. 

307 


KIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIN 


KI'NAH,  an  elegy,  a  town  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (Simeon)  towards  the  Dead 
Sea, Josh. 15:22. 

KINE,  the  old  English  for  cows,  Gen. 
32:15;  41:2-27.  "Milch-kine"  are  milk- 
ing cows,  I  Sam.  6:7-14.    See  Heifer. 

KING,  KINGS.  In  Scripture  the  word 
king  does  not  always  imply  either  a  high 
degree  of  power  or  great  extent  of  terri- 
tory. Many  single  towns,  or  towns  with 
their  adjacent  villages,  are  said  to  have  had 
kings ;  and  many  persons  are  called  kings 
in  Scripture  whom  we  should  rather  de- 
nominate chiefs  or  leaders.  Moses  is  said 
to  have  been  "  king  in  Jeshurun,"  or  Israel, 
Deut.  33:5;  he  was  the  chief,  the  leader, 
the  guide  of  his  people,  though  not  king  in 
the  same  sense  as  David  or  Solomon.  So 
small  a  country  as  Canaan  contained  31 
kings  who  were  conquered.  Josh.  12:9-24, 
besides  many  who  no  doubt  escaped  the 
arms  of  Joshua.  Adoni-zedek,  himself  no 
very  powerful  king,  mentions  70  "  kings  " 
whom  he  had  subdued  and  mutilated.  See 
also  I  Kin.  4:21.  These  kings,  in  many 
cases,  were  no  doubt  like  the  sheikhs  of 
Arab  tribes  at  the  present  day.  In  the  New 
Testament  also  the  title  "  king"  is  applied 
to  Roman  emperors  and  governors,  i  Pet. 
2:13,  17;  Rev.  17: 10,  12;  and  tp  Herod  An- 
tipas,  the  tetrarch,  Mark  6 :  22 ;  Luke  3 :  19. 

The  Israelites  had  no  kings  till  Saul,  hav- 
ing been  governed,  first  by  elders,  as  in 
Egypt;  then  by  rulers  of  God's  appoint- 
ment, as  Moses  and  Joshua;  then  by  judges, 
as  Othniel,  Ehud,  Gideon,  Samuel ;  and 
lastly  by  kings,  as  Saul,  David,  Solomon. 
Being  peculiarly  the  people  of  God,  their 
form  of  government  was  essentially  a  the- 
ocracy. God  prescribed  for  them  a  code 
of  laws  ;  he  designated  their  rulers ;  these 
laws  and  rulers  the  people  were  to  obey 
"  in  the  Lord;"  and  in  all  cases  of  doubt, 
he,  as  the  actual  head  of  the  government, 
was  to  be  consulted,  in  the  spirit  of  the 
words,  "  The  Lord  is  our  Judge,  the  Lord  is 
our  Lawgiver,  the  Lord  is  our  King,"  Isa. 
33:22;  I  Tim.  1:17.  Their  demand  for  a 
king  was  offensive  to  him,  as  an  unbelie- 
ving and  rebellious  departure  from  the  more 
immediate  headship  of  Jehovah,  i  Sam. 8:7. 
Yet  even  under  the  regal  government  they 
were  still  to  regard  him  as  their  king.  Idol- 
atry was  treason  against  the  throne.  Their 
code  of  laws  was  still  his  holy  book.  It 
was  a  prophet  or  high-priest  of  Jehovah 
who  anointed  the  king,  and  placed  the 
crown  upon  his  head  and  the  sceptre  in  his 
hand,  Deut.  17:15,  18-20;  i  Sam.  10:1,  25; 
308 


12:12-15;  2  Sam.  1:14,  21;  I  Kin.  1:39; 
2  Kin.  9:1-6;  11:12;  Psa.  21:3.  By  the  in- 
strumentality of  his  sacred  ministers  God 
gave  such  directions  concerning  public  af- 
fairs as  were  needed  and  sought  for,  i  Sam. 
30:7;  2  Sam.  2:1;  and  these  agents  of  God, 
with  their  instructions  and  warnings,  per- 
formed a  most  important  part  in  the  na- 
tional history,  i  Kin.  20:22,  38;  2  Kin.  1:15. 
So  far  as  people  and  kings  looked  to  God  as 
their  Head  they  prospered ;  and  it  was  for 
lack  of  this  that  they  were  ruined.  Of  the 
2  kingdoms,  Judah  and  Israel,  the  latter 
most  rapidly  and  fully  threw  off  its  alle- 
giance, 2  Chr.  13:4-12;  and  therefore  it  was 
the  first  to  perish,  having  continued  254 
years  from  the  death  of  Solomon,  B.  C.  975- 
721,  with  19  kings  of  9  different  dynasties. 
The  kingdom  of  Judah  continued  387  years 
after  the  separation,  B.  C.  975-588,  having 
been  held  by  19  successive  kings  of  the  line 
of  David.     See  Israel  and  Judah. 

The  table  on  page  309  presents  in  one 
view  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  as  given 
in  the  Bible,  with  the  year  when  each  one 
began  to  reign,  and  the  length  of  his  reign. 
The  chronology  is  that  of  Usher  and  Wi- 
ner, who  nearly  coincide. 

The  Hebrew  kings  were  absolute  mon- 
archs,  though  restricted  in  many  cases  by 
regard  to  religion,  laws,  and  customs,  the 
desire  of  esteem,  and  the  fear  of  revolution. 
They  were  held  sacred,  as  "  the  Lord's  an- 
ointed," 2  Sam.  1:14;  Lam.  4:20.  They 
had  numerous  officials :  recorders  or  chron- 
iclers, I  Kin.  4:3;  scribes,  2  Sam.  8:17; 
stewards,  Isa.  22:15;  36:3;  "friends"  and 
counsellors,  I  Kin.  4:5;  i  Chr.  27:32;  keep- 
ers of  the  wardrobe,  2  Kin.  5:22;  captains 
of  the  guard,  2  Sam.  20:23;  i  Vi\n.  2:25; 
various  treasurers,  i  Chr.  27:25-31;  and 
the  chief  of  the  army,  2  Sam.  ii:i ;  20:23. 
Their  income  was  derived  from  the  royal 
lands,  flocks  and  herds,  from  tithes,  taxes, 
and  duties,  sometimes  from  commerce,  and 
largely  from  enforced  "presents."  They 
employed  the  various  insignia  of  royalty, 
and  had  palaces,  i  Kin.  7:1-12,  court  offi- 
cers, thrones,  royal  robes,  and  golden  uten- 
sils, I  Kin.  10:18-21;  22:10,  crowns  and 
sceptres,  2  Sam.  1 :  10;  12:30;  Psa.  45:6,  sig- 
net-rings, I  Kin.  21:8;  Esth.  8:8,  and  ob- 
sequious service,  i  Sam.  24:8. 

The  two  BOOKS  of  Kings,  in  the  original 
Hebrew  one  book,  contain  a  history  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  intermingled, 
commencing  with  Solomon  and  ending  with 
Zedekiah  ;  unlike  the  books  of  Chronicles, 
which  give  an  account  only  of  the  kings  of 


KIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIN 


KINGS  OF  JUDAH, 

KINGS  OF  ISRAEL, 

all  of  one  dynasty. 

of  nine  dynasties. 

« 

id 

c 

1 

Id 

K 

CONTEMPORAKY    PROPHETS, 

NAME. 

M 

> 

^« 

sz 

NAME. 

X 

KINGS,  AND  EVENTS. 

C 

-S 

B 

^ 

^ 

''^ 

>A 

n 

Q 

iJ 

'A 

0 

I 

Rehoboam, 

17 

975 

975 

22 

Jeroboam, 

I 

I. 

Shishak,  Egypt,  975-953- 

2 

Abijah, 
Asa, 

3 
41 

958  , 
955 

.    954 
953 

2 
24 

Nadab, 
Baasha, 

2 

3 

II. 
II. 

Homer,  950. 

,    930 

2 

Elah,  Zimri, 

4,  5 

11. III. 

f    929 

12 

Omri, 

6 

IV. 

Lycurgus,  923-841. 

L    918 

22 

Ahab, 

7 

IV. 

Ben-hadad,  914-885. 

4 

Jehoshaphat, 

25 

914  r 

1 

1 

J    897 

2 

Ahaziah, 

8 

IV. 

5 

Jehoram, 

8 

892  Ji 

1    896 

12 

Jehoram, 

9 

IV. 

Hazael,  885-845. 

6 

Ahaziah, 
Athaliah,  usurper 

I 
7 

885  1 

r  883 

28 

Jehu, 

10 

V. 

Cartilage  founded,  869. 

7 

Joash, 

40 

878 

1 

**  856 

17 

Jehoahaz, 

II 

V. 

Shahnaneser  II.,  860-824. 

8 

Aniaziah, 

29 

8381' 

J  840 

16 

Jehoash, 

12 

V. 

1    825 

41 

Jeroboam  II. 

13 

V. 

Jonah,  830-815. 

9 

Uzziah, 

52 

810  ' 

.    784 

12 

interregnum. 

Macedon  founded,  815. 
Joel,  812-795. 

Amos,  800-784. 

1    772 

Snio 

Zachariah, 

14 

V. 

Hosea,  786-736. 

L    771 

I  mo 

Shallum, 

15 

VI. 

Shalmaneser  III.,  783-773. 

1 

10 

Menahem, 

16 

VII. 

Pul  invades  Israel,  770. 

10  Jotham, 

16 

758  1 

J    760 

2 

Pekahiah, 

17 

VII. 

Isaiah,  766-698. 

.[ 

f    758 

20 

Pekah, 

18 

VIII. 

Rome  founded,  754. 
Micah,  750-698. 

II 

Ahaz, 

16 

741  ^ 

1    738 

^    729 

8 
9 

interregnum, 
tioshea. 

19 

IX. 

Nabonassar,  747-731- 
Tiglath-pileser,  745-727- 

12 

Hezekiah, 

29 

726  J 

■      721 

Captivity, 

Nahum,  720-698. 

Numa  Pompilius,  715-673. 

13 

Manasseh, 

55 

697  l| 

Sennacherib,  705-^81. 

14 

Amon, 

2 

642  _ 

15 

Josiah, 

31 

640  ■ 

Solon,  638-558. 
Zephaniah,  630-620. 
Jeremiah,  628-588. 

16 

Jehoahaz,  3  mos. 

17 
18 
19 

Jehoiakim, 

Jehoiachin,3mos. 

Zedekiah, 

Captivity, 

II 
II 

609  1 
598  I 
588    1 

Daniel,  606-538. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  605-562. 

Ezekiel,  594-576- 

309 


KIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIN 


Judah.  In  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  our 
2  books  of  Samuel  are  also  called  books  of 
Kingdoms.  The  various  histories  compri- 
sing the  2  books  of  Kings  were  evidently 
the  work  of  a  single  inspired  writer,  and 
not  a  mere  collection.  They  are  believed 
to  have  been  written  before  the  books  of 
Chronicles— which  contain  many  Chaldee 
and  Persian  expressions— and  Jewish  tradi- 
tion confirmed  by  internal  evidence  makes 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  their  author,  B.  C.  620. 
The  writer  probably  drew  a  part  of  his 
materials  from  the  records  of  each  reign 
left  by  contemporary  prophets  and  priests, 
I  Kin.  11:41 ;  14:29;  15:7,  23;  22:45;  2  Kin. 
8:23;  12:19.  See  Chronicles.  They  con- 
tinue the  history  given  in  the  2  books  of 
Samuel,  and  may  be  divided  into  3  peri- 
ods: I.  I  Kin.  i-ii,  Solomon's  reign. — II. 
I  Kin.  12 — 2  Kin.  10,  from  the  division  of 
the  kingdom  to  the  captivity  of  the  10 
tribes. — III.  2  Kin.  11-25,  to  the  captivity  of 
Judah,  and  Jehoiachin's  37th  j'ear — where 
we  find  an  earnest  of  a  still  future  return  of 
God's  favor  to  the  covenant  people.  The 
history  is  not  a  mere  record  of  events,  but 
an  account  of  the  relations  of  the  nation  to 
Jehovah  its  rightful  King,  and  of  his  deal- 
ings with  it  in  his  providence  and  by  his 
priests,  and  especially  his  prophets,  in  ful- 
filment of  his  word  in  2  Sam.  7: 12-17.  All 
these  sacred  annals  are  highly  instructive. 
They  show  us  the  perfect  fulfilment  of  the 
divine  promises  and  warnings  by  Moses; 
and  every  page  confirms  the  inspired  dec- 
laration, "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  be- 
ginning of  wisdom." 

The  book  of  Isaiah  should  be  read  in 
connection  with  the  storj'  of  Ahaz  and  Hez- 
ekiah,  and  Jeremiah  with  that  of  Jehoiakim 
and  Zedekiah. 

The  names  of  Omri,  Mesha,  Jehu,  Mena- 
hem,  Hoshea,  and  Hezekiah  are  found  on 
the  stone  tablets  of  Assyria  and  Babylon, 
containing  the  annals  of  Tiglath-pileser, 
Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Esar-haddon ; 
and  Egyptian  monuments  confirm  the 
Scripture  records  in  i  Kin.  11:19,  20,  40, 
and  the  story  of  Shishak's  conquest  of  Ju- 
dah, of  Assyria's  struggles  with  Egypt,  and 
Babylon's  ascendency  over  both  under 
Nebuchadnezzar.  New  Testament  allu- 
sions to  the  narrative  are  found  in  Matt. 
6:29;  12:42;  Mark  1:6;  Luke  4:25-27;  10:4 
with  2  Kin.  4 :  29 ;  Acts  7 :  47,  48 ;  Rom.  11:2- 
4;  Heb.  11:35;  Jas.  5:17,  18;  Rev.  2:20; 
11:6.     See  also  Matt.  17:3-12. 

KING'DOM  OF  Heaven,  literally  "of  the 
heavens,"  is  an  expression  used  in  the  New 
310 


Testament,  especially  by  Matthew,  to  sig- 
nify the  reign,  dispensation,  or  administra- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ,  Matt.  3:2;  4:17;  13:31- 
47 ;  2  Tim.  4: 18.  It  is  also  called  "  the  king- 
dom of  God,"  Matt.  6:33;  Mark  1:14,  15; 
Luke  4: 43;  John  3:3,  5,  and  of  Christ,  Matt. 
13:41;  Eph.  5:5;  Rev.  1:9.  The  ancient 
prophets,  when  describing  the  character  of 
the  Messiah,  Dan.  2:44;  7:13,  14;  Mic.  4:1- 
7,  and  even  when  speaking  of  his  humilia- 
tion and  sufferings,  were  wont  to  inter- 
sperse hints  of  his  power,  his  reign,  and 
his  divinity.  The  Jews,  overlooking  the 
spiritual  import  of  this  language,  expected 
the  Messiah  to  appear  as  a  temporal  king, 
exercising  power  over  his  enemies,  resto- 
ring the  throne  of  David  to  all  its  splendor, 
subduing  the  nations,  and  rewarding  his 
friends  and  faithful  servants  in  proportion 
to  their  fidelity  and  services.  Matt.  20:21; 
Luke  17:20;  19:11;  Acts  1:6.  Hence  the 
contests  among  his  disciples,  ere  they  had 
fully  learned  Christ,  about  precedency  in 
his  kingdom  ;  and  hence  probably  the  two 
sons  of  Zebedee  desired  the  two  chief  pla- 
ces in  it,  or  those  nearest  to  their  endeared 
Master  and  Lord.  They  afterwards  learned 
that  his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world, 
John  18:36,37;  that  its  origin,  spirit,  means, 
and  ends  were  spiritual  and  heavenly,  Rom. 
14:17;  2  Cor.  10:3-5.  It  has  indeed  its  out- 
ward form,  the  visible  church,  Matt.  13:47, 
and  bestows  on  the  world  the  richest  of 
temporal  blessings ;  but  its  true  dominion 
is  in  the  souls  of  men.  It  embraces  all  who 
by  the  Spirit  of  Christ  are  united  to  him  as 
their  divine  Head  and  King,  to  love,  serve, 
and  enjoy  him  for  ever.  Matt.  18:3;  19:14, 
and  those  only.  Matt.  13:41,47-50;  22:11- 
14;  Luke  13:28,  29;  I  Cor.  6:9,  10;  Rev. 
21 :27.  His  work  on  earth  was  to  establish 
it.  Matt.  3:2.  He  introduced  his  disciples 
into  it  while  on  earth,  and  more  fully  after 
his  resurrection  and  ascension,  John  20:22; 
Acts  2:32-36;  is  "head  over  all  things,"  in 
order  to  make  it  triumphant  and  supreme 
even  on  earth,  Dan.  7:27;  Eph.  1:20-22; 
Rev.  II :  15.  It  will  be  perfected  in  heaven, 
Matt.  8:11,  and  will  never  cease,  Luke  i  .^i, 
even  when  the  mediatorial  reign  of  the  Sa- 
viour is  accomplished,  i  Cor.  15:28. 

See  Old  Testament  predictions  of  the 
Messiah  under  Prophets. 

KINS'MAN  often  denotes  mere  relation- 
ship. Lev.  18:12,  13,  17;  Num.  27:11;  Job 
19:14;  Psa.  38:11.  But  the  Hebrew  word 
GOEL,  redeemer,  designates  one's  nearest 
male  blood  relative,  to  whom  certain  rights 
and  duties  appertained.    See  Redeemer. 


KIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIS 


KIR,  a  walled  place,  I.,  a  strong  city  of 
Moab,  with  a  fortress,  3,000  feet  above  the 
Dead  Sea;  called  also  Kir-hareseth,  Kir- 
haresh,  and  Kir-heres,  Isa.  15.1;  16:7,  11; 
Jer.  48:31, 36.  It  was  once  nearly  destroyed 
by  Joram  king  of  Israel,  2  Kin.  3:25.  It  is 
now  called  Kerak,  and  is  a  town  of  300 
families,  on  a  steep  hill  at  the  head  of  a 
ravine  running  up  15  miles  into  the  moun- 
tains of  Moab.  Three-fourths  of  its  pres- 
ent inhabitants  are  nominal  Christians, 
greatly  oppressed  by  the  Mohammedan 
Arabs  around  them.     See  Mesha. 

II.  A  region  subject  to  Assyria  to  which 
Tiglath-pileser  transported  the  captive  peo- 
ple of  Damascus,  2  Kin.  16:9.  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions record  that  this  region  had  been 
conquered  by  Esar-haddon.  Compare 
2  Kin.  19:37.  It  is  mentioned  with  Elam, 
Isa.  22:6,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  river  Kur  or  Cyrus,  on 
the  northeast  of  Armenia.  The  Kur  flows 
southeast,  unites  with  the  Araxes,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  Caspian  Sea. 

KIRJATHA'IM,  two  cities,  I.,  the  dual 
form  of  Kirjath,  a  city.  It  was  an  ancient 
city  of  Emim,  east  of  the  Jordan;  after- 
wards inhabited  by  the  Moabites,  Amo- 
rites,  and  Israelites  in  turn.  Gen.  14:5; 
Deut.  2:9-11 ;  Jer.  48:1,  23;  Ezek.  25:9.  It 
fell  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Num.  32:37;  Josh.  13:19.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  the  modern  Kureyat,  11  miles  south- 
west of  Medeba. 

II.  A  Levitical  city  of  refuge  in  Naph- 
tali,  I  Chr.  6:76;  called  Kartan  in  Josh. 
21:32. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA,  the  city  of  Arba,  the 
son  of  Anak,  Gen.  23 : 2  ;  Josh.  14:15;  15:13, 
54;  20:7;  21:11;  Judg.  1:10;  Neh.  11:25. 
See  Hebron. 

KIRJATH-A'RIM,  city  of  forests,  Ezra 
2:25;  called  also  Kirjath-baal,  Josh.  15:60; 
18: 14,  Kirjath,  Josh.  i8:28,and  Baalah,  Josh. 

15:9.      See  KiRJATH-JEARIM. 

KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH,  city  of  streets,  a 
town  of  Moab  to  which  Balak  led  Balaam, 
Num.  22:39.     Perhaps  the  same  as  Kir. 

KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM,  city  of  forests.  See 
KiRjATH-ARiM.  It  was  assigned  to  Judah, 
perhaps  in  part  to  Benjamin,  being  on  the 
border-line  of  each,  Josh.  15:9,  60;  18:14, 
15,  28,  and  was  one  of  the  4  Gibeonite  cities 
that  deceived  Joshua,  Josh.  9: 3-1 7.  SeeMA- 
HANEH-DAN.  Hither  the  ark  was  brought 
back  from  the  Philistines,  i  Sam. 6: 21 ;  7:1, 
2,  and  remained  in  the  house  of  Abinadab 
some  70  years,  till  David  removed  it  to  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  and  thence  to  Jerusa- 


lem, 2  Sam.  6:2-12;  I  Chr.  13;  15;  2  Chr. 
1:4.  Compare  Psa.  132:6,  "the  fields  of 
Jearim."  It  was  repeopled  after  the  Cap- 
tivity, Ezra  2:25;  Neh.  7:29.  Its  site  is 
probably  found  at  Kuryet  el  Enab,  8  miles 
from  Jerusalem  on  the  way  to  Ramleh, 
where  are  well-preserved  ruins  of  a  Gothic 
church  of  the  Crusaders. 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH,  city  of  palms,  ]os\i. 
15:49,  and  KIR'JATH-SE'PHER,  city  of 
books, ]osh.  10:38,39;  12:13;  15:15,49,1150 
called  Debir,  which  see. 

KISH,  boiv  or  t7'ap,  I.,  in  A.  V.  Cis,  Acts 
13:21,  the  father  of  king  Saul,  i  Sam.  9:1, 
21;  14:51;  I  Chr.  8:33;  9:39. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin,  i  Chr. 
8:30;  9:36. — III.  A  Merarite  Levite  under 
Hezekiah,  a  cleanser  of  the  temple,  2  Chr. 
29:12. — IV.  I  Chr.  6:44;  15:17;  23:21,  22. — 
V.  Esth.  2:5. 

KISH'ION,  hardness,  a  Gershonite  Levite 
town  in  Issachar,  Josh.  19:20;  21:28,  in  A. 
V.  Kishon. 

KI'SHON,  winding,  now  the  Nahr  el-Mu- 
katta.  Josh.  19:11,  a  brook  which  rises  in 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  near  the  foot  of 
Mount  Tabor.  After  passing  through  the 
great  plain  and  receiving  the  waters  of  va- 
rious smaller  streams  it  flows  northwest, 
along  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel,  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Mediterranean  a 
short  distance  south  of  Acre.  The  supplies 
it  receives  from  the  Carmel  ridge,  see  Car- 
mel, II.,  make  it  a  perennial  stream  for 
about  7  miles  from  its  mouth.  But  all  the 
eastern  part  of  its  channel,  now  that  the 
great  plain  through  which  it  flows  is  un- 
wooded,  is  dry  throughout  the  summer 
season;  and  yet  in  the  winter,  and  after 
heavy  rains,  it  swells  to  a  full  and  rapid 
torrent.  The  drowning  of  Sisera's  host, 
Judg.  4:13;  5:21,  is  paralleled  by  a  simi- 
lar destruction  of  Arabs  fleeing  from  the 
French  after  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor, 
April  18,  1799.  The  Deburieh,  an  affluent 
of  the  Kishon  from  the  northeast,  is  also 
dry  in  the  summer,  but  speedily  becomes 
a  deep  and  strong  current  when  swollen 
by  the  rains  on  the  surrounding  heights. 
See  Megiddo. 

KISS.  This  salutation  was  customary  in 
the  East  to  e.xpress  regard  and  reverence 
as  well  as  affection.  Gen.  29: 13  ;  Ruth  i :  14; 
Song  1:2;  Acts  20:37.  Sometimes  the  beard 
was  kissed,  2  Sam.  20:9;  and,  in  token  of 
humble  affection,  the  feet,  Luke  7:38,  or 
even  the  ground  beneath  them,  Isa.  49:23. 
Mention  is  made  of  the  practice  between 
parents  and   children,  Gen.  27:26;  31:28, 

3" 


KIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KOR 


55;  Luke  15:20,  between  bridegroom  and 
bride,  Song  8.1,  between  near  male  rela- 
tives and  friends,  Gen.  33:4;  45:15;  i  Sam. 
20:41,  or  acquaintances  of  equal  rank, 
2  Sam.  20:9;  Fsa.  85:10;  Luke  22:48;  Acts 
20 :  n,  from  condescending  superiors,  2  Sam. 
15-5;  19:39.  'i"d  from  inferiors,  Luke  7:45. 
Images  and  the  heavenly  bodies  were  wor- 
shipped by  kissing  the  hand  towards  them, 
1  Kin.  19:18;  Job  31:27;  Hos.  13:2.  The 
expression,  "  Kiss  the  Son,"  Psa.  2: 12,  may 
be  illustrated  by  i  Sam.  10:1,  where  king 
Saul  receives  the  kiss  of  allegiance  from 
Samuel.  This  salutation  being  customary 
in  those  days  between  man  and  man,  w-as 
used  in  the  early  church  as  a  pledge  of 
Christian  peace  and  charity,  Rom.  16:16; 
1  Cor.  16:20;  2  Cor.  13:12;  i  Thess.  5:26; 
I  Pet.  5:14;  and  this  custom  was  kept  up 
more  or  less  for  centuries  between  persons 
of  the  same  sex  only,  and  died  out  with  the 
age  of  persecutions. 

KITE,  Heb.  clamorer,  a  bird  of  prey,  un- 
clean by  the  Mosaic  law.  Lev.  11:14;  Deut. 
14:13,  remarkable  for  its  swiftness,  cour- 
age, and  long  sight.  Job  28:7,  in  the  A.  V. 
"vulture."  The  red  kite,  viilvxis  7-egalis,  is 
common  in  Palestine. 

KIT'TIM,  son  of  Javan,  and  grandson  of 
Noah,  Gen.  10:4;  i  Chr.  1:7.     See  Chit- 

TIM. 

KNEAD'ING  was  usually  performed  by 
women,  Gen.  18:6;  i  Sam.  28:24;  2  Sam. 
13:8;  Jer.  7:18,  but  sometimes  by  male  ba- 
kers by  trade,  Hos.  7:4,  as  shown  on  Egyp- 
tian monuments.  See  Bread.  Each  fam- 
ily usually  made  its  own  bread.  The 
kneading-troughs,  Exod.  8:3;  12:34,  trans- 
lated "store"  in  Deut.  28:5,  17,  were  either 
small  wooden  bowls,  or  circular  pieces  of 
leather  which  might  be  drawn  up  like  a  bag 
by  a  cord  encircling  the  edge.  The  Arabs 
of  the  present  day  use  both. 

KNEE  and  KNEEL'ING.  Strong  knees 
betokened  vigor  and  courage,  and  weak  or 
trembling  knees  the  opposite,  Psa.  109:24; 
Isa.  35:3;  Dan.  5:6;  Heb.  12:12.  Kneeling 
was  a  sign  of  subjection,  Gen.  27:29;  42:6, 
or  of  asking  a  favor.  Matt.  17:14;  Mark 
1:40;  10:17,  and  was  customary  in  recei- 
ving a  personal  benediction,  the  same  He- 
brew word  signifying"  to  bless,"  Gen.  27:4, 
7,  10,  19;  Lev.  9:22,  23;  Num.  24:1,  and  "to 
thank,"  Deut.  8:10;  Psa.  16:7.  "To  bow 
the  knee  "  means  "to  worship,"  Exod.  20:5; 
I  Kin.  19:18;  Psa.  95:6;  Isa.  66:3;  and  this 
was  the  customary  posture  in  prayer,  2  Chr. 
6:13;  Ezra  9:5;  Dan.  6:10;  Luke  22:41; 
Acts  7:60;  9:40;  20:36;  21:5;  Eph.  3:14. 
312 


KNIFE  is  used  to  translate  4  different 
Hebrew  words,  and  applied  to  all  cutting 
instruments,  of  flint,  Exod.  4:25;  Josh.  5:2, 
3,  bone,  bronze,  and  iron,  and  of  various 
sizes,  from  those  used  in  the  slaughter  and 
carving  of  sacrifices.  Gen.  22:6,  10;  Ezra 
1 :9;  Prov.  30: 14,  or  for  pruning-hooks.  Isa. 
18:5,  to  those  used  as  lancets,  i  Kin.  18:28, 
and  in  sharpening  reed-pens,  Jer.  36:23. 
They  were  not  generally  used  at  table. 

KNOPS  or  KNOBS,  ornamental  balls  like 
pomegranates,  on  the  sacred  candlestick, 
Exod.  25:31-36;  37:17-22.  In  Amos  9:1  — 
translated  "lintel" — and  Zeph.  2:14,  indi- 
cating the  shape  of  the  capital  of  a  column. 
Another  Heb.  word  describes  the  gourdlike 
ornaments  of  the  temple  walls  and  the  bra- 
zen sea,  I  Kin.  6:18;  7 :  24. 

KO'HATH,  assembly,  the  2d  son  of  Levi, 
Gen.  46: 1 1,  born  in  Canaan,  dying  in  Egypt 
at  the  age  of  133,  Exod.  6: 16,  18.  The  Ko- 
hathites  his  descendants  were  prominent 
among  the  3  divisions  of  the  Levites,  and 
had  the  honorable  service  of  bearing  the 
ark,  the  altars,  the  table  of  show-bread, 
etc.,  during  the  journeys  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  desert,  Num.  3:31,  these  having  been 
previously  covered  by  the  priests,  Num. 
4:4-15.  See  UzzAH.  There  were  4  fami- 
lies of  his  sons,  i  Chr.  23:12,  and  at  the 
e.\odus  his  male  posterity  numbered  8,600, 
of  whom  2,750  were  from  30  to  50  years  old. 
Their  station  in  camp  was  south  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, near  that  of  Reuben,  Num.  3:19, 
20,  27-31;  4:35,  36.  Their  cities  were  in 
Manasseh,  Ephraim,  and  Dan,  Josh.  21:5, 
20-26;  I  Chr.  6:61-70,  and  they  furnished 
judges,  treasurers,  and  singers,  i  Chr. 
26:23-32;  2  Chr.  20:9.     See  Priests. 

KO'RAH,  ice,  or  baldness,  I.,  2d  son  of 
Esau  and  Aholibamah,  a  prince  of  Edom, 
Gen.  36:5,  14,  18. 

II.  A  son  of  Hebron,  tribe  of  Judah, 
I  Chr.  2:43. 

III.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  who  rebelled 
against  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  so  against 
Jehovah.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Moses,  for 
their  fathers  Izhar  and  Amram  were  bro- 
thers, Exod.  6:16-21.  He  was  jealous  of 
the  civil  authority  and  priestly  dignity  con- 
ferred by  God  upon  Moses  and  Aaron,  his 
cousins,  while  he  was  simply  a  Levite;  and 
to  obtain  a  part  at  least  of  their  power  for 
himself,  he  stirred  up  a  factious  spirit  in 
the  people.  Too  much,  alas,  of  what  may 
seem  to  be  zeal  for  the  honor  of  God  has 
its  true  character  displayed  in  the  pride 
and  ambition  of  this  rebellious  Levite. 
Korah  and  the  250  Levites  whom  he  had 


KOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAM 


enticed  to  join  him  were  destroyed  by  fire 
from  the  Lord;  while  Dathan  and  Abiram 
were  swallowed  by  the  miraculous  opening 
of  the  earth,  Num.  i6;  Psa.  106:17,  i8;  Jude 
II.  But  Korah's  children  escaped.  Num. 
26:  II ;  and  the  Korahites,  or  "  sons  of  Ko- 
rah,"  were  a  celebrated  family  of  door- 
keepers, singers,  and  poets  in  the  time  of 
David,  I  Chr.  9:17-19;  26:1;  2  Chr. '20:19. 
To  them  are  inscribed  several  Psalms,  Psa. 
42,  44-49,  84,  85,  87,  88. 

KO'RE,  a  partridge,  I.,  i  Chr.  9:19;  26:1. 
II.  2  Chr.  31:14.  In  I  Chr.  26:19  it  is  put 
in  A.  V.  for  Korah. 

KOZ,  and,  with  the  article,  HAKKOZ,  a 
thorn,  I  Chr.  24:10,  head  of  a  line  of  priests 
in  David's  reign,  Ezra  2:61;  Neh.  3:4,  21; 
7:63- 

L. 

LA'BAN,  white,  I.,  a  rich  herdsman  of 
Mesopotamia,  son  of  Bethuel,  and  grand- 
son of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother.  Gen. 
24:28-31.  His  character  is  shown  in  the 
gladness  with  which  he  gave  his  sister  Re- 
bekah  in  marriage  to  the  only  son  of  his 
rich  uncle  Abraham,  Gen.  24:30,  50,  and 
in  his  deceitful  and  exacting  treatment  of 
Jacob  his  nephew  and  son-in-law,  against 
which  Jacob  defended  himself  by  cunning 
as  well  as  fidelity.  When  the  prosperity 
of  the  one  family  and  the  jealousy  of  the 
other  rendered  peace  impossible,  Jacob,  at 
the  command  of  God,  secretly  departed,  to 
go  to  Canaan.  Laban  pursued  him;  but 
being  warned  by  God  to  do  him  no  harm, 
returned  home  after  making  a  treaty  of 
peace.  He  seems  to  have  known  and  wor- 
shipped God,  Gen.  24:50;  30:27;  31:53;  but 
the  "gods  "  or  teraphim  which  Rachel  stole 
from  her  father.  Gen.  31 :3o,  34,  tend  to  sug- 
gest that  he  was  not  without  some  taint  of 
idolatry. 

II.  Deut.  1:1.    See  Libnah,  I. 

LACE,  twisted,  the  blue  cord  or  ribbon 
binding  the  high  priest's  breastplate  to  the 
ephod,  Exod.  28:28,  2)J\  39^21,  31;  Num. 
15:38;  also  called  "wire"  in  Exod.  39:3, 
"thread"  in  Judg.  16:9,  and  "line"  in 
Ezek.  40:3. 

LA'CHISH,  impregnable,  or  smitten,  a 
royal  and  strong  city  of  Canaan,  whose 
king  Japhia  united  with  neighboring  kings 
against  Joshua,  but  was  defeated  and  ta- 
ken, Josh.  10:1-33.  It  lay  in  the  southwest 
part  of  Judah,  Josh.  10:3,  5,  31;  was  forti- 
fied by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:9,  and  proved 
strong  enough  to  resist  for  a  time  the  whole 


army  of  Sennacherib,  2  Kin.  18:17;  19:8; 
2  Chr.  32: 1,  9,  21 ;  Mic.  i :  13.  It  was  here 
that  king  Amaziah  was  slain,  2  Kin.  14:19; 
2  Chr.  25:27.  For  a  wonderful  confirma- 
tion of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  see  Sen- 
nacherib. The  site  of  Lachish  is  thought 
to  be  Um  Lakis,  25  miles  west  of  Hebron, 
in  the  Shephelah. 

LAD'DER,  Gen.  28:12-17.  The  comfort- 
ing vision  of  the  heavenly  ladder  shown  to 
the  fugitive  Jacob  assured  him  of  the  omni- 
present providence  of  God,  and  of  his  com- 
munication of  all  needed  good  to  his  peo- 
ple in  the  desert  of  this  world,  Heb.  i :  14. 
It  was  also  an  assurance  that  there  was  a 
way  open  from  earth  to  heaven,  as  well  as 
from  heaven  to  earth;  and  we  may  see  in 
it  an  illustration  of  the  nature  of  Christ,  in 
which  heaven  and  earth  meet;  and  of  his 
work,  which  brings  man  home  to  God,  John 
1:51. 

LA'ISH,  a  lion,  I.    See  Dan,  II. 

II.  Isa.  10:30,  a  town  near  Anathoth  on 
the  north  of  Jerusalem,  passed  by  the  in- 
vading Assyrians;  now  Adasa. 

III.  A  native  of  Gallim,  and  father  of 
Phaltiel,  I  Sam.  25:44;  2  Sam.  3:15. 

LAH'MAN,  a  town  in  the  low  land  of  Ju- 
dah, Josh.  15:40,  now  Tell  Hamam,  6  miles 
southeast  of  Eglon. 

LAH'MI,  of  Bethlehem,  1  Chr.  20:5,  ap- 
parently a  brother  of  Goliath.  But  see 
2  Sam.  21 :  19.  Perhaps  we  should  read 
that  Elhanan  the  son  of  Jair,  a  Bethlehem- 
ite,  slew  a  brother  of  Goliath. 

LAKE.  See  Merom  and  Sea.  That  most 
terrible  description  of  hell,  as  a  lake  burn- 
ing with  fire  and  brimstone,  Rev.  19:20; 
21:8,  recalls  the  fire  and  sea  in  which  Sod- 
om was  consumed  and  swallowed  up. 

LAMB,  the  young  of  the  sheep,  and  also 
the  kid  of  the  goat,  Exod.  12:3-5.  Christ 
is  the  Lamb  of  God,  John  i  :29,  36,  as  being 
the  accepted  sacrifice  for  human  sin.  Acts 
8:32;  I  Pet.  1:19.  The  sacrifices  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  an  ordained  and  per- 
petual foreshadowing  not  only  of  his  expi- 
atory death,  but  o<  his  spotless  holiness  and 
his  unresisting  meekness,  Isa.  53:4-9.  He 
is  described  in  Rev.  5:6:  12:11  as  wearing 
the  form  of  a  sacrificial  lamb  in  heaven  it- 
self. See  Passover  and  Sacrifices.  In 
I  Pet.  1 :  18,  19  there  may  be  an  allusion  to 
the  fact  that  ancient  coins  bore  the  figure 
of  a  lamb. 

LA'MECH,  vigorous,  I.,  son  of  Methusael, 
Gen.  4:18-24,  a  descendant  of  Cain,  in  the 
5th  generation,  and  ancestor  of  a  numerous 
posterity  distinguished  for  skill  in  agricul- 


LAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAN 


ture,  music,  and  several  mechanic  arts. 
He  is  the  first  polygamist  on  record.  His 
address  to  his  2  wives  is  the  oldest  speci- 
men of  poetry  extant,  and  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  Hebrew  parallelism. 

"  Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice  ; 

Ye  wives  of  Lamech,  hearken  to  my  speech. 
I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding, 

Even  a  young  man  to  my  hurt. 
If  Cain  shall  be  avenged  seven-fold, 

Truly  Lamech  seventy  and  seven  fold." 

Many  explanations  of  this  abrupt  fragment 
have  been  suggested.  The  most  satisfac- 
tory, perhaps,  is  that  Lamech  had  acci- 
dentally or  in  self-defence  killed  a  man, 
and  was  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  "the 
avenger  of  blood;"  but  quiets  the  fears  of 
his  wives  by  saying  that  as  God  had  pro- 
hibited the  slaying  of  Cain  under  heavy 
penalties,  Gen.  4:15,  much  more  would  he 
guard  the  life  of  Lamech  who  was  compar- 
atively innocent. 

n.  The  son  of  Methuselah,  and  father  of 
Noah ;  he  lived  777  years,  and  died  only  5 
years  before  the  flood,  Gen.  5:25-31 ;  i  Chr. 
1:3;  Luke  3:36. 

LAMENTA'TIONS  OF  JEREMIAH,  an  ele- 
giac poem,  composed  by  the  prophet  on 
occasion  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  first  2  chapters 
principally  describe  the  calamities  of  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem ;  the  3d  deplores  the 
persecutions  which  Jeremiah  himself  had 
suffered;  the  4th  adverts  to  the  ruin  and 
desolation  of  the  city  and  temple  and  the 
misfortune  of  Zedekiah ;  and  the  5th  is  a 
kind  of  form  of  prayer  for  the  Jews  in  their 
captivity.  At  the  close,  the  prophet  speaks 
of  the  cruelty  of  the  Edomites,  who  had  in- 
sulted Jerusalem  in  her  misery,  and  threat- 
ens them  with  the  wrath  of  God.    B.  C.  586. 

The  first  4  chapters  of  the  Lamentations 
are  in  the  acrostic  form,  every  verse  be- 
ginning with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet in  regular  order.  The  ist,  2d,  and 
4th  chapters  contain  22  verses  each,  ac- 
cording to  the  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  the 
3d  chapter  has  3  successive  verses  begin- 
ning with  the  same  letter,  making  66  in  all. 
Moreover,  all  the  verses  in  each  chapter 
are  nearly  of  the  same  length.  The  5th 
chapter  is  not  acrostic.  See  Letters.  The 
style  of  Jeremiah's  Lamentations  is  lively, 
tender,  pathetic,  and  affecting.  It  was  the 
talent  of  this  prophet  to  write  melancholy 
and  moving  elegies,  2  Chr.  35:25;  and  nev- 
er was  a  subject  more  worthy  of  tears,  nor 
treated  with  more  tender  and  affecting 
sentiments.  One  would  think,  as  has  often 
314 


been  said,  that  every  letter  was  written 
with  a  tear,  and  every  word  was  the  sob  of 
a  broken  heart.  Yet  he  does  not  forget 
that  a  covenant  God  still  reigns. 


LAMP.  The  lamps  of  the  ancients,  some- 
times called  "candles"  in  our  Bible,  were 
cups  and  vessels  of  many  convenient  and 
graceful  shapes,  and  might  be  carried  in 
the  hand  or  set  upon  a  stand.  See  Can- 
dlestick. The  lamp  was  fed  with  vege- 
table oils,  chiefly  olive,  tallow,  wax,  etc., 
and  was  kept  burning  all  night.  Compare 
Matt.  8:12;  22:13,  "the  outer  darkness." 
The  poorest  families,  in  some  parts  of  the 
East,  still  regard  this  as  essential  to  health 
and  comfort.  A  darkened  house  therefore 
forcibly  told  of  the  extinction  of  its  former 
occupants.  Job  18:5,6;  Prov.  13:9;  20:20; 
Jer.  25:10,  11;  while  a  constant  light  was 
significant  of  prosperity  and  perpetuity, 
2  Sam.  21:17;  I  ^i"-  1 1 '36;  15:4;  Psa. 
132: 17.  Lamps  to  be  carried  in  the  streets, 
Judg.  7:16,  20;  15:4,  presented  a  large  sur- 
face of  wicking  to  the  air,  and  needed  to 
be  frequently  replenished  from  a  vessel  of 
oil  borne  in  the  other  hand.  Matt.  25 : 3,  4, 8. 
Torches  and  lanterns,  John  18:3,  were  very 
necessary  in  ancient  cities,  the  streets  of 
which  were  never  lighted. 

LAND'MARK.  Fences  and  walls  seem 
to  have  been  little  used  in  Judaea,  Mark 
2:23,  though  gardens  were  sometimes  in- 
closed. The  ancient  and  permanent  lim- 
its, therefore,  of  individual  property  in  the 
open  field,  Ruth  2:3;  Job  24: 2,  were  marked 
by  trees  or  heaps  of  stones  at  the  corners ; 


LAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAN 


and  as  it  was  easy,  by  removing  these,  to 
encroach  on  a  neighbor's  ground,  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  dishonesty  arose,  requiring  a 
severe  punishment,  Deut.  19:14;  27:17; 
Prov.  22:28;  23:10;  Hos.  5:10. 

LAN'GUAGE,  one  of  the  distinguishing 
gifts  of  God  to  man,  essential  to  all  high 
enjoyment  and  improvement  in  social  life, 
and  to  be  prized  and  used  in  a  manner 
worthy  of  its  priceless  value  for  the  glory 
of  God  and  the  benefit  of  mankind.     The 
original  language  was  not  the  growth  of  a 
mere  faculty  of  speech  in  man,  but  a  crea- 
tion and  gift  of  God.    Adam  and  Eve  when 
created  knew  how  to  converse  with  each 
other  and    with  the   Creator.      For   some 
2,000  years  "the  whole  earth  was  of  one 
language  and  of  one  speech,"  Gen.  11:1. 
But  about  loo  years  after  the  flood,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  chronology,  and  later 
according    to    others,    God     miraculously 
"confounded  the  language  "  of  the  Cushite 
rebels  at  Babel ;  and  peopling  the  earth  by 
these  scattered  families  of  diverse  tongues, 
he  frustrated  their  designs  and  promoted 
his  own.    There  are  now  several  hundreds 
of  languages  and  dialects  spoken  on  the 
earth,  and  infidels  have  hence  taken  occa- 
sion to  discredit  the  Bible  doctrine  of  the 
unity  of  the  human  race.    It  is  found,  how- 
ever, that  these  languages  are  distributed 
in  several  great  classes,  which  have  stri- 
king affinities  with  each  other ;  and  as  com- 
parative philology  extends  its  researches, 
it  finds  increasing  evidence  of  the  substan- 
tial oneness  of  the  human  race  and  of  the 
truth  of  Scripture.      The   ancient  inscrip- 
tions on  Babylonian  bricks  and  Assyrian 
tablets,  called  cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped, 
because  the  letters  are  formed  by  groups 
of  small  wedges  in  all  positions — horizon- 
tal, perpendicular,  and  oblique — are  frag- 
ments of  the  ancient  sacred  language  of 
Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Persia.     It  has  sev- 
eral dialects,  and  is  akin  to  the  Shemitic 
languages,  while  it  furnishes  evidences  of 
one  still  more  ancient,  called  the  Accadian, 
from   which  translations  were  made   into 
the  Assyrian.     Not  a  few  of  its  roots  are 
found  in  the  Sanscrit. 

The  miracle  performed  at  Jerusalem  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  was  the  reverse  of  that 
at  Babel,  Acts  2: 1-18,  and  beautifully  illus- 
trated the  tendency  of  the  gospel  to  intro- 
duce peace  and  harmony  where  sin  has 
brought  discord,  and  to  reunite  all  the  tribes 
of  mankind  in  one  great  brotherhood. 

To  the  student  of  the  Bible,  one  of  the 
most  important  subjects  is  the  character 


and  history  of  the  original  languages  in 
which  that  holy  book  was  written.  In  re- 
spect to  the  original  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, see  under  the  article  Greece.  The 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
Septuagint,  is  often  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament,  sometimes  when  varying  from 
the  original  Hebrew,  though  not  always. 
It  was  the  language  most  used  by  our  Lord 
and  his  disciples,  and  no  doubt  their  very 
words  are  in  many  cases  thus  preserved. 
The  Hebrew  language,  in  which  the  Old 
Testament  was  written,  is  but  one  of  the 
cluster  of  cognate  languages  which  an- 
ciently prevailed  in  Western  Asia,  com- 
monly called  the  Shemitic  languages,  as 
belonging  particularly  to  the  descendants 
of  Shem.  A  proper  knowledge  of  the  He- 
brew, therefore,  implies  also  an  acquaint- 
ance with  these  other  kindred  dialects. 

The  Shemitic  languages  may  be  divided 
into  3  principal  dialects,  namely,  the  Ara- 
maean, the  Hebrew,  and  the  Arabic.  I.  The 
Aramaean,  spoken  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Babylonia,  is  subdivided  into  the  Syri- 
ac  and  Chaldee  dialects,  sometimes  called 
also  the  West  and  East  Aramaean.  2.  The 
Hebrew  or  Canaanitish  dialect,  Isa.  19:18, 
was  spoken  in  Palestine,  and  probably  with 
little  variation  in  PhcEnicia  and  the  Phoeni- 
cian colonies,  as,  for  instance,  at  Carthage 
and  other  places.  The  remains  of  the  Phce- 
nician  and  Punic  dialects  are  too  few  and 
too  much  disfigured  to  enable  us  to  judge 
with  certainty  how  extensively  these  lan- 
guages were  the  same  as  the  dialect  of  Pal- 
estine. 3.  The  Arabic,  to  which  the  Ethiop- 
ic  bears  a  special  resemblance,  comprises 
in  modern  times  a  great  variety  of  dialects 
as  a  spoken  language,  and  is  spread  over 
a  vast  extent  of  country ;  but  so  far  as  we 
are  acquainted  with  its  former  state,  it  ap- 
pears more  anciently  to  have  been  limited 
principally  to  Arabia  and  Ethiopia. 

These  languages  are  distinguished  from 
European  tongues  by  several  marked  pe- 
culiarities;  they  are  all,  except  the  Ethi- 
opic,  written  from  right  to  left,  and  their 
books  begin  at  what  we  should  call  the 
end;  the  alphabet,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Ethiopic,  which  is  syllabic,  consists  of 
consonants  only,  above  or  below  which  the 
vowel-points  are  written;  they  have  sev- 
eral guttural  consonants  very  difficult  of 
pronunciation  to  Europeans;  the  roots  of 
the  language  are  in  general  verbs  of  3  let- 
ters, and  pronounced,  according  to  the  va- 
rious dialects,  with  one  or  more  vowels; 
the  verbs  have  but  2  tenses,  the  past  and 

315 


LAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAO 


the  future  ;  and  the  pronouns  in  the  oblique 
cases  are  generally  united  in  the  same  word 
with  the  noun  or  verb  to  which  thej'  have  a 
relation.  These  various  dialects  form  sub- 
stantially one  language,  of  which  the  origi- 
nal home  was  Western  Asia.  That  they 
have  all  diverged  from  one  parent  stock  is 
manifest,  but  to  determine  which  of  them 
has  undergone  the  fewest  changes  would 
be  a  difficult  question.  The  language  of 
Noah  and  his  son  Shem  was  substantially 
that  of  Adam  and  all  the  antediluvians. 
Shem  and  Heber  were  contemporary  with 
Abraham,  and  transmitted,  as  we  have  good 
reason  to  believe,  their  common  tongue  to 
the  race  of  Israel ;  for  it  is  not  to  be  as- 
sumed that  at  the  confusion  of  Babel  no 
branch  of  the  human  family  retained  the 
primitive  language.  It  does  not  appear 
that  the  desceiuiants  of  Shem  were  among 
the  builders  of  Babel,  Gen.  io;8-io.  The 
oldest  records  that  are  known  to  exist  are 
composed  in  the  Hebrew  language.  In  it 
Moses  wrote  down  the  divine  communica- 
tions and  the  history  of  Israel,  Exod.  17:14; 
24:4;  34:27;  Num.  33:2.  It  flourished  in 
its  purest  form  in  Palestine,  among  the 
Phoenicians  and  Hebrews,  until  the  period 
of  tlie  Babylonish  exile ;  soon  after  which 
it  declined,  and  at  450  B.  C.  was  succeeded 
by  a  kind  of  Hebraeo-Aramaean  dialect, 
such  as  was  spoken  in  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
viour among  the  Jews.  The  West  Aramae- 
an had  flourished  before  this  for  a  long  time 
in  the  east  and  north  of  Palestine;  but  it 
now  advanced  farther  west,  and  during  the 
period  that  the  Christian  churches  of  Syria 
flourished  it  was  widely  extended.  It  is  now 
almost  a  dead  language.  No  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  Hebrew  Scriptures  pre- 
ceding the  time  of  Christ  is  known  to  us. 
The  Hebrew  may  now  be  regarded  as  hav- 
ing been  a  dead  language,  except  among  a 
small  circle  of  literati,  for  about  the  space 
of  2,000  years.  Our  knowledge  of  Arabic 
literature  extends  back  very  little  beyond 
the  time  of  Mohammed.  But  the  followers 
of  this  pretended  prophet  have  spread  the 
dialect  of  the  Koran  over  vast  portions  of 
the  world.  Arabic  is  now  the  vernacular 
language  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  in  a 
great  measure  of  Palestine  and  all  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Africa ;  while  it  is  read  and  un- 
derstood wherever  the  Koran  has  gone,  in 
Turkey,  Persia,  India,  and  Tartary. 

The    remains    of    the    ancient    Hebrew 

tongue  are  contained  in  the  Old  Testament 

and  in  the  few  Phoenician  and  Punic  words 

and  inscriptions  that  have  been  here  and 

316 


there  discovered.  The  remains  of  the  Ara- 
maean are  extant  in  a  variety  of  books.  In 
Chaldee  we  have  a  part  of  the  books  of 
Daniel  and  Ezra,  Dan.  2:4  to  7:28:  Ezra 
4:8  to  6: 18,  and  7:12-26,  which  are  the  most 
ancient  of  any  specimens  of  this  dialect. 
The  Targum  of  Onkelos,  that  is,  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch  into  Chaldee,  af- 
fords the  next  and  purest  specimen  of  that 
language.  In  Syriac  there  is  a  considera- 
ble number  of  books  and  manuscripts  ex- 
tant. The  oldest  specimen  of  this  language 
that  we  have  is  contained  in  the  Peshito,  or 
Syriac  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, made  perhaps  within  a  century  after 
the  time  of  Christ.  A  multitude  of  writers 
in  this  dialect  have  flourished,  many  of 
whose  writings  are  probably  still  extant, 
although  but  few  have  been  printed  in  Eu- 
rope. In  Arabic  there  exists  a  great  vari- 
ety of  manuscripts  and  books,  historical, 
scientific,  and  literary.  A  familiar  knowl- 
edge of  this  and  its  kindred  dialects  throws 
much  valuable  light  on  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures. 

LAODICE'A,y?<j//<:<f  of  the  people,  a  large 
and  opulent  city  of  Asia  Minor,  the  me- 
tropolis of  Phrygia  Pacatiana.  It  was  sit- 
uated on  the  river  Lycus,  not  far  above 
its  junction  with  the  Maeander,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Colossae  and  Hierapolis.  Its 
earlier  name  was  Diospolis;  but  after  be- 
ing enlarged  by  Antiochus  II.  it  was  called 
Laodicea,  from  his  wife  Laodice.  About 
A.  D.  65  or  66,  this  city,  together  with  Hi- 
erapolis and  Colossae,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  but  was  quickly  rebuilt  by 
Marcus  Aurelius.  It  is  now  in  ruins,  and 
the  place  is  called  Eski-hissar,  or  the  old 
castle.  A  Christian  church  was  early  gath- 
ered here.  It  was  addressed  by  Paul  in 
his  letter  to  Colossae,  and  in  another  now 
lost,  Col.  2:1;  4:13-16,  though  some  think 
the  "  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  "  is  the  one 
alluded  to.  The  church  at  Laodicea  was 
probably  visited  by  Paul  A.  D.  63,  and  is 
one  of  the  7  which  received  special  mes- 
sages from  Christ  after  his  ascension.  Rev. 
i:ii;  3:14-22.  It  was  wealthy  and  luke- 
warm. We  know  little  of  its  after-history, 
except  that  an  important  council  was  held 
there  near  the  middle  of  the  4th  century, 
and  that  some  form  of  Christianity  lin- 
gered there  until  the  time  of  the  Turks. 

LAP'IDOTH,  torches,  husband  of  Debo- 
rah, Judg.  4:4,  5. 

LAP'PING,  a  mode  of  drinking  in  which 
the  water  is  taken  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand 
and  thrown  upon  the  tongue  by  quick  mo- 


LAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAW 


tions,  the  head  being  held  near  the  stream, 
Judg.  7:5,6. 

LAP'WING,  Heb.  double-crest,  supposed 
to  mean  the  hoopoe,  a  beautiful  migratory 
bird,  of  filthy  habits  and  a  hooping  voice ; 
pronounced  unclean  by  Moses,  Lev.  11:19. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  thrush ;  its  beak  is 
long,  black,  thin,  and  a  little  hooked,  its 


legs  gray  and  short.  On  its  head  is  a  tuft 
of  feathers  of  different  colors,  which  it 
raises  or  lowers  as  it  pleases.  Its  neck 
and  breast  are  somewhat  reddish,  and  its 
wings  and  tail  black,  with  white  streaks. 

LAS.ffi'A,  a  city  near  Fair-havens,  mid- 
way on  the  south  side  of  Crete.  Paul  passed 
it  on  his  voyage  to  Rome,  Acts  27:8. 

LA'SHA,  a  chasm,  Gen.  10: 19,  in  the  bor- 
der of  Canaan ;  sxipposed  to  mean  Callir- 
rhoe,  with  its  hot  springs,  in  the  Zerka  Main 
chasm,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  but  perhaps 
Laish,  at  the  northeast  corner  of  Canaan. 

LASHA'RON,  a  Canaanite  city.  Josh. 
12:18,  perhaps  Sarura,  7  miles  southwest 
of  Tiberias. 

LATCH'ET,  the  thong  by  which  the  san- 
dal was  secured  to  the  foot,  Luke  3 :  16. 

LAT'TICE.     See  next  column. 

LAUD,  to  extol,  by  words  of  praise  or  in 
song,  Rom.  15:11. 

LAUGH'TER  is  expressive  of  joy,  Psa. 
126:2,  of  mockery.  Gen.  18:13,  of  proud 
security.  Job  5:22,  of  God's  sense  of  the 
folly  and  madness  of  sin,  Psa.  2:4;  59:8; 
Prov.  1 :  26. 

LA'VER,  a  large  circular  vessel,  cast 
from  the  polished  brass  mirrors  contribu- 


ted by  the'  Hebrew  women,  and  jilaced  be- 
tween the  door  of  the  tabernacle  and  the 
altar  of  burnt-offering,  with  water  for  the 
necessary  sacred  ablutions,  Exod.  30:18- 
21;  38:8;  40:7,  30-32. 

For  the  temple  of  Solomon,  besides  the 
vast  brazen  sea  for  the  use  of  the  priests 
(see  Sea),  10  lavers  were  made  for  clean- 
sing the  sacrifices,  2  Chr.  4:6.  Each  laver 
contained  about  300  gallons,  and  was  sup- 
ported above  a  highly  elaborate  and  beau- 
tiful base,  I  Kin.  7:27-39.  They  were  sta- 
tioned within  the  court  of  the  priests,  in 
front  of  the  temple,  5  on  each  side.  The 
laver  was  probably  the  reservoir,  and  its 
base  the  basin  in  which  the  hands  and  feet 
were  washed.     See  Templk. 


LATTICE-WINDOW,    CAIRO. 

LAT'TICE,  Judg.  5 :  28,  or  casement,  2  Kin. 
1:2;  Prov.  7:6,  a  network  or  blind  before  a 
window.    See  House. 

LA'W,  in  the  Bible,  signifies  sometimes 
the  whole  word  of  God,  Psa.  19:7-11 ;  119; 
Isa.  8:20;  sometimes  the  Old  Testament, 
John  10:34;  15:25,  and  sometimes  the  5 
books  of  Moses,  which  formed  the  first  of 
the  3  divisions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
Luke  24:44;  Acts  13:15.  The  Pentateuch 
was  probably  "the  law,"  a  copy  of  which 
every  king  was  to  transcribe  for  himself 
and  Study,  and  which  was  to  be  made 
known  to  young  and  old,  in  public  and  in 
private,  Deut.  6:7;  17:18,  19;  31:9-19,  26. 
In  many  other  places  the  Mosaic  institu- 
tions as  a  whole  are  intended  by  "the 
law,"  in  distinction  from  the  gospel— the 
old  dispensation  instead  of  the  new,  John 
1:17;  Acts  25:8;  Heb.  10:1-18. 

When  the  word  refers  to  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses, careful  attention  to  the  context  is  some- 
times requisite  to  judge  whether  the  civil, 
the  ceremonial,  or  the  moral  law  is  meant. 
The  ceremonial  or  ritual  laws,  concerning 
the  forms  of  worship,  sacrifices,  priests, 

317 


LAW 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAZ 


purifications,  etc.,  were  designed  to  distin- 
guish the  Jewish  nation  from  tlie  heathen, 
and  to  foreshadow  the  gospel  dispensation. 
As  a  code,  they  were  annulled  after  Christ's 
ascension,  Gal.  3:24;  Eph.  2:15;  Heb.  9; 
10:1-22,  though  many  of  them,  springing 
from  sound  sanitary  and  social  principles, 
are  still  worthy  of  heed.  The  civil  laws, 
Acts  23:3;  24:6,  were  for  the  government 
of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  and  included  the 
10  commandments.  The  whole  code  was 
adapted  with  consummate  wisdom  to  the 
condition  of  the  Jews,  and  has  greatly  in- 
fluenced all  wise  legislation  in  later  years. 
Its  pious,  humane,  and  just  spirit  should 
characterize  every  code  of  human  laws. 
The  tno>-al  law,  Deut.  5:22;  Matt.  5:17,  18; 
Luke  10:26,  27,  is  more  important  than  the 
others  from  its  bearings  on  human  salva- 
tion. It  was  written  by  the  Creator  on  the 
conscience  of  man,  and  sin  has  never  fully 
erased  it,  Rom.  i :  19 ;  2 :  12-15.  It  was  more 
fully  taught  to  the  Hebrews,  especially  at 
Mount  Sinai,  in  the  10  commandments,  and 
is  summed  up  by  Christ  in  loving  God  su- 
premely and  our  neighbor  as  ourselves. 
Matt.  22:37-40.  It  was  the  offspring  of  love 
to  man,  Rom.  7:10,  12;  required  perfect 
obedience.  Gal.  3:10;  Jas.  2:10;  and  is  of 
universal  and  perpetual  obligation.  Christ 
confirmed  and  enforced  it.  Matt.  5:17-20, 
showing  its  demand  of  holiness  in  the 
heart,  applying  it  to  a  variety  of  cases,  and 
supplying  new  motives  to  obedience  by  re- 
vealing heaven  and  hell  more  clearly,  and 
the  gracious  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Some  have  argued  from  certain  passages 
of  Scripture  that  this  law  is  no  longer  bind- 
ing upon  Christians;  that  they  "are  not 
under  the  law,  but  under  grace,"  Rom. 
6:14,  15;  7:4,  6;  Gal.  3:13,  25;  5:18;  and 
the  perversion  of  these  passages  leads  men 
to  sin  and  perish  because  grace  abounds. 
Rightly  understood,  they  harmonize  with 
the  declarations  of  the  Saviour,  Matt.  5:17. 
To  the  soul  that  is  in  Christ,  the  law*is  no 
longer  the  arbiter  of  his  doom;  yet  it  still 
comes  to  him  as  the  divinely-appointed 
teacher  of  that  will  of  God  in  which  he  now 
delights,  Psa.  119:97;  Matt.  5:48;  11:30. 

The  word  "law"  sometimes  means  an 
inward  guiding  and  controlling  power.  The 
"  law  in  the  mind  "  and  the  "  law  in  the 
members"  mean  the  holy  impulses  of  a 
regenerated  soul  and  the  perverse  inclina- 
tions of  the  natural  heart,  Rom.  7:21-23. 
Compare  also  Rom.  8:2;  9:31;  Jas.  1:25; 
2:12. 

LANV'YERS,  men  who  devoted  them- 
318 


selves  to  the  study  and  explanation  of  the 
Jewish  law,  particularly  of  the  traditionary 
or  oral  law.  They  belonged  mostly  to  the 
sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  fell  under  the 
reproof  of  our  Saviour  for  having  taken 
from  the  people  the  key  of  knowledge. 
They  were  as  the  blind  leading  the  blind, 
Matt.  22:35;  Luke  10:25;  11:52;  Tit.  2:10. 
See  ScRiBKs. 

LAZ'ARUS,  Heb.  Eleazar,  help  of  God, 
I.,  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Christ,  brother 
of  Martha  and  Mary,  with  whom  he  resi- 
ded at  Bethany  near  Jerusalem.  Our  Sa- 
viour had  a  high  regard  for  the  family,  and 
often  visited  them  ;  and  when  Lazarus  was 
dangerously  ill,  word  was  sent  to  Christ, 
"  Lord,  behold,  he  whom  thou  lovest  is 
sick."  The  Saviour  reached  Bethany  after 
he  had  lain  4  days  in  his  grave,  and  re- 
stored him  to  life  by  a  word,  "  Lazarus, 
come  forth."  This  public  and  stupendous 
miracle— of  which  Spinoza  said  that  if  he 
were  satisfied  of  its  truth  he  would  tear 
to  pieces  his  whole  system  and  embrace 
Christianity — drew  so  many  to  Christ  that 
his  enemies  sought  to  put  both  him  and 
Lazarus  to  death,  John  11;  12:1-11,  thus 
showing  the  truth  of  what  Christ  said  in 
connection  with  the  other  Lazarus,  "  Nei- 
ther will  they  be  persuaded  though  one 
rose  from  the  dead,"  Luke  16:31.  The 
narrative  displays  Christ  as  a  tender  and 
compassionate  friend,  weeping  for  and  with 
those  he  loved,  and  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Prince  of  life,  beginning  his  triumph  over 
death  and  the  grave.  Happy  are  they 
who,  in  view  of  their  own  death  or  that  of 
friends,  can  know  that  they  are  safe  in  Him 
who  says,  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and  the 
life;"  and,  "because  I  live,  3^e  shall  live 
also." 

II.  The  helpless  beggar  who  lay  at  the 
rich  man's  gate  in  one  of  Christ's  most 
solemn  and  instructive  parables.  The  one, 
though  poor  and  sorely  afflicted,  was  a 
child  of  God.  The  other,  described  as  self- 
indulgent  rather  than  vicious  or  criminal, 
was  living  without  God  in  the  enjoyment 
of  every  earthly  lu.xury.  Their  state  in 
this  life  was  greatly  in  contrast  with  their 
real  character  before  God,  which  was  re- 
vealed in  the  amazing  changes  of  their 
condition  at  death,  Luke  16:19-31.  See 
Abraham's  Bosom,  and  on  ver.  31,  Laza- 
rus, I.  Our  Saviour  plainly  teaches  us  in 
this  parable  that  both  the  friends  and  the 
foes  of  God  know  and  begin  to  experience 
their  doom  immediately  after  death,  and 
that  it  is  in  both  cases  unchangeable  and 


LEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEB 


eternal.  The  name  Lazarus  has  passed 
into  many  languages :  the  Italians  have 
lazzarone,  beggars,  and  lazaretto,  hospital 
for  the  sick,  especially  lepers,  for  whose 
care  in  part  the  "  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus" 
were  organized  in  1119.  In  English  we 
have  "  lazar-house."     See  Simon. 

LEAD.  There  are  early  allusions  to 
this  well-known  metal  in  Scripture.  The 
Egyptians  "sank  as  lead  "  in  the  Red  Sea, 
Exod.  15:10;  Num.  31:22;  Ezek.  27:12; 
Zech.  5:7,  8.  Job  refers  to  its  use  in  pre- 
serving a  permanent  record  of  events,  by 
being  melted  and  poured  into  letters  deep- 
ly cut  in  a  rock,  Job  19:24.  Leaden  tab- 
lets also  were  used  by  the  ancients  for  sim- 
ilar records.  This  metal  was  employed, 
before  the  use  of  quicksilver  was  known, 
in  purifying  silver;  and  the  process  by 
which  these  metals  are  purged  from  their 
dross  illustrates  God's  discipline  of  his 
people,  Jer.  6:29,  30;  Ezek.  22: 17-22.  Lead 
mines  existed  near  Mount  Sinai  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Egypt. 

LEAF.  The  leaves  of  the  olive,  Gen. 
8:11,  the  oak,  Isa.  1:30;  6113,  and  the  fig. 
Gen.  2)'7]  Matt.  24:32,  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  and  many  apt  and  beautiful 
allusions  are  made  to  leaves  in  general,  as 
symbols  of  prosperity  and  grace,  Psa.  1:3; 
Jer.  17:8,  or  of  adversity  and  decay,  Job 
13:25;  Isa.  64:6;  Matt.  21:19.  See  also 
Lev.  26:36;  Isa.  34:4;  Dan.  4:12,  14,  21; 
Mark  13:28;  Rev.  22:1,  2.  In  Jer.  36:23 
"leaves"  are  folds  or  columns  of  a  book- 
roll. 

LEAGUES  with  the  powerful  nations 
around  the  Hebrews  were  allowed  them 
for  securing  peace  and  friendly  dealings, 
but  entangling  alliances  and  familiar  inti- 
macy were  forbidden,  2  Kin.  18:20,  21; 
20:12,  13;  2  Chr.  20:35-37;  28:20,  21;  Isa. 
30:2-7;  31:1-3;  Hos.  5:13;  12:1.  With  the 
Canaanites,  Exod.  23:32,  2i2i<  *^he  Amale- 
kites,  Exod.  17:8,  14,  and  the  Moabites, 
Deut.  2:9-19,  no  league  was  ever  to  be 
made.    See  Alliance. 

LE'AH,  iveary,  the  elder  daughter  of  La- 
ban,  and  the  ist  wife  of  Jacob,  though  less 
beloved  than  her  sister  Rachel.  She  had 
through  life  the  remembrance  of  the  deceit 
by  which  her  father  had  imposed  her  upon 
Jacob.  She  was  the  mother  of  7  children, 
among  whom  were  Reuben — ^Jacob's  first- 
born— and  Judah,  the  ancestor  of  the  lead- 
ing tribe  among  the  Jews,  of  the  royal  line 
and  of  our  Lord,  Gen.  29:16-35;  30:1-21. 
She  is  supposed  to  have  died  before  the 
removal  of  the  family  into  Egypt,  and  was 


buried  in  the  family  cemetery  at  Hebron, 
Gen.  32:22;   T,y.7;  46:5-7;  49:31. 

LEAS'ING,  falsehood,  Psa.  4:2;  5:6. 

LEAVEN  is  sour  dough  which  is  kept 
over  from  one  baking  to  another,  in  order 
to  raise  the  new  dough.  Leaven  was  for- 
bidden to  the  Hebrews  during  the  7  days 
of  the  Passover,  the  "  days  of  unleavened 
bread,"  Luke  22:1,  in  memory  of  what 
their  ancestors  did  when  they  went  out  of 
Egypt,  they  being  then  obliged  to  carry 
unleavened  meal  with  them,  and  to  make 
bread  in  haste,  the  Egyptians  pressing  them 
to  be  gone,  Exod.  12:8, 15-20,  39;  Josh.  5:11. 
They  were  very  careful  in  cleansing  their 
houses  from  it  before  this  feast  began,  i  Cor. 
5:6.  God  forbade  either  leaven  or  honey 
to  be  burned  before  him  in  his  temple.  Lev. 
2:11.  The  pervading  and  transforming 
eflfect  of  leaven  is  used  in  illustration  of  the 
like  influence  on  society  exerted  by  the  pu- 
rifying principles  of  the  gospel,  or  by  false 
doctrines  and  corrupt  men.  Matt.  13:33; 
16:6-12;  Luke  12:1 ;  i  Cor.  5:6-8;  Gal.  5:9. 

LEB'ANON,  ivhite,  a  chain  of  mountains 
on  the  north  of  Palestine,  100  miles  in  ex- 
treme length  and  20  wide,  so  named  from 
the  whitish  limestone  of  which  they  are 
composed,  but  still  more  from  their  snowy 
whiteness  in  winter,  like  Mont  Blanc,  the 
Himalayas,  the  White  Hills,  etc.  It  con- 
sists of  2  main  ridges,  running  northeast 
and  southwest,  nearly  parallel  with  each 
other  and  with  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. See  view  in  Sidon.  The  western 
ridge  was  called  Libanus  by  the  Greeks, 
and  the  eastern  Anti-Libanus.  Between 
them  lies  a  long  valley  called  Ccele-Syria, 
that  is.  Hollow  Syria,  and  the  "  valley  of 
Lebanon,"  Josh.  11:17,  ^t  present  el-Bekaa, 
3,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  It  opens 
towards  the  north,  but  is  exceedingly  nar- 
row towards  the  south,  where  the  river 
Litany,  anciently  Leontes,  issues  from  the 
valley  and  flows  west  to  the  sea,  north  of 
Tyre.  The  western  ridge  is  generally  high- 
er than  the  eastern ;  its  highest  peak,  Dhor 
el  Kudib,  north  of  the  group  of  cedars,  is 
said  to  be  10,051  feet  high;  the  average 
height  is  about  6,000  feet.  In  the  eastern 
range,  now  called  Jebel  esh-Shurky,  Mount 
Hermon,  now  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  rises  into 
the  region  of  perpetual  ice.  See  Hermon. 
An  Arab  poet  says  of  the  2d  highest  peak 
of  Lebanon,  "  The  Sannin  bears  winter  on 
his  head,  spring  upon  his  shoulders,  and 
autumn  in  his  bosom,  while  summer  lies 
sleeping  at  his  feet." 

Lebanon  formed  the  northern  limit  of  the 


LEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEE 


Holy  Land,  Deut.  1:7;  11:24,  ^"d  though 
claimed  by  the  Hebrews  was  not  possessed, 
Josh.  13:1-6;  Judg.  3:1-3.  The  Hebrew 
writers  often  allude  to  this  sublime  moun- 
tain range,  Isa.  10:34;  35:2,  rising  like  a 
vast  barrier  on  their  north,  Isa.  37:24. 
They  speak  of  its  sea  of  foliage  agitated  by 
the  gales,  Psa.  72:16;  of  its  noble  cedars 
and  other  trees,  Isa.  60:13;  Jer.  22:23;  of 
its  innumerable  herds,  the  whole  of  which, 
however,  could  not  atone  for  one  sin,  Isa. 
40:16;  of  its  excellent  wine,  Hos.  14:7,  its 
snow-cold  streams,  Jer.  18:14,  and  its  bal- 
samic perfume,  Hos.  14:5.  Its  forests  fur- 
nished abundant  materials  for  Solomon, 
I  Kin.  5:9-11,  and  for  the  Assyrians,  etc., 
153.37:24;  Ezek.  31:16.  The  fir-trees  and 
cedars  of  Lebanon  are  represented  as  say- 
ing to  the  king  of  Babylon,  "  Since  thou  art 
laid  low  no  feller  is  come  up  against  us," 
Isa.  14:8.  An  ancient  inscription  found  at 
Babylon  states  that  Nebuchadnezzar  em- 
ployed for  the  woodwork  of  the  Chamber  of 
Oracles  the  largest  of  the  trees  he  brought 
from  Mount  Lebanon.  And  a  fresh  con- 
firmation of  the  fact  implied  by  Isaiah  was 
found  in  1883,  in  a  wild  valley  on  the  east 
slope  of  Lebanon — two  inscriptions  cut  in 
the  rocks  on  opposite  sides  of  the  valley,  5 
yards  long  and  2^  high,  giving  an  account 
of  the  buildings  Nebuchadnezzar  was  erect- 
ing at  Babylon.  Moses  longed  to  enter  the 
Holy  Land,  that  he  might  "see  that  goodly 
mountain  and  Lebanon,"  Deut.  3:24,  25; 
and  Solomon  says  of  the  Beloved,  the  type 
of  Christ,  "  his  countenance  is  as  Leba- 
non," Song  5:15.  "  The  tower  of  Lebanon 
which  looketh  towards  Damascus,"  Song 
7:4,  is  brought  to  recollection  by  the  ac- 
counts given  by  modern  travellers  of  the 
ruins  of  ancient  temples,  built  of  stones  of 
vast  size.  Many  such  ruinous  temples  have 
been  discovered  in  different  parts  of  Leba- 
non, several  of  them  on  conspicuous  points, 
high  up  in  the  mountains,  where  the  labor 
of  erecting  them  must  have  been  stupen- 
dous. 

At  present  Lebanon  is  inhabited  by  a 
hardy  and  turbulent  race  of  mountaineers. 
Its  vast  wilderness  of  mountains  forms  al- 
most a  world  by  itself.  Its  western  slopes 
particularly,  rising  by  a  succession  of  ter- 
races from  the  plain  of  the  coast,  are  cov- 
ered with  vines,  olives,  mulberries,  and 
figs;  and  occupied,  as  well  as  the  valleys 
among  the  mountains,  by  numberless  vil- 
lages. Anti-Lebanon  is  less  populous  and 
cultivated;  most  of  its  occupants  are  Mo- 
hammedans. The  chief  inhabitants  of  Leb- 
320 


anon  are  Druses  and  Maronites;  the  for- 
mer Mohammedan  mystics,  and  the  lat- 
ter bigoted  Romanists.  Among  them  are 
interspersed  many  Greeks  and  Armeni- 
ans. 

For  "  cedar  of  Lebanon,"  see  Cedar. 

LEBA'OTH,  lionesses,  a  city  in  the  south- 
west of  Judah  and  Simeon,  Josh.  15:32; 
19:6;  in  I  Chr.  4:31  called  Beth-birei ;  now 
Kh.  Beeyud,  near  Arad,  15  miles  south  of 
Hebron. 

LEBB.flE'US,  hearty.  Matt.  10:3,  where  the 
clause  "  Lebbaeus,  whose  surname  was  "  is 
omitted  in  the  R.  V.     See  Judas,  III. 

LEBO'NAH,y>-a«^/«f<?«j^,  Judg.  21:19,  3. 
town  of  Ephraim,  near  Shiloh,  between 
Bethel  and  Shechem.  Its  name  and  site 
are  preserved  in  the  present  village  of  Lub- 
ban,  10  miles  south  of  Nablous. 


LEEK,  a  bulbous  vegetable  resembling  a 
small  onion.  The  Hebrews  complained  in 
the  wilderness  that  manna  grew  insipid  to 
them ;  they  longed  for  the  leeks  and  onions 
of  Egypt,  Num.  11:5.  Hasselquist  says  the 
karral,  or  leek,  is  surely  one  of  those  after 
which  the  Israelites  pined ;  for  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  Egypt  from  time  immemorial. 
The  Hebrew  word  is  usually  translated 
"grass"  in  the  English  Bible. 

LEES,  or  dregs,  the  refuse  and  sediment 
of  wine.  Wines  that  have  been  allowed  to 
st^nd  a  long  time  on  the  lees  thereby  ac- 
quire a  superior  color  and  flavor ;  hence 
such  wines  are  used  as  a  symbol  of  gospel 
blessings,  Isa.  25:6;  also  of  a  nation  or 
community  that,  from  long  quiet  and  pros- 
perity, has  become  rich  and  luxurious,  and 
has  settled  down  in  carnal  security,  Jer. 
48:11;  Zeph.  1:12.  To  drink  the  dregs  of 
the  cup  of  God's  wrath,  Psa.  75:8;  Isa. 
51 :  17,  is  to  drink  it  to  exhaustion  ;  that  is, 
to  suffer  God's  wrath  without  mitigation  or 
end. 


LEF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEP 


LEFT  HAND,  the  north,  Gen.  14:15;  Job 
23:9.  "Left-handed,"  Judg.  3:15;  20:16, 
able  to  use  the  left  hand  as  effectively  as 
the  right. 

LEG,  the  lower  limb  from  knee  to  foot, 
Lev.  4:11 ;  8:21 ;  i  Sam.  17:6.  The  legs  of 
the  crucified  were  sometimes  broken  to 
hasten  their  death,  John  19:31-33. 

LE'GION.  The  number  in  a  Roman  le- 
gion varied  at  different  periods  from  3,000 
to  more  than  twice  that  number.  In  the 
time  of  Christ,  a  legion  contained  6,000, 
besides  the  cavalry.  There  were  10  co- 
horts in  each  legion,  which  were  divided 
each  into  3  maniples  or  bands,  and  these 
into  2  centuries  containing  100  men  each. 
In  the  Bible  a  legion  means  a  number  in- 
definitely large.  The  Saviour  cured  a  de- 
moniac who  called  himself  "  Legion,"  as  if 
possessed  by  myriads  of  demons,  Mark 
5:9.  The  expression,  "twelve  legions  of 
angels,"  Matt.  26:53,  illustrates  the  immen- 
sity of  the  heavenly  host  and  their  zealous 
devotion  to  Christ. 

LEHA'BIM.  See  Libya. 
LE'HI,  jawbone,  a  place  in  Judah  where 
Samson  was  enabled  to  slay  1,000  Philis- 
tines with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass,  and  where, 
in  answer  to  his  petition,  a  fountain  sprang 
up  to  relieve  his  thirst,  Judg.  15:9-19.  Prob- 
ably the  Hebrew  word  Lehi  in  verse  19 
should  be  left  untranslated,  as  in  the  mar- 
ginal reading:  "  God  clave  a  hollow  place 
that  was  in  Lehi,  and  there  came  water 
thereout."  This  spring  he  called  En-hak- 
kore,  "the  fountain  of  him  that  prayed." 
It  continued  to  flow,  and  may  even  to  this 
day  be  testifying  that  God  hears  the  cry  of 
his  people,  and  can  turn  a  dry  land  into 
springs  of  water  for  their  use,  Gen.  21:19; 
Num.  20:11.  A  site  for  Lehi  has  been 
found  at  Beit  Likiyeh,  4  miles  north  of  Bir 
es-Seba. 

LEM'UEL,  devoted  to  God,  the  king  to 
whom  were  addressed  the  counsels  in  Prov. 
31 : 1-9.  Some  suppose  it  to  be  an  enigmat- 
ical name  for  Solomon. 

LEN'TILES,  a  species  of  pulse  or  small 
beans,  eiiJiiin  lens,  still  common  in  Syria 
and  Egypt  under  the  name  'adas,  2  Sam. 
23:  II.  They  were  parched  over  the  fire  to 
be  portable  for  travellers,  and  Barzillai  fur- 
nished them  for  David  and  his  people  when 
weary,  2  Sam.  17:28.  They  were  some- 
times an  ingredient  in  bread,  Ezek.  4:9. 
We  find  Esau  longing  for  a  mess  of  pottage 
made  of  lentiles.  Gen.  25:34.  In  Barbary, 
Dr.  Shaw  says,  "  Lentiles  are  dressed  in 
the  same  manner  as  beans,  disscMfing  easi- 
21 


ly  into  a  mass,  and  making  a  pottage  of  a 
chocolate  color." 

LEOP'ARD,  Heb.  spotted,  a  fierce  wild 
beast  of  the  feline  genus,  beautifully  spot- 
ted with  a  diversity  of  colors ;  it  has  small 
eyes,  wide  jaws,  sharp  teeth,  round  ears,  a 
large  tail,  5  claws  on  the  fore-feet,  and  4  on 
those  behind.  It  is  swift,  crafty,  and  cruel, 
dangerous  to  all  domestic  cattle,  and  even 
to  man,  Jer.  5:6;  13:23;  Hos.  13:7;  Hab. 
1 :8.  Its  name,  leo-pard,  implies  that  it  has 
something  of  the  lion  and  of  the  panther  in 
its  nature.  It  seems  from  Scripture  that 
the  leopard  could  not  be  rare  in  Palestine. 
Its  Hebrew  name  occurs  significantly  in 
several  names  of  places ;  as  Beth-nimrah, 
the  haunt  of  leopards.  Num.  32:36.  So  in 
Nimrah,  Nimrim,  and  perhaps  Nimrod  the 
mighty  hunter.  Isaiah,  describing  the  hap- 
py reign  of  the   Messiah,  says,   ch.   11:6, 


"The  leopard  shall  lie  down  with  the  kid, 
and  the  calf  and  the  young  lion  and  the 
failing  together."  The  spouse  in  the  Can- 
ticles speaks  of  the  mountains  of  the  leop- 
ards, Song  4:8,  such  as  Lebanon  and  Her- 
mon,  where  they  are  still  found.  In  Dan. 
7:6  the  leopard  symbolizes  the  rapid  pro- 
gress of  the  Macedonian  kingdom,  its  4 
heads  denoting  Alexander's  4  generals.  In 
Rev.  13:2  the  Roman  Empire  is  described. 
LEP'ER,  Heb.  smitten,  a  person  afflicted 
321 


LEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LET 


with  leprosy.  As  it  now  exists,  leprosy  is 
a  scaly  disease  of  the  skin,  occurring  in 
several  distinct  forms  and  with  many  de- 
grees of  severity;  beginning  with  slight 
reddish  eruptions,  followed  by  scales  of  a 
grayish  white  color,  sometimes  in  circles 
an  inch  or  two  in  diameter,  and  at  other 
times  much  larger;  in  many  cases  attack- 
ing onl)'  the  knees  and  elbows,  in  others 
the  whole  body;  usually  not  affecting  the 
general  health,  but  considered  impossible 
of  cure.  It  is  said  not  to  be  infectious,  but 
is  communicated  from  father  to  son  for  sev- 
eral generations,  gradually  becoming  less 
noticeable.  It  corresponds  in  the  main 
with  the  disease  the  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment of  which  are  so  fully  described  in  Lev. 
13;  14.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that 
the  ancient  leprosy,  in  its  more  aggravated 
form,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  plague  or  judg- 
ment from  God,  Deut.  24:8.  It  was  pecu- 
liarly dreaded  among  the  Jews  as  unclean 
and  infectious,  and  also  as  being  a  special 
infliction  from  Jehovah,  as  we  know  it  to 
have  been  in  the  cases  of  Miria,m,  Num. 
12:10,  Gehazi,  2  Kin.  5:27,  and  Uzziah, 
2  Chr.  26:16-23.  No  remedies  were  effec- 
tual. The  sufferer  was  commended  to  the 
priest,  not  to  the  physician,  and  was  sep- 
arated from  many  of  the  privileges  of  soci- 
ety. We  find  that  lepers  associated  chiefly 
■with  each  other,  2  Kin.  7:8;  Luke  17: 12, 13. 
The  term,  "  the  plague  of  leprosy,"  is  ap- 
plied not  only  to  this  disease  in  men,  but 
to  a  similar  infection  sometimes  sent  into 
houses  and  garments.  Lev.  14.  The  e.xact 
nature  of  this  latter  cannot  be  ascertained, 
but  it  bears  the  marks  of  a  special  aggra- 
vation, as  a  judgment  from  God,  of  some 
evil  not  unknown  in  that  climate.  It  illus- 
trates the  awful  result  of  moral  corruption 
in  society  uncounteracted  by  the  grace  of 
God.  The  disease  in  all  its  forms  is  a  live- 
ly emblem  of  sin.  This  malady  of  the  soul 
is  also  all-pervading,  unclean,  contagious, 
and  incurable  ;  it  separates  its  victim  from 
God  and  heaven  ;  it  proves  its  existence  by 
its  increasing  sway  and  its  fatal  termina- 
tion. But  the  Saviour  has  shown  his  power 
to  heal  the  worst  maladies  of  the  soul  by 
curing  the  leprosy  with  a  word,  Luke  17:12- 
19,  and  to  admit  the  restored  soul  to  all  the 
privileges  of  the  sons  of  God. 

Elephanti'asis,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  disease  of  Job,  and  the 
"  botch  "  or  ulcer  of  Egypt,  Deut.  28 :  27,  35, 
is  a  tuberculous  malady  somewhat  akin  to 
the  leprosy,  but  more  dreadful.  Its  name 
is  derived  from  the  dark,  hard,  and  rough 
322 


appearance  of  the  skin,  and  from  the  form 
of  the  feet,  swollen  and  despoiled  of  the 
toes.  This  horrid  malady  infects  the  whole 
system;  ulcers  and  dark  scales  cover  the 
body,  and  the  hair,  beard,  fingers,  and  all 
the  extremities  drop  off.  It  is  still  met  with 
in  tropical  countries,  and  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Crusaders ;  but  after 
occasioning  dreadful  havoc  and  the  build- 
ing of  thousands  of  "  hospitals  for  lepers," 
it  disappeared  from  Europe  in  general, 
though  many  cases  occur  in  Norway,  and 
some  in  the  ports  of  Spain. 

LES'BOS.     See  MiTVLENE. 

LE'SHEM,  a  ,ifem,  Josh.  19:47.     See  Dan. 

LET,  sometimes  used  in  the  old  English 
sense,  that  is,  to  hinder,  Exod.  5:4;  Isa. 
43:13;  Rom.  1:13;  2  Thess.  2:7. 

LET'TER,  Luke  23:38;  Gal.  6:11,  "in 
how  large  a  hand."  The  Hebrews  have 
certain  acrostic  poems  which  begin  with 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  ranged  in  order. 
The  most  considerable  of  these  is  Psalm 
119,  which  contains  22  stanzas  of  8  verses 
each,  all  acrostic;  that  is,  the  first  8  begin 
with  Aleph,  the  next  8  with  Beth,  and  so 
on.  Psalms  25,  34  have  but  22  verses  each, 
beginning  with  the  22  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  Others,  as  Psalms  iii,  112,  have 
one-half  of  the  verse  beginning  with  one 
letter,  and  the  other  half  with  the  next. 
Thus, 
"  Blessed  is  the  man  who  feareth  the  Lord, 

Who  delighteth  greatly  in  his  commandments." 

The  first  half  of  the  verse  begins  in  *he 
Hebrew  with  Aleph,  the  second  with  Beth. 
Psalms  ;i~  and  145  are  acrostic.  The  Lam- 
entations of  Jeremiah  are  also  in  acrostic 
verse,  as  well  as  the  31st  chapter  of  Prov- 
erbs, from  the  8th  verse  to  the  end.  In 
John  7:15,  the  word  "  letters  "  means  learn- 
ing; the  Jews  said  of  Christ,  Whence  this 
man's  qualifications  to  teach  us  the  Scrip- 
tures, since  he  has  not  learned  of  the  doc- 
tors of  the  law? 

Paul  speaks  of  "the  letter"  in  distinc- 
tion from  "the  spirit,"  Rom.  2:27,  29;  7:6; 
2  Cor.  3:6;  contrasting  the  mere  word  of 
the  law  and  its  outward  observance  with 
its  spiritual  meaning  and  cordial  obedi- 
ence to  it  through  the  Spirit  of  Christ. 

LET'TERS.  Epistolary  correspondence 
seems  to  have  been  little  practised  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews.  Some  few  letters 
are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
2  Sam.  11:14;  Ezra  4:8.  They  were  con- 
veyed to  their  destination  by  friends  or 
travellers^Jer.  29:3;  or  by  royal  couriers, 
2  Chr.  3#6;  Esth.  8:10.     The  letter  was 


LET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEV 


usually  in  the  form  of  a  roll,  the  last  fold 
being  pasted  down.  They  were  sealed, 
I  Kin.  21 : 8,  and  sometimes  wrapped  in  an 


AN  ANCIENT  EPISTLE. 

envelope,  or  in  a  bag  of  costly  materials, 
and  highly  ornamented.  To  send  an  open 
letter  was  expressive  of  contempt,  Neh. 
■6:5.  In  the  New  Testament  we  have  nu- 
merous examples  of  letters  from  the  pens 
•of  the  apostles. 

LETU'SHIM,  hammered,  an  Arabian 
tribe,  descendants  of  Abraham  and  Ketu- 
rah,  Gen.  25:1-3. 

LEUM'MIM, />^o/!>/d'j,  kinsmen  of  the  Le- 

TUSHIM. 

LE'VI,  entwined,  L,  the  3d  son  of  Jacob 
and  Leah,  born  in  Mesopotamia ;  father  of 
3  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Merari,  and 
of  Jochebed  the  mother  of  Moses,  Gen. 
29:34;  Exod.  6:16-20.  For  his  share  in 
the  treacherous  massacre  of  the  Shechem- 
ites.  Gen.  34,  his  father  at  death  foreboded 
€vil  to  his  posterity,  Gen.  49:5-7;  but  as 
they  afterwards  stood  forth  on  the  Lord's 
side,  Moses  was  charged  to  bless  them, 
Exod.  32:26-29;  Deut.  33:8-11.  He  joined 
his  brethren  in  their  ill-treatment  of  Joseph, 
Gen.  T,-],  went  down  into  Egypt  with  his 
family.  Gen.  46:11,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
137  years.  The  tribe  of  Levi  was,  accord- 
ing to  Jacob's  prediction,  scattered  over  all 
Israel,  having  no  share  in  the  division  of 
Canaan,  but  certain  cities  in  the  portions  of 
■other  tribes,  Josh.  21:1-40.  It  was  not  the 
worse  provided  for,  however,  since  God 
chose  this  tribe  for  the  service  of  the  tem- 
ple and  priesthood,  and  bestowed  on  it 
many  privileges  above  the  other  tribes. 
All  the  tithes,  firstfruits,  and  offerings  pre- 
sented at  the  temple,  as  well  as  several 
parts  of  all  the  victims  that  were  offered, 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi.     See  Le- 

VITES. 

II.  The  apostle  Matthew  was  also  called 
Levi.     See  Matthew. 

III.  and  IV.  Ancestors  of  the  Saviour, 
Luke  3:24,  29. 

LEVI'ATHAN,  a  jointed  -monster,  Psa. 
74:14;  104:26,  a  huge  reptile  described  in 
Job  41.  Probably  the  animal  denoted  is 
the  crocodile,  the  terror  of  the  Nile,  as 
Behemoth,  in  Job  40,  is  the  hippopotamus 
■of  the  same  river. 

The  crocodile  is  a  native  of  the  Nile  and 


other  Asiatic  and  African  rivers;  in  some 
instances  even  30  feet  in  length;  of  enor- 
mous voracity  and  strength,  as  well  as 
fleetness  in  swimming;  attacks  mankind 
and  the  largest  animals  with  most  daring 
impetuosity;  when  taken  by  means  of  a 
powerful  net,  will  often  overturn  the  boats 
that  surround  it ;  has  proportionally  the 
largest  mouth  of  all  monsters  whatever; 
moves  both  its  jaws  alike,  the  upper  of 
which  has  not  less  than  36,  and  the  lower 
30  sharp,  but  strong  and  massy  teeth ;  and 


is  furnished  with  a  coat  of  mail  so  scaly 
and  callous  as  to  resist  the  force  of  a  mus- 
ket-ball in  every  part  except  under  the 
belly.  In  several  passages  in  the  Bible 
the  king  of  Egypt  appears  to  be  addressed 
as  leviathan,  Isa.  27:1;  Ezek.  29:3;  32:2. 

LE'VITES.  All  the  descendants  of  Levi 
may  be  comprised  under  this  name,  Exod. 
6:16,  25;  Josh.  Ty-.T,  (see  Levi),  but  chiefly 
those  who  were  employed  in  the  lower  ser- 
vices in  the  temple,  by  which  they  were 
distinguished  from  the  priests,  who  were 
of  the  race  of  Levi  by  Aaron,  and  were 
employed  in  higher  offices,  Num.  3:6-10; 
18:2-7;  Ezek.  44:15.  God  chose  the  Le- 
vites  for  the  service  of  his  tabernacle  and 
temple  instead  of  the  first-born  sou  of  each 
family,  to  whom  such  duties  naturally  be- 
longed, and  who  were  already  sacred  to 
God  in  memory  of  the  great  deliverance  in 
Egypt,  Exod.  13;  Num.  3:12,  13,  39-51-  In 
the  wilderness  the  Levites  took  charge  of 
the  tabernacle  and  its  contents,  encamped 
around  it  as  its  proper  guardians.  Num. 
3:23,  29,  35,  and  conveyed  it  from  place  to 
place,  each  of  the  3  families  having  a  sep- 
arate portion,  Num.  1:51;  4;  i  Chr.  15:2, 
27.  After  the  building  of  the  temple  they 
took  charge  of  the  gates,  of  the  sacred  ves- 
sels, of  the  storehouses  for  cattle,  flour, 
wine,  oil,  and  spices,  of  the  preparation  of 
the  show-bread  and  other  offerings,  and  of 

323 


LEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEV 


the  singing  and  instrumental  music,  i  Chr. 
9;  23;  2  Chr.  29.  They  brought  wood,  wa- 
ter, etc.,  for  the  priests;  aided  them  in  pre- 
paring the  sacrifices,  and  in  collecting  and 
disbursing  the  contributions  of  the  people, 
2  Chr.  30:16,  17;  35:1.  See  Nethinim. 
They  were  also  the  temple  guards,  Neh. 
13:13,  22;  and  the  salutation  and  response 
in  Psalm  134  are  thought  by  Bishop  Lowth 
to  have  been  their  song  in  the  night.  But 
besides  their  services  in  the  temple,  they 
performed  a  very  important  part  in  teach- 
ing the  people,  2  Chr.  30:22;  Neh.  8:7, 
among  whom  they  were  scattered,  binding 
the  tribes  together,  and  promoting  virtue 
and  piety.  They  studied  the  law,  and  were 
the  ordinary  judges  of  the  country,  but  sub- 
ordinate to  the  priests,  2  Chr.  17:9;  19:8- 
II.  God  provided  for  the  subsistence  of 
the  Levites  by  giving  to  them  the  tithe  of 
corn,  fruit,  and  cattle,  Num.  18:18-24;  but 
they  paid  to  the  priests  the  loth  of  their 
tithes,  Neh.  10:37,  38;  and  as  the  Levites 
possessed  no  estates  in  land,  the  tithes 
which  the  priests  received  from  them  were 
considered  as  the  firstfruits  which  they 
were  to  offer  to  the  Lord,  Num.  18:21- 
32.  The  payment  of  tithes  to  the  Levites 
appears  not  to  have  been  enforced,  but 
depended  on  the  good-will  of  the  people; 
hence  the  special  charges  laid  on  their 
brethren  not  to  forget  them,  Deut.  12:12, 
18,  19;  14:28;  26:12. 

God  assigned  for  the  habitation  of  the 
Levites  48  cities,  with  fields,  pastures,  and 
gardens,  Num.  35.  Of  these,  13  were  given 
to  the  priests,  all  in  the  tribes  near  Jerusa- 
lem. Si.x  of  the  Levitical  cities  were  ap- 
pointed as  cities  of  refuge.  Num.  35:1-8; 
Josh.  20;  21.  While  the  Levites  were  ac- 
tually employed  in  the  temple  they  were 
supported  out  of  the  provisions  kept  in 
store  there,  and  out  of  the  daily  offerings. 
The  same  privilege  was  granted  to  volun- 
teers drawn  to  Jerusalem  by  the  fervor  of 
their  love  to  God's  service,  Deut.  12:18,  19; 
18:6-8.  The  consecration  of  Levites  was 
without  much  ceremony.  See  Num.  8:5- 
22;  2  Chr.  29:34. 

The  Levites  wore  no  peculiar  dress  to 
distinguish  them  from  other  Israelites  till 
the  time  of  Agrippa.  His  innovation  in 
this  matter  is  mentioned  by  Josephus,  who 
remarks  that  the  ancient  customs  of  the 
country  were  never  forsaken  with  impu- 
nity. 

The  Levites  were  divided  into  different 
classes:  the  Gershonites,  Kohathites,  and 
Merarites,  Num.  3:17-20.  They  were  still 
324 


further  divided  into  courses,  like  the  priests, 
I  Chr.  23-26.  At  first,  assuming  the  lesser 
duties  when  25  years  old,  they  entered  in 
full  on  their  public  duties  at  30  years  of 
age.  Num.  4:3;  8:24,  25;  but  David  fixed 
the  age  for  commencing  at  20  years;  and 
at  50  they  were  exempt,  i  Chr.  23:24-27. 
The  different  courses  of  porters,  singers, 
guards,  etc.,  were  on  duty  in  succession, 
one  week  at  a  time,  coming  up  to  Jerusa- 
lem from  their  own  cities  for  the  purpose, 

1  Chr.  23-26;  2  Chr.  23:4,  8;  31:17;  Ezra 
3:8-12.  After  the  revolt  of  the  10  tribes,  a 
large  portion  of  the  Levites  abandoned 
their  cities  in  Israel  and  dwelt  in  Judah, 

2  Chr.  11:12-14;  13:9-11.  After  the  Cap- 
tivity numbers  of  them  returned  from  be- 
yond the  Euphrates  to  Judaea,  Ezra  2:36- 
42;  Neh.  11:15-19;  12:24-31.  In  the  New 
Testament  they  are  not  often  mentioned, 
Luke  10:32;  John  1:19;  Acts  4:36.  The 
"scribes"  and  "doctors,"  however,  are 
supposed  to  have  belonged  chiefly  to  this 
class. 

LEVIT'ICUS,  the  3d  book  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch ;  called  Leviticus  because  it  con- 
tains principally  the  laws  and  regulations 
relating  to  the  Levites,  priests,  offerings, 
and  sacrifices.  The  Hebrews  call  it  "the 
priests'  law."  In  the  ist  section,  the  vari- 
ous bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices  are 
minutelj'  described:  the  burnt -offerings, 
the  meat,  sin,  peace,  ignorance,  and  tres- 
pass offerings ;  the  sins  for  which  and  the 
mode  in  which  they  were  to  be  offered. 
The  fulness  of  these  details  not  only  signi- 
fied the  importance  of  God's  worship,  but 
forbade  all  human  additions  and  changes 
that  might  lead  to  idolatry.  The  whole 
scheme  was  "a  shadow  of  good  things  to 
come,"  typical  of  the  Lamb  "who  through 
the  eternal  Spirit  offered  himself  without 
spot  unto  God."  Its  best  commentary  is 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

A  full  account  of  the  consecration  of 
Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests  is  followed 
by  the  instructive  narrative  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu.  Then  are  given  the  laws  respect- 
ing personal  and  ceremonial  purifications, 
a  perpetual  memento  of  the  defilement  of 
sin  and  of  the  holiness  of  God.  Next  fol- 
lows a  description  of  the  great  day  of  Ex- 
piation ;  after  which  the  Jews  are  warned 
against  the  superstitions,  idolatry,  impu- 
rity, etc.,  of  the  Canaanites;  and  laws  are 
given  guarding  their  morals,  health,  and 
civil  order.  The  observance  of  their  dis- 
tinguishing festivals  is  enjoined  upon  them ; 
and  laws  are  given  respecting  the  Sabbath 


LEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LIF 


and  the  Jubilee,  vows  and  tithes.  The 
warnings  and  promises  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  book  point  their  attention  to  the  fu- 
ture, and  aim  to  unite  the  whole  nation  in 
serving  their  covenant  God;  it  is  a  shadow, 
the  substance  of  which  is  Christ  and  his 
kingdom.  The  book  is  generally  held  to 
be  the  work  of  Moses,  though  he  was  prob- 
ably assisted  by  Aaron.  Its  date  is  B.  C. 
1490.  It  contains  the  history  of  the  ist 
month  of  their  2d  year  after  leaving  Egypt. 

l^EV'Y,  a  company  of  men  pressed  into 
service  on  public  works,  i  Kin.  5:13,  14; 
9: 15.  This  enforced  labor  has  always  been 
customary  among  Eastern  tyrants,  often  at 
a  great  sacrifice  of  life. 

LEWD,  in  Acts  17:5,  means  "bad,"  and 
in  Acts  18 :  14  lewdness  means  "  mischief." 
Elsewhere  the  specific  sense  of  licentious- 
ness is  intended. 

LIB'ERTINES,  Acts  6:9,  Latin  libertinus, 
a  freedman,  that  is,  one  who,  having  been 
a  slave,  either  by  birth  or  capture,  has  ob- 
tained his  freedom ;  or  the  son  of  a  parent 
who  was  a  freedman.  The  "  Synagogue 
of  the  Libertines  "  stands  connected  with 
those  of  the  Cyrenians  and  Alexandrians, 
who  were  of  African  origin ;  it  is  therefore 
supposed  by  some  that  the  Libertines  were 
of  African  origin  also.  It  is,  however,  more 
probable  that  this  word  denotes  Jews  who 
had  been  taken  captive  by  the  Romans  in 
war  and  carried  to  Italy,  and  having  been 
there  manumitted,  were  accustomed  to  visit 
Jerusalem  in  such  numbers  as  to  erect  a 
synagogue  for  their  particular  use,  as  was 
the  case  with  Jews  from  other  cities  men- 
tioned in  the  context.  They  originated  the 
persecution  against  Stephen  which  resulted 
in  his  martyrdom.     See  Synagogue. 

LIB'NAH,  whiteness,  I.,  the  5th  station  of 
the  Israelites  after  leaving  Sinai,  Num. 
33:20,  21,  and  after  the  repulse  at  Kadesh, 
Deut.  1 :  44-46 ;  2 : 1 ;  probably  the  Laban  of 
Deut.  1:1.  Perhaps  at  Hajr  el-Abyad,  "  the 
■white  stone"  in  the  heart  of  the  desert  et- 
Tih,  north  of  Sinai. 

II.  A  city  in  the  Shephfelah,  or  western 
lowland  of  Judah,  probably  southeast  of 
Gaza.  It  was  conquered  by  Joshjua  from 
the  Canaanites,  and  assigned  to  the  priests, 
Josh. 10:29-32;  12:15;  15:42;  21:13;  I  Chr. 
6:57.  Hamutal,  wife  of  king  Josiah,  was 
born  there,  2  Kin.  23:31 ;  24: 18.  Its  inhab- 
itants revolted  against  the  idolatrous  and 
cruel  Jehoram,  2  Chr.  21:10.  It  was  a 
strongly  fortified  place,  and  under  its  walls 
•  the  Assyrian  army  was  miraculously  cut 
off,  2  Kin.  19:8,  9,  35;  Isa.  37:8. 


LIB'YA,  a  country  in  the  north  of  Africa, 
stretching  along  on  the  Mediterranean  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Carthage,  and  running 
back  somewhat  into  the  interior.  The  part 
adjoining  Egypt  was  sometimes  called  Lib- 
ya Marmarica ;  and  that  around  Cyrene, 
Cyrenaica,  from  its  chief  city ;  or  Pentapo- 
litana,  from  its  5  cities,  Cyrene,  ApoUonia, 
Berenice,  Arsinoe,  and  Ptolemais.  In  these 
cities  great  numbers  of  Jews  dwelt  in  the 
time  of  Christ ;  and  they,  with  their  Libyan 
proselytes,  resorted  to  Jerusalem  to  wor- 
ship, Acts  2:10.  Libya  received  its  name 
from  the  Lehabim  or  Lubim,  Gen.  10:13,  a 
warlike  people,  who  assisted  Shishak  king 
of  Egypt,  and  Zerah  the  Ethiopian,  in  their 
wars  against  Judaea,  2  Chr.  12:3;  14:9; 
16:8;  Dan.  11:43.  They  were  also  allies 
of  ancient  Thebes,  Nah.  3 : 9.  Compare  Jer. 
46:9;  Ezek.  30:5.  See  Phut.  Libya  fell 
at  length  under  the  power  of  Carthage,  and 
subsequently  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Sar- 
acens, and  Turks. 

LICE,  the  3d  plague  of  Egypt,  Exod. 
8:16;  Psa.  105:31;  peculiarly  offensive  to 
the  priests,  who  were  obliged  to  shave  and 
wash  their  entire  body  every  3d  day,  lest 
they  should  carry  any  vermin  into  the  tem- 
ples. According  to  some  interpreters  they 
were  the  small  stinging  gnats  which  abound 
in  Egypt,  or,  with  greater  probability,  the 
sand-ticks. 

LIE.  The  essence  of  a  falsehood  is  the 
intent  to  deceive,  and  its  guilt  may  be  ag- 
gravated by  the  selfishness  or  malice  of  the 
design.  Scripture  condemns  it  in  all  its 
forms  and  degrees,  and  ascribes  it  to  "  the 
father  of  lies  "  Satan,  and  to  his  "  children," 
Lev.  19:11;  John  8:44;  Phil.  4:8;  Col.  3:9; 
I  Tim.  1:9,  10;  Rev.  21:27;  22:15.  Satan 
beguiled  our  first  parents  by  the  greatest 
of  falsehoods,  "Ye  shall  not  surely  die;" 
and  every  promise  to  their  children  of  good 
to  be  derived  from  sin  is  alike  false  and 
fatal.  Lies  may  be  told  by  looks,  gestures, 
etc.,  as  well  as  by  words  or  under  oath. 
All  untruthfulness  is  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  nature  of  the  "  God  of  truth,"  and  the 
many  instances  of  falsehood  recorded  in 
Scripture  do  not  imply  his  approval. 

LIEUTEN'ANTS,  Ezra  8:36;  Esth.  3:12; 
8:9;  9:3,  translated  "princes"  in  Dan.  3:2; 
6:1,  the  provincial  satraps  in  ancient  Per- 
sia. 

LIFE,  in  the  Bible,  is  either  natural.  Gen. 
3:17;  spiritual,  that  of  the  renewed  soul, 
Rom.  8:6;  or  eternal,  a  holy  and  blissful 
immortality,  John  3:36;  Rom.  6:23.  Jeho- 
vah is  "the  living   God,"  both  as  distin- 

325 


LIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LIN 


guished  from  idols  and  as  the  self-existent 
Creator  of  all  things,  Jer.  io:io;  John  5:26; 
Acts  14:15;  I  Tim.  6: 16.  In  the  same  sense 
Christ  is  "the  life,"  John  1:4;  i  John  1:1,  2. 
Christ  is  the  great  Author  of  natural  life, 
Col.  1 :  16 ;  and  also  of  spiritual  and  eternal 
life,  John  14:6;  6:47.  He  has  purchased 
these  by  laying  down  his  own  life;  and 
gives  them  freely  to  his  people,  John  10: 11, 
28.  He  is  the  spring  of  all  their  spiritual 
life  on  earth,  Gal.  2:20;  will  raise  them  up 
at  the  last  day,  and  make  them  partakers 
for  ever  of  his  own  life,  John  11:25;  14:19; 

17:2,3- 

LIGHT,  one  of  the  most  wonderful,  cheer- 
ing, and  useful  of  all  the  works  of  God ; 
called  into  being  on  the  first  of  the  6  days 
of  creation  by  his  voice:  "Let  there  be 
light ;"  and  there  was  light.  No  object  bet- 
ter illustrates  whatever  is  pure,  glorious, 
spiritual,  joyful,  and  beneficent.  Hence 
the  beauty  and  force  of  the  expressions, 
"God  is  light,"  i  John  1:5,  and  "the  Fa- 
ther of  lights,"  Jas.  1:17;  Christ  is  the  "  Sun 
of  righteousness,"  Mai.  4:2,  and  "the  light 
of  the  world,"  John  1:9;  8:12.  So  also  the 
word  of  God  is  "a  light,"  Psa.  119:105; 
2  Pet.  1:19;  truth  and  Christians  are  lights. 
Matt.  5:14;  John  3: 19;  12:36;  prosperity  is 
"light,"  Esth.  8:16;  Isa.  58:8;  and  heaven 
is  full  of  light.  Rev.  21:23-25.  The  oppo- 
site of  all  these  is  "darkness." 
LIGHT'NING.  See  THUNDER. 
LIGN-ALOES.  See  Aloes. 
LIG'URE,  probably  the  same  with  the 
jacinth,  a  stone  in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate, Exod.  28:19;  39:12,  said  to  have 
been  of  a  deep  and  brilliant  red  color, 
with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  and  transparent; 
perhaps  the  tourmaline. 

LI'KING,  Job  39:4;  Dan.  1:10,  condition. 
LIL'Y.  Of  this  queenly  plant  several 
varieties  are  found  among  the  wild  flowers 
of  Palestine,  the  profusion,  beauty,  and  fra- 
grance of  which  are  the  delight  of  travel- 
lers. The  lily  is  a  spring  flower,  and  ap- 
pears early  in  all  parts  of  the  Holy  Land. 
It  was  introduced  in  the  ornamental  work 
of  the  temple,  i  Kin.  7:19-26;  2  Chr.  4:5. 
In  Canticles  it  is  often  employed  as  a  sym- 
bol of  loveliness.  More  commonly  it  is 
applied  to  the  bride  and  her  various  jier- 
fections :  ch.  2:  i,  2,  where  the  bride  speaks, 
ver.  I,  the  bridegroom  answers,  ver.  2,  and 
the  bride  again  responds,  ver.  3.  The  bride- 
groom's lips  are  compared  to  lilies  in  ch. 
5: 13,  and  he  is  described  as  feeding  among 
the  lilies,  ch.  2:16;  6:3;  which  typically 
represents  Christ  as  delighting  himself  with 
.326 


the  graces  of  his  people.  From  the  lily  our 
Saviour  has  also  drawn  one  of  his  most 
striking  figures:  "Consider  the  lilies  of  the 
field,  how  they  grow;"  "even  Solomon  in 


THE  SCARLET   MARTAGON  :    LILlfM   CHALCEDONI- 
CUM. 

all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of 
these,"  Matt.  6:28.  The  lily  of  the  valleys, 
Song  2:1,  means  simply  the  lily  growing  in 
valleys,  not  our  "  lily  of  the  valley,"  wjiich 
is  unknown  in  Palestine. 

LIME  was  well  known  in  Bible  times. 
Lev.  14:42,  4^,  and  its  burning  in  a  kiln 
with  thorns  to  make  plaster  is  mentioned 
in  Isa.  33:12.  The  king  of  Moab  so  used 
the  bones  of  the  king  of  Edom,  Amos  2:1. 
Inscriptions  made  in  plaster  upon  rock, 
Deut.  27:2-4,  or  upon  rocks  afterwards 
plastered  and  painted,  are  found  in  Egypt 
still  clear  and  fresh  after  3,000  years. 

LINE, often  the  cord  or  line  used  in  meas- 
uring land,  etc..  i  Kin.  7:23;  Psa.  78:55; 
Isa.  34:17;  Amos  7:17;  hence  in  Psa.  16:6 
the  lot  or  portion  so  measured.  In  Psa. 
19:4  the  "  line  "  of  the  heavens  may  denote 
the  stately  movements  of  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies which  measure  climates,  months,  and 
seasons  on  the  earth.  In  Isa.  44:13  "line" 
means  a  stylus  or  graver. 

LIN'EN.     Many  different  words  in  He- 


LIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LIV 


brew  and  Greek  are  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
"  linen,"  "  fine  linen,"  "  linen  yarn,"  "  flax," 
and  "  silk,"  in  describing  the  garments  of 
the  priests,  Exod.  28 :  39,  42  ;  39 :  28 ;  Ezek. 
44:18,  of  princes,  Gen.  41:42;  2  Sam.  6:14; 
I  Chr.  15:27,  and  of  the  virtuous  woman, 
Prov.  31:13,  22,  24,  the  tabernacle  hang- 
ings, the  veil  before  the  holy  of  holies,  and 
its  curtain,  Exod.  26:1,  31,  36;  2  Chr.  3:14, 
the  robes  of  angels,  Ezek.  9:2,  3,  11 ;  Dan. 
10:5;  12:6,  the  cloths  in  which  Christ's  body 
was  wrapped^  John  19:40.  Some  of  these 
terms  are  used  interchangeably,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  define  them  precisely ;  they  may 
probably  denote  different  qualities  of  linen 
as  to  fineness,  color,  and  origin.  Some 
Egyptian  linens  were  of  extraordinary  fine- 
ness and  evenness  of  thread,  one  mummy 
bandage  from  Thebes  being  found  to  have 
152  threads  in  the  warp  and  71  in  the  woof 
to  each  square  inch.  Fine  linen  of  snowj' 
whiteness  was  highly  prized,  and  was  a 
symbol  of  the  purity  of  angels  and  of  the 
redeemed  church,  Rev.  19:8.  See  Cotton, 
Flax,  and  Silk.  In  Rev.  15:6  the  R.  V. 
reads,  "  arrayed  with  precious  stone  pure 
and  bright." 

LIN'TEL,  or  "upper  door-post,"  the 
cross-piece  crowning  the  2  side-posts  of  a 
door,  Exod.  12:7,  22,  23 ;  i  Kin.  6:31,  or  the 
projecting  chapiter  of  a  column,  Amos  9:1; 
Zeph.  2:14.     See  P.\ssover. 

LI'NUS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  whose  sal- 
utation Paul  sent  to  Timothy,  2  Tim.  4:21. 


LI'ON,  the  well-known  and  noble  king 
of  beasts,  frequently  spoken  of  in  Scrip- 
ture, Jer.  25:38;  Ezek.  19:4,  8,  9;  Amos 
3:12;  Rev.  4:7;  compare  Ezek.  1:10.  He 
often  exceeds  8  feet  in  length  and  4  feet  in 
height;  and  his  majestic  and  dauntless  as- 
pect, his  prodigious  strength  and  agility, 
and  his  peculiar  roar,  make  him  the  terror 


of  the  forests.  Lions  were  common  in  Pal- 
estine, Num.  23:24;  24:9;  2  Kin.  17:26; 
Song  4:8,  the  Hebrew  name  being  found  in 
the  names  of  several  places,  as  Laish,  Le- 
baoth,  etc.  (see  Jordan),  and  the  Hebrews 
had  many  different  names  for  them,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  different  ages,  etc.  Five  of 
these  occur  together  in  Job  4:10,  11.  See 
also  Nah.  2:11,  12.  There  is  also  a  variety 
of  words  describing  their  movements,  roars, 
and  growls.  The  Psalmist  alludes  to  the 
stealthy  creeping  of  the  lion  till  he  can 
spring  upon  his  prey  in  Psa.  10:9,  10;  and 
I  Pet.  5:8  describes  Satan, the  merciless  de- 
stroyer, as  a  roaring  lion.  The  Bible  read- 
er will  remember  the  exploits  of  Samson, 
David,  and  Benaiah,  Judg.  14:5,6;  i  Sam. 
17:34-36;  2  Sam.  23:20,  thestory  of  the  dis- 
obedient prophet  slain  by  a  lion,  i  Kin. 
13:28,  and  of  the  obedient  Daniel,  safe  in 
the  lions'  den,  Dan.  6;  also  the  sublime 
image  of  Jehovah's  care  for  his  people,  in 
Isa.  31:4. 

"  The  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,"  Rev. 
5:5,  is  Jesus  Christ,  who  sprang  from  the 
tribe  of  Judah  and  the  race  of  David,  and 
overcame  death,  the  world,  and  the  devil. 
It  is  supposed  that  a  lion  was  the  device  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah ;  hence  this  allusion. 
Gen.  49:9. 

LIP,  often  translated  "language,"  or 
"  tongue,"  and  meaning  a  different  dialect, 
Isa.  28:11;  I  Cor.  14:21.  "  The  fruit  of  the 
lips,"  Heb.  13:15,  is  praise;  "the  calves 
of  the  lips,"  Hos.  14:2,  are  thank-offerings. 
Covering  the  lips  with  a  corner  of  one's 
garment,  as  if  unclean,  Isa.  6:5,  7,  was  a 
sign  of  mourning  or  humiliation,  Ezek. 
24:17,  22;  Mic.  3:7. 

LIST,  please,  like,  or  will.  Matt.  17:12; 
Mark  9:13;  John  3:8;  Jas.  3:4. 


LIT'TER,  a  light,  covered  conveyance, 
resembling  a  sedan-chair,  or  a  palanquin; 
borne  by  men,  but  oftener  at  the  present 
day  in  Svria  between  2  mules  or  camels. 
Solomon's  "chariot,"  Song  3:9,  or  bed  as 
in  the  margin,  is  supposed  to  have  been  an 
elegant  mule-litter.  The  Hebrew  word 
used  in  Isa.  66: 20,  with  another  from  a  verb 
to  roll,  denotes  covered  wagons  in  Num.  T-Z- 

LIVER,  Lev.  3:4,  10,  ^S;  Prov.  7:23; 
327 


LIV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOG 


Lam.  2: II.  This  organ  in  man  was  re- 
garded by  the  ancients  as  the  seat  of  the 
passions.  Idolaters  consulted  the  liver  of 
the  victim  offered  in  sacrifice,  for  purposes 
of  divination,  Ezek.  21:21. 

LIVE'LY,  living,  vigorous,  Exod.  1:19; 
Psa.  38:19;  Acts  7:38;   I  Pet.  1:3;  2:5. 

LIVING  CREA'TURES,  Ezek.  i;  3:13: 
10:15-17,  the  cherubim,  Ezek.  10.  Trans- 
lated "beasts  "  in  A.  V.  in  Rev.  4:6-9;  5:6- 
14;  6:1-7,  etc. 


LIZ'ARD,  a  cold-blooded  reptile,  with 
much  resemblance  to  the  serpent,  but  hav- 
ing 4  feet.  Large  numbers  are  found  in 
Syria,  varying  greatly  in  size,  appearance, 
and  place  of  abode ;  some  dwelling  partly 
in  water,  and  others  on  the  rocks  of  the 
desert,  or  among  old  ruins.  Lizards  were 
unclean  by  the  Levitical  law,  Lev.  11:30. 
See  Chameleon,  Ferret. 

LOAF,  Heb.  a  circle,  E.xod.  29:23;  Judg. 
8:5;  I  Sam.  10:3,  a  round  flat  cake,  the 
usual  form  of  bread  anciently,  x  Chr.  16:3; 
Matt.  14:17.     See  Bread. 

LO-AM'MI,  not  my  people,  a  name  di- 
vinely given  to  Hosea's  2d  son,  to  signify 
God's  rejection  of  Israel  and  subsequent 
restoration,  Hos.  1:9,  10;  2:23. 

LOANS  for  commercial  purposes  are  not 
mentioned  in  the  early  Biblical  records,  but 
only  those  in  aid  of  the  poor,  Neh.  5:1,3,  13. 
Jehovah,  as  the  sole  proprietor  of  the  land 
occupied  by  the  Jews,  required  them,  as 
one  condition  of  its  use,  to  grant  liberal 
loans  to  their  poor  brethren ;  and  every  7 
years  the  outstanding  loans  were  to  be- 
come gifts,  and  could  not  be  reclaimed.  If 
a  pledge  was  taken  on  making  a  loan  it 
must  be  done  with  mercy  and  under  cer- 
tain benevolent  restrictions,  Exod.  22:25, 
27;  Deut.  15:1-11;  23:19,  20;  24:6,  10-13, 
17.  The  great  truth  so  prominent  in  this 
and  similar  features  of  the  Mosaic  laws 
ought  to  be  restored  to  its  fundamental 
place  in  our  theories  of  property ;  and  no 
one  who  believes  in  God  should  act  as  the 
owner,  but  only  as  the  steward  of  what  he 
328 


possesses,  all  of  which  he  is  to  use  as  re- 
quired by  its  great  Owner.  In  the  same 
spirit  our  Saviour  enjoins  the  duty  of  loan- 
ing freely,  even  to  enemies,  and  without 
hope  of  reward,  Luke  6:34, 35.    See  Usury. 

LOCK,  Judg.  3:23,  25;  Neh.  y.T,,  6,  13-15; 
Song  5:5.     See  Key. 

LO'CUST,  a  voracious  winged  insect,  be- 
longing to  the  order  known  among  natu- 
ralists as  the  Orthoptera,  including  various 
creeping  and  leaping  insects,  closely  re- 
sembling the  grasshopper,  and  a  great 
scourge  in  Oriental  countries  in  both  an- 
cient and  modern  times.  There  are  10 
different  names  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  for 
insects  of  this  kind  ;  but  some  of  these  prob- 
ably designate  different  forms  or  stages  in 
life  of  the  same  species.  The  most  destruc- 
tive species  of  modern  Syria  and  Arabia  are 
the  Oedipoda  migratoria  and  the  Acridium 
peregrinum.  The  Bible  represents  their 
countless  swarms  as  directed  in  their  flight 
and  march  by  God,  and  used  in  the  chas- 
tisement of  guilty  nations,  Deut.  28:38-42; 
I  Kin.  8:37;  2  Chr.  6:28.  A  swarm  of  lo- 
custs was  among  the  plagues  of  Egypt; 
they  covered  the  whole  land,  so  that  the 
earth  was  darkened,  and  devoured  every 
green  herb  of  the  earth,  and  the  fruit  of 
every  tree  which  the  hail  had  left,  Exod. 
10:4-19.     But  the  most  particular  descrip- 


tion of  this  insect,  and  of  its  destructive 
career,  in  the  sacred  writings,  is  in  Joel 
2:3-10.  This  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
and  animated  descriptions  to  be  met  with 
in  the  whole  compass  of  prophecy;  and 
the  double  destruction  to  be  produced  by 
locusts  and  the  enemies  of  which  they  were 
the  harbingers  is  painted  with  the  most 
expressive  force  and  accuracy.  We  see 
the  destroying  army  moving  before  us  as 
we  read,  and  see  the  desolation  spreading. 
It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  the  4  in- 
sects specified  in  Joel  1:4,  the  palmer- 
worm,  the  locust,  the  canker-worm,  and  the 


LOG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOI 


caterpillar,  are  strictly,  according  to  the 
Hebrew,  only  different  forms  of  locusts, 
some  perhaps  without  wings,  as  mentioned 
below.     See  also  Lev.  11:21,  22. 

Dr.  Shaw  remarks,  "  Those  which  I  saw 
were  much  bigger  than  our  common  grass- 
hoppers, and  had  brown  spotted  wings, 
with  legs  and  bodies  of  a  bright  yellow. 
Their  first  appearance  was  towards  the 
end  of  March,  the  wind  having  been  some 
time  from  the  south.  In  the  middle  of 
April  their  numbers  were  so  vastly  in- 
creased that  in  the  heat  of  the  day  they 
formed  themselves  into  large  and  numer- 
ous swarms,  flew  in  the  air  like  a  succession 
of  clouds,  and  as  the  prophet  Joel  expresses 
it,  they  darkened  the  sun.  When  the  wind 
blew  briskly,  so  that  these  swarms  were 
crowded  by  others,  or  thrown  one  upon  an- 
other, we  had  a  lively  idea  of  that  compari- 
son of  the  Psalmist,  Psa.  109:23,  of  being 
tossed  up  and  down  as  the  locust.  In  the 
month  of  May  these  swarms  gradually  re- 
tired into  the  Metijiah  and  other  adjacent 
plains,  where  they  deposited  their  eggs. 
These  were  no  sooner  hatched  in  June  than 
each  of  the  broods  collected  itself  into  a 
compact  body  of  a  furlong  or  more  square, 
and  marching  afterwards  in  a  direct  line 
towards  the  sea,  they  let  nothing  escape 
them,  eating  up  everything  that  was  green 
and  juicy,  not  only  the  lesser  kinds  of  veg- 
etables, but  the  vine  likewise,  the  fig-tree, 
the  pomegranate,  the  palm,  and  the  apple- 
tree,  even  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  Joel 
1:12;  in  doing  which  they  kept  their  ranks 
like  men  of  war,  climbing  over,  as  they 
advanced,  every  tree  or  wall  that  was  in 
their  way ;  nay,  they  entered  into  our  very 
houses  and  bedchambers  like  thieves.  The 
inhabitants,  to  stop  their  progress,  made  a 
variety  of  pits  and  trenches  all  over  their 
fields  and  gardens,  which  they  filled  with 
water :  or  else  they  heaped  up  therein 
heath,  stubble,  and  such  like  combustible 
matter,  which  were  severally  set  on  fire 
upon  the  approach  of  the  locusts.  But  this 
was  all  to  no  purpose,  for  the  trenches 
were  quickly  filled  up  and  the  fires  extin- 
guished by  infinite  swarms  succeeding  one 
another,  while  the  front  was  regardless  of 
danger  and  the  rear  pressed  on  so  close 
that  a  retreat  was  altogether  impossible. 
A  day  or  two  after  one  of  these  broods  was 
in  motion  others  were  already  hatched  to 
march  and  glean  after  them,  gnawing  off 
the  very  bark  and  the  young  branches  of 
such  trees  as  had  before  escaped  with  the 
loss  only  of  their  fruit  and  foliage.    So  just- 


ly have  they  been  compared  by  the  prophet 
to  a  great  army;  who  further  observes  that 
the  land  is  as  the  garden  of  Eden  before 
them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wilder- 
ness." 

The  locust  was  a  "  clean  "  animal  for  the 
Jews,  Lev.  11:22,  and  might  be  used  for 
food.  In  Matt.  3:4  it  is  said  of  John  the 
Baptist  that  "  his  meat  was  locusts  and  wild 
honey."  They  are  still  eaten  in  the  East, 
and  regarded  by  some  as  a  delicacy,  though 
usually  left  to  the  poorest  of  the  people. 
Niebuhr  remarks,  "  Locusts  are  brought  to 
market  on  strings  in  all  the  cities  of  Ara- 
bia, from  Babelmandel  to  Bassorah.  On 
Mount  Sumara  I  saw  an  Arab  who  had  col- 
lected a  whole  sackful  of  them.  They  are 
prepared  in  different  ways.  An  Arab  in 
Egypt  threw  them  upon  the  glowing  coals, 
and  after  he  supposed  they  were  roasted 
enough,  he  took  them  by  the  legs  and  head 
and  devoured  the  remainder  at  one  mouth- 
ful. When  the  Arabs  have  them  in  quan- 
tities, they  roast  or  dry  them  in  an  oven, 
or  boil  them  and  eat  them  with  salt.  The 
Arabs  in  the  kingdom  of  Morocco  boil  the 
locusts,  and  then  dry  them  on  the  roofs  of 
their  houses.  One  sees  there  large  baskets 
full  of  them  in  the  markets." 

In  Rev.  9:7-10  there  is  a  terrific  descrip- 
tion of  symbolical  locusts,  in  which  they 
are  compared  to  war-horses,  their  hair  to 
the  hair  of  women,  etc.  Niebuhr  heard  an 
Arab  of  the  desert,  and  another  in  Bagdad, 
make  the  same  comparison.  In  like  man- 
ner the  Italians  still  call  locusts  little  hor- 
ses, and  the  Germans  hay-horses. 

LOD,  I  Chr. 8:12;  Ezra2:33.    See  Lydda. 

LO'-DEBAR,  no  pasture,  a  town  east  of 
the  Jordan  near  Mahanaim  in  the  north  of 
Dan  ;  the  home  of  Machir,  who  gave  shelter 
to  Mephibosheth,  2  Sam.  9:4,  5;  17:27. 

LODGE,  to  stay  over  night,  i  Kin.  19:9; 

1  Chr.9:27;  Neh.4:22;  13:20,21  ;  Job3i:32; 
Isa.  10:29.     On  Isa.  1:8  see  Garden. 

LOG,  Heb.  a  hollow,  the  smallest  meas- 
ure of  liquids  among  the  Hebrews,  contain- 
ing i-i2th  of  a  hin,  or  about  5-6ths  of  a  pint. 
Lev.  14:10,  12,  15,  21,  24. 

LOINS,  the  lower  part  of  a  man's  back, 
Jer.  30:6,  and  the  organs  within,  Gen. 
35:11;  I  Kin.  8:19;  represented  as  the  seat 
of  strength,  Deut.  33:11;  Job  40:16;  Psa. 
69:23;  Isa.  21:3;  girt  with  sackcloth  in 
mourning,  Gen.  37:34'     See  Girdle. 

LO'IS,  a  pious  Jewess  at  Lystra,  whose 
"  unfeigned  faith  "  Paul  traces  in  her  daugh- 
ter   Eunice    and    her    grandson    Timothy, 

2  Tim.  1:5. 

329 


LOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOT 


LOOKED,  Acts  28 : 6,  expected,  as  in 
R.  V. 

LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES,  or  rather,  mirrors, 
were  anciently  made,  not  of  glass,  but  of 
metal,  chiefly  copper,  Exod.  38:8;  Job  37: 18, 
melted  and  cast  in  a  circular  form,  highly 


polished,  and  attached  to  an  ornamental 
handle.  Similar  mirrors  have  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Egypt.  They  were 
far  inferior  to  modern  mirrors,  i  Cor.  13: 12, 
as  is  our  present  knowledge  of  divine 
things  compared  with  our  future  direct  and 
open  vision.  See  also  2  Cor.  3:18;  Jas. 
1:23. 

LORD.  This  name  belongs  to  God  by 
preeminence,  and  in  this  sense  ought  never 
to  be  given  to  any  creature.  Jesus  Christ, 
as  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  and  equal 
with  the  Father,  is  often  called  Lord  in 
Scripture,  especially  in  the  writings  of  Paul. 
The  word  Lord,  in  the  English  Bible,  when 
printed  in  small  capitals,  stands  always  for 
Jehovah  in  the  Hebrew.     See  Jehovah. 

LORD'S-DAY.     See  Sabbath. 

LORDS  SUP'PER,  called  also  "the 
breaking  of  bread,"  Acts  2:42;  20:7,  and 
"the  communion  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,"  I  Cor.  10:16,  is  one  of  the  2  simple 
ordinances  of  the  Christian  church,  institu- 
ted by  our  Saviour  in  the  most  affecting 
circumstances  on  the  Passover  night  in 
which  he  was  betrayed,  to  be  observed  by 
his  followers  until  his  2d  coming.  Bread 
and  wine,  the  symbols  of  his  body  broken 
and  his  blood  shed  for  our  redemption,  are 
to  be  tasted  by  each  communicant,  to  keep 
in  mind  that  great  sacrifice,  the  foundation 
of  all  our  hopes  and  the  strongest  motive 
to  a  holy  and  devoted  life,  Exod.  24:5-8; 
Rom.  3:25;  2  Cor.  5:14,  15.  In  the  Lord's 
Supper  the  covenant  is  renewed  between 
Christ  and  his  people.  It  is  also  the  visible 
330 


token  of  Christian  fellowship ;  and  all  true 
believers — having  united  themselves  to  his 
church  and  leading  consistent  lives — and 
none  but  they,  should  claim  to  partake  of 
it,  I  Cor.  5:6-8.  In  it  Christians  may  ex- 
pect and  should  seek  to  receive  of  the  ful- 
ness of  Christ,  grace  for  grace,  2  Cor.  i  :2i, 
22;  Eph.  4:15,  16;  while  those  who  partake 
heedlessly  incur  great  guilt,  and  may  look 
for  chastisement.  Some  such  abuses  seem 
to  have  marred  this  service  in  Corinth,  or 
rather  the  love-feasts  or  agapce  that  ac- 
companied it,  I  Cor.  II :  20-34.  The  dogma 
of  the  Romish  Church,  that  the  bread  is 
changed  into  the  very  body  and  soul  of 
Christ,  which  the  priest  offers  anew  in  sac- 
rifice, is  contrary  to  the  Scripture  and  to 
all  the  senses,  as  it  is  also  to  common 
sense. 

LO-RUHA'MAH,  not  obtaining  mercy, 
the  name  divinely  given  to  Hosea's  ist 
daughter,  a  type  of  Israel's  forfeiture  of  his 
favor  during  the  Captivity,  Hos.  1:6;  2:1, 
23.     See  Hosea. 

LOT,  covering,  the  son  of  Haran,  brother 
of  Milcah  and  Iscah,  and  nephew  of  Abra- 
ham, followed  his  uncle  from  Ur,  and  after- 
wards from  Haran,  to  settle  in  Canaan. 
They  went  down  into  the  south,  the  Negeb, 
and  into  Egypt  during  a  famine,  and  return- 
ing lived  together  near  Bethel  and  Ai,  (ien. 
11:27-31;  12:4-6;  13:1-4.  Abraham  had  a 
great  affection  for  him,  and  when  they  could 
not  continue  longer  together  in  Canaan,  be- 
cause they  both  had  large  flocks  and  their 
shepherds  sometimes  quarrelled,  Gen.  13 : 5- 
7,  he  generously  gave  Lot  the  choice  of  his 
abode.  Lot  chose  the  plain  of  Sodom,  which 
appears  then  to  have  been  the  most  fertile 
part  of  the  land.  Here  he  continued  to 
dwell  till  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  the 
adjacent  cities.  He  was  a  righteous  man 
even  in  Sodom,  2  Pet.  2:6-9,  ^"^  "a  judge," 
condemning  their  evil  practices,  Gen.  19:9; 
but  the  calamities  consequent  upon  his 
choice  of  this  residence — his  capture  by 
Eastern  marauders.  Gen.  14,  the  molesta- 
tion caused  by  his  ungodly  and  vicious 
neighbors,  the  loss  of  his  property  in  the 
burning  city,  the  destruction  of  his  sons-in- 
law  and  of  his  wife — if  they  do  not  prove 
that  he  regarded  ease  and  profit  more  than 
duty,  show  that  the  most  beautiful  and  fruit- 
ful land  is  not  always  the  best ;  the  profli- 
gacy of  its  citizens  may  sink  it  into  the 
abyss  of  perdition,  and  endanger  all  who 
have  any  concern  with  it.  Real  estate  in 
Sodom  proved  worthless,  as  it  is  in  any 
similar  place;  and  no  "durable  riches," 


LOT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LUC 


worthy  of  being  a  man's  chief  good,  can 
be  found  in  any  earthly  property — it  is  all 
to  be  burned.  Lot's  wife,  looking  back 
with  disobedient  regrets,  and  arrested  by 
the  threatened  judgment  midway  in  her 
flight  to  the  mountain,  struck  dead  and 
becoming  incrusted  with  salt,  is  an  awful 
warning  to  all  who  turn  their  faces  Zion- 
ward  but  are  unwilling  to  leave  all  for 
Christ,  Gen.  19;  Luke  17:28-32.  Lot  es- 
caped with  his  2  daughters  to  Zoar,  and 
became  the  father  of  Moab  and  Ammon  bj' 
them,  they  no  doubt  palliating  their  crime 
by  the  plea  that  they  dared  not  marry  any 
of  the  heathen  among  whom  they  dwelt. 
The  Dead  Sea  is  now  called  by  the  natives 
Bahr  Lflt,  the  sea  of  Lot.     See  Sodom. 

LO'TAN,  covering,  eldest  son  of  Seir, 
Gen.  36:20,  22,  29;  I  Chr.  1:38. 

LOTS  were  often  cast  by  the  Jews,  as  well 
as  by  other  ancient  nations,  with  the  e.x- 
pectation,  when  God  was  appealed  to,  that 
he  would  so  control  them  as  to  give  a  right 
direction  in  doubtful  cases,  Judg.  20:9; 
I  Sam.  10:20,  21 ;  i  Chr.  26:14;  Psa.  22:18; 
Prov.  16:33;  18:18.  They  were  often  used 
by  the  divine  appointment.  The  portions 
of  the  12  tribes  were  thus  assigned  to  them ; 
and  hence  each  tribe's  portion  was  called 
"the  lot  of  its  inheritance,"  Num.  26:55, 
56;  Psa.  125:3;  Acts  8:21.  The  scape-goat 
was  to  be  selected  and  the  order  of  the 
priests'  service  determined  by  lot.  Lev. 
16:8;  I  Chr.  24:5;  25:8.  By  the  same 
means  Achan,  Jonathan,  and  Jonah  were 
discovered.  Josh.  7:14;  i  Sam.  14:41,  42; 
Jon.  1:7.  By  lot  Christ's  garments  were 
divided,  Matt.  27:35,  and  Matthias  was  des- 
ignated by  Christ  to  be  an  apostle  in  the 
place  of  Judas,  Acts  i :  26.  A  common  mode 
of  casting  lots  was  by  the  use  of  pebbles, 
one  or  more  of  them  being  marked,  and  all 
being  shaken  together  in  some  fold  of  a 
garment,  an  urn,  or  a  helmet,  before  draw- 
ing, Prov.  16:33;  John  19:24.  As  the  use 
of  lots  by  one  who  believes  in  the  particu- 
lar providence  of  God  involves  a  solemn 
appeal  to  the  Disposer  of  all  events,  they 
should  never  be  used  on  trivial  occasions; 
and  in  this  day  a  case  can  rarely  occur 
when  such  an  appeal  would  be  warranted. 
See  PuRiM. 

LOVE.     God  is  love;   and  he  that 

DWELLETH  IN  LOVE  DWELLETH  IN  GOD, 

AND  God  in  him,  i  John  4:16.  Love  is  a 
chief  attribute  of  Jehovah,  the  length  and 
breadth  and  height  and  depth  of  which  are 
beyond  comprehension,  for  they  are  infi- 
nite, Eph.  3: 18, 19.     Between  the  3  Persons 


of  the  Godhead  love  is  unutterably  full^ 
perfect,  and  blissful ;  towards  holy  angels 
and  Christians  God's  love  is  an  infinite 
fatherly  complacency  and  affection ;  to- 
wards sinners  it  is  immeasurable  compas- 
sion. It  is  shown  in  all  his  works  and 
ways,  and  dictated  his  holy  law,  but  is  most 
signally  displayed  in  the  gospel,  John  3:16. 
"  Herein  is  love."     See  Law. 

Holy  love  in  man  would  make  the  whole 
heart  and  soul  supremely  delight  in  and 
obey  God,  and  cordially  and  practically 
love  all  beings  according  to  their  charac- 
ter— the  good  with  fellowship  of  soul,  and 
the  evil  with  a  Christlike  benevolence — 
abstaining  from  all  that  would  harm  them, 
and  doing  all  that  we  can  for  their  good, 
without  reference  to  a  return.  Such  a  love 
would  meet  and  fulfil  all  the  ends  of  the 
law.  Matt.  22:37-40;  Rom.  13:8-10.  With- 
out it  none  can  enter  heaven ;  and  as  the 
affections  of  every  unrenewed  heart  are  all 
mi.\ed  with  sin,  being  given  to  forbidden 
objects,  or  selfishly  and  unduly  given  to 
objects  not  forbidden,  we  must  be  "born 
again"  in  order  to  see  God,  John  3:3;  ijohn 

4:7,  19;  5:4- 

LOVE-FEASTS,  Jude  12 ;  2  Pet.  2 :  13.  See 
Feasts. 

LOVER,  in  Scripture  any  intimate  friend, 
I  Kin.  5:1 ;  Psa.  38:11. 

LOW  COUNTRY,  or  Shephelah,  2  Chr. 
26:10.     See  Ji'D.EA. 

LOWER  PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH,  val- 
leys, Isa.  44:23;  also  the  abode  of  disem- 
bodied spirits,  secluded  from  view,  Psa. 
63:9;  Eph.  4:9;  hence,  in  Psa.  139:15,  the 
womb. 

LU'BIM,  thirsty.     See  Libya. 

LU'CAS,  A.  V.  Phile.  24.     See  Luke. 

LU'CIFER,  liglit-bringer,  the  Latin  name 
of  the  morning  star,  or  "  son  of  the  morn- 
ing." In  the  figurative  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, a  brilliant  star  denoted  an  illustrious 
prince,  Num.  24:17.  Christ  was  given  to 
men  as  the  "  bright  and  morning  Star," 
Rev.  2:28;  22:16.  The  word  Lucifer  is 
used  once  only  in  the  English  Bible,  and 
then  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  Isa.  14: 12.  It 
is  now  commonly,  though  inappropriately, 
given  to  the  prince  of  darkness. 

LU'CIUS  of  Cyrene,  Acts  13:1,  compare 
Acts  2:10;  11:19,  20,  one  of  the  ministers 
and  teachers  of  the  Christian  church  at 
Antioch,  and  probably  a  kinsman  of  Paul, 
Rom.  16:21.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to 
be  the  same  with  the  evangelist  Luke;  but 
for  this  there  is  no  good  reason. 

LU'CRE,  gain.  "Filthy  lucre"  is  ill- 
331 


LUD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LYD 


gotten  and  base  gain,  i  Tim.  ^i^,  8;  Tit. 
1:7,  u. 

LUD,  the  4th  son  of  Shem,  Gen.  10:22, 
and  ancestor,  it  is  thought,  of  the  Lydians 
in  Asia  Minor,  i  Chr.  1:17. 

LU'DIM,  descendants  of  Mizraim,  Gen. 
10:13,  dwelling  in  Africa,  probably  near 
Ethiopia;  they  were  famous  bowmen,  Isa. 
66:19,  and  are  mentioned  as  soldiers  with 
the  Ethiopians,  Libyans,  and  Tyrians,  Jer. 
46:9;  Ezek.  27:10;  30:5. 

LU'HITH,  THE  .\SCENT  OF,  a  hill  leading 
up  to  a  Moabite  sanctuary,  Isa.  15:5;  Jer. 
48:5. 

LUKE,  Lucas,  Phile.  24,  or  Lucanus,  the 
evangelist,  probably  the  same  person  who 
is  called  by  St.  Paul  "  the  beloved  physi- 
cian," and  distinguished  from  them  "of 
the  circumcision,"  Col.  4:11,  14.  Luke  was 
the  writer  of  the  gospel  which  bears  his 
name,  and  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  hav- 
ing been  the  friend  and  companion  of  Paul 
in  most  of  the  journeys  recorded  in  the 
latter  book.  Thus,  in  Acts  16:11,  he  first 
uses  the  word  "we,"  and  shows  that  he 
was  with  Paul  at  Troas  and  in  his  first 
Macedonian  tour.  After  they  reach  Phi- 
lippi  an  interval  of  separation  occurs ;  but 
they  are  again  at  Philippi  when  Paul  sails 
thence  for  Jerusalem,  and  from  that  time 
he  continues  with  the  apostle  in  his  la- 
bors, voyages,  and  sufferings  to  the  close  of 
his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  Acts  17:1; 
20:5,6,  13-16;  21-28;  Phile.  24;  2  Tim.  4:11. 
His  personal  history  before  and  after  this 
period  of  his  companionship  with  Paul  is 
unknown,  or  rests  on  uncertain  traditions. 
His  own  narrative  contains  the  least  pos- 
sible mention  of  himself;  yet  we  cannot 
doubt  that  he  was  eminently  useful  to  the 
early  church,  by  his  learning,  judgment, 
fidelity,  and  even  his  medical  skill,  besides 
leaving  to  the  world  the  invaluable  legacy 
of  his  writings.     See  Acts  and  Gospel. 

LU'NATIC,  formed  from  the  Latin  /una, 
the  moon,  and  corresponding  to  the  origi- 
nal (ireek  word  and  to  the  English  "  moon- 
struck ;"  applied  to  a  class  of  persons  men- 
tally and  often  corporally  diseased,  who 
were  believed  to  suffer  most  when  the 
moon  was  full.  Insanity,  epilepsy,  and 
morbid  melancholy  were  among  the  fre- 
quent efTects  of  demoniac  possession,  yet 
this  possession  existed  independently  of 
these  effects,  and  was  a  more  dreadful  ca- 
lamity. Lunatics  are  expressly  mentioned 
in  distinction  from  men  possessed  by  evil 
spirits.  Matt.  4:24;  17:15.    See  Devils  and 

M.\D. 

332 


LUST  originally  meant  any  longing  de- 
sire, however  innocent,  Deut.  12:15;  14:26. 
But,  in  tacit  acknowledgment  of  the  de- 
pravity of  man's  passions,  general  usage 
soon  attached  the  idea  of  guilt  to  the  word ; 
and  now  it  usually  denotes  carnal,  lascivi- 
ous desire,  Matt.  5:28.  In  Gal.  5:16,  17,  24 
we  see  that  the  aspirations  of  the  heart  re- 
newed by  the  Holy  Spirit  oppose  and  will 
subdue  the  native  evil  desires,  i  Cor.  15:57; 
but  in  the  unrenewed  heart  these  reign 
uncontrolled,  lead  to  greater  and  greater 
outward  sins,  and  secure  eternal  death, 
Jas.  1:14,  15.  Lusty  in  Judg.  3:29  means 
stout,  vigorous. 

LUZ,  bending  or  hazel,  I.,  a  spot  north  of 
Jerusalem  visited  while  uninhabited  by 
Abraham,  Gen.  12:8;  13:3,  and  by  Jacob, 
who  named  it  Bethel,  Gen.  28:19;  35:6; 
48:3.  A  Canaanite  town  was  afterwards 
built  near  by  and  called  Luz,  and  after  the 
conquest  Bethel  was  built  on  or  near  the 
same  site.  See  Bethel.  The  2  are  dis- 
tinguished in  Josh.  16:2.  There  is  now  a 
Khirbet  el-Lozeh  3^  miles  west  of  Beitin. 

II.  An  unknown  town  in  "  the  land  of 
the  Hittites,"  founded  by  a  refugee  from 
Luz  who  rendered  an  important  service  to 
the  Hebrews,  Judg.  1:26. 

LYCAO'NIA,  a  small  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  north  by  Galatia,  east  by 
Cappadocia,  south  by  Isauria  and  Cilicia, 
and  west  by  Phrygia.  It  appears  to  have 
been  within  the  limits  of  Phrygia  Major, 
but  was  erected  into  a  Roman  province  by 
Augustus.  The  country  is  level,  but  not 
fertile,  though  peculiarly  adapted  to  sheep- 
pasturage.  Of  its  cities,  Iconium,  Derbe, 
and  Lystra  are  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  Acts  14:6.  See  Lvstra.  The 
"speech  of  Lycaonia,"  ver.  11,  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  a  dialect  of  Greek, 
corrupted  by  a  large  mixture  of  Syriac. 
On  his  ist  journey  Paul  traversed  it  from 
west  to  east,  Acts  14: 1-21 ;  2  Tim.  3:11 ;  on 
his  2d  and  3d,  from  east  to  west — to  Troas, 
Acts  16:1-8,  and  to  Ephesus,  18:23;  19:1- 
Lycaonia  now  forms  part  of  the  Turkish 
province  of  Caramania. 

LY'CIA,  a  province  in  the  southwest  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  west  by  Caria,  east 
by  Pamphylia,  north  by  Phrygia  and  Pisi- 
dia,  and  south  by  the  Mediterranean.  The 
country  is  somewhat  mountainous,  though 
not  barren.  Of  its  cities,  only  Patara  and 
Myra  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Acts  21  :i,  2;  27:5. 

LYD'DA,  in  Hebrew  Lud  or  Lod,  in  Ben- 
jamin, I  Chr.  8:12;  Ezra  2:33,  and  by  the 


LYD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAC 


Greeks  called  Diospolis,  was  a  city  9  miles 
east  of  Joppa,  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem. 
Here  Peter  healed  .(Eneas,  Acts  9:33,  34. 
It  was  destroyed  not  long  after  Jerusalem, 
but  was  soon  rebuilt,  and  became  the  seat 
of  a  famous  Jewish  school.  A  Christian 
church  was  here  organized,  and  was  in 
existence  A.  D.  518.  Lydda  is  often  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  the  Crusades.  It 
was  situated  in  the  midst  of  fine  and  exten- 
sive plains,  the  soil  of  which  is  a  rich  black 
mould,  that  might  be  rendered  exceeding- 
ly fertile.  It  is  at  present  only  a  miserable; 
village  called  Ludd.  The  ruins  of  a  stately 
church  of  the  middle  ages,  called  the 
Church  of  St.  George,  preserve  the  name  of 
a  saint  and  martyr  said  to  have  been  born 
and  buried  here  in  the  3d  century.  The 
English  Crusaders  adopted  him  as  the 
"patron"  of  England,  and  many  fabulous 
legends  are  told  of  his  exploits. 

LYD'IA,  I.,  a  woman  of  Thyatira,  resi- 
ding at  Philippi  in  Macedonia,  and  dealing 
in  purple  cloths.  She  was  not  a  Jewess 
by  birth,  but  had  become  a  proselyte  to 
Judaism  and  "  worshipped  God."  She  was 
led  by  the  grace  of  God  to  receive  the  gos- 
pel with  joy,  Paul's  first  European  convert; 
and  having  been  baptized  with  her  house- 
hold, constrained  Paul  and  his  fellow-la- 
borers to  make  her  house  their  home  while 
at  Philippi,  Acts  16:14,  ^5.  4°-  Compare 
Phil.  4:3.  See  Philippi. 
II.  In  Ezek.  30:5,  properly  Ludim. 
LYSA'NIAS.  See  Abilene. 
LYS'IAS,  or  Claudius  Lysias,  commander 
of  the  Roman  guard  at  Jerusalem  during 
Paul's  last  visit  there.  In  the  honorable 
discharge  of  his  duty  he  repeatedly  saved 
Paul  from  the  malice  of  the  Jews,  Acts 
21:27-40;  22;  23. 

LYS'TRA,  a  city  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Lycaonia,  near  Derbe  and  Iconium,  and 
the  native  place  of  Timothy.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  preached  the  gospel  here,  and 
having  healed  a  cripple  were  almost  wor- 
shipped. Soon  after,  however,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  persecuting  Jews  from  Antioch 
and  Iconium,  Paul  was  stoned  there,  Acts 
14:6,  19.  Timothy  seems  to  have  witnessed 
or  known  of  his  sufferings,  2  Tim.  3:10,  11, 
and  at  Paul's  2d  visit  was  ready  to  enter 
on  the  public  service  of  Christ,  Acts  16:1. 
Hamilton  finds  its  site  at  Bin-bir-Kilisseh, 
at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  of  volcanic  origin 
named  Karadagh,  where  are  the  ruins  of  a 
number  of  churches.  The  city  appears  to 
have  claimed  Jupiter  as  its  special  patron, 
Acts  1.1:1.^. 


M. 

MA'ACAH,  or  Maachah,  oppression,  I., 
a  city  and  region  of  Syria  or  Aram,  i  Chr. 
19:6,  7,  somewhere  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hermon  and  Geshur,  apparently  the  rocky 
tract  east  of  the  Ledja.  The  portion  of 
Manasseh  beyond  Jordan  reached  to  this 
country,  like  that  of  Og  king  of  Bashan, 
Deut.  3:13,  14;  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  become  subject  to  Israel,  Josh.  12:4-6; 
13:13,  except  during  the  reign  of  David, 
Solomon,  and  Jeroboam  II.  The  king  of 
Maachah,  with  other  Syrians,  joined  the 
Ammonites  in  a  war  with  David,  and  they 
were  defeated  and  made  tributary,  2  Sam. 
10:6-8,  19. 

II.  A  wife  of  David,  and  the  mother  of 
Absalom.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Talmai, 
king  of  Geshur  in  Syria,  2  Sam.  3:3;!  Chr. 
3:2. 

III.  The  wife  of  Rehoboam  and  mother 
of  Abijah,  kings  of  Judah.  She  is  called 
the  "daughter"  of  Abishalom  or  Absalom, 
I  Kin.  15:2;  2  Chr.  11:20-22.  In  2  Chr. 
13:2  she  is  called  Michaiah,  and  is  said  to 
be  the  daughter  of  Uriel.  She  appears  to 
have  exerted  a  great  influence  over  the 
members  of  the  royal  family,  but  was  de- 
graded from  her  high  position  by  Asa  her 
grandson,  for  promoting  idolatry,  2  Chr. 
15:16. 

Six  others  of  the  same  name  are  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  22:24;  i  Kin.  2:39;  i  Chr. 
2:48;  7:16;  8:29;  11:43;  27:16. 

MA'ALEH-ADUM'MIM,  A.  V.  the  going 
up  0/  Adtiminitn,  a  rough  pass  near  Gilgal, 
Josh.  15:7;  18:17. 

MA'ALEH-AKRAB'BIM,  ascent  of  scor- 
pions, Num.  34:4;  Josh.  15:3;  Judg.  1:36. 
See  Akrabbim.  Trumbull  identifies  it  with 
the  pass  el-Yemen,  30  miles  southwest  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  6  miles  west  of  the  pass 
es-SufSh. 

MA'ARATH,  openness,  a  town  in  Judah, 
north  of  Hebron,  Josh.  15:59- 

MAASE'IAH,  the  work  of  God,  the  name 
of  many  places  mentioned  in  i  Chr.  15:18, 
20;  2  Chr.  23:1;  26:11;  28:7;  34:8;  Ezra 
10:18,  21,  22,  30;  Neh.  3:23;  8:4,  7;  10:25; 
11:5,  7;  12:42;  Jer.  21:1;  35:4;  51:59- 

MACEDO'NIA,  a  large  country  lying 
north  of  Greece  proper,  bounded  south  by 
Thessaly  and  Epirus,  east  by  Thrace  and 
the  ^gean  Sea,  west  by  the  Adriatic  Sea 
and  Illyria,  and  north  by  Dardania  and 
Moesia.  Its  principal  rivers  were  the  Stry- 
mon  and  Axius,  flowing  through  2  great 
plains.    Its  most  celebrated  mountains  were 

333 


MAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAG 


Olympus  and  Athos :  the  former  renowned 
in  heathen  mythology  as  the  residence  of 
the  gods,  lying  on  the  confines  of  Thessaly, 
and  principally  within  that  state;  the  lat- 
ter being  at  the  extremity  of  a  promontory 
which  juts  out  into  the  ^gean  Sea,  and 
noted  in  modern  times  as  the  seat  of  sev- 
eral monasteries,  in  which  are  manj'  man- 
uscripts supposed  to  be  valuable.  This 
region  is  believed  to  have  been  peopled  by 
Kittim,  Gen.  10:4;  but  little  is  known  of 
its  early  history.  The  Macedonian  empire 
is  traced  back  some  400  years  before  the 
famous  Philip,  under  whom,  and  especial- 
ly under  his  son  Alexander  the  Great,  it 
reached  the  summit  of  its  power.  Alexan- 
der, B.  C.  336-323,  at  the  head  of  Macedo- 
nians and  Greeks  united,  conquered  a 
large  part  of  Western  and  Southern  Asia. 
This  power  was  foretold  by  Daniel,  8:3-8, 
under  the  symbol  of  a  goat  with  one  horn ; 
and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  ancient  Mace- 
donian coins  still  exist  bearing  that  na- 
tional symbol.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der the  power  of  the  Macedonians  declined, 
and  they  were  at  length  conquered  by  the 
Romans  under  Paulus  ^milius,  B.  C.  168, 
■who  divided  their  country  into  4  districts. 
The  Romans  afterwards  divided  the  whole 
of  Greece  and  Macedonia  into  2  great  prov- 
inces, which  they  called  Macedonia  and 
Achaia,  B.  C.  142,  Rom.  15:26;  2  Cor.  9:2. 
See  Greece.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
name  is  to  be  taken  in  this  latter  sense. 
Of  the  cities  of  Macedonia  proper  there  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  Amphip- 
olis,  Apollonia,  Beroea,  Neapolis,  Philippi, 
and  Thessalonica.  This  country  early  re- 
ceived the  gospel,  A.  D.  52,  Paul  having 
been  summoned  to  labor  there  by  a  super- 
natural vision.  Acts  16:9  to  17:15.  He  vis- 
ited it  3  or  4  times,  and  established  churches 
at  Thessalonica,  Philippi,  etc.  It  is  often 
mentioned,  as  in  Acts  18:5;  19:21;  20:1-6; 
Rom.  15:26;  2  Cor.  1:16;  9:2;  11:9.  Its 
Christians  are  highly  commended.  Acts 
17:11;  Phil.  4:10,  14-19;  I  Thess.  1:3-8; 
2:8,  17-20;  3:10,  and  it  was  honored  by  its 
Christian  women.  Acts  16:13,  141  Phil.  4:2, 
3.  Its  fertile  soil  is  now  languishing  under 
the  Turkish  sway. 

MACHBAN'AI,  cloaked,  I  Chr.  12:13. 

MACHBE'NAH,  a  cloak,  or  a  band,  i  Chr. 
2:48,  49,  a  town  of  Judah,  colonized  by  de- 
scendants of  Maachah. 

MA'CHIR,  sold,  I.,  eldest  son  of  the  patri- 
arch Manasseh,  Gen.  50:23;  i  Chr.  7:14. 
His  son  Gilead  and  his  daughter  Abiah, 
I  Chr.  2:21,  23,  are  mentioned.  His  pos- 
334 


terity  were  active  in  the  conquest  of  Gil- 
ead, Num.  32:39;  Josh.  17:1,  and  in  the 
war  with  Jabin  and  Sisera,  Judg.  5: 14. 

II.  Son  of  Ammiel,  a  Gileadite  chief  who 
befriended  Jonathan's  son  Mephibosheth, 
and  afterwards  sent  supplies  to  David,  flee- 
ing from  Absalom,  2  Sam.  9:4,  5;  17:27-29. 

MACHPE'LAH,  double,  or  a  portion,  a 
place  near  Hebron  containing  the  field  and 
cave  purchased  of  Ephron  by  Abraham  for 
a  family  tomb.  Sarah  was  first  buried 
there.  Gen.  23,  and  afterwards  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  with  Rebekah,  Leah,  etc., 
Gen.  25:9;  49:30;  50:13.    See  Hebron. 

MAD,  and  "beside  thyself,"  in  Acts  26:24, 
25,  are  the  same  word  in  Greek.  Harm- 
less madmen  or  lunatics  are  still  revered 
in  the  East  as  persons  whose  spirits  are  in 
converse  with  the  other  world,  and  they 
are  ministered  to  and  suffered  to  do  as 
they  please.  Compare  i  Sam.  21:10-15; 
2  Cor.  II :  19. 

MA'DAI,  the  3d  son  of  Japheth,  and  the 
Medes,  etc.,  descended  from  him.  Gen.  10:2. 
See  Media. 

MA'DIAN.    See  Midian. 

MADMAN'NAH,  dunghill,  a  city  first  as- 
signed to  Judah,  and  afterwards  to  Simeon, 
Josh.  15:31;  I  Chr.  2:49.  Compare  Beth- 
marcaboth,  Josh.  19:5.  It  is  perhaps  Min- 
yai,  15  miles  from  Gaza  on  the  road  to 
Egypt. 

MAD'MEN,  dunghill,  an  unknown  place 
in  Moab,  Jer.  48:2. 

MADME'NAH,  dunghill,  a  town  in  Ben- 
jamin not  far  from  Jerusalem,  site  not 
known,  Isa.  10:31. 

MA'DON,  strife,  a  town  in  North  Canaan 
whose  king,  Jobab,  was  defeated  by  Joshua, 
Josh.  II :  I  ;   12:19. 

MAG'DALA,  a  toiver,  in  R.  V.,  Matt. 
15:39,  Mac;adan,  now  a  small  Turkish  vil- 
lage called  el-Mejdel.  It  lay  near  the  shore 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  at  its  most  westerly 
point,  3  miles  northwest  of  Tiberias,  in  the 
southern  part  pf  a  small  plain  on  which 
stood  also  Capernaum  at  the  other  end, 
and  Dalmanutha  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 
Matt.  15:39;  Mark  8:10.  Mary  Magdalene 
was  born  or  resided  at  Magdala;  and  it 
was  the  seat  of  a  Jewish  school  after  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed. 

MAG'DIEL,  endowed  by  God,  an  Edom- 
ite  chief.  Gen.  36:43. 

MA'GI,  or  Wise  Men,  an  appellation 
given  among  the  Medes  and  Persians  to  a 
class  of  priests,  wise  men,  philosophers, 
etc.,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study 
of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  and 


MAG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAH 


particularly  cultivated  astrology  and  medi- 
cine. They  alone  performed  the  religious 
rites,  and  pretended  to  communicate  to 
men  secret  things,  future  events,  and  the 
will  of  the  gods.  See  Media.  As  they 
thus  acquired  great  honor  and  influence, 
they  were  introduced  into  the  courts  of 
kings  and  consulted  on  all  occasions.  They 
also  accompanied  the  army  in  warlike  ex- 
peditions; and  so  much  importance  was 
attached  to  their  advice  and  opinions  that 
nothing  was  attempted  without  their  ap- 
probation. See  Artaxerxes,  I.  and  Rab- 
MAG.  A  similar  class  of  men  existed  in 
Babylon,  Egypt,  Arabia,  etc.  The  book  of 
Daniel  shows  in  what  high  estimation  they 
were  held  in  Babylon.  Daniel  was  appoint- 
-ed  master  of  the  wise  men;  but  their  jeal- 
ousy of  his  wisdom  and  their  hatred  of  his 
religion,  as  well  as  the  terms  in  which  they 
are  spoken  of  in  Isa.  47:13,  14;  Dan.  2:9, 
27,  show  that  as  a  class  they  were  destitute 
■of  true  wisdom.     See  Simon  Magus. 

Not  so  those  who  came  "  from  the  East  " 
to  salute  and  adore  the  infant  Jesus,  Matt. 
2:1-12.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  beyond 
the  Euphrates  had  dispersed  through  the 
East  much  knowledge  of  the  true  God; 
and  these  philosophers  and  astronomers,  in 
their  search  after  wisdom,  had  found  and 
believed  the  prophecies  respecting  the  Mes- 
siah— among  others  that  of  Balaam,  who 
came  from  the  East,  Num.  23:7,  and  fore- 
told Christ  as  the  Star  of  Jacob,  Num .  24 : 1 7 ; 
and  of  Daniel,  "chief  of  the  magi,"  Dan. 
2:48;  5:11;  7:13,  14,  21,  27;  9:25-27 — and 
were  divinely  guided  to  his  presence  at 
Bethlehem.  See  Star.  In  them  the  sci- 
ence and  philosophy  of  the  heathen  world 
laid  their  homage  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  fore- 
tokening the  opening  of  Christ's  kingdom 
to  the  Gentiles  and  the  time  when  all  the 
-world  shall  pay  him  tribute  as  the  true 
King  of  men.  Compare  Psa.  72 :  10, 11;  Isa. 
-60:1-3. 

MAG'IC  means,  in  the  Bible,  all  the  super- 
stitious ceremonies  of  magicians,  sorcerers, 
enchanters,  necromancers,  spiritualists,  ex- 
orcists, astrologers,  soothsayers,  interpret- 
ers of  dreams,  fortune-tellers,  casters  of 
nativities,  etc.,  which  are  all  forbidden  by 
the  law  of  God,  whether  practised  to  hurt 
or  to  benefit  mankind.  It  was  also  forbid- 
Aen  to  consult  magicians  on  pain  of  death, 
Lev.  19:31;  20:6;  Deut.  18:9-14.  Magic 
arts  and  implements  are  mentioned  in  Gen. 
31 :  19, 30, 32-35,  Laban'steraphim ;  compare 
Judg.  18:5,  6,  14-20;  Ezek.  21:19-22;  Zech. 
10:2;  in  the  story  of  the  Exode,  Exod.  7  and 


8 ;  of  Balaam,  Num.  22 : 5-7  ;  23 :  23 ;  24 :  i ;  of 
the  witch  of  En-dor,  i  Sam.  28 ;  and  of  the 
Ephesian  books,  Acts  19:19.  See  also  Isa. 
2:6;  8:19;  19:3;  29:3,  4;  Jer.  14:14;  23:25 
to  end;  29:8,  9;  Mic.  3:6,  7,  11 ;  Acts  16:16- 
18.  There  is  no  evidence  of  supernatural 
power  in  any  case.  See  Enchantments, 
Sorcerers. 

MAGI'CIANS.  See  Magi  and  Magic. 
This  Hebrew  word  means  sacred  scribes. 
The  magicians  of  Egypt  were  probably 
priests. 

MAG'ISTRATES.  Applied  in  Scripture 
to  various  civil  and  military  rulers.  In 
Acts  16:20,  22,  35,  38,  the  Roman  Prae- 
tors. 

MA'GOG,  the  2d  son  of  Japheth,  Gen. 
10:2;  I  Chr.  1:5.  See  Gog.  In  Ezek.  38 
and  39  and  Rev.  20:7-9  are  denoted  the 
violent  assaults  of  the  enemies  of  Christian- 
ity and  their  defeat.  The  barbaric  Scythi- 
ans, from  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  who  overran  much  of  Western 
Asia  in  the  7th  century  B.  C,  well  answered 
to  the  description  in  Ezekiel. 

MA'GOR- MIS'SABIB,  terror  on  every 
side,  the  significant  name  given  by  Jere- 
miah to  the  persecuting  Pashur,  Jer.  20:3, 
4.  The  same  words  are  used  in  Psa.  31 :  13, 
but  elsewhere  only  by  Jeremiah,  Jer.  6:25; 
20:10;  46:5;  49:29;  Lam.  2:22. 

MAHALAL'EEL,  praise  of  God,  I.,  the 
4th  from  Adam  in  the  line  of  Seth,  Gen. 
5:12-17;  I  Chr.  1:2;  Luke  3:37. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Judah  and  of  Pharez, 
Neh.  11:4. 

MA'HALATH,  harp,  I.,  Esau's  wife,  and 
daughter  of  Ishmael.     See  Bashemath. 

II.  A  granddaughter  of  David,  cousin  and 
wife  of  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:18. 

III.  In  the  title  of  Psalms  53  and  88,  con- 
jectured to  refer  to  the  tune  or  the  instru- 
ment used  in  chanting  these  Psalms ;  or  as 
Hcngstenberg  and  Alexander  suggest,  to 
the  spiritual  malady  which  they  lament. 

MAHANA'IM,  two  hosts,  a  place  so  named 
because  a  host  of  angels  here  met  the  host 
of  Jacob  on  his  return  from  Padan-aram, 
Gen.  32:1,  2.  It  lay  north  of  the  Jabbok 
and  near  Penuel,  and  afterwards  became 
a  Levitical  city  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  Josh. 
13:26  ;  21 :38,  39.  It  was  apparently  a  town 
of  some  strength,  for  Ishbosheth  lived  there 
during  his  short  reign,  and  David  took 
refuge  there  during  Absalom's  rebellion, 
2  Sam.  2:8;  4:5;  17:24,27.  Solomon  drew 
supplies  thence,  -i  Kin.  4:14. 

MA'HANEH-DAN,  the  camp  of  Dan,  as 
translated  in  Judg.  13:25;  compare  16:31; 

335 


MAH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


MAM 


the  place  where  the  Danites  assembled  and 
prepared  to  invade  Laish,  Judg.  i8:ii,  12. 

MA'HARAI,  hasty,  I  Chr.  11:30;  27:13. 

MA'HER-SHA'LAL-HASH-BAZ,  haste, 
Spoil,  speed  to  the  prey,  the  name  given  by 
Isaiah  to  one  of  his  sons  for  a  prophetic 
intimation  of  the  speedy  victory  of  the  As- 
syrians over  Sj'ria  and  Israel,  Judah's  ene- 
mies, Isa.  8:1-3. 

MAH'LAH,  disease,  I.,  in  A.  V.  Maha- 
LAH,  I  Chr.  7: 18. 

II.  First  of  Zelophehad's  5  daughters, 
who  married  their  kinsmen  to  secure  their 
inheritance  in  Manasseh,  Num.  26:33;  27:  i- 
II ;  36:11 ;  Josh.  17:3. 

MAH'LI,  sick,  I.,  son  of  Merari,  and 
grandson  of  Levi,  Exod.  6:19;  Num.  3:20, 
T,T,\  I  Chr.  6:19;  23:21;  24:26,28. 

II.  A  nephew  of  the  preceding,  i  Chr. 
23:23;  24:30. 

MAH'LON,  sick,  a  son  of  Elimelech  and 
Naomi,  and  the  first  husband  of  Ruth  the 
Moabitess,  Ruth  i;  4:9. 

MAKE,  Luke  24:28,  to  act  or  appear;  so 
in  2  Sam.  13:6. 

MAKHE'LOTH,  assemblies,  24th  station 
of  the  wandering  Israelites,  Num.  33:25. 

MAKKE'DAH,  herdsman's  place,  a  chief 
city  of  the  Canaanites,  near  which  5  con- 
federate kings  were  defeated,  taken  in  the 
cave  to  which  they  had  fled,  and  executed. 
It  lay  in  the  vicinity  of  Libnah,  Azekah, 
and  Lachish,  southwest  of  Jerusalem,  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  Josh.  10:10-28;  12:16; 
15:41. 

MAK'TESH,  a  mortar,  Zeph.  i:ii,  appa- 
rently in  or  near  Jerusalem,  and  occupied 
by  merchants ;  but  we  have  no  clew  to  its 
location. 

MAL'ACHI,  messetig'er  of  Jehovah,  the 
last  of  the  minor  prophets  and  of  all  the 
Old  Testament  writers;  little  known.  Hag. 
1:13;  Mai.  3:1.  Malachi  most  probably 
prophesied  about  B.  C.  416,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  administration  of  Nehemiah, 
and  after  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  at  a  time 
of  great  disorder  among  the  priests  and 
people  of  Judah,  whom  he  reproves.  He 
inveighs  against  the  priests ;  reproves  the 
people  for  having  taken  strange  wives,  for 
inhumanity  to  their  brethren,  for  divorcing 
their  wives,  and  for  neglect  of  paying  tithes 
and  firstfruits.  He  seems  to  allude  to  the 
covenant  that  Nehemiah  renewed  with  the 
Lord,  together  with  the  priests  and  the 
chief  of  the  nation.  In  the  latter  part  he 
foretells  the  coming  of  John  the  Baptist  in 
the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  Mai.  3:1; 
4:5,  6;  Matt.  11:10,  14;  17:10-13;  Luke 
336 


1:17.  He  also  foretells  the  twofold  coming 
of  Christ,  and  the  blessedness  of  those  who 
fear  and  serve  him.  Thus  the  Old  Testa- 
ment closes  with  predictions  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  the  New  Testament  opens  with 
the  record  of  their  fulfilment. 

MAL'CHAM,  their  king,  I.    See  Molech. 

II.  Son  of  Shaharaim,  i  Chr.  8:9. 

MALCHI'AH,  or  MALCHI'JAH./d'/zoz'aA'j 
kitiff,  the  name  of  10  or  more  persons  in 
the  period  of  the  Captivity. 

MAL'CHIEL,  God's  king,  grandson  of 
Asher,   Gen.   46:17;    Num.   26:45;    i    Chr. 

7\V- 

MAL'CHI  SHU'A, /fee«j?-o/'/i<'//>,  son  of  Saul 
and  Ahinoam,  slain  at  Gilboa,  i  Sam.  14:49; 
31:2;  I  Chr.  8:33;  9:39;  10:2. 

M  AL'CHUS,  ruler  or  counsellor,  the  bond- 
servant of  Caiaphas,  whose  right  ear  was 
cut  off  by  Peter  and  miraculously  restored 
by  Christ  in  Gethsemane,  Matt.  26:51.  The 
seizure  of  the  Saviour  immediately  after  2 
manifestations  of  his  divinity,  Luke  22:5r ; 
John  18:6,  evinces  the  blindness  and  obsti- 
nacy of  mankind  in  sin.  Note  that  his 
name  is  given  only  by  John,  who  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  family,  while  it  is  Luke 
only,  a  physician,  who  mentions  the  heal- 
ing of  the  ear.  "  Suffer  ye  thus  far,"  seems 
to  mean,  leave  me  free  a  moment  for  this 
purpose.  The  hands  so  often  stretched 
out  to  heal  were  now  to  be  bound  and  soon 
nailed  to  the  cross. 

MAL'LOWS,  Job  30:4,  supposed  by  Bo- 
chart  to  signify  the  plant  called  Orache,  the 
Atriplex  Halimus  of  Linnaeus.  It  grows 
in  salt  marshes  5  feet  high,  and  its  termi- 
nal leaves  are  used  in  the  East,  either  green 
or  boiled,  as  food  by  the  poor. 

MAL'LUCH,  ruler  ox  counsellor,  the  name 
of  6  men,  chiefly  of  the  era  of  the  Captivity. 

MAM'MON,  a  Chaldee  word  signifying 
riches.  Our  Saviour  says  we  cannot  serve 
God  and  mammon.  Matt.  6:24.  Wealth  is 
as  truly  an  idol  to  those  who  set  their  hearts 
on  it  as  Jupiter  or  Diana;  and  no  idolater 
can  enter  heaven.  He  also  charges  us, 
from  the  example  of  the  unjust  steward,  so 
to  use  worldly  goods,  which  are  generally 
sought  and  used  sinfully — "the  unright- 
eous mammon  " — as  to  have  God  the  Judge 
our  friend,  and  receive  the  true  riches  in 
heaven,  Luke  16:9,  11,  13. 

MAM'RE,  stoutness,  I.,  an  Amorite  prince, 
brother  of  Eshcol  and  Aner.  All  3  united 
their  forces  to  aid  Abraham  in  the  rescue 
of  Lot,  Gen.  14.     He  gave  his  name  to 

II.,  the  town  where  he  dwelt,  afterwards 
Hebron,  Gen.35:27,  in  the  suburbs  of  which 


MAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAN 


was  a  large  terebinth-tree,  or  grove  (see 
Oak),  called  in  the  A.  V.  "  the  plain  of 
Mamre."  Here  Abraham  and  his  descend- 
ants often  pitched  their  tents,  Gen.  13:18; 
18:1.  The  cave  of  Machpelah  lay  on  the 
slope  of  the  valley  opposite  to  the  grove  of 
Mamre,  Gen.  23:17,  19;  25:9;  49:30;  and 
from  the  heights  near  by  Abraham  could 
see  the  smoking  plain  of  Sodom,  Gen. 
19:27,  28. 

MAN  OF  SIN.     See  Antichrist. 

MAN'AEN,  consoler,  a  converted  Jew,  a 
foster  brother  of  Herod  Antipas,  but  unlike 
him  in  character  and  end :  Manaen  was  a 
minister  of  Christ  at  Antioch;  Herod  was 
guilty  of  the  blood  of  both  Christ  and  his 
forerunner.  Acts  13:1.  "One  shall  be  ta- 
ken, and  another  left." 

MAN'AHATH,  rest,  I.,  of  Mount  Seir,  a 
son  of  Shobal,  driven  out  by  the  sons  of 
Esau,  Gen.  36:23;  i  Chr.  1:40. 

II.  A  place  to  which  certain  Benjamites 
removed,  i  Chr.  8:6,  perhaps  in  the  border 
of  Judah,  I  Chr.  2:52-54. 

MANAS'SEH,  in  Matt.  i:io;  Rev.  7:6, 
A.  V.  Man.^sses,  causing  to  f org  el,  I.,  the 
eldest  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath,  born  in 
Egypt,  Gen.  41:50,  51,  and  adopted  by  Ja- 
cob as  one  of  his  own  sons,  and  head  of  a 
tribe,  as  was  his  brother  Ephraim,  Gen.  48. 
In  apportioning  his  benedictions  Jacob  was 
doubtless  divinely  guided. 

The  tribe  of  Manasseh,  with  that  of 
Ephraim  and  of  Benjamin,  all  descendants 
of  Rachel,  formed  "  the  camp  of  Ephraim," 
on  the  left  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  desert. 
In  the  division  of  the  Holy  Land,  Manasseh 
received  a  double  portion:  one  part  east  of 
the  Upper  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
the  other  west  of  the  Jordan,  between 
Ephraim  and  Issachar,  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, Num.  32:33,  39-42;  Josh.  16  and  17; 
yet  Ephraim 's  portion  was  better,  and  its 
wealth  and  power  far  greater,  according  to 
the  prediction  of  Jacob. 

In  the  early  history  of  Manasseh,  Machir 
"the  father  of  (the  land  of)  Gilead,"  and 
Jair  his  grandson,  were  famous,  Deut.  3 :  13- 
15;  I  Chr.  2:21-23.  The  western  half  of 
the  tribe  were  slow  in  expelling  the  Ca- 
naanites,  Josh.  17:1,  2;  Judg.  1:27,  28;  but 
the  tribe  took  part  in  the  war  with  Jabin, 
Judg.  5:14,  and  furnished  the  judges  Gide- 
on, Jair,  and  perhaps  Jephthah.  They  ac- 
cepted Ishbosheth  after  the  death  of  Saul, 
2  Sam.  2:9,  but  were  among  those  who 
crowned  David  at  Hebron,  i  Chr.  12:19-21, 
31,  2,^,  and  are  honorably  named  as  sharing 
in  religious  revivals,  2  Chr.  15:9;  30:1-18; 


31:4;  34:6-9.  They  were  chastised  by  Ha- 
zael,  2  Kin.  10:32,  ^j,,  and  carried  captive 
by  the  Assyrians,  i  Chr.  5:25,  26.  Their 
recovery  is  alluded  to  in  2  Chr.  15:9;  30:1- 
18;  34:6,  9;  Ezek.  48:3-5. 

II.  The  son  and  impious  successor  of  the 
good  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  and  the 
pious  Hephzibah.  Compare  Isa.  62:4.  He 
began  to  reign  at  12  years  old,  B.  C.  698, 
and  reigned  55  years.  His  sons  suffered  a 
fiery  baptism  to  Moloch,  2  Chr.  33:6,  or 
were  even  sacrificed,  Ezek.  23:37,  39.  The 
worship  of  Baal  and  Astarte  was  revived, 
Jer.  7:18,  impure  images  erected  in  the 
temple  itself,  2  Kin.  21:7;  23:17,  with  un- 
authorized priests,  Zeph.  1:4;  the  altars 
and  the  ark  of  Jehovah  were  removed, 
2  Chr.  33:16;  35:3,  the  Sabbath  disregard- 
ed, Isa.  56:2;  58:13,  and  priests  and  proph- 
ets cruelly  slain,  2  Kin.  21:16;  24:4;  Isa. 
57:1-4;  Jer.  2:30.  Isaiah  and  Habakkuk 
prophesied  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah  at  its  close.  For 
his  shocking  idolatries,  tyranny,  and  cru- 
elties God  suffered  "him  to  be  carried  as  a 
prisoner  to  Babylon  in  the  22d  year  of  his 
reign,  probably  by  Esar-haddon  king  of 
Assyria.  Here,  however,  he  so  humbled 
himself  that  God  moved  the  Assyrians  to 
restore  him  to  his  throne,  as  a  tributary; 
and  thenceforth  he  set  himself  to  undo 
the  evil  he  had  done.  He  abolished  the 
idols  he  had  worshipped  and  the  diviners 
he  had  consulted ;  accomplished  many  re- 
forms for  the  spiritual  and  material  good 
of  his  kingdom ;  repaired  the  defences  of 
Jerusalem,  inclosing  with  a  wall  new  space 
on  the  west  and  Ophel  on  the  southeast; 
and  strengthened  the  walled  cities  of  Judah. 
After  a  reign  longer  than  that  of  any  other 
king  of  Judah,  he  died  in  peace  and  was 
buried  in  Jerusalem,  2  Kin.  21 ;  2  Chr.  2,2>- 

The  "prayer  of  Manasseh,"  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha, was  not  admitted  to  the  canon  even 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  probably 
the  work  of  some  inventive  writer  before 
the  Christian  era. 

III.  A  grandfather  of  Micah's  renegade 
priest,  Judg.  18:30,  A.  V.  Many  versions 
have  Moses  instead  of  Manasseh,  and  that 
is  probably  the  true  reading. 

Two  men  of  this  name  repudiated  their 
heathen  wives  in  Ezra's  day,  Ezra  10:30,  53. 

MAN'DRAKES,  Hebrew  Dudaim,  Gen. 
30:14-16;  .Song  7:13,  a  plant  to  which  was 
attributed  superstitiously  the  power  of  ren- 
dering barren  women  fruitful.  It  is  tlie 
Atropa  Mandragora  of  Linnaeus,  a  plant  of 
the  genus  belladonna,  with  a  root  like  a 

337 


MAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAN 


beet,  white  and  reddish  blossoms,  and  fra- 
grant yellow  apples,  which  ripen  from  May 


to  July.  The  strong  odor  of  the  fruit,  of 
the  size  of  a  small  apple,  made  it  prized  in 
the  East. 

MA'NEH,  a  portion,  a  Hebrew  weight  of 
loo  shekels,  i  Kin.  10:17  with  2  Chr.  9:16; 
or,  as  usually  reckoned,  of  60  shekels,  Ezek. 
45:12.    .See  Pound  and  Weights. 

MAN'GER,  Greek,  a  crib  or  feeding- 
trough;  in  Luke  13:15  a  "stall" — margin, 
"manger."     See  Inn. 

MAN'NA,  the  miraculous  food  given  by 
God  to  the  Israelites  during  their  wander- 
ings in  the  desert.  It  was  like  a  small 
grain,  white  like  hoar-frost,  round,  and  of 
the  size  of  coriander-seed,  E.xod.  16;  Num. 
II.  It  fell  every  morning  with  the  dew 
about  the  camp  of  the  Israelites,  and  in  so 
great  quantities  during  the  whole  40  years 
of  their  journey  in  the  wilderness  that  it 
was  sufficient  to  serve  the  entire  multitude 
instead  of  bread,  Exod.  16:35;  Deut.  29:5, 
6;  Josh.  5:12.  It  is  nowhere  said  that  the 
Israelites  had  no  other  food.  That  nu- 
merous flocks  and  herds  accompanied  the 
camp  of  Israel  is  clear  from  many  passages. 
Certainly  the  daily  sacrifices  were  offered, 
and  no  doubt  other  offerings,  affording  ani- 
mal food  on  which  the  priests  and  Levites 
subsisted,  according  to  their  offices. 

When  manna  was  first  sent,  the  Israel- 
ites said  to  each  other,  Mais.-hu?  "  What  is 
it?"  for  they  wist  not  what  it  was,  and  from 
the  frequent  repetition  of  this  inquiry  the 
name  m.\n  or  manna  arose.  In  the  valleys 
around  Sinai  a  substance  called  manna  is 
found,  dropping  from  the  sprigs  of  several 
trees,  but  principally  from  the  tamarisk,  in 
the  month  of  June.  It  is  collected  by  the 
Arabs,  who  make  cakes  of  it,  and  call  it 
honey  of  bey rouk.  See  Exod.  16:31.  The 
338 


exudation  of  this  manna  is  occasioned  by 
an  insect.  Besides  this  substance  and  the 
manna  of  commerce — which  is  used  as  a 
laxative  medicine,  and  is  produced  by  the 
ash -trees  of  Southern  Europe  —  several 
other  vegetable  products  in  Arabia,  Persia, 
etc.,  of  similar  origin  and  qualities,  are 
known  by  the  same  name.  It  is  in  vain, 
however,  to  seek  to  identify  with  any  of 
these  the  manna  of  the  Israelites,  which 
was  evidently  a  special  provision  for  them, 
beginning  and  terminating  with  their  need 
of  it,  Deut.  8:3,  16.  It  was  found,  not  on 
trees  and  shrubs,  but  on  "  the  face  of  the 
wilderness  "  wherever  they  went,  and  was 
different  in  its  qualities  from  any  now 
known  by  that  name,  being  dry  enough  to 
grind  and  bake  like  grain,  but  breeding 
worms  on  the  2d  day.  It  was  miraculous 
in  the  amount  that  fell,  for  the  supply  of 
millions,  and  all  the  year  round;  in  not 
falling  on  the  Sabbath ;  in  falling  in  double 
quantities  the  previous  day ;  and  in  re- 
maining fresh  during  the  Sabbath.  By 
these  last  3  peculiarities  God  miraculously 
attested  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  as  da- 
ting from  the  creation  and  not  from  Mount 
Sinai.  Moreover,  a  specimen  of  manna 
was  laid  up  in  a  golden  vase  in  the  ark  of 
the  covenant,  in  memor\'  of  a  substance 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  wholly 
unknown  to  men,  Heb.  9:4. 

In  Psa.  78:24,  25,  manna  is  called  "an- 
gels' food  "  and  "  corn  of  heaven."  in  token 
of  its  excellence,  and  that  it  came  directly 
from  the  hand  of  God.  This  great  boon  of 
God  to  the  Israelites  also  offers  many 
striking  analogies  illustrative  of  "the  true 
Bread  "  which  came  down  from  heaven  to 
rebellious  and  perishing  man.  The  "hid- 
den manna,"  Exod.  16:33,  34,  is  an  emblem 
of  the  heavenly  bread  of  eternal  life.  Rev. 
2:17.  Compare  John  6:47-58.  As  a  type 
of  spiritual  food,  note  that  manna  was 
gathered  early,  and  daj'  by  day.  Like  the 
manna,  Christ  descends  from  above  around 
the  camp  of  his  church  in  daily  and  abun- 
dant supplies  to  meet  the  daily  recurring 
wants  of  every  man.  The  people  gath- 
ered on  an  average  about  3  quarts  for  each 
man.  They  who  gathered  more  than  they 
needed  shared  it  freely  with  others;  it 
could  not  be  hoarded  up:  and  thus,  as 
Paul  teaches  us,  2  Cor.  8:13-15,  it  furnishes 
for  all  men  a  lesson  against  hoarding  the 
earthly  and  perishable  gifts  of  (iod,  and  in 
favor  of  freely  imparting  to  our  brethren 
in  need.  It  ceased  to  fall  as  soon  as  the 
Jews  reached  the  plenty  of  Canaan,  Josh. 


MAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


5:12.  Even  Omnipotence  is  not  wasteful, 
Joiin  6: 12. 

MANO'AH,  rest,  a  native  of  Zorah,  in  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  father  of  Samson, 
Judg.  13.  He  opposed  his  son's  marriage 
to  a  Philistine  woman,  but  acquiesced  and 
attended  the  wedding,  Judg.  14:1-10.  He 
soems  to  have  died  before  his  son,  Judg. 
10:31.  In  the  prediction  of  his  son's  birth 
and  achievements  we  see  the  Angel  of  the 
covenant,  who  appeared  to  Abraham,  Gid- 
eon, etc.,  and  who  never  slumbers  nor 
sleeps,  caring  for  his  oppressed  people.  So 
too  he  appeared  to  Jacob,  and  would  not 
tell  his  mysterious  name.  Gen.  32:29;  Judg. 
13:18;  Isa.  9:6;  Luke  13:34. 

MAN'SIONS,  John  14:2,  rooms,  places  of 
abode:  there  is  abundant  provision  for  all 
Christ's  servants  in  heaven. 

MAN'SLAYER.      See  MURDER,  REFUGE. 

MAN'TLE.  See  Garments.  In  Judg. 
4:18  a  tent-shawl  or  coverlet.  In  i  Kin. 
19:13,  19;  2  Kin.  2:8,  13,  14,  a  large  over- 
garment of  sheepskin,  almost  the  sole  rai- 
ment of  the  prophet.  Compare  Zech.  13:4; 
Heb.  II  -.-yj. 

MA'ON,  a  dwellmg,  I.,  a  town  and  adja- 
cent pasture-ground  in  the  edge  of  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:55,  near  which 
Nabal  lived  and  David  took  refuge  from 
Saul,  I  Sam.  23:24,  25;  25:2.  Dr.  Robin- 
son finds  it  in  the  ruinous  place  called 
Main,  8  miles  south  of  Hebron. 

II.  Founder  of  Beth-zur,  i  Chr.  2:45. 

MA'ONITES,  called  Mehunim  in  2  Chr. 
26:7,  an  Arabian  tribe,  in  the  Septuagint 
called  Midian,  named  with  the  Amalekites 
and  other  foes  of  Israel,  Judg.  10: 12.  Their 
abode  may  have  been  near  the  place  now 
■called  Maan,  nearly  east  of  Petra,  on  the 
Haj  route  from  Damascus  to  Mecca.  Uz- 
ziah  defeated  them. 

MAR,  to  injure  or  despoil,  Ruth  4:6. 

MA'RAH,  bitterness,  I.,  a  place  in  the  wil- 
•derness  of  Shur,  or  Etham,  Num.  33:8,  the 
5th  station  of  the  Israelites,  near  the  Red 
Sea,  3  days'  journey  from  the  point  where 
they  crossed  it.  Its  well  was  sweetened 
for  the  use  of  the  distressed  Hebrews  by 
the  miraculous  efficacy  imparted  to  the 
"branches  of  a  certain  tree  which  Moses 
threw  in,  Exod.  15:22-25.  No  plant  is  now 
known  possessed  of  such  a  quality.  The 
name  Amarah  now  marks  the  dry  bed  of  a 
wintry  torrent,  43  miles  southeast  of  the 
"wells  of  Moses,"  a  little  south  of  which  is 
a  well  called  Howarah,  which  answers  well 
to  the  description.  Its  water,  after  remain- 
ing a  few  seconds  in  the  mouth,  becomes 


exceedingly  nauseous.  The  Arabs  do  not 
drink  it,  though  their  camels  will. 

II.  A  name  assumed  by  the  afflicted  Na- 
omi, Ruth  1 :2o. 

MA'RAN-A'THA,  composed  of  two  Syriac 
words,  signifying  "  Our  Lord  cometh."  See 
Anathema. 

MAR'BLE,  a  stone  composed  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  from  the  common  limestone  of 
Palestine  to  the  fine-grained  Parian  mar- 
ble, pure  white,  and  of  high  polish.  Song 
5:15;  Rev.  18:12,  or  of  various  colors,  used 
in  Mosaic  work,  Esth.  1:6.  Solomon's 
building-stones  came  partly  from  under 
and  near  Jerusalem,  partly  from  Lebanon, 
I  Kin.  5:14-18;  7:10,  partly  from  Arabia, 
etc.  Herod  employed  a  fine  white  marble, 
and  many  broken  columns  of  it  are  found 
at  Jerusalem. 

MARCHESH'VAN.     See  MONTH. 

MAR'CUS,   A.  V.    Col.    4:10;    Phile.  24; 

1  Pet.  5:13.     Latin  form  for  Mark,  R.  V. 
MARE'SHAH,  possession,  a  town  in  the 

low  country  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:44;  perhaps 
the  place  rebuilt  by  Laadah,  i  Chr.  4:21. 
It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:8, 
was  the  birthplace  of  a  prophet,  Eliezer, 

2  Chr.  20:37,  and  was  warned  by  Micah, 
ch.  1:15.  In  a  valley  near  by,  Asa  defeat- 
ed Zerah  with  an  immense  host  of  Ethiopi- 
ans, 2  Chr.  14:9-13.  It  probably  lay  on  the 
western  border  of  Judah,  just  southwest  of 
Eleutheropolis,  at  a  place  now  called  Me- 
rash. 

II.  Of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  an  early  settler 
in  Hebron,  i  Chr.  2:42. 

MARK,  or  Marcus,  the  writer  of  one  of 
the  4  gospels.  See  Gospels.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the 
general  opinion  of  learned  men  that  he  is 
the  same  person  who  is  mentioned  b}'  the 
names  of  John  and  Mark  in  Acts  12:12,  25; 
13:5,13,  and  as  the  relative  and  disciple  of 
Barnabas,  Col.  4:10.  In  his  mention  of  the 
young  man  who  hurried  after  Christ  clad 
in  his  tunic  only,  he  probably  relates  his 
own  experience,  Mark  14:51,  52.  He  was 
the  companion  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in 
their  journey  through  Cyprus,  and  unto 
Perga  in  Pamphylia,  at  which  last  place 
he  left  them  and  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
much  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  Paul,  Acts 
13:5,  etc. ;  15:37-39-  Yet  he  labored  faith- 
fully with  Barnabas  at  Cyprus,  and  Paul 
mentions  him,  when  in  captivity  at  Rome, 
as  one  of  those  who  were  associated  with 
him.  Col.  4:10,  11;  2  Tim.  4:11;  Phile.  24. 
He  afterwards  accompanied  Peter  also  to 
Babylon.     As  he  was  the  son  of  that  Mary 

339 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


at  whose  house  in  Jerusalem  the  apostles 
were  wont  to  convene,  so  it  is  probable 
that  he  was  particularly  instructed  in  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  by  Peter,  who  on 
that  account  calls  him  son,  i  Pet.  5:13. 
Compare  i  Tim.  1:2  and  2  Tim.  1:2.  Tra- 
dition ascribes  to  him  the  founding  of  the 
church  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  and  asserts 
that  the  Venetians  secured  his  remains  by 
a  pious  stratagem,  and  took  them  to  Ven- 
ice, which  city  claims  him  as  its  patron 
saint. 

MAR'KET,  in  Greek  .\g'or.\,  in  Latin 
fo'rum,  a  large  open  area  in  many  ancient 
cities,  especially  of  Greece  and  Rome,  hav- 
ing the  public  market  on  one  side  only,  the 
other  sides  of  the  area  being  occupied  by 
temples,  theatres,  colonnades,  courts  of  jus- 
tice, baths,  and  other  public  structures,  the 
whole  square  often  presenting  a  magnifi- 
cent appearance.  Here  was  the  city  ex- 
change, the  focus  to  which  converged  all 
the  lines  of  public  life.  In  Acts  17:5  mar- 
ket-loungers, agoraioi,  are  mentioned ;  and 
in  Acts  19:38,  "  the  law  is  open,"  is  literally 
"  court  days,  agoraioi,  are  held."  Hither 
laborers  resorted  in  search  of  employment, 
Matt.  20:3-7,  and  children  to  pursue  their 
sports,  Luke  7:32.  Here  the  ordinary  as- 
semblies of  the  people  were  held;  here 
philosophers  and  statesmen  met  and  deba- 
ted ;  here  laws  were  promulgated  and  news 
announced  ;  hither  men  resorted  for  pleas- 
ure as  well  as  for  business,  Mark  7:4.  The 
most  notable  public  men,  and  indeed  all 
classes  of  citizens,  here  congregated ;  and 
what  was  done  here  was  done  before  the 
whole  city.  Hence  the  proud  Pharisees 
desired  "greetings  in  the  market-places," 
Mark  12:38;  and  Paul  resorted  to  the  ago- 
ra at  Athens  to  meet  and  convince  the  phi- 
losophers. Acts  17:17;  and  the  masters  of 
the  damsel  at  Philippi  exorcised  by  Paul 
and  Silas,  "  drew  them  into  the  market- 
place unto  the  rulers,"  Acts  16:19.  "" 
Kzek.  27  "  market "  denotes  barter  or  traf- 
fic, the  place  of  traffic,  and  the  gain  thereby 
made.     See  Gatr. 

MAR'RIAGE,  the  union  for  life  of  one 
man  and  one  woman,  to  form  "one  flesh," 
IS  an  ordinance  of  the  Creator  for  the  per- 
petuity and  happiness  of  the  human  race, 
instituted  in  Paradise,  Gen.  1:27,  28;  2:18- 
24,  and  the  foundation  of  no  small  part  of 
all  that  is  valuable  to  human  society.  The 
narrative  implies  the  unity  of  the  man  and 
his  wife,  indissoluble  except  by  adultery, 
their  social  equality,  and  the  subordination 
of  the  wife  as  subsequently  created  for  a 
340 


helpmeet,  i  Cor.  11:8,  9;  Eph.  5:22,  23; 
I  Tim.  2:13 — a  relation  aggravated  in  the 
fall,  Gen.  3: 16;  i  Cor.  14:34;  1  Tim.  2:11- 
14;  I  Pet.  3:6.  By  promoting  parental  love 
and  the  sense  of  responsibility,  marriage 
most  efTectually  promotes  the  health  and 
happiness  of  children,  and  their  careful 
education  to  virtue,  industry,  and  honor, 
to  right  habits  and  ends,  and  to  all  that  is 
included  in  the  idea  of  home.  God  made 
originally  but  one  man  and  one  woman. 
The  first  polygamists  on  record  were  La- 
mech  and  those  degenerate  "sons  of  God," 
or  worshippers  of  Jehovah,  who  "  took  them 
wives  of  all  that  they  chose,"  Gen.  4:17; 
6:2.  On  the  other  hand,  Noah  and  his  3 
sons  had  each  but  one  wife ;  and  the  same 
appears  to  be  true  of  all  his  direct  ances- 
tors back  to  Adam.  So  also  was  it  wi.h 
Job,  Nahor,  Lot,  and  at  first  with  Abra- 
ham. See  Concubine.  In  after  times  a 
plurality  of  wives  became  more  common 
among  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Scriptures 
afford  numerous  illustrations  of  its  evil  re- 
sults. Gen.  16;  30;  Judg.  8:30;  2  Sam.  y.j,- 
5;  I  Kin.  11:1-8;  2  Chr.  11:18-21;  13:21. 
In  the  time  of  Christ  there  is  no  mention 
of  polygamy  as  existing  among  the  Jews, 
Matt.  19:5. 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  marry 
within  certain  specified  degrees.  Lev.  18; 
20;  Deut.  27.  These  prohibitions  were 
grounded  on  moral  propriety,  distinction 
from  heathen  practices,  and  social  expe- 
dience. They  did  not  exist  in  patriarchal 
times.  Marriage  with  Canaanites  and  idol- 
aters was  strictly  forbidden,  Exod.  34:16, 
and  afterwards  with  any  of  the  heathen  na- 
tions around  them,  especially  such  as  were 
uncircumcised,  Neh.  13.  By  the  Levirate 
law,  as  it  is  termed,  if  a  Jew  died  without 
children,  his  nearest  brother  or  kinsman 
was  bound  to  marry  the  widow,  that  her 
firstborn  son  after  this  marriage  might  be 
reckoned,  the  son  and  heir  of  the  first  hus- 
band, Gen.  38;  Deut.  25:5-10;  Matt.  22:23- 
26.  The  priests  were  expected  to  marry, 
and  the  priesthood  was  perpetuated  only 
in  priests'  sons,  Exod.  28:  i,  43.  The  same 
general  requirement  to  marry  is  apparent 
in  the  New  Testament  as  to  ministers  of 
Christ.  Nowhere  is  their  marriage  prohib- 
ited, but  the  contrary:  Peter  and  dthers  of 
the  apostles  and  evangelists  had  wives, 
Matt.  8:14;  Acts  21:9;  I  Cor.  7:2;  9:5. 
"  Marriage  is  honorable  in  all."  "  A  bishop 
must  be  the  husband  of  one  wife,"  i  Tim. 
3:2,  II,  and  deacons  likewise,  i  Tim.  3:12; 
Tit.  1:6.     Aquila  in  his  early  ministry  was 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


accompanied  by  friscilla  his  wife,  Acts 
18:2,  18,  26.  In  fact,  marriage  was  the 
general  practice  of  the  early  clergy  for  cen- 
turies, and  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  only 
fully  established  and  enforced  in  the  Church 
of  Rome  in  the  nth  century.  In  the  Rus- 
sian and  Armenian  Churches  a  priest  must 
be  married  before  ordination;  but  if  his 
wife  dies  he  cannot  marry  again.  The  Sa- 
viour set  his  seal  to  marriage  as  a  divine 
and  permanent  institution,  aside  from  all 
the  civil  laws  which  guard  and  regulate, 
or  seek  to  alter  or  annul  it;  forbidding  di- 
vorce except  for  one  cause.  Matt.  5:32; 
19:3-6,  9;  and  denouncing  all  breaches  of 
marriage  vows,  even  in  thought,  Matt.  5:28. 
Compare  Heb.  13:4;  Rev.  21:8. 

Jewish  parents  were  wont  to  arrange 
with  other  parents  as  to  the  marriage  of 
their  children,  Gen.  24:3,  4;  38:6;  Exod. 
2:21,  sometimes  according  to  the  previous 
choice  of  the  son,  and  not  without  some 
regard  to  the  consent  of  the  daughter.  Gen. 
21:21;  24;  34:3-6;  Judg.  14:2,3.  The  par- 
ties were  often  betrothed  to  each  other  long 
before  the  marriage  took  place.  See  Be- 
trothing. A  dowry  was  given  by  the 
suitor  to  the  parents  and  brethren  of  the 
bride,  or  an  equivalent  service,  Gen.  29:20; 
31:15;  34:12;  Exod.  2:21;  I  Sam.  18:25; 
Hos.  3:2.  In  the  early  ages  the  marriage 
ceremonies  were  simple.  Gen.  24:58,  59, 
66,  67;  29:21-23.  But  afterwards  the  nup- 
tials were  often  celebrated  with  great  pomp 
and  ceremony  and  with  protracted  feast- 
ing and  rejoicings.  It  was  customary  for 
the  bridegroom  to  appoint  a  Paranymphus, 
or  groomsman,  called  by  our  Saviour  "the 
friend  of  the  bridegroom,"  John  3:29.  A 
number  of  other  young  men  also  kept  him 
company  during  the  days  of  the  wedding, 
to  do  him  honor,  as  also  young  women 
kept  company  with  the  bride  all  this  time. 
The  companions  of  the  bridegroom  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  as  in  the  history  of  Sam- 
son, Judg.  14:  II,  20;  Song  5:1;  8:13;  Matt. 
9:15;  also  the  companions  of  the  bride,  Psa. 
45:9,  14;  Song  1:5;  2:7;  3:5;  8:4.  The 
office  of  the  groomsman  was  to  direct  in  the 
ceremonies  of  the  wedding.  The  friends 
and  companions  of  the  bride  sang  the  epi- 
thalamium,  or  wedding  song,  at  the  door  of 
the  bride  the  evening  before  the  wedding. 
The  festivities  of  the  wedding  were  con- 
ducted with  great  decorum,  the  young  peo- 
ple of  each  sex  being  in  distinct  apart- 
ments and  at  different  tables.  The  young 
men  at  Samson's  wedding  diverted  them- 
selves in  proposing  riddles,  and  the  bride- 


groom appointed  the  prize  to  those  who 
could  explain  them.    Judg.  14:14. 

The  Jews  affirm  that  before  Jerusalem 
was  laid  in  ruins  the  bridegroom  and  bride 
wore  crowns  at  their  marriage.  Compare 
Isa.  61:10;  Song  3:11,  "Go  forth,  O  ye 
daughters  of  Zion,  and  behold  king  Solo- 
mon with  the  crown  wherewith  his  mother 
crowned  him  in  the  days  of  his  espousals, 
and  in  the  day  of  the  gladness  of  his  heart." 
The  modern  Jews  in  some  places  throw 
handfuls  of  wheat  on  the  newly-married 
couple,  particularly  on  the  bride,  saying, 
"  Increase  and  multiply."  In  other  places 
they  mingle  pieces  of  money  with  the  wheat, 
which  are  gathered  up  by  the  poor.  The 
actual  ceremony  of  marriage  was  very  sim- 
ple, consisting  of  little  more  than  the  read- 
ing of  the  marriage  contract,  Prov.  2:17; 
Mai.  2 :  14,  and  the  nuptial  blessing  invoked 
by  the  friends.  Gen.  24:60;  Ruth  4:11,  12. 

The  wedding  festivities  commonly  lasted 
7  days  for  a  maid,  and  3  days  for  a  widow. 
So  Laban  says  to  Jacob  respecting  Leah, 
"Fulfil  her  week,"  Gen.  29:27.  The  cere- 
monies of  Samson's  wedding  continued  7 
whole  days,  Judg.  14:17,  18. 

The  procession  accompanying  the  bride 
from  the  house  of  her  father  to  that  of  the 
bridegroom  was  generally  one  of  more  or 
less  pomp,  according  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  married  couple,  and  for  this  they 
often  chose  the  night,  as  is  still  the  custom 
in  Syria.  Hence  the  parable  of  the  10  vir- 
gins that  went  at  midnight  to  meet  the 
bride  and  bridegroom.  Matt.  25.  "At  a 
Hindoo  marriage,  the  procession  of  which 
I  saw,"  says  Mr.  Ward,  "the  bridegroom 
came  from  a  distance,  and  the  bride  lived 
at  Serampore,  to  which  place  the  bride- 
groom was  to  come  by  water.  After  wait- 
ing 2  or  3  hours,  at  length,  near  midnight, 
it  was  announced,  as  if  in  the  very  words 
of  Scripture, '  Behold,  the  bridegroom  com- 
eth ;  go  ye  out  to  meet  him.'  All  the  per- 
sons employed  now  lighted  their  lamps, 
and  ran  with  them  in  their  hands  to  fill  up 
their  stations  in  the  procession;  some  of 
them  had  lost  their  lights,  and  were  un- 
prepared ;  but  it  was  then  too  late  to  seek 
them,  and  the  cavalcade  moved  forward  to 
the  house  of  the  bride,  at  which  place  the 
company  entered  a  large  and  splendidly- 
illuminated  area  before  the  house,  covered 
with  an  awning,  where  a  great  multitude 
of  friends,  dressed  in  their  best  apparel, 
were  seated  upon  mats.  The  bridegroom 
was  carried  in  the  arms  of  a  friend,  and 
placed  in  a  superb  seat  in  the  midst  of  the 

341 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


company,  where  he  sat  a  short  time,  and 
then  went  into  the  house,  the  door  of  which 
was  immediately  shut  and  guarded  by  se- 
poys. I  and  others  expostulated  with  the 
doorkeepers,  but  in  vain.  Never  was  I  so 
struck  with  our  Lord's  beautiful  parable 
as  at  this  moment;  'and  the  door  was 
shut.'" 

Christianity  invests  the  family  institution 
with  peculiar  sacredness;  makes  true  love 
its  basis,  and  mutual  preference  of  each 
other's  happiness  its  rule;  and  even  likens 
it  to  the  ineffable  union  between  Christ  and 
his  church,  Eph.  5:22-33,  a  "mystery" — 
once  hidden,  but  now  revealed.  Nowhere 
in  the  world  is  woman  so  honored,  happy, 
and  useful  as  in  a  Christian  land  and  a 
Christian  home.  Believers  are  directed  to 
marry  "in  the  Lord,"  i  Cor.  7:39.  No 
doubt  the  restrictions  laid  upon  the  ancient 
people  of  God  contain  a  lesson  for  all  peri- 
ods, and  the  recorded  ill  results  of  forbid- 
den marriages  among  the  Jews,  if  heeded, 
would  prevent  the  serious  evils  which  often 
result  from  union  between  a  Christian  and 
a  worldling.  As  to  the  mutual  duties  of 
husband  and  wife,  see  Eph.  5:22,  23;  i  Tim. 
2:11,12;  I  Pet.  3: 1-7. 

A  large  family  was  greatly  desired  in 
Bible  times  as  a  blessing  and  an  honor. 
Gen.  33:5;  Psa.  127:3-5;  and  the  practice, 
too  common  in  our  day,  of  regarding  chil- 
dren as  an  evil  to  be  prevented  or  avoided, 
from  selfish  motives  and  even  by  flagitious 
means,  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 

The  Holy  Spirit  describes  marriage  as 
"honorable  in  all,"  Heb.  13:4,  and  desi- 
rable, unless  in  exceptional  cases,  Matt. 
19:10-12;  I  Cor.  7:8,  26.  The  Church  of 
Rome  puts  dishonor  upon  it,  and  not  only 
extols  celibacy  and  virginity  in  the  laity, 
but  strictly  refuses  marriage  to  all  its 
priests,  bishops,  etc.,  and  in  thus  "forbid- 
ding to  marry"  fixes  upon  itself  the  name 
of  anti-Christ,  i  Tim.  4:3.  See  Adultery, 
Divorce,  Garments,  etc. 

MAR'SENA,  itobleinan,  a  councillor  un- 
der Ahasuerus,  Esth.  i :  14. 

MARS'-HILL,  a.  V.     See  Arkop.\gus. 

MAR'THA,  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary 
at  Bethany.  Though  different  from  Mary 
in  temperament,  she  was  00  less  truly  a 
devoted  friend  of  Christ  and  beloved  by 
him,  John  11:5.  His  gentle  reproof,  Luke 
10:38-42,  does  not  imply  that  she  was  a 
stranger  to  renewing  grace.  Her  affec- 
tionate care  for  the  hospitable  entertain- 
ment of  Christ  must  not  be  forgotten,  nor 
her  promptness  in  hasting  to  meet  him,  nor 
342 


her  faith  in  his  power,  John  11 :20-28.  She 
served  at  the  feast  at  Bethany  after  her 
brother's  resurrection,  John  12:1,  2.  See 
Mary,  IV. 

MAR'TYR,  a  witness,  Matt.  18:16;  Luke 
24:48.  In  ecclesiastical  history,  "a  wit- 
ness, by  the  shedding  of  his  blood,  in  tes- 
tifying to  the  truth."  Thus  martyrs  are 
distinguished  from  "confessors,"  properly 
so  called,  who  underwent  great  afflictions 
for  their  confession  of  the  truth,  but  with- 
out suffering  death.  The  term  "  martyr  " 
occurs  only  thrice  in  the  New  Testament, 
Acts  22:20,  simply  a  witness;  Rev.  2:13; 
17:6.  Since  the  time  of  Stephen,  Acts  7:59; 
22:20,  myriads  of  martyrs  have  sealed  thc- 
truth  of  Christianity  by  a  painful  death, 
which  they  willingly  endured  through  faith 
rather  than  to  deny  Christ,  and  which  they 
often  eagerly  desired  as  a  special  privi- 
lege. It  is  doubtless  possible  to  be  put  to 
death  as  a  Christian  without  real  love  for 
Christ,  I  Cor.  13:3;  but  in  general  "the 
noble  army  of  martyrs"  have  borne  a  true 
and  overwhelming  testimony  to  the  power 
and  preciousness  of  faith  in  Christ;  and 
their  blood  witnesses  before  God  against 
their  foes,  especially  against  that  apostate 
church  which  is  "drunken  with  the  blood 
of  the  martyrs  of  Jesus,"  Rev.  17:6. 

MA'RY,  in  Hebrew  Miriam,  I.,  "  the  mo- 
ther of  Jesus,"  Acts  1:14.  Her  amiable 
and  lovely  character,  and  her  remarkable 
history  in  connection  with  the  wonders 
relating  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  are  record- 
ed in  the  first  2  chapters  of  Matthew 
and  Luke.  The  genealogy  of  the  Saviour 
through  her,  in  the  line  of  David  and  Abra- 
ham, is  preserved  in  Luke  3,  to  prove  that 
he  was  born  "as  concerning  the  flesh"  ac- 
cording to  ancient  prophecies,  Luke  1:27; 
Rom.  1:3.  After  the  return  from  Egypt  to 
Nazareth  she  is  but  5  times  mentioned  in 
the  sacred  history  :  3  times  with  some  ap- 
pearance of  reproval  on  the  part  of  Christ, 
Matt.  12:46-50;  Luke  2:49,  50;  John  2:4; 
once  when  he  commended  her  to  the  care 
of  John,  John  19:26;  and  lastly,  as  among 
the  disciples  at  Jerusalem  after  his  ascen- 
sion, Acts  1:14.  Thenceforth,  throughout 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles,  and 
the  Revelation,  no  allusion  is  made  to  her. 
Neither  Peter,  whom  Rome  regards  as  the 
first  pope,  nor  John,  to  whose  care  our  Lord 
committed  her,  mentions  her  name.  Man- 
ifestly the  worship  of  Mary  had  not  then 
commenced.  The  inventions  of  the  Ro- 
mish Church  in  after  centuries  are  wholly 
destitute  of  foundation  in    Scripture,  and 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAS 


subversive  of  the  gospel.  One  of  these 
unauthorized  inventions  is  the  alleged  im- 
maculate conception  and  spotless  holiness 
of  Mary.  See  Rom.  3:10,  23;  Gal.  3:22; 
I  John  1:8;  and  compare  also  the  reproofs 
above  alluded  to,  and  her  own  confession 
of  her  need  of  a  Saviour,  Luke  i  -.^j.  An- 
other unauthorized  invention  is  her  alleged 
virginity  after  the  birth  of  Jesus,  Matt,  i :  25 ; 
Luke  2:7.  No  case  can  be  found  in  Scrip- 
ture where  "firstborn  son"  is  used  of  an 
only  child.  In  other  passages  the  brethren, 
sisters,  and  mother  of  Christ  are  mentioned 
together,  apparently  as  one  family.  Matt. 
13:55,  56;  and  she  was  known  as  the  wife 
of  Joseph  probably  for  almost  30  years, 
John  6:42.  See  Brother.  To  adore  her 
as  the  "  queen  of  heaven  "  and  the  "  mother 
of  God,"  is,  in  the  light  of  the  Bible,  blas- 
phemous idolatry;  and  to  pray  to  her  as 
divine,  or  even  as  a  mediator  with  God, 
implies  that  she  possesses  the  attribute  of 
omnipresence,  and  degrades  the  only  and 
sufficient  Mediator,  i  Tim.  2:5;  Heb.  4:16. 
She  was  "blessed"  or  signally  favored 
"among  women,"  as  Jael  was  "blessed 
above  women,"  Judg.  5:24;  Luke  1:28; 
but  Christ  himself  declares  that  a  higher 
blessing  belongs  to  those  "  that  hear  the 
word  of  God  and  keep  it,"  Luke  11:27,28. 
Compar  Jas.  5:11. 

IL  The  mother  of  Mark  the  Evangelist, 
and  "aunt"  of  Barnabas,  Col.  4:10.  She 
had  a  house  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  follow- 
ers of  Jesus  were  wont  to  convene.  Com- 
pare Acts  2:46;  20:8.  Hither  Peter,  when 
delivered  from  prison  by  the  angel,  came 
and  knocked  at  the  gate,  Acts  12:12.  Many 
such  hospitable  Christian  homes  and  pla- 
ces of  social  prayer,  even  in  troublous 
times,  are  for  ever  enshrined  in  the  mem- 
ory of  the  people  of  God. 

IIL  The  wife  of  Alphaeus  or  Clopas,  and 
mother  of  James  the  Less  and  Joses,  Matt. 
27:56,  61;  Mark  15:40;  Luke  24:10;  John 
19:25.  This  last  passage  leaves  it  uncer- 
tain whether  this  Mary  was  sister  to  Mary 
our  Lord's  mother  or  not.  Some  suppose 
that  4  persons  are  there  named :  Christ's 
mother,  his  mother's  sister,  Marj'  of  Clopas, 
and  Mary  Magdalene.  See  Mary,  L,  and 
James,  IIL  She  believed  early  on  Jesus 
Christ,  and  accompanied  him  in  some  of 
his  journej'S,  to  minister  to  him,  followed 
him  to  Calvary,  and  was  with  his  mother 
at  the  foot  of  his  cross.  She  was  also  pres- 
ent at  his  burial,  prepared  perfumes  to  em- 
balm him,  and  was  early  at  his  sepulchre 
on  the  morning  of  his  resurrection,  Matt. 


28:1;   Mark  15:47;    16:1;   Luke  23:55,  56; 
24:22.     See  Alph^us. 

IV.  The  sister  of  Lazarus  whom  our 
Lord  raised  from  the  dead.  Her  character 
presents  a  beautiful  companion-picture  to 
that  of  her  more  active  and  impulsive  sis- 
ter Martha.  Contemplative,  confiding,  and 
affectionate,  it  was  like  heaven  to  her  to  sit 
at  the  feet  of  her  adored  Teacher  and  Lord, 
Luke  10:39-42.  She  hastened  to  him  at 
his  call,  after  the  death  of  Lazarus,  and  fell 
at  his  feet,  crying,  "  Lord,  if  thou  hadst 
been  here  my  brother  had  not  died."  The 
character  of  the  2  sisters  was  well  contrast- 
ed at  the  supper  in  Bethany,  after  the  res- 
urrection of  Lazarus.  No  service  was  too 
humble  for  Martha  to  render,  and  no  offer- 
ing too  costly  for  Mary  to  pour  out,  in  hon- 
or of  their  Saviour,  John  12:1-8.  If  Mary 
anticipated  Christ's  death  as  near  at  hand, 
her  anointing  his  feet,  ver.  7 — "  to  prepare 
me  for  burial,"  Matt.  26:12,  R.  V. — shows 
the  strength  of  her  faith  in  his  predictions. 
Matt.  27:63,  64.  This  occurrence  should 
not  be  confounded  with  that  described  in 
Luke  7:37-50. 

V.  The  Magdalene,  or  native  of  Magdala 
on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  Josh.  19 :  38.  She  was 
foremost  among  the  honorable  women  of 
substance  who  ministered  unto  Christ  and 
his  disciples,  being  especially  devoted  to 
Christ  for  his  mercy  in  casting  out  from  her 
7  evil  spirits,  Luke  8:2,  3.  She  followed 
him  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem,  witnessed 
his  crucifixion.  Matt.  27:55,  56,  and  saw 
where  he  was  entombed,  ver.  61.  She  was 
early  at  his  tomb  with  sweet  spices;  and 
lingering  there  when  the  disciples  had  re- 
tired, she  was  the  first  to  throw  herself  at 
the  feet  of  the  risen  Saviour,  Matt.  28:1-10; 
Mark  15:47;  16:1-10;  Luke  24:1-12;  John 
20:1,  2,  10-18.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
she  was  ever  a  profligate. 

"  Not  she  with  traitorous  kiss  her  Master  stung. 
Not  she  denied  him  with  unfaithful  tongue  ; 
She,  when  apostles  fled,  could  dangers  brave, 
Last  at  his  cross  and  earliest  at  his  grave." 

VI.  A  benevolent  Jewish  Christian  at 
Rome,  saluted  in  Paul's  epistle,  Rom.  16:6. 
The  R.  V.  has  i'07<  here,  not  iis. 

MAS'CHIL  is  a  term  found  as  a  title  of 
13  Psalms— Psalms  32,  42,  44,  45,  52,  53,  54, 
55,  74,  78,  88,  89,  142— and  imports  one  that 
instructs  or  makes  to  understand.  Some 
interpreters  think  it  means  an  instrument 
of  music,  but  it  more  probably  signifies  an 
instructive  song,  Psa.  47:7. 

MASH,  a  son  of  Aram,  his  posterity,  and 
their  home — generally  thought  to  be  near 

343 


MAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEA 


Mount  Masius,  a  range  on  the  north  of 
Mesopotamia,  Gen.  10:23.  In  i  Chr.  1:17 
called  Meshech. 

MASRE'KAH,  a  vineyard,  the  birthplace 
of  an  Edomite  king,  Gen.  36:36;  i  Chr. 
1:47. 

MAS'SA,  a  lifting,  a  son  of  Ishmael, 
founder  of  an  Arabian  tribe,  probably  to- 
wards Babylonia,  Gen.  25:14;  I  Chr.  1:30. 

MAS'SAH,  iHal.     See  Meribah. 

MAS'TER,  Matt.  19:16;  John  13:13,  14, 
means  teacher,  the  converse  of  disciple  or 
pupil.  It  is  applied  to  Christ  over  40  times 
in  the  Gospels.  In  Mai.  2:12  "  master  and 
scholar"  mean  "caller  and  answerer,"  or 
every  one.  In  Acts  27 : 1 1  the  helmsman  is 
meant. 

Scripture  prescribes  just  and  humane 
principles  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  mas- 
ters and  employers  towards  those  who 
serve  them.  A  just  and  prompt  recom- 
pense is  required,  severity  and  exaction 
of  undue  service  are  forbidden,  a  genuine 
concern  for  their  happiness,  health,  char- 
acter, and  morals  is  enjoined,  due  instruc- 
tion and  right  examples  of  virtue  and  pietj''. 
Gen.  18:19;  Josh.  24:15;  Eph.  6:9,  and  a 
recognition  of  them  as  "  neighbors,"  Luke 
10:36,  and  perhaps  "brethren,"  Phile.  16. 
See  Servant. 

MAS'TERIES,  STRIVE  FOR  THE,  2  Tim. 
2:5,  "contend  in  the  games." 

MAT'TAN,  a  gift,  I.,  a  priest  of  Baal,  ju- 
dicially slain  before  his  altar,  under  Jehoi- 
ada,  2  Kin.  ii:i8;   2  Chr.  23:17. — II.  Jer. 

38:1- 

MATTA'NAH,  a  gift.  Gen.  25:6,  the  50th 
station  of  the  Israelites,  Num.  21:18,  19,  in 
the  region  of  the  Arnon. 

MATTANI'AH,  gift  of  fehovah,  the  origi- 
nal name  of  the  last  king  of  Judah.  See 
Zedekiah.  Also  6  Levites  mentioned  in 
I  Chr.  9:15,  16;  25:4;  2  Chr.  20:14;  29:13; 
Neh.  12:35;  13:13.  Also  4  Israelites  of  the 
period  of  the   Captivity,    Ezra    10:26,    27, 

30,  7>1- 

MAT'THAN,  Matt.  1:15,  (?)  MAT'THAT, 
Luke  3:24,  the  grandfather  of  Joseph. 

MAT'THEW,  ^///  of  fehovah,  an  apostle 
and  evangelist,  was  son  of  Alphaeus,  II.,  a 
Galilean  by  birth,  a  Jew  by  religion,  and  a 
publican  by  profession,  Matt.  9:9;  10:3; 
Luke  6: 15.  The  other  evangelists  call  him 
onl}'  Levi,  which  was  his  Hebrew  name, 
Mark  2:14;  Luke  5:27;  but  he  always  calls 
himself  Matthew,  which  was  probably  his 
name  as  a  publican,  or  officer  for  gather- 
ing taxes.  He  does  not  dissemble  his  for- 
mer profession ;  thus  exalting  the  grace  of 

344 


Christ  which  raised  him  to  the  apostleship. 
His  ordinary  abode  was  at  Capernaum, 
and  his  office  probably  on  the  main  road, 
near  the  Sea  of  Tiberias ;  here,  in  the  midst 
of  his  business,  he  was  called  by  Jesus  to 
follow  Him,  Matt.  9:9;  Mark  2:14,  which 
he  did,  after  making  a  great  feast  in  His 
honor,  Luke  5:29,  in  referring  to  which  he 
modestly  omits  his  own  name,  Matt.  9:9-13. 
It  is  probable  that  he  had  a  previous  knowl- 
edge of  the  miracles  and  doctrine  of  Christ. 
He  was  with  Christ  after  the  resurrection, 
and  with  the  other  apostles  after  Christ's 
ascension.  Matt.  28:16;  Acts  1:13. 

For  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  see  Gos- 
pel. 

MATTHI'AS,  gift  of  God,  a  disciple  who 
continued  with  our  Saviour  from  his  bap- 
tism to  his  ascension.  Acts  1:21-26,  and 
was  after  the  ascension  chosen  by  lot  to  be 
associated  with  the  1 1  apostles.  We  know 
nothing  further  of  him. 

MATTITH'IAH,  gift  of  Jehovah,  1  Chr. 
9:31;  25:3,  21;  Ezra  10:43;  Neh.  8:4;  Luke 
3:25,  26. 

MAT'TOCK,  Isa.  7:25,  a  single-headed 
pickaxe  with  a  wide  point.  In  i  Sam. 
13:20,  21  a  ploughshare;  in  2  Chr.  34:6  a 
spade. 

MAUL,  Prov.  25:18,  called  in  Jer.  51:20 
a  battle-axe,  and  in  Ezek.  9:2  a  slaughter 
weapon;  properly,  a  heavy  mace  or  war- 
club. 

MAW,  a  stomach  of  ruminating  ani- 
mals—tripe, Deut.  18:3. 

MAZ'ZAROTH,  and  MAZ'ZALOTH  or 
"planets  "  in  2  Kin.  23:5,  probably  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  Job  38:32:  "  Dost  thou 
lead  forth  the  Signs  in  their  season,  and 
the  Bear  with  her  young,  dost  thou  guide 
them?"     (Conant.) 

MEAD'OW,  Gen.  41:2,  18;  in  Job  8:ir 
"  flag,"  properly  herbage  on  the  water 
brink.     In  Judg.  20:33  "open  plains." 

ME'AH,  one  hundred,  Neh.  3:1 ;  12:39,  a 
tower  on  the  east  wall  of  Jerusalem,  to- 
wards the  north. 

MEALS.     See  Eating. 

MEAN,  Prov.  22:29;  Isa.  2:9;  Acts  21:39, 
in  A.  V.  signifieg  only  lowly,  not  base. 

MEA'RAH,  a  cave,  a  Zidonian  town  on 
the  nortii  border  of  Galilee,  Josh.  13:4. 

MEAS'URE.  Under  this  head  we  present 
an  alphabetical  list  of  Biblical  terms  de- 
noting measures  of  weight,  of  capacity,  dry 
and  liquid,  of  length,  and  of  money,  with 
the  equivalent  Hebrew  or  Greek  words, 
and  the  approximate  equivalents  in  our 
language. 


MEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


MEA 


BIBLE  NAME.   HEB.  OR  GR.  NAME. 


Bath  (liquid). 

Bekah. 

Bushel. 

Cab  (dry). 

Cor  (liquid). 

Cubit. 

Cubit. 

Cubit. 

(Day's)  Journey. 

Dram,  or  Dane. 

Dram,  or  Daric. 

Ephah  (dry). 

Ephah  (liquid). 

Farthing. 

Farthing. 

Fathom. 

Finger,  or  Digit 

Firkin. 

Furlong. 

Gerah. 

Half-homer. 

Half-shekel. 

Half-shekel. 

Handbreadth. 

Handful. 

Handful. 

Hin  (liquid). 

Homer  (dry). 

Log  (liquid). 

Measure. 


Measuriug-line. 

Mile  (Roman). 

Mite. 

Omer. 

Pace. 

Penny. 

Piece  of  Money. 

Piece  of  Money. 

Piece  of  Money. 

Piece  of  Silver. 


Pot. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Reed. 

Reed. 

Sab.-day  (jour.). 

Shekel. 

Shekel. 

Shekel. 

Span. 

Talent. 


Tribute. 


Heb.  bath. 

Heb.  bekah. 

Gr.  modios. 

Heb.  qab. 

Heb.  kor. 

Heb.  ammah. 

Gr.  pechus. 

Heb.  gomed. 

Heb.  derek. 

Heb.  darkemon  (gold). 

Heb.  adarkon  (gold). 

Heb.  ephah. 

Heb.  ejihah. 

Gr.  kodrantes. 

Gr.  assarion. 

Gr.  orguia.   » 

Heb.  etsba. 

Gr.  metretes. 

Gr.  stadion. 

Heb.  gerah. 

Heb.  lethek. 

Heb.  beqa. 

Heb.  machatsith. 

Heb.  tephach. 

Heb.  kaph. 

Heb.  qomets. 

Heb.  hin. 

Heb.  homer. 

Heb.  log. 

Heb.  ammah. 

Heb.  middah. 

Heb.  cor  (dry). 

Gr.  coros  (dry). 

Heb.  seah  (dry). 

Gr.  saton  (dry). 

Heb.  lethek  (dry). 

Gr.  choinix  (dry). 

Heb.  ephah  (dry). 

Heb.  bath  (liquid). 

Gr.  batos  (^liquid). 

Heb.  midaah. 

Gr.  milion. 

Gr.  lepton. 

Heb.  omer  (dry). 

Heb.  tsa'ad. 

Gr.  denarion. 

Heb.  qesitah  fgold). 

Heb.  qesitah  (silver). 

Gr.  stater  (silver). 

Heb.  keseph. 

Heb.  qesitah. 

Heb.  rats. 

Heb.  agorah. 

Gr.  argurion. 

Gr.  argurion. 

Gr.  drachma. 

Gr.  xestes. 

Heb.  maneh  ^weight). 

Heb.  maneh  (silver). 

Gr.  mna  fweight). 

Gr.  litra  (silver). 

Heb.  qaneh. 

Gr.  calamos. 

Gr.  sabbaton. 

Heb.  sheqel  (weight). 

Heb.  sheqel  (silver). 

Heb.  sheqel  (gold). 

Heb.  zereth. 

Heb.  kikkar  (weight). 

Heb.  kikkar  (silver). 

Heb.  keseph  (silver). 

Heb.  kikkar  (gold). 

Gr.  talanton  (weight). 

Gr.  talanton  (silver). 

Gr.  didrachmon. 


SCRIPTURE  PASSAGES. 

1  Kin.  7:  26, 38;  2  Chr.  2  :  10;  Isa.  5  :  10. 
Exod.  38 :  26. 

Matt.  5:15;  Mark  4:21;  Luke  1 1 :  33- 

2  Kin.  6:25. 
Ezek.  45:  14. 

Gen.  6:15,  i5;  Exod.  25-27;   36-38. 
Matt.  6:27;  John  21 :8. 


Judg.  3 :  16. 

Gen.  30:36;  Num.  10:33;  i  Kin.  19:4. 

Ezra  2  :  69 ;  Neh.  7  :  70-72. 

I  Chr.  29 : 7  ;  Ezra  8  :  27. 

Ezek.  45:  II. 

Exod.  16:36;  Lev.  19:36. 

Matt.  5  :  26 ;  Mark  12 :  42. 

Matt.  10:29;  Luke  12:6. 

Acts  27 :  28. 

Jer.  52:  21. 

John  2:6. 

Luke  24: 13;  John  6: 19;  ii :  18. 

Exod.  30:13;  Num.  3:47;  18:16. 

Hos.  3 : 2. 

Gen.  24:  22. 

Exod.  30:13,  15;  38:26. 

Exod.  25 :  25  ;  i  Kin.  7 :  26 :  Psa.  39 : 5. 

Lev.  2:2;  9  :  17. 

Gen.  41  :47  ;  Lev.  6: 15. 

Exod.  30  :  24  ;  Lev.  19:36;  Ezek.  46:5-14. 

Lev.    27:16;    Num.    11:32;    Isa.    5:10; 

Lev.  14 :  10-24.  [Ezek.  45 :  11-14. 

Jer.  51  :  13. 

Ezek.  40 :  10-35  ;  48  :  30-33.     [Ezra  7  :  22. 

I  Kin.  4:  22  ;  5  :  II ;   2  Chr.  2  :  10;  27  :5  ; 

Luke  16 : 7. 

Gen.  18:6;  I  Sam.  25  :  18  ;  1  Kin.  18 :  32. 

Matt.  13:33;  Luke  13:21. 

Hos.  3  :2. 

Rev.  6 : 6. 

Deut.  25  :  14, 15  ;  Prov.  20 ;  10  ;  Mic.  6 :  10. 

1  Kin.  7  :  26,  38  ;  2  Chr.  2 :  10 ;  Isa.  5  :  10. 
Luke  16:6. 

Jer.  31 :39;  Zech.  2:  i. 

Matt.  5:41. 

Mark  1 2  :  42  ;  Luke  12  :  59  ;  21:2. 

Exod.  16  :  16-36. 

2  Sam.  6  :  13. 

Matt.  iS  :  28;  20  :  2-13;  John  6:7. 

2  Kin.  5:5. 

Gen.  33  :  19  ;  Job  42  :  11. 

Matt.  17:27.  [Zech.  11:12,  13. 

Gen.  20 :  16 ;  37  :  28  ;  45  :  22  ;  Exod.  21 :  32 

Josh.  24 :  32. 

Psa.  68 :  30. 

I  Sam.  2 :  36. 

Matt.  26: 15;  27:3-9. 

Acts  19: 19. 

Luke  15:8,  9. 

Mark  7  :4,  8. 

1  Kin.  10: 17. 

Ezra  2:69;  Neh.  7:71,  72. 

John  12:3;  19:39. 

Luke  19: 13-25. 

Ezek.  40 : 3-8 ;  41  : 8 ;  42  :  16-19. 

Rev.  21  :  15,  16. 

Matt.  24 :  20 ;  Acts  1:12. 

I  Sam.  17:5,  7 ;  Ezek.  4:10;  45 :  12. 

Gen.  23:15,  16;  Exod.  21:32;  30:13. 

I  Chr.  21  :  25  ;  2  Chr.  3: 9. 

Exod.  28 :  16  ;  i  Sam.  17:4;  Ezek.  43 :  13. 

Exod.  38:27;  I  Kin.  16:24;  20:39. 

Ezra  7 :  22. 

Exod.  25:39;  37:24;  2  Sam.  12:30. 

Rev.  16:21. 

Matt.  18:24;  25:15-28. 

Matt.  17:24. 


EQUIVALENT. 

7  gallons. 

(4)4  dwts.)  28  cents. 

About  a  peck. 

lii  quarts. 

70  gallons. 

21  inches  (18  to  23). 

18  to  23  inches. 

2%  feet. 

15  to  20  miles. 

About  I5. 

About  $5. 

Sl4  pecks. 

7  gallons. 

Nearly  4  mills. 

1%  cents. 

About  6  feet. 

4-5  of  an  inch. 

About  8  gallons. 

Nearly  Ys  of  n  mile. 

(11  grains)  2}i  cents. 

Nearly  4  bushels. 

5^  ounce. 

25  or  30  cents. 

3  or  4  inches. 

14  pint. 
1  gill. 

2)4  quarts. 

About  8  bushels. 

Nearly  a  pint. 

See  cubit. 

145  feet  ? 

About  8  bushels. 

About  8  bushels. 

I  peck. 

I  peck. 

Nearly  4  bushels. 

1%  pints. 

3]4  pecks. 

7  gallons. 

7  gallons. 

Nearly  J/g  of  a  mile. 

Over  9-10  of  a  mile. 

Nearly  2  mills. 

2><  quarts. 

About  30  inches. 

15  cents. 
About  J8  76. 
See  shekel. 
61  cents. 
See  shekel. 


See  penny. 
See  penny. 
Nearly  a  pint. 
2"^  lbs.,  or  3%. 
About  $36. 
Nearly  a  pound. 
About  $16. 
9  or  10  feet. 
9  or  10  feet. 
About  Yi  of  SL  mile. 
About  %  ounce. 
55  cents  (50  to  60). 
$g  or  $10. 
Over  9  inches. 
114  lbs.  7  oz. 
About  $1,600. 
About  |i,6oo. 
About  126,280. 
About  115  lbs. 
About  $1,000. 
About  30  cents. 


345 


MEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEA 


It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  critical 
authorities  differ  somewhat  in  their  con- 
clusions from  the  meagre  and  uncertain 
data  in  their  hands,  and  that  nearly  all  the 
preceding  estimates  should  be  regarded  as 
probable  and  approximate,  rather  than  as 
reliably  exact. 

Certain  common  measures  of  weight, 
length,  and  value,  like  the  pound,  the  cu- 
bit, and  the  shekel,  had,  rouglily  speaking, 
their  equivalents  among  all  the  nations 
around  the  Jews — the  Chaldieans,  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  and  Romans ;  yet  many  mis- 
takes would  arise  should  one  accept  any  of 
these  as  precise  equivalents. 

These  measures  also  varied  within  the 
bounds  of  each  nation,  from  one  period  of 
its  history  to  another,  and  in  different  prov- 
inces at  the  same  period.  The  "  shekel  of 
the  sanctuarj'  "  may  have  been  a  standard, 
from  which  the  common  shekel  fell  off. 
The  cubit — the  measure  from  the  elbow  to 
the  end  of  the  middle  finger — seems  some- 
times to  have  reached  only  to  the  wrist  or 
to  the  knuckles;  and  it  is  reckoned  by 
some  authorities  at  17  inches,  by  others  as 
high  as  23  inches ;  so  that  we  are  not  sure 
which  is  the  true  length  in  any  given  pas- 
sage. 

Until  the  Return  from  the  Babylonian 
Captivity  it  is  not  certain  that  the  Jews  had 
any  regular  coinage.  Trade  and  com- 
merce were  largely  carried  on  by  barter; 
and  though  the  metals  were  in  common 
use  from  the  earliest  ages  as  a  medium  of 
exchange,  the  requisite  amount  was  ascer- 
tained by  weighing.  Hence  the  different 
values  of  a  given  weight,  e.  g.,  a  bekah,  in 
silver  and  in  gold. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  gold 
and  silver  have  in  time  become  so  abun- 
dant that  their  purchasing  power  is  now 
far  less  than  formerly.  Thus  in  the  time 
of  Christ  a  "penny,"  16  cents,  was  a  day's 
wages,  though  indeed  laborers  in  the  East 
have  always  been  poorly  paid,  and  ill  fed 
and  clothed. 

See  the  general  table  of  Weights,  Meas- 
ures, and  Money  of  the  Bible  on  the  pre- 
ceding page,  also  the  particular  names  of 
each,  as  Shkkkl,  Talent,  Bath,  Ephah, 
etc.,  and  Tables  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 

MEATS.  "  Meat "  in  the  English  Bible 
usually  signifies  "food,"  and  not  "flesh," 
Gen.  1:29,  30;  Matt.  15:37.  So  in  Luke 
24:41,  "  Have  ye  here  any  meat?"  literally, 
anything  to  eat?  So  also  in  Rom.  14:20; 
I  Cor.  8:13.  In  Psa.  iii:,s  by  "meat"  is 
meant  "prey"  or  "spoil."  The  "  meat- 
346 


offerings"  of  the  Jews  were  made  of  flour, 
corn,  and  olive  oil,  etc..  Lev.  2.  See  (Of- 
ferings and  Sacrifices.  As  to  the  ani- 
mal food  used  by  the  Jews,  see  Clean  and 
Food. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  ancient  He- 
brews were  very  particular  about  the  sea- 
soning and  dressing  of  their  food.  We 
find  among  them  roast  meat,  boiled  meat, 
and  ragouts.  Gen.  27:9;  Exod.  16:3;  the 
flesh  of  lambs,  Amos  6:4,  calves.  Gen.  18:7, 
kids.  Gen.  27:9,  oxen,  Prov.  15:17;  veni- 
son and  fowls,  i  Kin.  4:23.  Moses  for- 
bade them  to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's 
milk,  Exod.  23:19;  34:26 — a  precept  de- 
signed to  inculcate  principles  of  humanity, 
and  perhaps  to  prevent  them  from  adopt- 
ing an  idolatrous  custom  of  their  heathen 
neighbors.  The  Jews  were  also  forbidden 
to  kill  a  cow  and  its  calf  in  the  same  day; 
or  a  sheep,  or  goat,  and  its  young  one,  at 
the  same  time.  They  might  not  cut  off  a 
part  of  a  living  animal  to  eat  it,  either  raw 
or  dressed.  If  any  lawful  beast  or  bird 
should  die  of  itself  or  be  strangled,  and  the 
blood  not  drain  away,  they  were  not  al- 
lowed to  taste  of  it.  They  ate  of  nothing 
dressed  by  any  other  than  a  Jew,  nor  did 
they  ever  dress  their  victuals  with  the 
kitchen  implements  of  any  but  one  of  their 
own  nation. 

The  prohibition  of  eating  blood,  or  ani- 
mals that  are  strangled.  Lev.  3:17;  7:26; 
17: 10,  has  been  always  rigidly  observed  by 
the  Jews.  In  the  Christian  Church  the 
law  was  observed  for  a  long  time,  being 
approved  by  the  council  held  at  Jerusalem, 
and  recommended  to  the  (ientile  converts. 
Acts  15. 

At  the  first  settling  of  the  church  there 
were  many  disputes  concerning  the  use  of 
meats  offered  to  idols.  Some  newly  con- 
verted Christians,  convinced  that  an  idol 
was  nothing,  and  that  the  distinction  of 
clean  and  unclean  creatures  was  abolished 
by  our  Saviour,  ate  indifferently  of  what- 
ever was  served  up  to  them,  even  among 
pagans,  without  inquiring  whether  the 
meats  had  been  offered  to  idols.  They 
took  the  same  liberty  in  buying  meat  sold 
in  the  market,  not  regarding  whether  it 
were  pure  or  impure  according  to  the  Jews, 
or  whether  it  had  been  offered  to  idols  or 
not.  But  other  Christians,  weaker,  more 
scrupulous,  or  less  instructed,  were  offend- 
ed at  this  liberty,  and  thought  the  eating 
of  meat  which  had  been  offered  to  idols 
was  a  kind  of  partaking  in  that  wicked  and 
sacrilegious   offering.      This    diversity   of 


MED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MED 


opinion  among  the  disciples  called  for  the 
judgment  of  inspiration ;  and  we  find  in 
several  of  Paul's  epistles  directions  both 
for  those  who  held  such  scruples  and  for 
those  who  were  free  from  them.  The  for- 
mer, while  in  obedience  to  their  own  con- 
science they  carefully  abstained  from  the 
food  in  question,  were  charged  to  view 
with  charity  the  conduct  of  those  who  did 
not  share  their  scruples.  The  latter  might 
freely  buy  and  eat  without  guilt,  since 
meat  is  in  no  wise  injured  as  an  article  of 
food  by  being  offered  to  an  idol ;  yet  when- 
ever others  would  be  scandalized,  pained, 
or  led  into  sin  by  this  course,  even  they 
were  required  by  the  laws  of  Christian 
charity  and  prudence  to  abstain,  Rom. 
14:20-23;  I  Cor.  8;  10:19-33;  Tit.  1:15. 
This  principle  is  of  general  application  in 
similar  cases;  and  many  in  our  own  day 
might  well  adopt  the  generous  determina- 
tion of  the  self-denying  apostle  to  partake 
of  no  questionable  indulgence  while  the 
world  stands,  if  it  may  be  the  occasion  of 
sin  to  others. 

ME'DAD,  love.     See  Eld.\D. 

ME'DAN,  strife,  3d  son  of  Abraham  and 
Keturah,  Gen.  25:2.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  settled  in  Arabia,  near  Midian  his 
brother. 

ME'DEBA,  Sept.  Medaba,  waters  of  quirt, 
a  town  and  plain  of  Moab,  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, Num.  21:23-30;  Deut.  2:34-36,  con- 
quered by  the  Ammonites  under  Sihon,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Israelites.  It  lay  on  the 
southern  border  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Josh.  13:9,  16.  Near  it  the  army  of  David 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Ammonites 
and  their  allies,  i  Chr.  19:7.  Long  after- 
wards it  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the 
Moabites  its  ancient  masters,  Isa.  15:2. 
Its  ruins,  on  a  round  hill  7  miles  south  bv 
west  from  Hesban,  still  retain  the  name 
Madaba. 

MEDES.  .  See  Media. 

ME'DIA,  called  by  the  Hebrews  Ma'dai, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  Madai  the  son  of  Japheth, 
Gen.  10:2,  extended  itself  on  the  west  and 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  from  Armenia 
and  Assyria  on  the  north  and  west  to  Far- 
sistan  or  Persia  proper  on  the  south,  and 
included  the  districts  now  called  Shirvan, 
Adzerbijan,  Ghilan,  and  Irak  Adjemi.  It 
covered  a  territory  larger  than  that  of 
Spain,  lying  between  330  and  400  of  north 
latitude,  and  was  one  of  the  most  fertile 
and  earliest  cultivated  among  the  king- 
doms of  Asia.     It  had  2  grand  divisions,  of 


which  the  northwestern  was  called  Atro- 
patene,  or  Lesser  Media,  and  the  southern 
Greater  Media.  The  former  corresponds 
to  the  modern  Adzerbijan,  now,  as  for- 
merly, a  province  of  the  Persian  empire, 
an  elevated  region  on  the  west  of  the  Cas- 
pian, surrounded  by  high  mountains  of  the 
Tauritic  range,  except  towards  the  east, 
where  the  river  Kur,  or  Cyrus,  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Caspian.  The  Greater 
Media  corresponds  principally  to  the  mod- 
ern Irak  Adjemi,  or  Persian  Irak,  together 
with  Kurdistan,  Luristan,  and  Ardelan. 

Media  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  inde- 
pendent kingdoms  of  which  history  makes 
mention.  After  several  centuries  of  conflict 
and  semi-subjugation  under  Assyria,  men- 
tioned on  the  disentombed  Assyrian  tab- 
lets, which  confirm  2  Kin.  17:6;  Isa.  20:1, 
the  Medes  united  and  became  powerful,  cul- 
tivated, and  wealthy,  Isa.  13:17,  iS;  21:2,3; 
under  Cyaxares  thej^  conquered  Assyria, 
and  continued  an  independent  kingdom 
until,  under  Cyrus,  B.  C.  588,  Media  be- 
came united  with  Persia.  In  this  way  arose 
the  Medo-Persian  kingdom;  and  the  "laws 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians"  and  their 
"  Chronicles  "  are  mentioned  by  the  sacred 
writers  together,  Esth.  1:19;  10:2;  Dan. 
6:8,  12,  etc.  Indeed,  from  this  time  onward 
the  manners,  customs,  religion,  and  civili- 
zation of  the  Medes  and  Persians  seem  ever 
to  have  become  more  and  more  amalgama- 
ted. And  in  general  we  may  gather  from 
the  ancient  Zend  writings  that  the  Medes, 
Persians,  and  Bactrians  were  originally  the 
same  people,  having  in  common  one  lan- 
guage, the  Zend,  and  one  religion,  the  wor- 
ship of  the  elements  and  of  Ormuzd,  the 
highest  being,  under  the  symbol  of  fire. 
The  priests  of  this  religion,  the  Magi,  were 
intrusted  with  the  cultivation  of  the  sci- 
ences and  the  performance  of  the  sacred 
rites.  Among  these,  and  as  is  supposed 
before  the  time  of  Cyrus,  appeared  Zer- 
dusht,  or  Zoroaster,  as  a  reformer,  or  rath- 
er as  the  restorer  of  the  ancient  but  degen- 
erated religion  of  light,  whose  disciples 
have  maintained  themselves  even  to  the 
present  day  in  Persia  and  India  under  the 
name  of  Guebres. 

Media  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as 
the  part  of  Assyria  to  which  the  10  tribes 
were  transported :  at  first,  those  beyond 
the  Jordan,  by  Tiglath-pileser,  i  Chr.  5:26; 
and  afterwards,  about  721  B.  C,  the  remain- 
der of  Israel,  by  Sargon,  2  Kin.  17:6.  The 
subsequent  history  of  Media  is  involved  in 
that  of  Persia.     The  united  empire  con- 

347 


MED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEL 


quered  Babylon,  according  to  Isaiah's  pre- 
diction, Isa.  13: 17;  21 :2;  Dan. 5;  6;  Ezra  i. 
Both  countries  were  subdued  by  Alexander 
of  Macedon,  330  B.  C,  and  in  the  next  cen- 
tury became  tributary  to  the  Parthians  on 
their  east,  in  connection  with  whom  they 
are  mentioned  in  Acts  2:9.     See  Pkrsia. 

ME'DIATOR,  one  who  stands  between  2 
parties  or  persons  as  the  organ  of  commu- 
nication or  the  agent  of  reconciliation.  So 
far  as  man  is  sensible  of  his  own  guilt  and 
of  the  holinessand  justice  of  God,  he  shrinks 
from  any  direct  communication  with  a  be- 
ing he  has  so  much  reason  to  fear.  Hence 
the  disposition  more  or  less  prevalent  in 
all  ages  and  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to 
interpose  between  the  soul  and  its  Judge 
some  person  or  thing  most  adapted  to  pro- 
pitiate his  favor — as  a  priestly  order,  an 
upright  and  devout  daysman,  or  the  smoke 
of  sacrifices  and  the  sweet  savor  of  incense, 
Job  9:33.  The  Israelites  evinced  this  feel- 
ing at  Mount  Sinai,  Deut.  3:23-31 ;  and  God 
was  pleased  to  constitute  Moses  a  media- 
tor between  Himself  and  them,  to  receive 
and  transmit  the  law  on  the  one  hand,  and 
their  vows  of  obedience  on  the  other.  In 
this  capacity  he  acted  on  various  other  oc- 
casions, Exod.  32  :  30-32  ;  Num.  14  ;  Psa. 
106:23;  ^"d  was  thus  an  agent  and  a  type 
of  Christ,  Gal.  3:19,  20.  The  Messiah  has 
been  in  all  ages  the  only  true  Mediator  be- 
tween God  and  man ;  and  without  Him  God 
is  inaccessible  and  a  consuming  fire,  John 
14:6;  Acts  4:12.  As  the  Angel  of  the  Cove- 
nant, Christ  was  the  channel  of  all  commu- 
nications between  heaven  and  earth  in  old 
Testament  days ;  and  as  the  Mediator  of  the 
new  covenant  he  does  all  that  is  needful  to 
provide  for  a  perfect  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man.  He  consults  the  honor  of 
God  by  appearing  as  our  Advocate  with 
the  blood  of  atonement ;  and  through  his 
sympathizing  love  and  the  agency  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  he  disposes  and  enables  us  to 
return  to  God.  The  believing  penitent  is 
"accepted  in  the  Beloved" — his  person,  his 
praises,  and  his  prayers ;  and  through  the 
same  Mediator  alone  he  receives  pardon, 
grace,  and  eternal  life.  In  this  high  office 
Christ  stands  alone,  because  he  alone  is  both 
God  and  man,  and  has  made  the  necessary 
atoning  sacrifice,  i  Tim.  2 : 5.  To  join  Mary 
and  the  saints  to  him  in  his  mediatorship, 
as  the  Church  of  Rome  does,  implies  that 
he  is  unable  to  accomplish  his  own  pecu- 
liar work,  Heb.  8:6;  9:15;  12:24.  Com- 
pare Col.  2:iS.     See  Intercession. 

MED'ICINES.     See  Physicians. 
348 


MEEK'NESS,  a  peaceful  and  humble  se- 
renity of  spirit,  not  easily  stirred  to  anger 
by  wrongs  or  by  the  anger  of  others,  Prov. 
16:32;  Jas.  3:7,  8,  13.  Such  a  spirit  God 
dwells  with  and  specially  blesses,  Isa. 
57:15;  66:2;  Matt.  5:5.  Meekness  is  a 
Christian  grace,  i  Tim.  6:11,  acquired  by 
many  naturally  fiery  spirits,  as  Moses, 
Exod.  2:12;  Num.  12:3,  and  Paul,  Acts 
26: 10,  II ;  I  Cor.  9: 19,  and  must  be  gained 
by  all  who  would  be  like  Christ,  Matt. 
II  :28,  29. 

MEET,  fit,  suitable,  or  worthy,  Gen.  2: 18; 
Exod.  8:26;  Matt.  3:8;  Heb.  6:7. 

MEGID'DO,  a  town  of  Manasseh,  though 
within  the  bounds  of  Issachar.  It  had  been 
a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  and  they 
long  retained  a  foothold  in  it,  Josh.  12:21; 
17:11;  Judg.  1:27.  It  lay  in  the  southwest 
border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  south 
of  the  Kishon,  which  is  probably  intended 
by  "  the  waters  of  Megiddo,"  mentioned  in 
the  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  as  the 
scene  of  their  victory,  Judg.  5:19,  21.  It 
commanded  a  pass  from  the  plain  on  the 
north  to  the  hill-country  of  Samaria,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Solomon  was  of  some  impor- 
tance and  was  fortified,  i  Kin.  4:12;  9:15. 
Here  king  Ahaziah  died,  and  king  Josiah 
was  defeated,  slain,  and  sorely  lamented, 
2  Kin.  9:27;  23:29;  2  Chr.  35:22-25;  Zech. 
12:11.  Robinson  identifies  it  with  a  vil- 
lage now  called  Leijun,  the  Legio  of  the 
Romans.  Perhaps  it  was  on  the  ruined 
site  el-Medineh,  2  miles  northwest  of  Lei- 
jun. 

MEHET'ABEL,  less  correctly  Meheta- 
BEEi.,  blessed  by  God,  I.,  wife  of  an  Edom- 
ite  king.  Gen.  36:39;  i  Chr.  1:50. 

II.  F"ather  of  Delaiah,  Neh.  6: 10. 

MEHl'H A,  joi/ii>i£-,  a  person  or  place  as- 
sociated with  the  Nethinim,  Ezra  2:52; 
Neh.  7:54. 

MEHO'LATHITE,  I  Sam.  18:19;  2  Sam. 
21:8.     See  Abei.-meholah. 

MEHU'JAEL,  sviillen  by  God,  Gen.  4:18. 

MEHU'NIM,  plural  of  Maon,  Ezra  2:50; 
Neh.  7:52.     See  Maonites. 

MEKO'NAH,  a  base,  a  town  and  its  sub- 
urbs in  the  far  south  of  Judah  after  the 
Captivity,  Neh.  11:28. 

MEL'CHI,  7ny  king,  2  ancestors  of  Christ, 
Luke  3 :  24,  28. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK,  khig  of  righteousness. 
king  of  Salem,  and  also  priest  of  the  Most 
High  God,  in  which  capacity  he  blessed 
Abraham  and  received  tithes  at  his  hand, 
Gen.  14:18-20.  Scripture  tells  us  nothing 
of  his  father  or  mother,  of  his  genealogy. 


MEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEL 


his  birth,  or  his  death;  he  stands  alone, 
without  predecessor  or  successor,  a  royal 
priest  by  the  appointment  of  God;  and 
thus  he  was  a  type  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is 
"  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Mel- 
chizedek,"  and  not  after  the  order  of  Aaron, 
whose  origin,  consecration,  life,  and  death 
are  known,  Psa.  110:4;  Heb.  6:20;  7.  See 
Genealogy. 

It  has  been  matter  of  great  inquiry  among 
commentators  who  Melchizedek  really  was. 
He  has  been  variously  supposed  to  be  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  Son  of  God,  an  angel, 
Enoch,  and  Shem.  But  the  safest  and  most 
probable  opinion  is  that  which  considers 
him  as  a  righteous  and  peaceful  king,  a 
worshipper  and  priest  of  the  Most  High 
God  in  the  land  of  Canaan ;  a  friend  of 
Abraham,  and  as  a  priest  elevated  above 
him.  This  opinion,  indeed,  lies  upon  the 
very  face  of  the  sacred  record  in  Gen.  14 
and  Heb.  7,  and  it  is  the  only  one  which 
can  be  defended  on  any  tolerable  grounds 
of  interpretation.     See  Salem. 

MEL'ITA,  refuge,  or  honied.  This  name 
was  anciently  applied  to  2  islands ;  one  in 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum, 
now  called  Meleda;  the  other  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, between  Sicily  and  Africa,  now 


called  Malta.  That  the  latter  is  the  one  on 
which  Paul  suffered  shipwreck  is  evident 
from  the  direction  of  the  wind  which  blew 
him  thither  (see  Euroclydon),  and  from 
the  fact  that  he  left  the  island  in  a  ship  of 
Alexandria,  which  had  wintered  there  on 
her  voyage  to  Italy,  and  after  touching  at 
Syracuse  and  Rhegium,  landed  at  Puteoli, 
thus  sailing  on  a  direct  course.  The  other 
Melita  would  be  far  out  of  the  usual  track 
from  Alexandria  to  Italy;  and  in  sailing 
from  it  to  Rhegium,  Syracuse  also  would  be 
out  of  the  direct  course.  The  fact  that  the 
vessel  was  tossed  all  night  before  the  ship- 
wreck in  the  Adriatic  Sea  does  not  militate 
against  this  view,  because  the  name  Adria 
was  applied  to  the  whole  Ionian  Sea  which 
lay  between  Sicily  and  Greece.  See  Adria. 
Acts  27:27 ;  28:1. 

Malta  is  a  rocky  island  62  miles  soutii 
of  Sicily,  17  miles  long  and  9  broad,  and 
containing  nearly  100  square  miles  and 
100,000  inhabitants.  At  an  early  period  it 
was  seized  by  the  Phoenicians  ;  these  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Greeks  of  Sicily,  B.  C. 
736;  they  by  the  Carthaginians,  528;  and 
they  in  turn,  242  B.  C,  by  the  Romans,  who 
held  it  in  the  time  of  Paul.  After  numer- 
ous changes  it  fell  at  length  into  the  hands 


of  the  English,  who  since  1814  have  held 
undisputed  possession  of  it.  The  name  of 
"  St.  Paul's  Bay  "  is  now  borne  by  a  small 
inlet  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  open- 


ing towards  the  east,  which  answers  well 
to  the  description  in  Acts  27.  Here  Paul 
was  protected  by  the  hand  of  God  amid 
perils  on  shore  as  well  as  in  the  sea.     He 

349 


MEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEP 


remained  here  3  months,  "  honored  with 
many  honors,"  and  wrought  many  miracles. 


MEL'ONS  are  common  in  the  East,  but 
do  not  differ  particularly  from  ours.  Wa- 
termelons and  muskmelons  grow  luxuri- 
antly in  Egypt  in  a  light  and  sandy  soil. 
They  are  a  delicious  fruit  in  a  hot  climate, 
and  were  among  the  articles  of  food  for 
which  the  Hebrews  pined  in  the  desert, 
Num.  11:5.  They  would  have  found  them 
abundant  in  the  Promised  Land. 

MEL'ZAR,  overseer,  the  official  title  of  a 
steward  or  tutor  at  the  court  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Dan.  1:11-16. 

MEMO'RIAL,  Esth.  9:28;  Psa.  9:6,  re- 
membrance. 

MEM'PHIS,  Hos.  9:6.     See  Nohh. 

MEMU'CAN,  high  in  dignily,  a  politic 
councillor  of  Ahasuerus,  Esth.  1:14,  16,  21. 

MEN'AHEM,  comforter,  the  i6th  king  of 
Israel,  previouslj'  general  of  the  army  of 
Zachariah.  He  was  at  Tirzah  when  he 
heard  of  his  master's  murder,  and  imme- 
diately marching  against  the  usurper  Shal- 
lum,  who  had  shut  himself  up  in  Samaria, 
he  captured  and  slew  him,  and  then  as- 
cended the  throne.  He  reigned  in  Sama- 
ria 10  years,  771-760  B.  C,  and  was  a  tyran- 
nical and  cruel  idolater,  as  appears  from 
the  contemporaneous  prophecies  of  Hosea 
and  Amos.  See  Tiphsah.  Pul,  king  of 
Assyria,  having  invaded  Israel  during  the 
reign  of  Menahem,  obliged  him  to  pay  a 
tribute  of  1,000  talents,  which  Menahem 
raised  by  a  tax  on  all  his  rich  subjects  of 
50  shekels  a  head.  He  seems  to  have  died 
a  natural  death ;  but  his  son  and  successor 
Pekahiah  reigned  only  2  years,  and  was 
the  last  of  that  dynasty,  2  Kin.  15:13-22. 
The  Assyrian  tablets  recently  discovered 
mention  the  house  of  Omri,  or  Khumri,  as 
350 


paying  tribute  to  Pul,  or  Phallukha,  togeth- 
er with  Tyre,  Damascus,  Idumaea,  etc. : 
and  another  tablet  names  Menahem 
as  paying  tribute  to  Tiglath-pileser. 

ME'NAN,  A.  V.  Luke  3:31,  an  an- 
cestor of  Christ.     In  R.  V.  Men.na. 

ME'NE,  he  is  numbered :  Te'kkl, 
he  is  iveighed ;  Uphar'sin,  and  the^• 
arc  dividing ;  Chaldee  words  super- 
naturally  traced  on  the  wall  at  Bel- 
shazzar's  impious  feast,  and  signifi- 
cant of  his  impending  doom,  Dan.  5. 
The  astrologers  could  not  read  them. 
_  Sj  perhaps  because  they  were  written  in 
^J  antique  Hebrew  characters;  still  less 
could  they  explain,  even  if  they  had 
dared  to  do  it,  what  was  so  portent- 
ous. Daniel,  however,  received  skill 
to  understand  and  courage  to  declare 
their  awful  meaning;  and  the  same 
night  witnessed  their  fulfilment.  Over  how 
many  proud  heads,  often  found  in  scenes 
of  ungodliness  and  revelling,  the  hand  that 
has  recorded  their  past  history  is  even  now 
preparing  to  record  their  doom. 

ME'NI,  number,  Isa.  65:11,  margin;  a 
Babylonian  idol,  perhaps  Fortune,  adored 
by  some  of  the  captive  Israelites. 

MEO'NENIM,  "  observers  of  times"  Deut. 
18:10,  14;  2  Kin.  21 :6;  in  Mic.  5:12  "sooth- 
sayers." Elon-meonkni.m,  "  wizards'  oak," 
was  a  famous  tree  near  Shechem,  Judg. 
9:37;  perhaps  the  tree  mentioned  in  Gen. 
12:6;  35:4;  Josh.  24:26;  Judg.  9:6. 

MEO'NOTHAI,  vty  dwellings,  a  son  of 
Othniel,  i  Chr.  4:14. 

MEPHA'ATH,  splendor,  a  Levitical  city 
of  Reuben,  Josh.  13: 18;  21 :37  ;  i  Chr.  6:79, 
having  first  belonged  to  the  Amorites,  Num. 
21:26,  and  afterwards  to  Moab,  Jer.  48:21. 
It  lay  north  of  the  Arnon,  towards  the  east. 
MEPHIB'OSHETH,  exterminator  of  the 
shame,  i.  e.,  of  Baal,  son  of  Jonathan,  and 
grandson,  A.  V.  "son,"  of  Saul,  2  Sam. 
19:24;  also  called  Meribbaal,  i  Chr.  8:34. 
See  EsHBAAi,.  Mephibosheth  was  very 
young  when  his  father  was  killed  in  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  2  Sam.  4:4,  and  his  nurse 
was  in  such  consternation  at  the  news  that 
she  let  the  child  fall,  and  from  this  acci- 
dent he  was  lame  all  his  days.  His  misfor- 
tune clouded  his  life,  though  he  was  pa- 
tient and  resigned.  He  took  refuge  in  the 
mountains  of  Ciilead.  SeeMACHiR.  When 
David  found  himself  in  peaceable  posses- 
sion of  the  kingdom  he  sought  for  all  that 
remained  of  the  house  of  Saul,  that  he  might 
show  them  kindness,  in  consideration  of 
the  friendship  between  him  and  Jonathan, 


MER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MER 


1  Sam.  20:15,  42.  He  gave  Mephibosheth 
the  estate  of  his  grandfather  Saul.  Of  a 
part  of  this,  however,  he  was  14  years 
afterwards  deprived  by  the  treachery  of  his 
steward  Ziba,  and  the  hasty  injustice,  as  it 
appears,  of  David  towards  an  unfortunate 
but  noble  and  loyal  prince,  2  Sam.  9;  16:  i- 
4;  19:24-30.  David  subsequently  took 
care  to  exempt  him  from  the  number  of  the 
descendants  of  Saul  given  up  to  the  ven- 
geance of  the  Gibeonites,  2  Sam.  21  : 1-14, 
inough  another  Mephibosheth,  a  son  of 
Saul,  was  hanged,  ver.  8. 

ME'RAB,  increase,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  king  Saul,  was  promised  to  David  in 
marriage,  in  reward  for  his  victory  over 
Goliath;  but  was  given  to  Adriel,  son  of 
Barzillai  the  Meholathite,  i  Sam.  14:49; 
17:25;  18:2,  17,  19.  Merab  had  5  sons  by 
him,  who  were  delivered  to  the  Gibeonites 
and  hanged  before  the  Lord,  2  Sam.  21 :8,  9. 
The  te.xt  intimates  that  the  5  men  delivered 
to  the  Gibeonites  were  "sons"  of  Michal; 
but  see  Adriel. 

MERA'RI,  sorrowful,  Num.  26:57,  the 
youngest  of  Levi's  3  sons,  born  in  Canaan, 
and  head  of  a  family  of  the  Levites,  Gen. 
46:11;  Exod.  6:16;  Num.  3:17;  iChr.  6:1, 
16,  19,  47.  In  the  journey  through  the  wil- 
derness they  were  charged  with  the  frame- 
work of  the  tabernacle,  to  carry  from  one 
place  of  encampment  to  another  and  there 
set  it  up,  Num.  4:29-33;  7:8.  They  had  4 
wagons  and  8  oxen.  Twelve  cities  were 
assigned  to  them  beyond  Jordan  out  of 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  Zebulun,  Josh.  21:7,  34- 
40;  I  Chr.  6:63,  77-81.  They  took  part  in 
bringing  the  ark  up  to  Jerusalem,  i  Chr. 
15:6,  and  in  the  sanctuary  service  at  vari- 
ous times,  r  Chr.  23:5,  6,  21-23;  26:10,  19; 

2  Chr.  29:12,  15;  Ezra  8:18,  19. 
MERATHA'IM,   hvo    rebelHojis,   a    name 

of  Babylon,  referring  either  to  its  2  subju- 
gations of  Israel,  or  to  its  own  rebellions 
against  God,  Jer.  50:17,  21,  23. 

MER'CHANT,  Gen.  23:16;  37:25,  28; 
Matt.  13:45.  The  commodities  of  different 
countries  were  usually  exchanged  by  tra- 
ders of  various  kinds,  in  caravans  or  "  trav- 
elling companies,"  Isa.  21:13,  which  had 
their  regular  seasons  and  routes  for  pass- 
ing from  one  great  mart  to  another.  The 
Hebrew  word  denotes  travellers,  and  these 
merchants  prospered  by  wandering,  as  ours 
do  by  remaining  stationary.  The  Hebrew 
law  had  rules  respecting  commerce.  Lev. 
19:35)  36;  Deut.  25:13-16;  Mic.  6:10,  II. 
There  is  early  evidence  of  its  wide  exten- 
sion, Exod.  25:3-7;  Num.  31 :5o;  Josh.  7:21. 


Solomon  engaged  in  it  largely,  i  Kin.  10:11, 
22-29 ;  2  Chr.  8:17,  i8,  and  Jerusalem  had  its 
port  Joppa,  Isa.  2:6, 16;  3:21-23;  Hos.  12:7; 
Jon.  1 :3.  The  apostle  James  reminds  them 
to  lay  their  plans  in  view  of  the  uncertainty 
of  life  and  their  need  of  divine  guidance, 
Jas.  4:13.  Some  of  the  maritime  nations, 
as  Egypt,  and  still  more  the  Phoenicians, 
carried  on  a  large  traffic  by  sea,  Isa.  23:2; 
Ezek.  27:27,  28. 

MER'CURY,  a  fabulous  god  of  the  an- 
cient heathen,  the  messenger  of  the  celes- 
tials, and  the  deity  that  presided  over  learn- 
ing, eloquence,  and  traffic.  The  Greeks 
named  him  Hermes,  interpreter  of  the  will 
of  the  gods.  Probably  it  was  for  this  rea- 
son, and  perhaps  from  recollecting  the 
legend,  which  Ovid  relates,  of  the  visit  of 
Jupiter  and  Hermes  to  their  countrymen 
Baucis  and  Philemon,  that  the  people  of 
Lystra,  having  heard  Paul  preach,  and  hav- 
ing seen  him  heal  a  lame  man,  would  have 
offered  sacrifice  to  him  as  to  their  god  Mer- 
cury, and  to  Barnabas  as  Jupiter,  because 
of  his  venerable  aspect.  Acts  14:11,  12. 

MER'CY,  the  divine  goodness  exercised 
towards  the  wretched  and  the  guilty,  in 
harmony  with  truth  and  justice,  Psa.  85: 10. 
It  is  known  to  us  only  by  revelation.  The 
plan  by  which  God  is  enabled  to  show  sa- 
ving mercy  to  men,  for  Christ's  sake,  is  the 
most  consummate  work  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  love,  Exod.  20:6;  34:6,  7;  Psa.  86:15, 
16;  103:17;  2  Cor.  4:6.  The  soul  that  has 
truly  experienced  the  mercy  of  God  will  be 
merciful  like  him,  Luke  6:36,  compassion- 
ate to  the  wretched,  Psa.  41:1,  2,  and  for- 
giving towards  all,  Matt.  5:7;  18:33. 

MER'CY-SEAT,  the  cover  of  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant,  which  see.  The  Hebrew 
word  means  a  cover,  and  contains  an  allu- 
sion to  the  covering  or  forgiving  of  sins, 
Psa.  32:1.  It  was  the  essential  part  of  the 
ark,  and  gave  its  name  to  the  holy  of  holies 
itself,  Lev.  16:2;  i  Chr.  28:11.  Hence  ap- 
propriately it  covered  from  view  the  2  tables 
of  the  law,  for  whose  violation  it  offered 
forgiveness.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
designated  by  a  Greek  word  meaning  "the 
propitiatory,"  or  "expiatory,"  Hfb.  9:4,  5. 
It  was  approached  only  by  the  high-priest, 
and  not  without  the  blood  of  atonement, 
to  show  that  the  divine  mercy  can  be  grant- 
ed only  through  the  blood  of  Christ,  Rom. 

3:25. 

ME'RED,  rebellion,  son  of  Ezra,  a  Judah- 
ite,  notable  for  having  married  Bithiah,  a 
daughter  of  Pharaoh,  before  the  Exode, 
I  Chr.  4:17,  18. 

351 


MER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MER 


MERE'MOTH,  heights,  I.,  son  of  the  high- 
priest  Urijah,  trusted  and  active  after  the 
Captivity,  Ezra  8:24-30,  jiZ'^  Neh.  3:4,  21; 
10:5.  Perhaps  the  man  named  in  Neh. 
12:15. 

II.  Ezra  10:36. 

ME'RES,  worthy,  Esth.  i :  13,  14. 

MER'IBAH,  chiding,  strife,  I.,  a  place  in 
Rephidim  where  the  Israelites,  missing  the 
waters  of  Egjpt,  chided  Moses  and  tempt- 
ed Jehovah ;  whence  it  was  also  named 
Massah,  temptation,  Exod.  17:1-7;  Deut. 
6:16;  9:22;  33:8;  Psa.  81:7;  Heb.  3:8.  See 
Rephidim.  In  Psa.  95: 8  the  Hebrew  reads, 
"  as  in  Meribah,  as  in  the  day  of  Massah  in 
the  wilderness." 

II.  A  place  near  Kadesh-barnea,  where 
38  years  later  a  like  sin  was  committed, 


Num.  20:1-13,  '"  which  both  Moses  and 
Aaron  were  involved.  Num.  20:24;  27:14; 
Deut.  32:51 ;  whence  also  this  Meribah  was 
called  Kn-mishi'AT .J'ount  q/judgment.  See 
Wanderings. 

MERIB'BAAL,     contender     unth    Baal, 

1  Chr.  8:34;  9:40.     See  Mephibosheth. 
MERO'DACH,  Jer.  50:2,  an  idol  of  Baby- 
lon, identified  with  Bel ;  their  chief  divin- 
ity in  the  latter  part  of  their  history  ;  also 
of  the  Assyrians.     See  Babylon. 

MERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN,  Bel  is  his  lord, 
a  king  of  Babylon  who  sought  a  friendly 
alliance  with  Hezekiah,  kingof  Judah,  Isa. 
39:1;    2  Chr.   32:31;    called    Berodach    in 

2  Kin.  20:12.  He  is  named  in  the  Khorsa- 
bad  inscriptions  as  having  been  twice  de- 
feated and  exiled  by  Sennacherib. 


I-AKE  MRROM,  FROM   THE   SOUTH 

ME'ROM,  height.  The  "  waters  of  Me- 
roni,"  Josh.  11:5,  or  Lake  of  Semechon,  is 
the  most  northern  of  the  3  lakes  supplied 
by  the  river  Jordan.  It  is  situated  in  the 
southern  part  of  a  valley  formed  by  the  2 
branches  of  Mount  Hermon.  The  lake  is 
now  called  after  the  valley,  the  Lake  of 
Hflleh,  and  is  7  feet  above  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  lake  proper  is  perhaps  4  miles 
long  and  4  broad,  tapering  towards  the 
south,  where  the  Jordan  finds  an  outlet 
through  the  clefts  and  flows  down  10  miles 
to  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  is  very  shallow, 
and  a  large  part  of  it  is  covered  with  aquat- 
ic plants.  Thousands  of  water-fowl  sport 
on  its  surface,  and  its  waters  abound  in 
fish.  On  the  north  lies  the  plain  Ard  el- 
352 


flu^ff^^' 


WITH    MOUNT    HKRMON    IN    THE   DISTANCE. 

Hflleh,  which  is  a  dead  level  for  a  distance 
of  8  or  9  miles.  Near  the  upper  entl  of 
this  the  3  streams  which  form  the  Jordan 
unite.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan 
above  the  lake  a  marsh  extends  up  north 
as  far  as  the  junction  of.  these  streams,  or 
even  farther;  while  on  the  eastern  side  the 
land  is  tilled  almost  down  to  the  lake.  It 
is  a  splendid  plain,  and  extremely  fertile. 
.\1I  kinds  of  grain  grow  on  it  with  very 
little  labor,  and  it  still  merits  the  praise 
accorded  to  it  by  the  Danite  spies:  "We 
have  seen  the  land;  and  behold,  it  is  very 
good, ...  a  place  where  there  is  no  want  of 
anything  that  is  in  the  earth,"  Judg.  18:9, 
10.  Its  rich  soil  is  formed  by  deposit,  and 
it  seems  to  be  partially  submerged  iu  the 


MER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MES 


spring.  Thus  the  lake  and  valley  el-Hflleh 
form  an  immense  reservoir,  and  unite  with 
the  snows  of  Hermon  to  maintain  the  sum- 
mer supplies  of  the  Jordan.  Near  this  lake 
Joshua  defeated  the  kings  of  Northern  Ca- 
naan, Josh.  II  :i-8. 

ME'ROZ,  asylum,  an  unknown  place  in 
Galilee,  cursed  in  the  song  of  Deborah  and 
Barak  for  not  joining  with  them  against 
the  foes  of  Israel,  Judg.  5:23.  Compare 
Judg.  21:8-10;  I  Sam.  11:7.  Probably  their 
vicinity  to  the  scene  of  conflict,  or  the 
opportunity  they  had  of  rendering  some 
special  assistance,  rendered  their  refusal 
peculiarly  guilty.  Jael,  on  the  contrary, 
was  blessed.  Sins  of  omission  may  be  as 
great  and  as  ruinous  as  sins  of  commis- 
sion. The  site  of  Meroz  may  be  the  mod- 
ern Murussus,  4^  miles  north  by  west  of 
Beth-shean. 

MER'RY,  in  the  Bible,  denotes  joy  and 
happiness,  not  jollity,  2  Chr.  7:10;  Prov. 
17:22;  Luke  15:32;  Jas.  5:13. 

ME'SECH,   Psa.  120:5,  A.  V.      See  Me- 

SHECH. 

ME'SHA,  deliverance,  I.,  son  of  Caleb,  II., 
and  founder  of  Ziph,  in  Judah,  i  Chr.  2:42. 

II.  A  king  of  Moab,  rich  in  flocks,  who 
paid  an  enormous  tribute  to  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel — perhaps  only  on  one  occasion  so 
excessive — but  revolted  at  his  death,  2  Kin. 
1:1;  3:4-27.  Joram  the  son  of  Ahab,  with 
the  aid  of  Judah  and  Edom,  made  war  upon 
him,  almost  exterminated  his  army,  laid 
waste  his  cities,  and  besieged  him  in  his 
capital.  Unable  to  force  his  way  through 
the  besieging  host,  king  Mesha  sought  the 
aid  of  his  gods  by  sacrificing  his  own  son 
to  Chemosh  on  the  city  wall ;  and  the  be- 
siegers, horror-struck  at  this  atrocious  act, 
withdrew  in  terror,  lest  some  curse  should 
fall  on  them,  but  despoiling  the  country  as 
they  went. 

In  1868  an  ancient  block  of  black  basalt 
was  found  at  Dibon  in  Moab,  3'/^  feet  high, 
over  2  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  thick,  record- 
ing in  PhcEnician  letters  the  exploits  of 
Mesha,  which  he  ascribes  to  Chemosh  his 
god.  He  mentions  the  war  of  Moab  with 
Israel,  and  Moab's  long  oppression  by 
Omri,  king  of  Israel,  and  alludes  to  many 
familiar  places  beyond  Jordan. 

III.  A  different  word  in  Hebrew,  Gen. 
10:30,  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Joktan  in 
Arabia;  probably  a  mountain  range  run- 
ning southwest  from  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf. 

IV.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim,  i  Chr. 
8:8,9. 

23 


ME'SHACH,  a  name  probably  derived 
from    some    Chaldaean   idol.      See   Abed- 

NEGO. 

ME'SHECH,  or  Me'sech,  Psa.  120:5, 
drawing  out,  or  possession,  the  6th  son  of 
Japheth,  Gen.  10:2,  located  near  Tubal  at 
the  northeast  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Ibe- 
ria, and  supposed  by  many  to  have  been 
the  father  of  the  warlike  Moschi  or  Musco- 
vites. Meshech  traded  with  Tyre  in  "the 
persons  of  men  and  in  vessels  of  brass," 
Ezek.  27:13;  32:26;  38:2;  39:1. 

MESHUL'LAM,  associate,  the  name  of 
numerous  men  of  God  in  the  later  Jewish 
history. 

MESHUL'LEMETH,  friend,  the  wife  of 
Manasseh,  2  Kin.  21 :  19. 

MESOPOTA'MIA,  between  the  rivers,  the 
Greek  name  of  the  country  between  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris,  Gen.  24:10;  Deut. 
23:4,  called  in  Arabic  el-Jezirah,  the  island, 
in  the  Bible  "the  plain  of  Aram,"  Gen. 
25:20;  31:18;  33:18,  and  Aram-naharaim," 
Syria  of  two  rivers,  Psa.  60,  title.  See  Aram, 
II.  and  Padan-aram.  In  its  fullest  sense, 
Mesopotamia  extended  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  Mount  Taurus;  but  the  name  usu- 
ally denotes  only  the  tract  above  Babylo- 
nia, now  called  Diarbekr,  and  celebrated 
for  its  exuberant  fertility;  while  the  part 
below,  now  Irak-Arabi,  is  sterile  and  with- 
out water.  Mesopotamia  was  included  in 
the  territories  of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian, 
Persian,  Macedonian,  and  Roman  empires 
successively,  and  belongs  now  to  that  of 
the  Turks. 

This  region  is  associated  with  the  earli- 
est history  of  the  human  race  both  before 
and  after  the  flood.  Eden  was  not  far  off; 
Ararat  was  near  to  it  on  the  north,  and  the 
land  of  Shinar  on  the  south.  The  travel- 
ler here  reaches  what  is  truly  "  the  old 
world,"  and  is  surrounded  bj^  objects  com- 
pared with  which  the  antiquities  of  Greece 
and  Rome  are  modern  novelties.  This 
was  the  home  of  the  patriarchs  who  prece- 
ded Abraham — Terah,  Heber,  Peleg,  etc., 
Gen.  11:26-29;  Acts  7:2.  Here  Abraham 
and  Sarah  were  born,  and  the  wives  of 
Isaac  and  Jacob,  and  most  of  the  sons  of 
Jacob,  the  heads  of  the  12  tribes,  Gen.  25:20; 
28:2;  35:23-26.  Mesopotamia  is  also  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  as  the  abode  of  Balaam, 
and  of  Chushan-rishathaim  the  first  op- 
pressor of  Israel  in  the  time  of  the  Judges, 
Judg.  3:8-10;  in  the  history  of  the  wars  of 
David,  2  Sam.  10:16;  and  as  furnishing  a  del- 
egation of  Jews,  and  perhaps  proselytes,  to 
attend  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  2:9. 

353 


MES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIC 


MESS,  Gen.  43 :  34 ;  2  Sam.  1 1 : 8,  a  dish  of 
meat. 

MES'SENGERS.  See  FooTMEN  and 
Posts.  In  Mai.  3:1  "angel,"  as  in  Gen. 
22:15,  17,  18.  See  Angel  of  the  Cove- 
nant. 

MESSI'AH,  or  Messi'as,  anointed.  The 
Jews  were  accustomed  to  anoint  their  kings, 
high-priests,  and  sometimes  prophets,  when 
they  were  set  apart  to  their  office.  Lev.  4:3, 
5,16;  I  Sam.  2: 10,35;  and  hence  the  phrase, 
"  to  anoint "  for  an  employment,  sometimes 
signifies  merely  a  particular  designation  or 
choice  for  such  an  employment.  Cyrus, 
who  founded  the  empire  of  the  Persians, 
and  who  set  the  Jews  at  liberty,  is  called, 
Isa.  45: 1,  "  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  ;"  and 
in  Ezek.  28:14,  the  epithet  "anointed"  is 
given  to  the  king  of  Tyre.  The  term  is 
used  many  times  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  is  always  translated  in  the  Septuagint 
Christos,  anointed.     See  Anointing. 

But  Messiah  is  the  designation  given  by 
the  Hebrews,  eminently,  to  that  Saviour 
and  Deliverer  whom  they  expected,  and 
who  was  promised  to  them  by  all  the  proph- 
ets, and  more  and  more  distinctly  foreshad- 
owed to  the  last.  As  the  holy  unction  was 
given  to  kings,  priests,  and  prophets,  by 
describing  the  promised  Saviour  of  the 
world  under  the  name  of  Christ,  Anointed, 
or  Messiah,  it  was  sufficiently  evidenced 
that  the  qualities  of  king,  prophet,  and 
high-priest  would  eminently  centre  in  him, 
Psa.  45 : 7 ;  and  it  was  foretold  that  he  should 
exercise  them  not  only  over  the  Jews,  but 
over  all  mankind,  and  particularly  over 
those  who  should  receive  him  as  their  Sa- 
viour. The  Jews  faithfully  preserved  the 
prophecies,  many  of  which  foretold  a  suf- 
fering and  dying  Redeemer,  but  are  still 
slow  to  understand  how  wonderfully  the 
different  classes  of  predictions  have  been 
fulfilled  in  Jesus.     See  Christ. 

That  Jesus  Christ  was  the  true  Messiah 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  "  Shiloh  "  of  Ja- 
cob, the  "  Redeemer  "  of  Job,  the  "  Angel 
of  the  Covenant,"  is  abundantly  clear,  Psa. 
2:2;  Luke  4: 16-21;  Acts  9: 22;  17:2,3;  18:5, 
28.  He  is  named  by  the  Hebrew  word  in 
John  1:45;  4:25;  but  usually  by  its  Greek 
equivalent,  the  Christ.  The  time  of  his 
appearance  was  predicted  in  Gen.  49:10; 
Dan.  9:20,  25:  Hag.  2:7;  Mai.  3:1.  At  the 
time  when  the  Saviour  actually  came,  and 
then  only,  could  these  predictions  meet: 
then  the  70  weeks  of  years  were  ended ; 
and  soon  after  the  sceptre  was  torn  for 
ever  from  the  hands  of  Judah,  the  only  tribe 
354 


that  could  then  claim  the  headship  of  the 
Jews ;  and  the  temple  in  which  the  Mes- 
siah was  to  appear  was  annihilated.  Then 
also  the  genealogical  lists  were  extant 
which  proved  the  descent  of  Christ  from 
the  line  predicted.  Numerous  and  clear 
detached  predictions  respecting  the  line- 
age, birth,  character,  life,  sufferings,  and 
death  of  Christ,  his  resurrection,  ascension, 
and  kingdom,  were  all  in  him  perfectly  ful- 
filled. For  predictions  of  the  Messiah  in 
the  Old  Testament  see  Prophecy. 

MET'ALS  were  found  in  Palestine,  Deut. 
8:9,  and  were  wrought  for  some  uses  at  a 
very  early  period.  Job  2:8.  We  find  men- 
tion of  gold.  Gen.  2:11,  12;  of  copper  and 
iron.  Gen.  4:22,  of  silver.  Gen.  13:2;  i  Chr. 
22:14;  29:4,  of  tin.  Num.  31:22,  of  lead, 
Exod.  15:10,  of  steel,  Jer.  15:12,  of  bronze 
and  fine  brass.  Rev.  1:15.  Solomgn  em- 
ployed Phoenicians  in  the  metal-work  of 
the  temple,  i  Kin.  7: 13.  Smelting,  casting, 
hammering,  soldering,  polishing,  overlay- 
ing, and  the  requisite  tools  for  these  pro- 
cesses, are  mentioned.  See  Gold,  Sil- 
ver, Iron,  Brass,  etc. 

METE,  to  measure,  Exod.  16:18;  Psa. 
60:6;  Matt.  7:2. 

METE' YARD,  Lev.  19:35,  a  measure. 

ME'THEG-AM'MAH,  bridte  of  the  mo- 
ther, i.  e.,  the  mother-city,  Gath,  2  Sam. 
8:1;  I  Chr.  18:1.    See  Gath. 

METHU'SAEL,  tnati  from  God,  father  of 
the  Cainite  Lamech,  Gen.  4:18. 

METHU'SELAH,  7na7i  of  sending  forth, 
Luke  S'-Zl^  son  of  Enoch,  and  father  of 
Lamech.  He  lived  969  years,  a  longer  life 
than  any  other  on  record,  and  died  within 
the  year  before  the  deluge.  Gen.  5:21,  22, 
25-27;  I  Chr.  1:3. 

MEU'NIM,  Neh.  7:52.     See  Maonites. 

ME'ZAHAB,  waters  of  gold,  an  Edomite 
king,  Gen.  36:39;  i  Chr.  1:50. 

MIB'HAR,  choice,  I  Chr.  11 :38.  Compare 
2  Sam.  23:36. 

MIB'SAM,  fragrance,  I.,  a  son  of  Ishmael, 
and  the  tribe  descended  from  him,  Gen. 
25:13;  I  Chr.  1:29. 

II.   I  Chr.  4:25. 

MIB'ZAR,  a  fortress,  an  early  Edomite 
chief,  Gen.  36:42;  i  Chr.  i :  53 ;  or  if  a  place, 
possibly  Petra,  Psa. 60:9;  108:10;  Jer.  49: 16. 

MI'CAH,  Jt'ho  is  like  fehovah  ?  The  same 
as  MicHA,  Michah,  Micaiah,  and  Micha- 
iah,  a.  V. 

I.  An  Ephraimite  in  the  time  of  the 
Judges,  soon  after  Joshua,  who  stole  1,100 
shekels  of  silver  from  his  mother,  but 
restored  them,  and  with  her  consent  em- 


MIC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIC 


ployed  them  in  establishing  a  private  sanc- 
tuary, with  2  images  to  be  used  in  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah,  and  with  a  stray  Levite 
for  his  priest,  thus  violating  the  explicit 
commands  of  God  forbidding  the  use  of 
images  in  his  worship,  and  prescribing  one 
place  for  his  altar  and  one  line  for  his 
priests.  Providence  frowned  on  his  idol- 
atrous service,  and  a  troop  of  Danites 
robbed  him  of  his  priest  and  of  all  his  im- 
plements of  worship,  Judg.  17 ;  18.  It  was 
a  time  of  much  confusion  and  lack  of  unity 
and  system  in  public  affairs.  The  account 
is  supposed  to  have  been  written  after  the 
monarchy  began,  and  while  the  tabernacle 
was  at  Shiloh,  Judg.  18:1,  31 ;  19:1. 

II.  Son  of  Mephibosheth,  i  Chr.  8:34,  35; 
9:40,  41 ;  called  Micha  in  2  Sam.  9:12,  A.  V. 

III.  A  Kohathite  priest  in  David's  time, 
I  Chr.  23:20;  less  correctly  called  Michah 
in  I  Chr.  24:24,  25,  A.  V. 

IV.  A  Reubenite,  i  Chr.  5:5. 

V.  The  Morasthite,  /.  e.,  of  Moresheth- 
gath,  a  village  near  Eleutheropolis,  in  the 
west  of  Judah ;  the  6th  in  order  of  the  lesser 
prophets.  He  prophesied  under  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  for 
about  50  years,  if  with  some  we  reckon 
from  near  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Jotham  to  the  last  year  of  Hezekiah,  B.  C. 
750-698.  He  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Isaiah,  and  has  some  expressions  in  com- 
mon with  him — compare  Isa.  2:2  with  Mic. 
4:1,  and  Isa.  41 :  15  with  Mic.  4: 13 — also  with 
Hosea  and  Amos  in  part.  His  bold  fidel- 
ity served  as  a  shield  to  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah a  century  afterwards,  Jer.  26:18,  19; 
Mic.  3:12.  He  wrote  in  an  elevated  and 
vehement  style,  with  frequent  transitions. 
His  figures  are  drawn  from  agricultural 
rather  than  pastoral  life.  His  prophecy 
may  be  divided  into  3  sections,  each  com- 
mencing with  the  call  "  Hear  ye,"  ch.  1:2; 
3:1;  6:1.  It  relates  to  the  sins  and  judg- 
ments of  Israel  and  Judah,  their  rulers  and 
false  prophets,  to  the  destruction  of  Sama- 
ria and  Jerusalem,  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  captivity,  and  the  punishment  of  their 
enemies.  He  proclaims  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  "whose  goings  forth  have  been 
from  of  old,  from  everlasting,"  as  the  foun- 
dation of  all  hope  for  the  glorious  and 
blessed  future  he  describes,  and  specifies 
Bethlehem  in  Judah  as  the  place  where  He 
should  be  born  of  woman,  Mic.  5:2,  3.  The 
prediction  was  thus  understood  by  the 
Jews,  Matt.  2:5;  John  7:41,  42.  Compare 
also  Mic.  4:5  and  5:5  with  John  10:35,  36 
and  Eph.  2:14. 


VI.  The  father  of  Abdon,  2  Chr.  34:20; 
called  Michaiah,  father  of  Achbor  in  2  Kin. 
22:12. 

VII.  A  Levite  of  the  house  of  Asaph, 
I  Chr.  9: 15,  A.  V. ;  rather  Micha,  as  in  Neh. 
11:17,  22. 

MICA'IAH,  luho  is  like  Jehovah?  the  son 
of  Imlah,  a  faithful  and  fearless  prophet 
of  Samaria  consulted  by  king  Ahab  at 
the  demand  of  Jehoshaphat  as  to  the  issue 
of  their  proposed  campaign  against  the 
Syrians.  He  was  imprisoned  to  abide  the 
event,  which  coincided  with  his  predictions 
and  probably  secured  his  release,  i  Kin. 
22:8-38.  The  400  prophets  first  consulted 
were  unprincipled  adherents  of  Ahab,  ver. 
22,  23,  worshipping  his  calf-symbols  of  Je- 
hovah, as  Jehoshaphat  well  understood. 
Josephus  states  that  Micaiah  was  the  proph- 
et who  foretold  the  slaying  of  another  by 
a  lion,  I  Kin.  20:35-43,  and  who  rebuked 
Ahab  for  not  putting  Ben-hadad  to  death, 
and  that  he  had  been  already  imprisoned 
by  the  offended  king.  It  appears  from  this 
narrative  as  from  many  others,  that  God 
enabled  honest  inquirers  to  discern  be- 
tween true  prophets  and  "lying  spirits," 
who  furnish  to  wicked  men  such  oracles  as 
they  want.  Ahab's  conduct  in  this  matter 
displays  the  amazing  folly  of  sins  against 
light.     2  Chr.  18:6-27. 

MI'CHA,  who  is  like  Jehovah?  I.,  son  of 
Mephibosheth.     See  Micah,  II. 

II.  A  Levite.     See  Micah,  VII. 

III.  A  Levite,  Neh.  10:11. 
MI'CHAEL,   who  is   like    God?  I.     See 

Archangel.  Nine  men  of  this  name  are 
slightly  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

MI'CHAH,  I  Chr.  24:24.    See  Micah,  III. 

MICHA'IAH,  who  is  like  Jehovah?  I.,  king 
Abijah's  queen-mother,  2  Chr.  13:2;  called 
Maachah  in  2  Chr.  11:20. 

II.  A  prince  of  Judah  wlio  seconded  the 
efforts  of  Jehoshaphat  to  instruct  and  re- 
form the  people  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  17:7-9. 

III.  See  Micah.  VI. 

IV.  Grandson  of  Shaphan  king  Josiah's 
scribe,  a  young  prince  at  the  court  of  Je- 
hoiakim,  who  communicated  to  the  king's 
counsellors  the  solemn  warnings  of  Jere- 
miah, and  who  in  vain  implored  king  Zed- 
ekiah  not  to  burn  the  prophetic  roll,  Jer. 
36:11-14. 

V.  A  Levite  of  the  line  of  Asaph,  Neh. 

12:35- 

VI.  A  priest  at  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Neh.  12:41. 

MI'CHAL,  who  is  like  God?  the  younger 
daughter  of  Saul   and  Ahinoam,  in   love 

355 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIG 


with  David,  and  reluctantly  given  to  him  in 
marriage  by  Saul,  after  breaking  his  prom- 
ise to  give  him  Merab  the  elder,  i  Sam. 
14:49,  50;  18:20-29.  She  saved  her  hus- 
band's life  from  assassins  sent  by  her  ty- 
rannical and  unscrupulous  father,  by  a 
stratagem  which  gave  him  time  to  escape, 
I  Sam.  19: 14,  15.  Her  father  then  gave  her 
in  marriage  to  Phalti,  i  Sam.  25:44,  from 
whom  David  some  14  years  after  recovered 
her,  2  Sam.  3:12-21.  When  David  brought 
the  ark  of  God  to  Jerusalem,  she  conceived 
and  expressed  great  disgust  at  his  pious 
joy,  and  the  affections  of  the  king  remained 
alienated  from  her  till  her  death,  2  Sam. 
6:16-25.  Her  hatred  of  unfashionable  zeal 
in  religion  was  stronger  than  her  love  of 
her  husband  and  her  God.  She  left  no 
children.  See  Merab,  which  is  perhaps 
the  true  reading  for  Michal  in  2  Sam 
21:8. 

MICH'MASH,  or  MICH'MAS,  hidde7i,  a 
town  of  Benjamin,  7  miles  north  by  east  of 
Jerusalem  and  4  miles  southeast  of  Bethel, 
Ezra  2:27;  Neh.  7:31;  11:31.  It  was  a 
strong  position,  and  lay  on  the  north  side 
of  a  deep  valley,  Wady  el-Suweinit ;  for 
which  reasons  perhaps  Sennacherib,  on  his 
way  to  Jerusalem,  left  his  heavy  equipage 
there,  Isa.  10:28,  29.  In  this  valley,  a  little 
west  of  the  town,  are  2  steep  hills,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  ones  referred  to  in  the  ac- 
count of  Jonathan's  achievement  at  "  the 
passage  of  Michmash,"  i  Sam.  13:23;  14:4- 
23.  Dr.  Robinson  found  here  a  village 
called  Mukhmas,  which  appeared  to  be  the 
remnant  of  a  town  of  some  size  and  im- 
portance. 

MICH'METHAH,  hiding-place,  a  town  on 
the  northern  border  of  Ephraim,  on  the 
east  of  Shechem,  perhaps  in  the  plain  el- 
Mukhna.  Josh.  16:6;  17:7. 

MICH'TAM,  prefixed  to  Psalms  16,  56-60, 
and  meaning  golden,  or  secret,  as  in  Psa. 
25: 14,  or  as  some  think,  a  writing  or  song, 
as  in  Isa.  38:9. 

MID'DLE  WALL,  Eph.  2:14,  the  sacred 
barrier  between  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles 
and  the  inner  parts  of  the  temple. 

MID'IAN,  strife,  the  4th  son  of  Abraham 
and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:2;  i  Chr.  1:33. 

MID'IANITES,  descendants  of  Midian,  a 
nomade  race  in  Arabia,  numerous,  and  rich 
in  flocks,  herds,  and  camels,  Isa.  60:6,  and 
also  active  and  successful  in  commerce, 
Num.  31:22,  50,  52:  Judg.  8:21-26.  The 
original  and  appropriate  district  of  the 
Midianites  seems  to  have  been  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Elanitic  branch  of  the  Red  Sea, 
356 


where  the  Arabian  geographers  place  the 
city  Madian,  Acts  7 :  29.  But  they  appear  to 
have  spread  themselves  northward,  proba- 
bly along  the  desert  east  of  Mount  Seir,  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  Moabites,  Gen.  36:35; 
and  on  the  west  side  also  they  covered  a 
territory  extending  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Mount  Sinai,  where  the  fugitive  Moses 
found  refuge  40  years,  Exod.  2:15;  3:1; 
18:1;  Num.  10:29.  In  Gen.  25:2,4,  com- 
pared with  ver.  12-18,  they  are  distinguish- 
ed from  the  descendants  of  Ishmael,  though 
elsewhere  we  find  the  two  very  intimately 
associated,  so  that  they  are  called  now  by 
one  name  and  now  by  the  other.  See  Gen. 
37:25,  compared  with  ver.  36;  Judg.  7:12; 
8:22,  24.  Both  terms  may  perhaps  be  used 
as  meaning  simply  Arabian  merchants. 
Their  capital  city  was  called  Midian,  and 
its  remains  were  to  be  seen  in  the  time  of 
Jerome  and  Eusebius.  It  was  situated  on 
the  Arnon,  south  of  the  city  Ar,  or  Are- 
opolis. 

The  Midianites  were  idolaters,  and  often 
led  Israel  astray  to  worship  their  gods. 
They  sought,  with  the  aid  of  Moab,  to  de- 
stroy the  Hebrews  by  Balaam's  sorceries, 
by  enticing  them  into  idolatry  and  heaven- 
defying  lusts,  and  by  open  war,  Num.  22:4, 
7;  25:1-6,  16-18;  31:1-16.  They  also  not 
unfrequently  rendered  the  Hebrews  tribu- 
tary, and  oppressed  them.  Often  when  the 
Israelites  had  sown,  and  their  harvest  was 
nearly  ready  to  be  gathered  in,  the  Midian- 
ites and  Amalekites,  children  of  the  east- 
ern desert,  came  down  like  locusts  in  count- 
less swarms,  with  their  cattle  and  tents  and 
camels,  to  devour  and  carry  off  the  fruits 
of  the  ground,  and  not  only  rob  but  destroy 
their  owners.  And  often  did  the  Jews,  lack- 
ing the  strength  or  the  faith  or  the  leader- 
ship necessary  for  effectual  resistance,  seek 
refuge  in  mountain-dens  and  caverns  till 
the  invaders  retired.  Gideon  was  their  de- 
liverer in  one  such  period  of  oppression, 
Judg.  6:7.  Compare  Psa.  83:10-12;  Isa. 
9:4;  10:6.  The  modern  Ishmaelites  still 
follow  the  ancient  practice,  and  their  vio- 
lent incursions,  robberies,  and  murders 
might  be  described  in  the  same  terms  that 
were  used  with  reference  to  their  fathers 
by  the  historians  of  old. 

MID'NIGHT.     See  Hour. 

MID'WIVES,  Gen.  35:17;  38:28.  The  2 
specially  named  in  Exod.  1:15-21  seem  to 
have  become  heads  of  families  among  the 
Hebrews. 

MIG'DAL-EL,  lower  0/ God,  a  stronghold 
of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19:38,  now  found  at  Mej- 


MIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIL 


del  Islim,  12  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Me- 
rom. 

MIG'DAL-GAD,  tower  of  fortune,  a  town 
in  the  plain  of  Judah,  supposed  to  be  el- 
Mejdel,  2  miles  east  of  Askelon. 

MIG'DOL,  a  tower,  a  frontier  town  in 
Northern  Egypt,  Jer.  44:1;  46:14;  transla- 
ted in  Ezek.  29:10;  30:6,  which  should  read 
"from  Migdol  to  Syene " — the  northern 
and  southern  limits  of  Egypt.  The  He- 
brews on  leaving  Egypt  encamped  "  be- 
tween Migdol  and  the  sea,"  Exod.  14:2; 
Num.  iVT-  This  maybe  a  different  place, 
either  Jebal  Ataka,  southwest  of  Suez,  Bir 
Suweis,  2  miles  west  of  Suez,  or  Muktala, 
17  miles  northwest. 

MIG'RON,  precipice,  a  place  in  Benjamin 
in  the  vicinity  of  Ai  and  Gibeah,  north  of 
Michmash,  now  traced  in  cliffs  2  miles 
northwest  of  Michmash,  separating  Wady 
Suweinit  from  Deir  Diwan,  i  Sam.  14:2; 
Isa.  10:28. 

MIL'CAH,  queen,  or  advice,  I.,  daughter 
of  Haran,  wife  of  Nahor,  and  mother  of 
Bethuel  and  7  older  sons,  Gen.  1 1 :  29 ;  22 :  20, 
23;  24:15,  24,  47. 

II.  One  of  the  5  daughters  of  Zelophe- 
had.     See. 

MIL'COM,  their  king,  I  Kin.  11:5.  See 
Moloch. 

MIL'DE^V,  Heb.  greenness,  alluding  to 
the  pale  tinge  of  blasted  and  fungus-eaten 
leaves,  Deut.  28:22;  i  Kin.  8:37;  2  Chr. 
6:28;  Amos  4:9;  Hag.  2:17. 

MILE.  The  word  mile,  in  Matt.  5:41,  is 
spoken  of  the  Roman  milliare,  or  mile, 
which  contained  8  stadia,  1,000  paces,  that 
is,  about  1,618  yards,  while  the  English 
mile  contains  1,760  yards. 

MILE'TUS,  not  Miletum  as  in  2  Tim. 
4:20,  A.  v.,  an  ancient  city,  formerly  the 
metropolis  of  all  Ionia,  situated  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  Eph- 
esus,  on  the  confines  of  Caria,  just  south  of 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Maeander.  It  was 
the  parent  of  many  colonies,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  a  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo 
Didymaeus,  and  as  the  birthplace  of  Thales, 
Ana.vimander,  Democritus,  and  other  fa- 
mous men.  The  apostle  Paul,  on  his  voy- 
age from  Macedonia  towards  Jerusalem, 
spent  a  day  or  two  here,  and  held  an  aflfect- 
ing  interview  with  the  Christian  elders  of 
Ephesus,  who  at  his  summons  came  nearly 
30  miles  from  the  north  to  meet  him.  Acts 
20:15-38.  He  also  revisited  Miletus  after 
his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  2  Tim. 
4:20.  There  were  Christians  and  bishops 
there  from  the  5th  to  the  8th  century ;  but 


the  city  has  long  been  in  ruins,  and  its  ex- 
act site  can  hardly  be  determined,  so  much 
is  the  coast  altered  around  the  mouth  of 
the  Maeander,  the  sea  having  receded  10 
miles ;  but  it  is  covered  in  part  by  the  place 
called  Palatia,  with  ruins  of  a  large  theatre 
and  a  church. 

MILK,  the  natural  food  of  childhood,  is 
contrasted  with  the  food  of  robust  men, 
I  Cor.  3:2;  Heb.  5:12,  and  is  often  alluded 
to  in  the  Bible  as  a  symbol  of  pure,  simple, 
and  wholesome  truth,  Heb.  5:12,  13;  i  Pet. 
2:2;  and  in  connection  with  honey,  to  de- 
note fertility  and  plenty,  Gen.  49: 12;  Exod. 
3:8;  13:5;  Num.  16:13;  Josh.  5:6.  The 
Jews  and  their  neighbors  used  not  only  the 
milk  of  cows,  out  that  of  camels,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Gen.  32:15;  Deut.  32:14;  Prov.  27:27. 
See  Butter  and  Cheese.  Boiling  a  kid 
in  its  mother's  milk  was  prohibited,  proba- 
bly as  an  idolatrous  or  magical  rite,  Exod. 
23:19;  34:26;  Deut.  14:21. 

MILL.  See  Corn.  In  Matt.  18:6;  Mark 
9:42  the  Greek  denotes  a  millstone  turned 
by  an  ass;  R.  V.  "a  great  millstone,"  such 
as  Samson  was  humiliated  to  turn,  Judg. 
16:21. 

MILLEN'NIUM,  a  thousand  years.  Rev. 
20:1-7,  a  period  preceding  the  judgment- 
day  and  the  full  retributions  of  eternity. 
According  to  some,  this  period  will  be  ush- 
ered in,  perhaps  very  soon,  by  the  visible 
coming  of  Christ,  to  raise  the  martyrs  and 
saints  from  the  dead  and  reign  personally 
on  the  earth.  But  in  the  general  belief  of 
Christians  it  denotes  an  era  of  the  univer- 
sal prevalence  of  the  gospel  in  the  earth, 
preceding  the  general  resurrection  and 
judgment. 

Without  entering  on  the  discussion  of 
this  subject  we  may  suggest  that  it  is  ap- 
parently the  design  of  Providence  that 
prophecy  shall  be  interpreted  only  by  its 
fulfilment ;  that  the  attempt  to  pry  into  the 
future  to  the  neglect  of  present  duties  is 
fraught  with  evil,  and  that  we  may  well 
rest  in  the  assurance  given  us  throughout 
the  Scriptures  that  the  work  of  the  world's 
Redeemer  and  rightful  King  will  not  be 
left  incomplete. 

MIL'LET,  a  kind  of  grain,  of  which  there 
are  several  species  cultivated  in  Italy,  Syr- 
ia, Egypt,  and  India.  It  is  used  partly 
green  as  fodder,  and  partly  in  the  ripe 
grain  for  bread,  etc.  Ezekiel,  4:9,  received 
an  order  from  the  Lord  to  make  himself 
bread  with  a  mixture  of  wheat,  barley, 
beans,  lentiles,  and  millet.  The  variety 
called    Panicum    miliaceum    is    probably 

357 


MIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIN 


meant,  and  also  the  Sorghum  vulgare,  or 
dourrha  of  the  Arabs— a  maize-like  plant 
5  feet  high,  with  heads  of  small  grains— of 
which  Niebuhr  says,  "  It  is  a  kind  of  mil- 


SORGHUM  VULGARK,  OR  DOURRHA. 

let,  made  into  bread  with  camel's  milk,  oil, 
butter,  etc.,  and  is  almost  the  only  food 
eaten  bj^  the  common  people  of  Arabia 
Felix.  I  found  it  so  disagreeable  that  I 
would  willingly  have  preferred  plain  bar- 
ley bread." 

UiXL.'l-.O,  fulness,  I.,  probably  a  bastion 
of  the  citadel  of  Zion,  at  Jerusalem,  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon, 2  Sam.  5:9;  I  Kin.  9:15,  24;  2  Kin. 
12:20;  I  Chr.  11:8;  2  Chr.  32:5. 

II.  The  name  of  a  family  or  of  a  fortress 
at  Shechem;  in  the  latter  case,  the  "house 
of  Millo  "  would  mean  the  garrison  of  that 
fortress,  Judg.  9:6,  20,  46,49. 

MIN'CING,  Isa.  3:16,  a  coquettish  man- 
ner of  walking  with  short  steps  and  a 
swaying  motion. 

MIN'GLED  PEO'PLE,  a  miscellaneous 
foreign  population,  sometimes  hired  sol- 
diers, Exod.  12:38;  I  Kin.  10:15,  A.  V., 
Arabia;  Neh.  13:3;  Ezek.  30:5. 

MI'NING,  Job  28:1-17.     See  Mrtai-s. 

MIN'ISH,  Exod.  5:19;  Psa.  107:39,  A.  V. 
to  lessen. 

MIN'ISTER,  from  minor,  "  less,"  the  op- 
posite of  master  or  magister,  from  mas^is, 
"greater;"  one  who  acts  in  subordination 
to  another,  as  a  religious  or  a  civil  official. 
The  word  is  applied  to  the  priests  and  Le- 
vites,  Isa.  61 :6;  Luke  i  :23;  Heb.  10:11 ;  in 
.^■58 


Luke  4:20  to  the  synagogue  attendant  or 
sexton;  often  to  the  sub-officials  of  kings, 
I  Kin.  10:5;  Psa.  103:21.  God  makes  the 
flaming  fire  his  minister,  Psa.  104:4,  and  in 
general  the  word  denotes  any  one  who 
attends  or  waits  on  another,  Matt.  20:26, 
28.  Elisha  was  the  "  vii?iisler"  of  Elijah, 
I  Kin.  19:21;  I  Kin.  3:11,  and  Joshua  the 
"minister"  of  Moses,  Exod.  24:13;  33:11. 
These  persons  did  not  feel  themselves  de- 
graded by  their  stations,  and  in  due  time 
they  succeeded  to  the  office  of  their  mas- 
ters. In  like  manner  John  Mark  was  min- 
ister to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  13:5.  An- 
gels are  ministers  of  God  and  of  his  people, 
Dan.  7:10;  Heb.  1:14.  The  term  is  ap- 
plied to  magistrates,  Rom.  13:4,  6;  to  gos- 
pel teachers,  Rom.  15:16;  i  Cor.  3:5;  4:1; 
and  to  teachers  of  error,  2  Cor.  11:15. 
Christ  came  to  minister,  not  to  be  minis- 
tered unto,  and  is  called  a  minister  "of  the 
circumcision,"  Rom.  15:8,  and  of  the  heav- 
enly sanctuary,  Heb.  8:2.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  alms  of  Christians  was  a  minis- 
tration. Acts  6:1 ;  2  Cor.  9:13.  The  law  is 
a  "  ministration  of  death  "  to  those  who  do 
not  keep  it,  and  the  gospel  is  a  ministra- 
tion of  the  Spirit,  giving  life  to  those  who 
accept  it,  2  Cor.  3:7-9. 

Ministers  of  the  gospel,  like  Paul,  Apol- 
los,  and  Timothy,  i  Cor.  3:5;  i  Thess.  3:2, 
are  so  called  as  servants  of  Christ,  Phil. 
1:1,  and  of  his  people  for  his  sake,  2  Cor. 
4:5.  They  should  be  qualified  to  defend 
the  truth  by  sound  and  Scriptural  reason- 
ing, to  solve  questions  of  conscience  and 
spiritual  experience,  to  sympathize  with 
their  flocks,  to  counsel,  instruct,  inspire, 
restrain,  and  discipline  them,  to  lead  men 
to  Christ,  and  to  edify  them  in  him.  Hence 
they  should  be  eminently  "  men  of  God," 
"  full  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost,"  "  living 
epistles,"  and  "  ensamples  to  the  flock." 
They  need  to  excel  in  the  right  knowledge 
of  God's  Word,  in  spiritual  wisdom,  in 
meekness,  humility,  patience,  self-control, 
purity,  benevolence,  self-denial,  and  all 
forms  of  likeness  to  Christ ;  to  be  diligent 
in  study  and  in  watchful  care  over  each 
soul  for  which  they  must  give  account  to 
God. 

MIN'NI,  a  kingdom  summoned  to  a  war 
against  Babylon,  with  Ararat  and  Ashke- 
naz,  Jer.  51:27;  supposed  to  denote  the 
district  Minyas  in  Armenia,  on  the  north 
branch  of  the  Euphrates,  and  west  of  Mount 
Ararat. 

MIN'NITH,  distribution,  a  town  of  the 
Ammonites  in  the  time  of  Jephthah,  Judg. 


MIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIR 


11:33,  4  or  5  miles  northeast  of  Heshbon. 
It  furnished  fine  wheat  for  the  market  of 
Tyre,  Ezek.  27: 17. 

MIN'STREL,  in  i  Sam.  16:16;  18:10; 
19:9;  Isa.  23:16,  a  player  on  the  harp.  In 
2Chr.  35:25;  Eccl.  12:5;  Jer.  9:17-20;  Matt. 
9:23,  flute-players  and  professional  mourn- 
ers.    See  Music. 


MINT  :    .MENTHA   SILVESTRIS. 

MINT,  a  garden  herb  of  the  order  Labi- 
ates, used  anciently  as  now ;  possibly  the 
"  bitter-herb  "  sauce  for  the  Passover,  E.xod. 
12:8.  The  Pharisees,  desiring  to  distin- 
guish themselves  by  a  most  scrupulous  and 
literal  observation  of  the  law,  Deut.  14:22, 
gave  tithes  of  mint,  anise,  and  cummin. 
Matt.  23:23.  Our  Saviour  does  not  cen- 
sure this  exactness,  but  that  while  they 
were  so  precise  in  these  lesser  matters, 
they  neglected  the  essential  command- 
ments of  the  law — making  their  punctili- 
ousness about  easy  and  external  duties  an 
excuse  for  disregarding  their  obligations  to 
love  God  supremely,  to  be  regenerated  in 
heart,  and  just  and  beneficent  in  life. 

MIPH'KAD,  appointed,  or  number,  a  gate 
in  the  wall  of  Zion,  Neh.  3:31. 

MIR'ACLE,  also  called  a  sign,  wonder, 
or  mighty  work,  Acts  2:22;  2  Cor.  12:2; 
2  Thess.  2:9;  these  names  signif\'ing  its 
design  to  certify  a  divine  revelation  in  ful- 
filment of  prophecy,  the  wonder  it  excites 
in  beholders,  and  the  divine  power  exer- 
cised in  it.  It  is  a  work  so  superseding  by 
a  higher  agency  the  established  laws  of  na- 
ture as  to  evince  the  special  interposition 
of  God.  A  miracle  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  wonders  wrought  by  designing  men 
through  artful  deceptions,  occult  sciences, 
or  laws  of  nature  unknown  except  to 
adepts.     The  miracles  wrought  by  Christ, 


for  example,  were  such  as  God  only  covild 
perform;  were  wrought  in  public  before 
numerous  witnesses,  both  friends  and  foes  ; 
were  open  to  the  most  perfect  scrutiny ; 
had  an  end  in  view  worthy  of  divine  sanc- 
tion; were  attested  by  witnesses  whose 
character  and  conduct  establish  their  claim 
to  our  belief;  and  are  further  confirmed 
by  institutions  still  existing,  intended  to 
commemorate  them,  and  dating  from  the 
period  of  the  miracles.  Christ  appealed  to 
his  mighty  works  as  essential  and  undeni- 
able proofs  of  his  divinity  and  Messiah- 
ship,  Matt.  9:6;  11:4,  5,  23,  24;  John  10:24- 
27;  15:24;  20:29,  31-  TI16  deceptions  of 
the  magicians  in  Egypt,  and  of  false  proph- 
ets in  ancient  and  in  modern  times,  Deut. 
13: 1 ;  Matt.  24:24;  2  Thess.  2:9;  Rev.  13: 13, 
14,  would  not  bear  the  above  tests.  By 
employing  the  agency  of  any  man  to  work 
a  miracle  God  gave  the  highest  attestation 
to  the  truth  he  should  teach  and  the  mes- 
sage he  should  bring,  i  Kin.  18:38,  39;  this 
is  God's  own  seal,  not  to  be  affixed  to  false- 
hoods ;  and  though  the  lying  wonders  of 
Satan  and  his  agents  were  so  plausible  as 
to  "deceive  if  possible  the  very  elect,"  no 
one  who  truly  sought  to  know  and  do  the 
will  of  God  could  be  deluded  by  them. 

The  chief  object  of  miracles  having  been 
to  authenticate  the  revelation  God  has 
made  of  his  will,  these  mighty  works  ceased 
when  the  Scripture  canon  was  completed 
and  settled  and  Christianity  was  fairly  es- 
tablished. Since  the  close  of  the  2  centu- 
ries from  the  ascension  of  Christ  few  or  no 
undoubted  miracles  have  been  wrought. 
The  so-called  miracles  narrated  in  early 
ecclesiastical  writings  are  ill-authenticated, 
and  often  trivial  and  unworthj',  and  wheth- 
er a  sufficient  occasion  for  new  miracles 
will  ever  arise  is  known  only  to  God. 

The  following  list  comprises  most  of  the 
miracles  on  record  in  the  Bible,  not  inclu- 
ding the  supernatural  visions  and  revela- 
tions of  himself  which  God  vouchsafed  to 
his  ancient  servants,  nor  those  numerous 
wonders  of  his  providence  which  manifest 
his  hand  almost  as  indisputably  as  mira- 
cles themselves.  See  also  Prophecy.  The 
Old  Testament  miracles  are  often  those  of 
power:  New  Testament  miracles  those  of 
healing  mercy. 

OLD   TESTAMENT    MIRACLES. 

The  creation  of  all  things,  Gen.  i. 
The  deluge,  comprising  many  miracles,  Geii. 
6-8. 

The  destruction  of  Sodom,  etc.,  Gen.  19. 
The  healing  of  Abimelech,  Gen.  20: 17,  18. 

359 


MIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIR 


The  burning  bush,  Exod.  3:2-4. 

Moses'  rod  made  a  serpent,  and  restored,  Exod. 
4:3,4;  7:10. 

Moses'  hand  made  leprous,  and  healed,  Exod. 
4:6,7. 

Water  turned  into  blood,  Exod.  4:9,  30. 

The  Nile  turned  into  blood,  Exod.  7  :  20. 

Frogs  brought  and  removed,  Exod.  8:6,  13. 

Lice  brought,  Exod.  8:  17. 

Flies  brought  and  removed,  Exod.  8  :  21-31. 

Murrain  of  beasts,  Exod.  9  : 3-6. 

Boils  and  blains  brought,  Exod.  9: 10,  11. 

Hail  brought  and  removed,  Exod.  9:  23,  33. 

Locusts  brought   and   removed,   Exod.    10:  13, 

19- 

Darkness  brought,  Exod.  10:22. 

Firstborn  destroyed,  Exod.  12:29. 

The  Red  Sea  divided,  Exod.  14:  21,  22. 

Egyptians  overwhelmed,  Exod.  14:26-28. 

Waters  of  Marah  sweetened,  Exod.  15:25. 

Quails  and  manna  sent,  Exod.  16. 

Water  from  the  rock  in  Horeb,  Exod.  17  :6. 

Amaiek  vanquished,  Exod.  17:11-13. 

Pillar  of  cloud  and  fire.  Num.  9: 15-23. 

Leprosy  of  Miriam,  Num.  12  :  10. 

Destruction  of  Korah,  etc.,  Num.  16:28-35, 
46-50. 

Aaron's  rod  budding.  Num.  17  : 8. 

Water  from  the  rock  in  Kadesh,  Num.  20:  11. 

Healing  by  the  brazen  serpent.  Num.  21  :S,  9. 

Moses'  view  of  all  Canaan,  Deut.  34: 1-3. 

Balaam's  ass  speaks,  Num.  22  :  28. 

Plague  in  the  desert,  Num.  25:  i,  9. 

Waters  of  Jordan  divided,  Josh.  3 :  10-17. 

Jordan  restored  to  its  course,  Josh.  4: 18. 

Jericho  taken,  Josh.  6  : 6-20. 

Achat!  discovered,  Josh.  7:  14-21. 

Sun  and  moon  stand  still,  Josh.  10:  12-14. 

Gideon's  fleece  wet,  Judg.  6:36-40. 

Midianites  destroyed,  Judg.  7  :  16-22. 

Exploits  of  Samson,  Judg.  14-16. 

House  of  Dagon  destroyed,  Judg.  16:30. 

Dagon  falls  before  the  ark,  etc.,  i  Sam.  5. 

Return  of  the  ark,  i  Sam.  6: 12. 

Thunder  and  rain  in  harvest,  i  Sam.  12 :  iS. 

Jeroboam's  hand  withered,  etc.,  i  Kin.  13:4,  6. 

The  altar  rent,  i  Kin.  13:5. 

Drought  caused,  i  Kin.  17:6. 

Elijah  fed  by  ravens,  i  Kin.  17:7. 

Meal  and  oil  supplied,  i  Kin.  17: 14-16. 

Child  restored  to  life,  i  Kin.  17  :  22,  23. 

Sacrifice  consumed  by  fire,  i  Kin.  18:36,  38. 

Rain  brought,  i  Kin.  18:41-45. 

Men  destroyed  by  fire,  2  Kin.  1 :  10-12. 

Waters  of  Jordan  divided,  2  Kin.  2:14. 

Noxious  waters  healed,  2  Kin.  2:21,  22. 

Children  torn  by  bears,  2  Kin.  2:  24. 

Waters  brought,  2  Kin.  3: 16-20. 

Oil  supplied,  2  Kin.  4  :  1-7. 

Child  restored  to  life,  2  Kin.  4:32-35. 

Naaman  healed,  2  Kin.  5: 10,  14. 

Gehazi's  leprosy,  2  Kin.  5:  27. 

Iron  caused  to  swim,  2  Kin.  6:6. 

Syrians  smitten  blind,  etc.,  2  Kin.  6:  i8,  20. 

A  man  restored  to  life,  2  Kin.  13  :  21. 

Assyrians  destroyed,  2  Kin.  19:35. 

Hezekiah  healed,  2  Kin.  20:7. 

Shadow  put  back,  2  Kin.  20: 11. 

Pestilence  in  Israel,  1  Chr.  21  :  14. 

Jonah  preserved  by  a  fish,  Jon.  i :  17  ;  2  :  10. 
360 


NEW   TESTAMENT    MIRACLES. 

The  conception  of  the  \'irgin  Mary,  Matt,  i :  18. 

The  star  in  the  east,  Matt.  2:  2. 

The  Spirit  like  a  dove.  Matt.  3  :  16. 

Christ's  fast  and  temptations.  Matt.  4:1-11. 

Many  miracles  of  Christ,  Matt.  4:23,  24;  8:16; 
14:14,36;  15:30;  Mark  1:34;  Luke  6: 17-19. 

Lepers  cleansed.  Matt.  8 :  3,  4 ;  Luke  17 :  14. 

Centurion's  servant  healed.  Matt.  8:5-13. 

Peter's  wife's  mother  healed,  Matt.  8: 14. 

Tempests  stilled.  Matt.  8 :  23-26  ;  14 :  32. 

Devils  cast  out,  Matt.  8  :  28-32 ;  9 :  32,  33 ;  15 :  22- 
28;  17: 14-18. 

Paralytics  healed.  Matt.  9:2-6:  Mark  2:3-12. 

Issue  of  blood  healed,  Matt.  9:  20-22. 

Jairus'  daughter  raised  to  life,  Matt.  9: 18,  25. 

Sight  given  to  the  blind,  Matt.  9:27-30;  20:34; 
Mark  8  :  22-25 '.  John  9 :  1-7. 

The  dumb  restored.  Matt.  9:32, 33;  12:22;  Mark 

7 : 33-35- 

Miracles  by  the  disciples.  Matt.  10:  i,  8. 

Multitudes  fed.  Matt.  14:15-21;  15:35-38. 

Christ  walking  on  the  sea.  Matt.  14:  25-27. 

Peter  walking  on  the  sea,  Matt.  14:  29. 

Christ's  transfiguration,  etc..  Matt.  17  : 1-8. 

Tribute  from  a  fish's  mouth,  Matt.  17:27. 

The  fig-tree  withered,  Matt.  21 :  19. 

Miracles  at  the  crucifixion.  Matt.  27:51-53. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  wonders  attend- 
ing it.  Matt.  28  :  1-7  ;  Luke  24 : 6. 

Draught  of  fishes,  Luke  5  : 4-6  ;  John  21:6. 

Widow's  son  raised  to  life,  Luke  7: 14,  15. 

Miracles  before  John's  messengers,  Luke  7:  21, 
22. 

Miracles  by  the  seventy,  Luke  10:9,  17. 

Woman  healed  of  infirmity,  Luke  13:  11-13. 

Dropsy  cured,  Luke  14:  2-4. 

Malchus'  ear  restored,  Luke  22:50,  51. 

Water  turned  into  wine,  John  2:6-10. 

Nobleman's  son  healed,  John  4:46-53. 

Impotent  man  healed,  John  5:5-9. 

Sudden  crossing  of  the  sea,  John  6:  21. 

Lazarus  raised  from  the  dead,  John  11  :43,  44. 

Christ's  coming  to  his  disciples,  John  20: 19,  26. 

Christ's  ascension.  Acts  1 :9. 

Wonders  at  Pentecost,  Acts  2  :  i-ii. 

Miracles  by  the  apostles.  Acts  2 :  43 ;  5:12. 

Lame  man  cured.  Acts  3  -.j. 

Death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Acts  5:5,  10. 

Many  sick  healed,  Acts  5:15,  16. 

Apostles  delivered  from  prison,  Acts  5:  19. 

Miracles  by  Stephen,  Acts  6:8. 

Miracles  by  Philip,  Acts  8  : 6,  7,  13. 

j^Sneas  made  whole.  Acts  9:  34. 

Dorcas  restored  to  life,  Acts  9:40. 

Peter  delivered  from  prison.  Acts  12  :6-io. 

Elymas  struck  blind,  Acts  15  :  it. 

Miracles  by  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  14:3. 

Lame  man  cured,  Acts  14: 10. 

Paul's  recovery  after  being  stoned.  Acts  14:20. 

Unclean  spirit  cast  out,  Acts  16:  18. 

Paul  and  Silas  delivered.  Acts  16:25,  26. 

Special  miracles.  Acts  19: 11,  12. 

Eutychus  restored  to  life.  Acts  20: 10-12. 

Viper's  bite  made  harmless.  Acts  28:5. 

Father  of  Publius,  etc.,  healed.  Acts  28:8,  9. 

MIR'IAM,  their  rebellion,  I.,  daughter  of 
Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
the  sister  of  Moses   and  Aaron,  probably 


MIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIZ 


the  one  who,  about  12  years  old,  watched 
over  Moses  in  the  ark  of  bulrushes,  Exod. 
2:4,5;  Num.  26:59.  As  a  prophetess,  Mic. 
6:4,  she  led  the  women  of  Israel  in  their 
song  of  worship  and  thanksgiving  to  God 
on  the  drowning  of  the  Egyptians,  Exod. 
15:20,  21.  Her  jealous  murmurs  against 
Moses  and  his  Cushite  wife  were  punished 
by  a  temporary  leprosy.  Num.  12;  Deut. 
24:9,  as  were  the  sins  of  Gehazi  and  Uzziah 
against  God's  special  servants.  But  she 
was  forgiven  and  restored,  and  near  the 
close  of  the  wanderings  of  Israel  died  at 
Kadesh-barnea,  Num.  20:1. 

II.  Son  of  Mered  and  grandson  of  Pha- 
raoh, I  Chr.  4:17. 

MIR'ROR.    See  Looking-glass. 

MIS'CHIEF,  Ezek.  7:26;  Acts  13:10,  im- 
plies some  serious  harm  accomplished. 

MIS'GAB,  height,  a  place  in  the  highlands 
of  Moab,  on  the  route  of  the  invading  Bab- 
ylonians, Jer.  48: 1.  Supposed  to  be  meant 
in  Isa.  25:12,  A.  V.,  "high  fort." 

MISH'AEL,  who  is  like  God?  I.,  son  of 
Uzziel  and  cousin  of  Aaron,  Exod.  6:22. 
He  aided  in  the  burial  of  Nadab  and  Abi- 
hu,  Lev.  10:4,  5.     Compare  Num.  9:6. 

II.  Me'shach,  a  fellow-captive  with  Dan- 
iel in  Babylon.     See  Abednego. 

III.  A  supporter  of  Ezra,  Neh.  8:4. 
MI'SHAL,  entfeatj,  a  Levitical   city  in 

Asher,  Josh.  21 :3o,  called  Misheal  in  Josh. 
19:26,  A.  v.,  and  Mashal  in  i  Chr.  6:74. 
Identified  in  Kh.  Muslih,  6  miles  north  by 
east  of  Acre. 

MISH'MA,  hearing,  I.,  5th  son  of  Ish- 
mael,  and  his  posterity,  a  tribe  northeast 
of  Medina;  the  Bene-misma,  Gen.  25:14; 
I  Chr.  1:30. — II.  I  Chr.  4:25,  26. 

MIS'REPHOTH-MAIM,  burnings  of  wa- 
ters, a  place  in  North  Canaan  to  which 
Joshua  pursued  the  host  of  Jabin,  Josh. 
11:8;  13:6. 


THE    ROMAN   AS. 

MITE,  Gr.  "lepton,"  a  thin  copper  Ro- 
man coin,  in  value  less  than  2  mills,  Luke 
12:59;  21:2.  See  Measures  and  Appen- 
dix Tables.  None  are  too  poor  to  do  some- 
thing for  Christ,  but  mites  from  a  miser  are 
not  an  acceptable  offering. 

WXlYi.' CK^,  sweetness,  27th  station  of  the 
Israelites  from  Goshen,  Num.  33:28,  29, 
perhaps  Ain  Ghamr,  near  Jebel  Jerifeh. 


MITH'REDATH,  given  by  Mithras  the 
sun-god,  I.,  treasurer  of  king  Cyrus,  who 
restored  the  temple  utensils,  Ezra  1:8. 

II.  A  Persian  officer  in  Samaria,  who  in- 
terfered with  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem, 
Ezra  4:7. 


MI'TRE,  the  sacred  turban  or  bonnet  of 
the  Jewish  high-priest,  made  of  a  piece  of 
fine  linen  many  yards  long,  wound  about 
the  head,  and  having  in  front,  secured  with 
blue  lace,  a  plate  of  pure  gold  on  which  was 
inscribed,  "  Holiness  unto  the  Lord," 
Exod. 28:4,  36-38;  39:28-31. 

MITYLE'NE,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  in  the  .^Egean  Sea ;  a 
"  free  "  city  and  a  seaport,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  island,  7  miles  distant  from  Asia 
Minor.  Paul  touched  there  on  his  way 
from  Greece  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  20: 14.  The 
island  is  now  called  by  the  Turks  Midilli, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  city  still  exist. 

MIXED  MUL'TITUDE,  Exod.  12:38; 
Num.  11:4;  Neh.  13:1-3,  30,  a  crowd  of 
people  not  purely  Hebrews,  followers  of 
the  camp  of  Israel. 

MI'ZAR,  little,  if  a  proper  name,  appar- 
ently a  southern  spur  of  Mount  Hermon, 
which  David  in  exile  contrasts  with  Mount 
Zion,  Psa.  42:6.  Compare  Psa.  68:15,  16; 
114:4-6;  Isa.  2:2. 

MIZ'PAH,  or  Miz'PEH,  a  watchtower,  I., 
a  place  in  Gilead,  Hos.  5:1;  so  named  from 
the  stone-heap  cast  up  by  Jacob  and  Laban, 
Gen.  31:48-52,  whence  it  was  also  named 
Galeed  and  Jegar-sahadutha,  heap  of  wit- 
ness. It  appears  to  have  lain  north  of  Ma- 
hanaim. 

II.  Another  place  in  Gilead  farther  south, 
where  Jephthah  resided  and  assembled  his 
army,  Judg.  10:17;  11:11,29,34.  See  also 
Josh.  13:26. 

III.  A  valley  near  Mount  Hermon,  Josh. 

361 


MIZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOA 


11:3,  8,  perhaps  MutuUeh,  in  the  Ard-el- 
Hdleh,  on  the  west  of  Jebel  Heish,  or  far- 
ther north  in  el-Buka'a. 

IV.  A  city  of  Benjamin,  a  central  gath- 
ering-place of  the  tribes  in  the  period  of 
the  Judges,  Josh.  18:26;  Judg.  20: 1,3;  21:1, 
5,  8.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
the  Mizpah  of  Jephthah,  who,  though  a 
Gileadite,  was  judge  over  Israel  west  of  the 
Jordan  also.  Here  Samuel  sacrificed  and 
judged  and  Israel  repented,  and  here  Saul 
was  designated  as  king,  i  Sam.  7:5-16; 
10:17-25.  It  was  fortified  by  Asa  as  a  de- 
fence against  Israel,  i  Kin.  15:22;  2  Chr. 
16:6,  was  the  residence  of  the  governor, 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Kin.  25:23,  25; 
Jer.  40:6,  and  was  reoccupied  after  the 
Captivity,  Neh.  3:19.  Its  name  indicates 
that  it  occupied  an  elevated  site,  and  it  was 
near  Ramah;  hence  Dr.  Robinson  identi- 
fies it  with  the  modern  place  called  Neby 
Samvvil,  5  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem — 
a  prominent  height  2,935  feet  above  the 
sea,  commanding  extended  views  in  every 
direction.  Some,  however,  prefer  Scojjus, 
the  prolongation  of  Mount  Olivet  'over 
against  Jerusalem"  on  the  north. 

V.  A  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15:38;  supposed  to  be  el-Hesy,  3  miles 
southeast  of  Lachish,  and  16  east  of  Gaza. 

VI.  A  chief  town  in  Moab,  where  David 
found  a  refuge  for  his  parents,  1  Sam.  22:3; 
possibly  Kir-Moab  the  capital. 

Some  high  point  in  the  wilderness  of  Ju- 
dah may  also  have  been  named  Mizpah, 
translated  "  watchtower"  in  2  Chr.  20:24. 

MIZ'PAR,  rather  MIS'PAR,  miniber,  a 
Jew  who  returned  from  Babylon,  Ezra  2:2; 
called  Mispereth  in  Neh.  7:7. 

MIZ'RAIM,  or  MIZRA'IM,  a  son  of  Ham, 
and  father  of  various  African  races,  Gen. 
10:6,  13,  but  particularly  of  the  Egyptians, 
to  whom  his  name  was  given.  Mizraim, 
the  double  Egypt,  is  also  the  Hebrew  word 
for  Egypt  in  the  Bible,  Gen.  45:20;  46:34; 
47:6,  13;  Psa.  78:51;  105:23,  38,  and  this 
country  is  still  called  Misr  in  Arabic.  See 
Egypt. 

MNA'SON,  remembering,  a  Christian 
from  Cyprus,  the  home  of  Barnabas,  Acts 
4:36;  13:2-5,  "an  old  disciple,"  perhaps  of 
Christ  in  person,  with  whom  Paul  lodged 
at  Jerusalem  on  his  last  visit,  Acts  21:16; 
an  elder  "given  to  hospitality,"  1  Tim. 
3:2. 

MOPi.'B,from  the  father,  the  son  of  Lot, 

born   near  Zoar,  Gen.   19:30-38;    also  the 

race  descended  from  him,  and  the  country 

they  occupied.  Num.  22:3,  4;  24:17.     The 

362 


Moabites  were  thus  kinsmen  of  Israel,  Gen. 
II  :3i.  The  "country,"  "land,"  or  "field" 
of  Moab  lay  east  and  southeast  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  chiefly  south  of  the  river  Arnon — 
a  high  plateau  3,000  feet  above  tiie  Mediter- 
ranean, 50  miles  long  and  15  wide,  broken 
by  gorges  running  down  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
At  one  period,  however,  it  extended  north 
as  far  as  the  Jabbok,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  region  beyond  the  Jordan  opposite  Jer- 
icho retained  the  name  of  "the  plains  of 
Moab,"  Num.  22: 1 ;  Deut.  1:5;  29:1;  34:6; 
Josh.  13:32.  The  Moabites  had  dispos- 
sessed a  race  of  giants  called  Emim,  Deut. 
2:11,  and  had  themselves  been  expelled  by 
the  Amoriles  from  the  territory  north  of 
the  Arnon,  Num.  21:13,26;  Judg.  11:13-18, 
which  was  again  conquered  by  Moses,  and 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  On  the 
approach  of  Israel  from  Egypt  the  Moab- 
ites refused  them  a  peaceful  passage,  and 
combined  with  the  Midianites  and  Balaam 
against  them.  Num.  22-24;  Deut.  2:8,  9; 
and  though  God  spared  them  from  con- 
quest, he  excluded  them  and  their  seed 
even  to  the  10th  generation  from  the  pecu- 
liar privileges  of  his  people,  Deut.  23:3-6. 
They  were  gross  idolaters,  worshipping 
Chemosh  and  Baal-peor  with  obscene  rites, 
Num.  25,  and  sometimes  with  human  sac- 
rifices, 2  Kin.  3:27.  SeeMoi-OCH.  At  times, 
as  in  the  days  of  Ruth,  there  was  peace  be- 
tween them  and  Israel ;  but  a  state  of  hos- 
tility was  far  more  common,  as  in  the  time 
of  Eglon,  Judg.  3:12-30;  of  Saul,  i  Sam. 
14:47;  of  David,  2  Sam.  8:2,  12;  of  Joram 
and  Jeroboam,  2  Kin.  3;  13:20;  14:25.  See 
Mksha.  Moabitish  women  tempted  Solo- 
mon to  sin,  1  Kin.  11:1,  7,  t,^.  They  aided 
Nebuchadnezzar  against  the  Jews,  2  Kin. 
24:2;  Ezek.  25:6-11 ;  and  after  these  began 
to  be  carried  captive,  appear  to  have  re- 
gained their  old  possessions  north  of  the 
Arnon,  Isa.  15;  16.  The  Jewish  prophets 
recorded  many  threatenings  against  these 
hereditary  enemies  of  God  and  his  people. 
Num.  24:17;  Psa.  60:8;  83:6;  Isa.  15;  16; 
25;  26;  Jer.  25:9-21;  48;  Amos  2:1-3;  and 
all  travellers  concur  in  attesting  the  fulfil- 
ment of  these  predictions.  Desolation  and 
gloom  brood  over  the  mountains  of  Moab, 
and  its  fruitful  valleys  are  for  the  most  part 
untilled.  Kerak,  or  the  Belka,  is  under 
Turkish  government,  and  is  infested  by 
migratory  Arabs,  Zeph.  2:8,  9.  Travellers 
describe  it  as  abounding  in  ruins,  such  as 
shattered  tombs,  cisterns,  walls,  temples, 
etc.,  proving  that  it  was  once  densely  pop- 
ulated.    See  "  Keith  on  Prophecy." 


MOD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MON 


MODERA'TION,  Phil.  4:5,  conciliatory 
spirit.  In  R.  V.  forbearance  or  gentle- 
ness. 

MOLA'DAH,  birlh,  a  town  in  the  south 
or  Simeonite  portion  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:26; 
19:2;  I  Chr.  4:28,  reoccupied  after  the  Cap- 
tivity, Neh.  11:25,  26.  It  lay  in  the  region 
where  Abraham  long  sojourned,  8  miles 


southwest  of  Arad,  and  13  east  of  Beer- 
sheba.     It  is  now  Kh.  el-Milh. 

MOLE.  In  Lev.  11:30  probably  a  spe- 
cies of  lizard  or  chameleon  is  meant.  In 
ver.  29  the  "weasel,"  and  in  Isa.  2:20  the 
"  moles,"  may  denote  the  sphalax  typhlus. 
or  rat-mole,  a  large  rodent,  without  exter- 
nal eyes  or  tail,  abundant  in  Palestine. 


MO'LECH,  or  MO'LOCH,  a  king,  called 
MiLCOM  in  I  Kin.  11:5,  2)2)}  2  Kin.  23:13, 
and  Malcham,  or  "their  king,"  in  2  Sam. 
12:30;  Jer.  49:1,  3;  Zeph.  1:5.  See  also 
Isa.  30:33;  57:9;  Amos  1:15;  7:13.  It  is 
the  name  of  a  heathen  deity  worshipped 
by  the  Ammonites.  The  Israelites  also 
introduced  the  worship  of  this  idol,  if  not 
during  their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  yet 
after  their  settlement  in  Palestine,  2  Kin. 
23:10;  Ezek.  20:26,  31;  Amos  5:25,  26. 
Among  the  sacrifices  to  Moloch  were  hu- 
man victims,  namely,  children,  who  were 
cast  alive  into  the  red-hot  arms  of  his  hol- 
low, brazen,  calf-headed  statue.  See  Hin- 
NOM.  Compare  Lev.  18:21;  20:2;  Deut. 
12:31;  Psa.  106:37,  38;  Jer.  7:31;  19:2-6; 
32:35.  According  to  some  of  these  passa- 
ges Moloch  would  seem  to  be  closely  associ- 
ated with  the  Moabitish  Chemosh,  and  with 
Baal,  2  Kin.  3:27;  23:10,  13;  and  we  find 
that  the  Phoenicians,  whose  chief  god  was 
Baal,  and  the  Carthaginians  their  colonists, 
worshipped  his  image  with  similar  horrid 
sacrifices,  as  the  Romans  did  their  god 
Saturn,  2  Kin.  17:16,  17  ;  21 : 5,  6. 


MON'EY.  See  Measures,  and  Tables  in 
Appendix.  In  early  ages  and  among  un- 
civilized races  bartering,  or  the  simple  ex- 
change of  one  commodity  for  another,  pre- 
ceded the  use  of  any  medium  of  exchange ; 
afterwards  cattle  have  been  used  as  money, 
also  corn,  salt,  tobacco,  sea-shells,  etc. 
When  gold,  silver,  and  copper  were  first 
used  they  were  not  coined  but  weighed, 
Gen. 13:2 ;  20: 16; Josh.  7:21 ;  Isa.  46:6,  and 
the  amount  agreed  upon  was  paid  over  by 
weight,  Gen.  23:16;  43:21;  E.xod.  30:24. 
Lastly  they  gave  this  metal,  by  public  au- 
thority, a  certain  mark,  a  certain  weight, 
and  a  certain  degree  of  alloy,  to  fix  its 
value,  and  to  save  buyers  and  sellers  the 
trouble  of  weighing  and  examining  the 
coins.  Greek  coin  were  probably  in  use 
in  the  8th  century  B.  C.  Persian  coins 
came  later,  and  the  golden  daric,  the  "Sa- 
gittarius," was  the  first  coin  known  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Jews,  Ezra  2:69;  8:27; 
Neh.  7:70-72.  The  first  regular  coinage 
among  the  Jews  is  supposed  to  have  been 
in  the  time  of  Simon  Maccabaeus,  less  than 
a  century  and  a  half  before  Christ.     The 

363 


MON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MON 


coins  were  the  shekel,  and  a  half,  a  third, 
and   a  quarter  of  a  shekel.      The  Jewish 


COIN   OF   ABGARUS,  FROM    UR. 

coins  bore  an  almond-rod  and  a  vase  of 
manna,  but  no  image  of  any  man  was 
allowed.  Compare  Matt.  22:16-22.  Many 
Greek  and  Roman  coins  circulated  in  Ju- 
daea in  New  Testament  times.  See  Tables 
at  the  end  of  the  volume;  also  Measures, 
Mite,  Penny,  Shekel. 

Volney  says,  "  The  practice  of  weighing 
money  is  general  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  all 
Turkey.  No  piece,  however  effaced,  is 
refused  there :  the  merchant  draws  out  his 
scales  and  weighs  it,  as  in  the  days  of 
Abraham,  when  he  purchased  his  sepul- 
chre. In  considerable  payments  an  agent 
of  exchange  is  sent  for,  who  counts  paras 
by  thousands,  rejects  pieces  of  false  money, 
and  weighs  all  the  sequins,  either  sepa- 
rately or  together."  This  may  serve  to 
illustrate  the  phrase,  "  current  money  with 
the  merchant,"  Gen.  23:16;  and  the  refer- 
ences to  "  divers  weights  " — a  large  one  to 
weigh  the  money  received,  and  a  small 
one  for  that  paid  out ;  and  to  "  wicked  bal- 
ances," Deut.  25:13;  Amos  8:5;  Mic.  6:11. 
Our  Saviour  alludes  to  a  class  of  "  exchan- 
gers," who  appear  to  have  taken  money  on 
deposit,  and  so  used  it  that  the  owner  might 
afterwards  receive  his  own  with  interest, 
Matt.  25:27.  There  were  also  money-bro- 
kers who  had  stands  in  the  outer  court  of 
the  temple,  probably  to  exchange  foreign 
for  Jewish  coins,  and  to  accommodate  those 
who  wished  to  pay  the  yearly  half-shekel 
tax,  Exod.  30:13-15,  or  to  present  an  offer- 
ing. They  were  expelled  by  the  Lord  of 
the  temple,  not  only  for  obtruding  a  secular 
business  within  the  house  of  prayer,  but 
also  for  pursuing  it  dishonestly,  Matt.  21:12, 
13;  Mark  11 :  15-17. 

In  I  Tim.  6:10  Paul  speaks  of  the  "love 
of  money "  as  a  root  of  all  evils ;  censu- 
ring not  money  itself,  but  the  loz'e  of  it — a 
prevailing  form  of  human  selfishness  and 
covetousness.  This  fatal  passion  may  in- 
fest the  heart  of  a  poor  man  as  well  as  that 
of  the  rich,  for  the  one  may  have  as  much 
of  "the  love  of  money"  as  the  other. 
364 


MONTH.     See  below. 

MON'UMENTS,  Isa.  65:4,  perhaps  caves 
to  which  priests  retired  for  necromantic 
dreams.     In  the  R.  \'.,  "secret  places." 

MOON,  Heb.  pale  yellow,  or  while,  "the 
lesser  light "  appointed  "  for  times  and  sea- 
sons," Gen.  1:14-16;  Psa.  104:19.  This 
beautiful  and  stately  ruler  of  the  night. 
Gen.  1:16,  is  one  of  the  chief  witnesses  to 
mankind  of  the  goodness,  wisdom,  and 
power  of  the  Creator,  Deut.  33:14;  Psa. 
8:3;  and  as  receiving  all  its  light  from  the 
sun,  and  reflecting  it  on  all  around,  it  is 
a  striking  image  of  the  church  of  Christ, 
which  is  illuminated  by  him  and  reflects 
his  glory,  Rom.  13:12;  2  Cor.  3:18.  In  the 
clear  sky  of  the  East  the  moon  shines  with 
peculiar  brilliancy ;  it  was  especially  use- 
ful to  the  early  races  of  men  from  their  lack 
of  artificial  light,  and  their  open-air  pasto- 
ral life;  Song  6:10;  and  it  was  worshipped 
by  most  nations  of  antiquity,  either  di- 
rectly. Job  31 :  26,  27,  with  cakes  of  honey, 
Jer.  7:18;  44:17-25,  or  as  an  idol-goddess 
under  the  name  of  Ashtoreth,  Artemis,  Di- 
ana, Hecate,  Meni,  Mylitta,  Maja,  etc.  The 
Hebrews  were  specially  cautioned  against 
this  form  of  idolatry,  Deut.  4:19;  17:3,  and 
yet  fell  into  it,  2  Kin.  21:3;  Isa.  65:11 ;  Jer. 
8:2;  19:13.  The  withdrawal  of  the  moon's 
light,  by  an  eclipse  or  by  total  extinguish- 
ment, symbolized  divine  judgments,  Isa. 
13:10;  Matt.  24:29;  Rev.8:i2.  See  Luna- 
tic and  New  Moon. 

MONTH.  The  Hebrew  months  were  lu- 
nar months,  that  is,  from  one  new  moon  to 
another.  These  lunar  months  were  each 
reckoned  at  29'^  days;  or  rather,  one  was 
of  30  days,  the  following  of  29,  and  so  on 
alternately :  that  which  had  30  days  was 
called  a  full  or  complete  month ;  that  which 
had  but  29  days  was  called  incomplete. 
The  new  moon  was  always  the  beginning 
of  the  month,  and  this  day  they  called  new- 
moon  day,  or  new  month.  The  new  moon 
may  be  detected  about  40  hours  after  con- 
junction with  the  sun,  and  observers  were 
stationed  to  watch  for  its  appearance,  and 
authoritatively  announce  it.  Num.  10:10; 
Psa.  81:3.  The  Hebrews  usually  designa- 
ted the  months  only  as  ist,  2d,  etc. ;  and 
the  names  by  which  they  are  now  known — 
some  of  them  of  Persian  origin— seem  to 
have  been  adopted  by  the  Jews  during  the 
Captivity.  At  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  which 
occurred  in  April,  God  ordained  that  that 
month — the  7th  of  the  civil  year— should 
be  the  ist  of  the  sacred  year,  according  to 
which  the  religious   festivals  were  to  be 


MOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOS 


reckoned;  and  from  that  time  both  these 
modes  of  numbering  the  months  continued 
to  be  employed. 

As  the  Jewish  months  were  governed  by 
the  moon,  while  ours  entirely  disregard  it, 
the  two  systems  cannot  wholly  coincide. 
It  is  generally  agreed,  however,  that  their 
month  Nisan  answers  most  nearly  to  our 
April,  lyar  to  our  May,  etc.,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  but  often  including  a  part  of 
the  preceding  month,  Abib  in  some  years 
coming  partly  in  our  March: 


Hebrew  Months. 

Nearly  corre- 
sponding with 
our 

Months 
of  tlie 
Sacred 
Year. 

Months 
of  the 
Civil     s 
Year. 

Sea- 
ons. 

Abib,  or  Nisan, 

Exod.  12 : 2,  i8. 

"       13:4- 

Esth.  3 : 7. 

April. 

ISt. 

7th. 

r 
> 

H 
H 
M 
JO 

lyar  or  Zif, 
I  Kin.  6:  i. 

May. 

2d. 

8th. 

a 
< 

Sivan, 
Esth.  8:9. 

June. 

ad. 

9th. 

Tammuz, 
Ezek.  8:14. 

July. 

4th. 

10th. 

> 
iSi 

0 

Ab. 

August. 

5th. 

nth. 

Elul, 
Neh.  6:15. 

September. 

6th. 

i2th. 

Ethanim,  or 

Tishri, 
I  Kin.  8:2. 

October. 

7th. 

ist. 

> 
7> 

Marcheshvan, 

or  Bui, 

I  Kin.  6  :38. 

November. 

8th. 

2d. 

< 
> 

■  •< 

M 
> 

Chisleu, 
Zech.  7:1. 

December. 

9th. 

3d. 

Tebeth, 
Esth.  2 :  16. 

January. 

loth. 

4th. 

Shebat, 
Zech.  1:7. 

February . 

nth. 

5th. 

Adar, 
Esth.  3 : 7. 

March. 

i2th. 

6th. 

Twelve  lunar  months  making  but  3=54 
days  and  8  4-5  hours,  the  Jewish  year  was 
short  of  the  solar  nearly  11  days.  To  re- 
cover the  equinoctial  point,  from  which 
this  difference  of  the  solar  and  lunar  year 
would  separate  the  new  moon  of  the  ist 
month,  the  Jews  7  times  in  19  years  inter- 
calated a  13th  month,  called  Ve-adar,  the 
2d  Adar.  By  this  means  their  lunar  year 
nearly  equalled  the  solar.     See  Year. 

MOR'DECAI,  little  man,  or  worshipper  of 
Mars,  I.,  son  of  Jair,  and  great-grandson  of 


a  Benjamite  named  Kish,  who  was  carried 
captive  to  Babylon  with  Jehoiachin,  B.  C. 
599,  Esth.  2:5,  6.  He  was  the  cousin  and 
guardian  of  Hadassah,  whose  wonderful 
history  is  related  in  the  book  of  Esther,  of 
which  he  was  probably  the  author.  See 
Esther,  Haman. 

II.  A  man  of  note  among  those  who  re- 
turned to  Judaea  with  Zerubbabel,  Ezra 
2:2 ;  Neh.  7:7. 

MO'REH,  teacher,  I.,  the  name  of  an 
"  oak,"  or  grove  of  oaks — called  "  the  plain  " 
or  "plains"  in  the  A.  V. — near  Shechem, 
where  Abraham  on  entering  Canaan  had  a 
vision  of  God,  Gen.  12:6,  7.  Compare  Gen. 
35:4;  Deut.  11:30;  Josh.  24:26. 

II.  A  height  on  the  north  of  the  valley  of 
Jezreel,  a  southern  spur  of  Jebel  ed-Duhy, 
facing  Mount  Gilboa  on  the  southeast  with 
the  wide  valley  between. 

MO'RESHETH-GATH,/>o.f.y«.f/o«o/'G'a/A, 
a  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  the  home 
of  Micah  the  prophet,  Jer.  26:18;  Mic.  1:1, 
13-15,  probably  near  Mareshah  and  Eleu- 
theropolis. 

MORI'AH,  shown  by  Jehovah,  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  built, 
2  Chr.  3:1.  See  Jerusalem.  It  seems  to 
have  been  the  same  place  where  Abraham 
was  about  to  offer  up  Isaac,  Gen.  22:1,  2, 
14,  and  where  David  interceded  for  his 
people  at  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah, 
2  Sam.  24:16-25;  I  Chr.  21:15-26. 

MOR'TAR,  for  cementing  bricks  and 
stones  and  plastering  walls,  Exod.  1:14; 
Lev.  14:41,  42;  Ezek.  13:10,  was  usually 
made  of  clay  and  straw  chopped  fine  and 
well  worked;  sometimes  of  sand,  ashes, 
and  lime.  Bitumen  was  also  used,  as  is 
now  seen  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon. 

MOR'TARS  and  pestles  for  separating 
grain  from  its  husks,  and  for  pounding 
grain,  spices,  etc.,  were  often  made  of  wood 
as  well  as  of  metal.  They  were  employed 
by  the  Hebrews  in  preparing  manna  for 
use.  Num.  11:8.  Large  iron  mortars  for 
pounding  grain  have  been  used  by  the 
Turks  in  the  execution  of  criminals ;  but  it 
is  not  known  that  the  Jews  ever  practised 
this  mode  of  punishment.  To  this  day  a 
favorite  article  of  food  in  Syria  is  prepared 
by  pounding  meat  for  hours  in  an  iron  mor- 
tar, and  adding  grain  and  spice  while  the 
process  of  "braying"  goes  on,  Prov.  27:22. 

MOR'TIFY,  put  to  death,  Rom.  8:13;  Col. 

MOSE'RA,  band,  and  MOSE'ROTH,  bands, 
37th  and  29th  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
desert,  Num.  33:30,  2>7i  38.    Compare  Deut. 

365 


MOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOS 


io:6.  It  is  found  perhaps  at  et-Taiyibeh, 
on  the  west  of  the  traditional  Mount  Hor; 
but  according  to  many  in  Wady  Murrah, 
32  miles  southwest  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the 
foot  of  Jebel  Maderah,  which  they  regard 
as  the  true  Mount  Hor. 

MO'SES,  the  illustrious  prophet  and  leg- 
islator of  the  Hebrews,  who  led  them  from 
Egypt  to  the  promised  land.  Having  been 
originally  imposed  by  a  native  Egyptian 
princess,  the  name  is  no  doubt  Egyptian  in 
its  origin,  and  Josephus  gives  its  deriva- 
tion— from  the  2  Egyptian  words,  mo,  wa- 
ter, and  USE,  saved.  With  this  accords  the 
Septuagint  form,  Mouses.  The  Hebrews 
by  a  slight  change  accommodated  it  to  their 
own  language,  as  they  did  also  in  the  case 
of  some  other  foreign  words;  calling  it  Mo- 
she,  from  the  verb  mash  a,  to  draw.  See 
Exod.  2:10.  Moses  was  born  about  1571 
B.  C,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of 
the  Kohathite  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
and  was  the  younger  brother  of  Miriam  and 
Aaron.  His  history  is  too  extensive  to  per- 
mit insertion  here,  and  in  general  too  well 
known  to  need  it.  It  is  enough  simply  to  re- 
mark that  it  is  divided  into  3  periods,  each 
of  40  years.  Acts  7:23,  30,  36.  The  first  ex- 
tended from  his  infancy,  when  by  the  faith 
of  his  pious  "fathers,"  Heb.  11:23,  he  was 
exposed  in  the  Nile,  and  found  and  adopted 
by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  to  his  flight  to 
Midian.  During  this  time  he  lived  at  the 
Egyptian  court,  and  "  was  learned  in  all 
the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  and  was 
mighty  in  words  and  in  deeds,"  Acts  7:22. 
This  is  no  unmeaning  praise;  the  "wis- 
dom" of  the  Egyptians,  and  especially  of 
their  priests,  was  then  the  profoundest  in 
the  world.  The  2d  period  was  from  his 
flight  till  his  return  to  Egypt,  Acts  7:30, 
during  the  whole  of  which  interval  he  ap- 
pears to  have  lived  in  Midian,  it  may  be 
much  after  the  manner  of  the  Bedouin 
sheikhs  of  the  present  day.  Here  he  mar- 
ried Zipporah  (see),  daughter  of  the  wise 
and  pious  Jethro,  and  became  familiar  with 
life  in  the  desert.  What  a  contrast  between 
the  former  period,  spent  amid  the  splendor 
and  learning  of  a  court,  and  this  lonely  no- 
madic life.  Still  it  was  in  this  way  that  the 
Angel-Jehovah,  who  appeared  to  him  in 
the  burning  bush,  prepared  him  to  be  the 
instrument  of  deliverance  to  His  people 
during  the  3d  period  of  his  life,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  exodus  out  of  Egypt  to  his 
death  on  Mount  Nebo.  In  this  interval 
how  much  did  he  accomplish  as  the  imme- 
diate agent  of  the  Most  High. 
366 


The  life  and  institutions  of  the  great  law- 
giver and  leader  of  Israel  present  one  of 
the  finest  subjects  for  the  pen  of  a  Chris- 
tian historian,  who  is  at  the  same  time  a 
competent  Biblical  antiquary.  His  insti- 
tutions breathe  a  spirit  of  freedom,  purity, 
intelligence,  justice,  and  humanity  else- 
where unknown ;  and  above  all,  of  supreme 
love,  honor,  and  obedience  to  God.  They 
moulded  the  character  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  transformed  them  from  a  nation  of 
shepherds  into  a  people  of  fixed  residence 
and  agricultural  habits.  Through  that  peo- 
ple, and  through  the  Bible,  the  influence  of 
these  institutions  has  been  extended  over 
the  world ;  and  often  where  the  letter  has 
not  been  observed,  the  spirit  of  them  has 
been  adopted.  Thus  it  was  in  the  laws 
established  by  the  pilgrim  fathers  of  New 
England ;  and  no  small  part  of  what  is  of 
most  value  in  the  institutions  which  they 
founded  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence 
of  the  Hebrew  legislator. 

The  name  of  this  servant  of  God  is  per- 
petuated in  numerous  places  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sinai,  and  a  recently  discovered 
Egyptian  papyrus  speaks  of  a  Mesu  who 
had  great  influence  with  the  "  foreign  peo- 
ple "  of  Egypt.  It  occurs  repeatedly  in 
Greek  and  Latin  writings,  and  still  more 
frequently  in  those  of  the  Arabs  and  the 
rabbinical  Jews.  Many  of  their  statements, 
however,  are  mere  legends  without  foun- 
dation, or  else  distortions  of  the  Scripture 
narrative.  By  the  Jews  he  has  always  been 
especially  honored  as  the  most  illustrious 
personage  in  all  their  annals,  and  as  the 
founder  of  their  whole  system  of  laws  and 
institutions.  Numerous  passages  both  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  show  how 
exalted  a  position  they  gave  him,  Psa. 
103:7;  105:26;  106:16;  Isa.  63: 12;  Jer. 15:1 ; 
Dan.  9:11;  Matt.  8:4:  John  5:45;  7:22; 
9:28;  Acts  7:20-38;  Rom.  10:5,  19;  2  Tim. 
3:8,9;   Heb.  3;  11:23-28;  Jude  9. 

In  all  that  he  wrought  and  taught  he 
was  but  the  agent  of  the  Most  High ;  and 
yet  in  all  his  own  character  stands  honor- 
ably revealed.  He  is  extolled  as  "  the  man 
of  God,"  and  eminently  "the  servant  of 
God."  He  "  chose  "  the  service  of  God 
deliberately  against  strong  temptations  to 
a  worldly  career.  He  early  regarded  him- 
self as  the  goel  or  redeemer  of  his  people, 
and  his  judicial  slaying  of  the  Egyptian  is 
so  explained  by  Stephen,  Acts  7:25.  His 
despondency  when  called  at  the  age  of  80 
to  a  task  which  he  had  believed  hopeless 
when  40  years  old,  God  forgave.     Though 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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naturally  liable  to  anger  and  impatience, 
he  so  far  subdued  himself  as  to  be  termed 
the  meekest  of  men,  Num.  12:3;  and  his 
faith,  humility,  and  forbearance,  the  wis- 
dom and  vigor  of  his  administration,  his 
unfailing  zeal  and  faith  in  God,  and  his 
■disinterested  patriotism  are  worthy  of  all 
imitation,  Exod.  32:11-14;  Num.  11:29.  He 
did  not  place  his  sons  in  positions  of  power 
and  profit.  Many  features  of  his  character 
and  life  furnish  admirable  illustrations  of 
the  work  of  Christ— as  the  deliverer,  ruler, 
and  guide  of  his  people,  rejected  by  them, 
but  bearing  them  on  his  heart,  interceding 
for  them  as  a  mediator,  rescuing,  teaching, 
and  nourishing  them  even  to  the  promised 
land.  All  the  religious  institutions  of  Mo- 
ses pointed  to  Christ;  and  he  himself,  on 
the  Mount  of  Transfiguration,  2,000  years 
after  his  death,  paid  his  homage  to  the 
Prophet  he  had  foretold,  Deut.  18:15-19, 
beheld  "  that  goodly  mountain  and  Leba- 
non," Deut.  3:25,  and  was  admitted  to  com- 
mune with  the  Saviour  on  the  most  glori- 
ous of  themes,  the  death  He  should  accom- 
plish at  Jerusalem,  Luke  9:31. 

He  reached  the  border  of  the  promised 
land  when  120  years  old,  gave  his  fare- 
well counsels  to  the  12  tribes  in  the  plains 
of  Moab,  Deut.  1:3,  5,  and  died  in  Mount 
Pisgah,  Deut.  34:5-8.  His  last  word  and 
act,  like  Christ's,  were  a  benediction,  Deut. 
33:29;  Luke  24:51. 

Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch, 
as  it  is  called,  or  the  first  5  books  of  the 
Bible.  In  the  composition  of  them  he  was 
probably  assisted  by  Aaron,  who  kept  a 
register  of  public  transactions,  Exod.  17:14; 
24:4,  7;  34:27;  Num.  33:1,  2;  Deut.  31:24, 
€tc.  Some  things  were  added  by  a  later 
inspired  hand;  as,  for  example,  the  last 
chapter  of  Deuteronomy.  The  90th  Psalm 
also  is  ascribed  to  Moses;  and  its  noble 
and  devout  sentiments  acquire  a  new  sig- 
nificance if  received  as  from  his  pen  near 
the  close  of  his  pilgrimage.  By  many  he 
is  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Job.  His  triumphal  songs  in  Exod.  15; 
Deut.  32  and  33  anticipate  the  final  and 
eternal  song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb,  Rev. 
15:3.  His  writings  show  the  familiarity  of 
an  eyewitness  and  participant  with  all  that 
he  relates,  and  are  confirmed  in  even  mi- 
nute details  by  the  extant  monuments  of 
Egypt. 

MOTE,  a  small,  dry  particle.  Matt.  7:3-5. 

MOTH.  The  common  moth  is  an  insect 
destructive  to  woollen  cloths.  The  egg  is 
laid  by  a  small  white  miller,  and  produces 


a  small  soft,  shining  worm,  which  houses 
itself  in  a  cylinder  open  at  both  ends, 
wrought  from  the  cloth,  upon  which  it  then 
feeds  destructively;  after  this,  by  another 
transformation,  it  becomes  a  miller.  Allu- 
sions to  the  moth,  as  devouring  clothes,  the 
wealth  of  Eastern  homes,  Jas.  5:2,  and  as 
a  frail  and  feeble  insect,  are  frequent  in 
Scripture,  Job  4:19;  13:28;  27:18;  Psa. 
39:11;  Isa.  50:9;  Hos.  5:12;  Matt.  6:19,  20. 
See  Garments. 

The  insects  called  in  general  moths,  of 
which  the  above  is  only  one  species,  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  The  main  genus, 
Lepidoptera,  contains  more  than  1,500  spe- 
cies. Moths  fly  abroad  only  in  the  evening 
and  night,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the 
tribe  of  butterflies,  which  fly  only  by  day. 
Their  larvae,  or  the  worms  from  which  they 
spring,  are  active  and  quick  in  motion, 
mostly  smooth,  and  prey  voraciously  on  the 
food  adapted  to  them;  the  common  tinea 
on  cloths,  others  on  furs,  the  leaves  of 
plants,  etc. 

MOTH'ER.  The  Hebrew  words  am  and 
AB,  mother  and  father,  are  simple  and  easy 
sounds  for  infant  lips,  like  mamma  and 
papa  in  English.  See  Abba.  "  Before  the 
child  shall  have  knowledge  to  cry.  My  fa- 
ther, and  My  mother,"  Isa.  8:4.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  meaning  of  "  mother,"  am 
sometimes  signifies  in  the  Bible  grandmo- 
ther, 1  Kin.  15:10,  or  some  remote  female 
ancestor,  Gen.  3:20.  It  is  put  for  a  chief 
city,  2  Sam.  20:19;  for  a  benefactress,  Judg. 
5:7;  for  a  nation,  as  in  the  expressive  Eng- 
lish phrase,  "  the  mother  country,"  Isa. 
3:12;  49:23.  The  fond  affection  of  a  mo- 
ther is  often  referred  to  in  Scripture ;  and 
God  has  employed  it  to  illustrate  his  tender 
love  for  his  people,  Isa.  49: 15.  Mothers  are 
endowed  with  an  all-powerful  control  over 
their  offspring;  and  most  men  of  eminence 
in  the  world  have  acknowledged  their  great 
indebtedness  to  maternal  influence.  When 
Buonaparte  asked  Madame  Campan  what 
the  French  nation  most  needed,  she  replied 
in  one  word,  "Mothers."  The  divinity  of 
the  Hebrew  religion  appears  in  the  favora- 
ble position  of  woman  compared  with  that 
of  the  heathen  women  around  them.  Lev. 
19:3;  Deut.  5:16;  1  Kin.  2:19;  Prov.  15:20. 
The  Christian  church  already  owes  much, 
and  will  owe  infinitely  more,  to  the  love, 
patience,  zeal,  and  self-devotion  of  mothers 
in  training  their  children  for  Christ. 

MO'TIONS,  Rom.  7:5,  A.  V.,  impulses. 

MOUL'DY,  Josh,  9:5,  12,  crumbled;  mi- 
nute pieces. 

367 


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MOUNT,  Jer.  6:6;  32:24;  33:4,  a  mound 
or  embankment  thrown  up  in  besieging  a 
city. 

MOUN'TAIN,  or  MOUNT,  is  often  meant 
where  the  A.  V.  has  "hill,"  denoting  some- 
times a  single  peak,  but  frequently  a  ridge, 
as  "  Mount  Ephraim,"  full  of  towns,  2  Chr. 
15:8,  and  Mount  Lebanon.  Mountains  are 
among  the  most  sublime  and  impressive  of 
the  Creator's  works  on  earth,  and  form  the 
noblest  and  most  enduring  monuments  of 
great  events.  Most  of  the  mountains  of 
Scripture  thus  stand  as  witnesses  for  God — 
every  view  of  their  lofty  summits,  and  ev- 
ery recurrence  to  them  in  thouglK,  remind- 
ing us  of  the  sacred  facts  and  truths  con- 
nected with  them.  Thus  Mount  Ararat  is 
a  standing  memorial  of  the  deluge  —  of 
man's  sin,  God's  justice,  and  God's  mercy. 
Mount  Sinai  asserts  the  terrors  of  the  di- 
vine law.  Mount  Carmel  summons  us,  like 
the  prophet  Elijah  of  old,  not  to  "  halt  be- 
tween two  opinions;"  but  if  Jehovah  is 
God,  to  love  and  serve  him.  The  Mount 
of  the  Transfiguration  still  shines  with  the 
glory  of  the  truths  there  taught,  and  Mounts 
Ebal  and  Gerizim  still  echo  the  curses  and 
the  blessings  once  so  solemnly  pronounced 
from  them.  So  Mount  Hor,  Nebo,  Leba- 
non, and  Gilboa  have  been  signalized  by 
striking  events  ;  Mount  Zion,  Moriah,  and 
Olivet  are  covered  with  precious  memo- 
ries; and  the  mountains  about  Jerusalem 
and  all  other  "  everlasting  hills  "  are  sacred 
witnesses  of  the  eternal  power  and  faithful- 
ness of  God. 

Judaea  was  eminently  a  hilly  country; 
and  the  sacred  poets  and  prophets  drew 
from  the  mountains  around  them  many 
beautiful  and  sublime  illustrations  of  di- 
vine truth.  Thus  a  kingdom  is  termed  a 
mountain,  Psa.  30:7,  especially  the  king- 
dom of  Christ,  Isa.  2:2;  11:9;  Dan.  2:35. 
Thus  also  difficulty  is  a  "great  mountain," 
Zech.  4:7.  A  revolution  is  the  "carrying 
of  mountains  into  the  midst  of  the  sea," 
Psa.  46:3.  God  easily  and  speedily  re- 
moves every  obstacle — "  hills  melt  like  wa.x 
at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,"  Psa.  97:5. 
The  integrity  of  the  divine  nature  is  sure 
and  lasting — "  Thy  righteousness  is  like 
the  great  mountains,"  Psa.  36:6.  The  eter- 
nity of  God's  love  is  pictured  out  by  this 
comparison  :  "  For  the  mountains  shall  de- 
part, and  the  hills  be  removed ;  but  my 
kindness  shall  not  depart  from  thee,  nei- 
ther shall  the  covenant  of  my  peace  be  re- 
moved, saith  the  Lord  that  hath  mercy  on 
thee,"  Isa.  54:10.  When  David  wishes  to 
368 


express  the  stability  of  his  kingdom,  he 
says,  "  Lord,  by  thy  favor  thou  hast  made 
my  mountain  to  stand  strong,"  Psa.  30:7. 
The  security  and  protection  afforded  by 
God  to  his  people  are  thus  beautifully  de- 
lineated: "As  the  mountains  are  round 
about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round 
about  his  people  from  henceforth,  even  for 
ever,"  Psa.  125:2.  When  the  prophet  would 
express  his  faith  in  God,  how  pure  it  was, 
and  what  confidence  it  inspired,  far  above 
any  assurance  which  could  arise  from 
earthly  blessing  or  defence,  he  sings,  "  Tru- 
ly in  vain  is  salvation  hoped  for  from  the 
hills,  and  from  the  multitude  of  mountains : 
truly  in  the  Lord  our  God  is  the  salvation 
of  Israel,"  Jer.  3:23. 

The  head  of  a  mountain  is  referred  to  in 
the  Hebrew  in  Gen.  8:5;  its  ears  in  Josh. 
19:34;  its  shoulder  in  Deut.  33:12;  its  side 
in  I  Sam.  23:26:  its  flanks  in  Josh.  19:12; 
its  rib  in  2  Sam.  16:13;  i^s  thigh  in  Judg. 
19: 1,  18 ;  its  back  in  the  word  Shechem,  on 
the  slope  of  Gerizim. 

The  hills  of  Judaea  were  ancientlj-  culti- 
vated to  the  top,  with  scores  of  terraces, 
and  covered  with  vines,  olives,  figs,  etc. 
Hence  the  expression,  alluding  to  the  vine 
of  God's  planting,  "The  hills  were  cov- 
ered with  the  shadow  of  it,"  Psa.  80:10; 
and  others  of  the  same  kind.  Travellers 
say  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  pass  a  mountain, 
even  in  the  wild  parts  of  Judaea,  which 
does  not  show  that  it  was  formerly  ter- 
raced and  made  to  flow  with  oil  and  wine, 
though  it  may  now  be  desolate  and  bare. 
Says  Paxton,  "There  are  many  districts 
that  are  sadly  encumbered  with  rock,  yet 
the  soil  among  these  rocks  is  of  a  very  su- 
perior kind ;  and  were  the  rock  somewhat 
broken  up,  the  large  pieces  piled,  and  the 
small  mixed  with  the  soil,  it  might  be  made 
very  productive.  There  is  very  striking 
proof  of  this  in  some  districts,  as  that  about 
Hebron,  which  abounds  with  rock,  and  yet 
is  covered  with  the  most  productive  vine- 
yards. As  to  such  a  rocky  country  being 
so  spoken  of  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs, 
I  suppose  that  it  was  in  truth,  at  that  time, 
the  finest  of  lands;  that  the  rock  which 
now  lies  bare  in  so  many  places  was  then 
all  covered  with  earth  of  the  richest  kind." 

MOUNT  OF  THE  AM'ALEKITES,  Judg. 
12:15,  a  ridge  running  northeast  in  Mount 
Ephraim,  near  Pirathon. 

MOUNT  OF  THE  CONGREGA'TION,  or 
assembly,  Isa.  14:13,  a  sacred  height  north 
of  Persia,  probably  el-Burj. 

MOUNT  OF  THE  VAL'LEY,  Josh.  13:19, 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOU 


the  high  ground  of  Reuben,   east  of  the 
north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

MOUN'TAIN  OFTHE  AM'ORITES,  Deut. 


1 :  19,  20,  a  ridge  running  north  of  east  from 
the  desert  et-Tih  in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula, 
tojebel  el-Mukrah. 


MOURN'ING.  The  Orientals,  at  the 
death  of  their  friends  and  relations,  made 
striking  demonstrations  of  grief  and 
mourning.  They  wept,  tore  their  clothes, 
smote  their  breasts,  threw  dust  upon  their 
heads.  Josh.  7:6,  and  lay  upon  the  ground, 
went  barefooted,  Isa.  20:2,  pulled  their 
hair  and  beards,  or  cut  them,  Ezra  9:3; 
Isa.  15:2,  even  made  incisions  on  their 
breasts,  or  tore  them  with  their  nails,  a 
practice  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law,  Lev. 
19:28;  21:5;  Deut.  14:1 ;  Jer.  16:6,  7;  41 15; 
48:37.  Thetimeof  mourning  was  common- 
ly 7  days,  I  Sam.  31:11-13;  Job  i :  20,  21 ; 
2:13;  but  it  was  lengthened  or  shortened 
according  to  circumstances,  Zech.  12:10. 
That  for  Moses  and  Aaron  was  prolonged 
to  30  days.  Num.  20:29;  Deut.  34:8;  and 
that  for  Jacob  to  70  days,  Gen.  50:3-10. 
Other  mentions  of  mourning  for  the  dead 
are  in  the  cases  of  Sarah,  Gen.  23:2,  Jo- 
seph, Gen.  37:34,  35,  the  Egyptians,  Exod. 
12:30,  Samuel,  i  Sam.  25:1,  Saul,  i  Sam. 
31:13,  Abner,  2  Sam.  3:31,  39,  Lazarus, 
John  II,  and  Stephen,  Acts  8:2. 

During  the  time  of  their  mourning  the 
near  relations  of  the  deceased  continued 
sitting  in  their  houses,  and  fasted,  2  Sam. 
12:16,  or  ate  on  the  ground.  The  food 
they  took  was  thought  unclean,  and  even 
themselves  were  judged  impure.  "Their 
sacrifices  shall  be  unto  them  as  the  bread 
of  mourners;  all  that  eat  thereof  shall  be 
polluted,"  Hos.  9:4.  Their  faces  were  cov- 
ered, and  in  all  that  time  they  could  not 

24 


apply  themselves  to  any  occupation,  nor 
read  the  book  of  the  law,  nor  offer  their 
usual  prayers.  They  did  not  dress  them- 
selves, nor  make  their  beds,  nor  uncover 
their  heads,  nor  shave  themselves,  nor  cut 
their  nails,  nor  go  into  the  bath,  nor  salute 
anybody.  Nobody  spoke  to  them  unless 
they  spoke  first.  Job  2 : 1 1-13.  Their  friends 
commonly  went  to  visit  and  comfort  them, 
John  11:19,  39,  bringing  them  food,  2  Sam. 
3:31-35;  Jer.  16:7.  They  also  went  up  to 
the  roof,  or  upon  the  platform  of  their 
houses,  to  bewail  their  misfortune:  "They 
shall  gird  themselves  with  sackcloth;  on 
the  tops  of  their  houses,  and  in  their  streets, 
every  one  shall  howl,  weeping  abundant- 
ly," Isa.  15:3;  Jer.  48:38.  The  high-priests 
and  also  the  Nazarites  were  exempted  from 
the  customary  mourning,  as  being  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  God  and  his  service.  Lev. 
10:2-6;  21:10,  11;  Num.  6:7;  Ezek.  24:16- 
18;  and  so  were  the  ordinary  priests,  ex- 
cept on  the  death  of  their  nearest  relatives. 
Lev.  21 : 1-4.  The  mourning  dress  among 
the  Hebrews  was  not  fixed  either  by  law 
or  custom.  We  only  find  in  Scripture  that 
they  used  to  tear  their  garments,  a  custom 
still  observed ;  but  now  they  tear  a  small 
part  merely,  and  for  form's  sake,  2  Sam. 
13:19;  2  Chr.  34:27;  Ezra  9:3;  Job  2:12; 
Joel  2:13.  Anciently,  in  times  of  mourn- 
ing, they  clothed  themselves  in  sackcloth, 
or  hair-cloth,  that  is,  in  clothes  of  coarse 
brown  or  black  stuff,  2  Sam.  3:31;  i  Kin. 
21:27;  Esth.  4:1;  Psa.  35:13;  69:11. 

369 


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They  hired  women  to  weep  and  wail, 
and  also  persons  to  play  on  instruments, 
at  the  funerals  of  the  rich  or  distinguished, 
Jer.  9:17.  In  Matt.  9:23  we  observe  a  com- 
pany of  minstrels  or  players  on  the  flute  at 
the  funeral  of  a  girl  of  12  years  of  age.  All 
that  met  a  funeral  procession  were  accus- 
tomed to  join  them  for  a  time,  to  accom- 
pany them  on  their  way,sometimes  relie- 
ving the  bearers  of  the  bier,  and  mingling 
their  tears  with  those  of  the  mourners, 
Rom.  12:15. 


MOURNING  AT  A  GRAVE. 

The  custom  of  hiring  women  to  weep 
and  wail  has  come  down  to  modern  times. 
For  example,  the  governor  of  NablOs  had 
died  the  very  morning  of  Dr.  Jowett's  ar- 
rival, and  a  numerous  body  of  "cunning 
women"  were  filling  the  whole  city  with 
their  cries,  "taking  up  a  wailing,"  with  the 
design,  as  of  old,  to  make  the  eyes  of  all 
the  inhabitants  "  run  down  with  tears,  and 
their  eyelids  gush  out  with  waters,"  Jer. 
9:17,  18.  For  this  good  service  they  would 
the  next  morning  wait  upon  the  govern- 
ment and  the  principal  persons  to  receive 
some  trifling  fee. 

Some  of  the  Jewish  forms  of  mourning 
are  the  appropriate  and  universal  language 
of  grief;  others,  to  our  modern  and  occi- 
dental taste,  savor  of  extravagance.  None 
of  these  were  enjoined  by  their  religion, 
which  rather  restricted  than  encouraged 
370 


them,  Lev.  10:6;  19:27;  21:1-11;  Num. 
6:7;  Deut.  14:1.  They  were  the  estab- 
lished customs  of  the  times.  Sorrow  finds 
some  relief  in  reversing  all  the  usages  of 
ordinary  life.  Christianity,  however,  mod- 
erates and  assuages  our  grief,  shows  us  a 
Father's  hand  holding  the  rod,  and  the 
dark  valley  itself  penetrated  by  the  heav- 
enly light  into  which  it  emerges,  i  Cor. 
15:53-55;  I  Thess.  4:14-18;  Rev.  7:13-17; 
14:13- 
Instances  of  mourning  over  calamities, 
private  or  public,  are  frequent:  such  as 
those  of  Job,  ch.  i  and  2 ;  Israel,  Exod. 
33:4;  Judg.  20:26;  and  the  Ninevites, 
Jon.  3:5. 

Penitential    mourning   is  also    often 
referred  to,  accompanied  with  fasting. 
Matt.  9:15.    See  I  Sam.  7:6;  Lev.  23:27; 
Joel  2: 12-17  >  Zech.  12: 10, 11 ;  Acts  27:9. 
See  Wall. 
MOUSE.    See  below. 
MOUTH  is  sometimes  used  in  Scrip- 
ture for  speaker,  Exod.  4:16;  Jer.  15: 19. 
God    spoke   with     Moses    "mouth    to 
mouth,'  Num.  12:8,  that  is,  condescend- 
ingly and  clearly.     The  law  was  to  be 
"in  the  mouth"  of  the  Hebrews,  Exod. 
13:9,   often    rehearsed   and    talked  of. 
"The  rod  of  his  mouth,"  Isa  11:4,  and 
the  sharp  sword.  Rev.  i :  16,  denote  the 
power  of  Christ's  word  to  convict,  con- 
trol,   and  judge;    compare   Isa.    49:2; 
Heb.    4:12.      The    Hebrew    word    for 
mouth  is  often  translated  "command," 
Gen.  45:21;  Job  39:27;  Eccl.  8:2;  and 
the  unclean  spirits  out  of  the  mouth  of 
the  dragon.  Rev.  16:14,  are  the  ready 
executors  of  his  commands. 
MOWING,  rather  reaping  with  a  sickle, 
as  the  gathering  and  storing  of  a  hay-crop 
seems  not  to  have  been  a  Hebrew  custom, 
owing  to  the  climate,   Psa.  72:6;    106:20; 
129:6,7;  Prov.  27:25;  Isa.  15:6;  Amos  7:1. 
MO'ZAH,  sprhiff -head,  ios\\.  18: 26,  a  town 
in  the  border  of  Benjamin,  4^  miles  north- 
east of  Jerusalem. 

MUF'FLER,  Isa.  3:19,  a  flowing  out-door 
veil. 

MOUSE,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  used  chietly 
of  the  field-mouse,  but  probably  includes 
various  species  of  these  animals,  many  va- 
rieties of  which  are  now  found  in  Palestine. 
Moses,  Lev.  19:29,  declared  it  to  be  un- 
clean, yet  it  was  sometimes  eaten ;  and  Isa- 
iah, 66:17,  reproaches  the  Jews  with  this 
practice.  The  hamster  and  the  dormouse, 
as  well  as  the  jerboa,  are  sometimes  used 
for  food  by  the  modern  Arabs.    Mice  made 


MUL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUR 


great  havoc  in  the  fields  of  the  Philistines, 
after  that  people  had  taken  the  ark  of  the 
Lord,  which  induced  them  to  send  it  back 
with  mice  and  emerods  of  gold,  i  Sam.  5:6, 


LONG-TAILED    FIELD-MOUSE:    MUS    SYLVATICUS. 

-9,  11;  6:4,  5.  The  field-mice  are  equally- 
prevalent  in  those  regions  at  the  present 
day,  and  the  grain  crops  of  Hamath  are 
at  times  nearly  destroyed  by  them. 

MUL'BERRY-TREE.  The  Hebrew  word 
signifies  weeping,  and  indicates  some  tree 
which  distils  balsam  or  gum.  The  partic- 
ular species  is  not  known,  though  some 
think  the  poplar,  or  aspen,  is  intended, 
2  Sam.  5:23,  24;  I  Chr.  14:14,  15. 

MULE,  a  mixed  animal,  the  offspring  of 
a  horse  and  an  ass.  A  mule  is  smaller  than 
a  horse,  and  has  long  ears,  though  not  so 
long  as  those  of  an  ass.  It  is  a  remarka- 
bly hardy,  patient,  obstinate,  sure-footed 
animal,  lives  twice  as  long  as  a  horse,  and 
is  much  more  easily  and  cheaply  fed.  Mules 
are  much  used  in  Spain  and  South  Amer- 
ica for  transporting  goods  across  the  moun- 
tains. So  also  in  the  Alps  they  are  used 
by  travellers  among  the  mountains,  where 
a  horse  would  hardly  be  able  to  pass  with 
safety.  There  is  no  probability  that  the 
Jews  bred  mules,  because  it  was  forbidden 
to  couple  creatures  of  different  species. 
Lev.  19:19.  But  they  were  not  forbidden 
to  obtain  them  from  abroad  and  use  them, 
I  Kin.  10:25;  2  Chr.  9:23,  24;  Neh.  7:68; 
Ezek.  27:14.  Thus  we  may  observe,  espe- 
cially after  David's  time,  that  mules,  male 
and  female,  were  common  among  the  He- 
brews; formerly  they  used  only  male  and 
female  asses,  2  Sam.  13:29;  18:9;  i  Kin. 
1:33.38,44;   10:25;   18:5;  Esth.  8:10,  14. 

In  Gen.  36:24  Anah  is  said  to  have 
found  "mules"  in  the  desert;  but  the  He- 
brew word  means  hot  springs.     See  Anah. 


Another  Hebrew  word  translated  "  mule  " 
in  Esth.  8: 10,  14,  A.  V.,  is  rendered  "  drom- 
edary "in  I  Kin.  4:28, and  "swift beast"  in 
Mic.  1 :  13,  probably  meaning  swift  horses. 
MUNI'TIONS,  fortifications,  Isa. 
33:16,  a  rocky  fortress  or  acropolis; 
the  strong  tower  of  the  righteous 
is  impregnable  and  inaccessible  to 
their  foes.  Strongholds  were  often 
on  elevated  ground,  and  at  all  ac- 
cessible points  were  defended  by 
one  or  two  walls,  2  Chr.  32:5;  Jer. 
51:58,  with  battlements  and  towers, 
2  Chr.  14:7;  26:15;  Zeph.  i:i6,  and 
very  strong  gates,  with  watchtowers, 
2  Sam.  13:34;  18:24,  T,y,  Isa.  45:2. 
See  War. 

^MVPllA,  flight  SOX  dark7iess,  Gen. 
46:21,  a  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
called  also  Shupham,  Shuppim,  and 
Shephupham,  Num.  26:39;  i  Chr. 
7:7,  12;  8:5. 
MUR'DER,  the  designed  and  malevolent 
taking  of  human  life,  was  by  the  original 
appointment  of  God  a  crime  to  be  punished 
by  death.  Cain,  the  first  murderer,  ac- 
knowledged it  as  such,  Gen.  4:14.  The 
ground  for  the  death-penalty  for  murder  is 
the  eminent  dignity  and  sacredness  of  man 
as  a  child  of  God,  Gen.  9:5,  6.  Even  an  ox 
that  gored  a  man  was  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
his  owner  also  if  negligent,  Exod.  21:28-31. 
Like  the  Sabbath  and  marriage,  it  is  a  pri- 
meval and  universal  institution  for  man- 
kind, and  all  nations  have  so  recognized  it. 
Acts  28:4.  The  Mosaic  code  reenacted  it. 
Lev.  24:17;  and  while  providing  for  the  un- 
intentional homicide  a  safe  retreat,  declares 
that  deliberate  murder,  proved  by  at  least 
2  witnesses,  Num.  35:19-30;  Deut.  19:15, 
must  be  punished  by  death,  from  which 
neither  the  city  of  refuge  nor  the  altar  of 
God  could  shield  the  criminal,  Exod.  21:12- 
14;  Num.  35:9-34;  Deut.  19:1-13;  i  Kin. 
2:5,  6,  28-34.  The  killing  of  a  burglar  in 
the  act  was  not  a  crime  if  it  occurred  in  the 
night,  Exod.  22:2,  3.  See  Blood-aven- 
ger, Refuge.  Death  was  usually  inflict- 
ed by  stoning,  and  kings  themselves  often 
saw  to  the  execution  of  the  death-penalty, 
2  Sam.  1:15,  16;  13:39;  14:7-11;  I  Kin. 
2:31,  34.  If  a  corpse  were  found  in  the 
open  fields  and  the  murderer  could  not  be 
discovered,  the  town  nearest  to  the  spot 
was  obliged  to  purge  itself  by  a  solemn 
ceremony,  lest  it  should  become  liable  to 
the  judgments  of  God,  Deut.  21:1-9.  In 
various  ways  God  is  represented  as  spe- 
cially abhorring  this  crime  and  securing 

371 


MUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUS 


its  punishment,  Deut.  32:43;  2  Sam.  21:1; 
Psa.  9:12;  55:23;  Hos.  1:4;  Rev.  22:15. 
Our  Saviour  instructs  us  that  one  may  be 
guilty  in  the  sight  of  God  of  murder  in  the 
heart  without  any  overt  act,  Matt.  5:21,  22; 

1  John  3:15.  Nothing  is  said  specially  in 
the  law  respecting  self-murder,  and  only 
the  cases  of  Saul,  Ahithophel,  and  Judas 
are  described  in  the  Bible,  i  Sam.  31:4; 

2  Sam.  17:23;  Acts  1:18.  Of  all  murders, 
that  of  the  soul  is  incomparably  the  most 
awful,  John  8:44,  and  many  even  draw 
others  with  them  into  the  second  death. 

MUR'RAIN,  a  special  mortality  wrought 
by  miraculous  agency  among  the  cattle 
of  the  Egyptians,  while  those  of  the  He- 
brews in  the  same  region  were  unharmed, 
Exod.  9:3-6.  The  same  word  is  translated 
"plagues"  in  Hos.  13:14. 

MU'SHI,  withdrawn,  the  2d  son  of  Me- 
rari,  Exod.  6:19;  Num.  3:20,  2>2>\  26:58; 
I  Chr.  23:21,  23;  24:26,30. 


SACKBUT:   ASSYRIAN  B.-VS-RELIEF. 

MU'SIC.  The  ancient  Hebrews  had  a 
great  fondness  for  music,  which  they  used 
in  their  religious  services,  in  their  public 
and  private  rejoicings,  at  their  weddings 
andfeasts,  Isa.  5: 12;  Amos6:5;  Luke  15:25, 
and  even  in  their  mournings,  Exod.  32:17, 
18;  2  Chr.  35:25;  Lam.  2:7.  We  have  in 
Scripture  canticles  of  joy,  of  thanksgiving, 
of  praise,  of  mourning ;  also  mournful  ele- 
gies or  songs,  as  those  of  David  on  the 
death  of  Saul  and  Abner,  and  the  lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremiah  on  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem; so,  too,  songs  of  victory,  triumph, 
and  gratulation,  as  that  which  Moses  sang 
after  passing  the  Red  Sea,  that  of  Deborah 
and  Barak,  and  others.  The  people  of  God 
went  up  to  Jerusalem  thrice  a  year,  cheered 
on  their  way  with  songs  of  joy.  Psalms  84; 
122  ;  Isa.  30:29.  The  book  of  Psalms  com- 
prises a  wonderful  variety  of  inspired  pie- 
ces for  music,  and  is  an  inexhaustible  treas- 
ure for  the  devout  in  all  ages. 
372 


Music  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient  of  the 
fine  arts.  Job  21:12.  Jubal,  who  lived  be- 
fore the  deluge,  was  the  "  father  "  of  those 
who  played  on  the  harp  and  the  organ, 
Gen.  4:21.  Laban  complains  that  his  son- 
in-law  Jacob  had  left  him  without  giving 
him  an  opportunity  of  sending  his  family 
away  "  with  mirth  and  with  songs,  with 
tabret  and  with  harp,"  Gen.  31 :26,  27.  Mo- 
ses, having  passed  through  the  Red  Sea, 
composed  a  song,  and  sang  it  with  the  Is- 
raelitish  men,  while  Miriam,  his  sister,  sang 
it  responsively,  with  dancing  and  playing 
on  instruments,  at  the  head  of  the  women, 
Exod.  15:20,  21.  He  caused  silver  trum- 
pets to  be  made,  to  be  sounded  at  solemn 
sacrifices  and  on  religious  festivals.  Da- 
vid, who  had  great  skill  in  music,  soothed 
the  perturbed  spirit  of  Saul  by  playing  on 
the  harp,  i  Sam.  16:16,  23;  and  when  he 
was  himself  established  on  the  throne — 
seeing  that  the  Levites  were  not  employed 
as  formerly  in  carrying  the  boards,  veils, 
and  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  its  abode 
being  fixed  at  Jerusalem  —  appointed  a 
great  part  of  them  to  sing  and  to  play  on 
instruments  in  the  temple,  i  Chr.  25.  Da- 
vid brought  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  with 
triumphant  and  joyful  music,  i  Chr.  13:8; 
15:16-28;  and  in  the  same  manner  Solo- 
mon was  proclaimed  king,  i  Kin.  1:39,40. 
Both  David  and  he  had  singing  men  and 
sitiging  women,  2  Sam.  19:35;  Eccl.  2:8; 
and  Solomon's  songs  were  1,005,  "  J^'"- 
4:32.  The  Old  Testament  prophets  also 
sought  the  soothing  aid  of  music  in  their 
services,  i  Sam.  10:5,  10;  2  Kin.  3:15; 
I  Chr.  25:1,  3,  5. 

Asaph,  Heman,  and  Jeduthun  were  chiefs 
of  the  music  of  the  tabernacle  under  Da- 
vid, and  of  the  temple  under  Solomon. 
Asaph  had  4  sons,  Jeduthun  6,  and  Heman 
14.  These  24  Levites,  sons  of  the  3  great 
masters  of  the  temple  music,  were  at  the 
head  of  24  bands  of  musicians,  which  served 
in  the  temple  by  turns.  Their  number 
there  was  always  great,  but  especially  at 
the  chief  solemnities,  i  Chr.  23:5.  They 
were  ranged  in  order  about  the  altar  of 
burnt  sacrifices.  As  the  whole  business 
of  their  lives  was  to  learn  and  to  practise 
music,  it  must  be  supposed  that  they  un- 
derstood it  well,  whether  it  were  vocal  or 
instrumental,  2  Chr.  29:25. 

In  the  temple  service  female  musicians 
were  employed  as  well  as  male ;  they  gen- 
erally were  daughters  of  the  Levites.  Ez- 
ra, in  his  enumeration  of  those  whom  he 
brought  back  with  him  from  the  Captivity, 


MUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUS 


reckons  200  singing  men  and  singing  wo- 
men, 2  Sam.  6:5;  19:35;  Ezra  2:65;  Neh. 
7:67. 

As  to  the  nature  of  their  music  we  can 
judge  of  it  only  by  conjecture,  because  it 
has  been  long  lost.  Probably  it  was  a 
unison  of  several  voices,  of  which  all  sang 
together  the  same  melody,  each  according 
to  his  strength  and  skill,  without  musical 
counterpoint,  or  those  different  parts  and 
combinations  which  constitute  harmony  in 
our  music.  Probably,  also,  the  voices  were 
generally  accompanied  by  instrumental 
music.  If  we  may  draw  any  conclusions 
in  favor  of  their  music  from  its  effects,  its 
magnificence,  its  majesty,  and  the  lofty  sen- 
timents contained  in  their  songs,  we  must 
allow  it  great  excellence.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  temple  musicians  were  sometimes 
divided  into  2  or  more  separate  choirs, 
which,  with  a  general  chorus,  sang  in  turn 
responsive  to  each  other,  each  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  Psalm.  The  structure  of  the 
Hebrew  Psalms  is  eminently  adapted  to 
this  mode  of  singing,  and  very  delightful 
and  solemn  effects  might  thus  be  produced. 
Compare  Psalms  24,  136,  148,  150. 

Numerous  musical  instruments  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  but  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  affix  their  names  with  cer- 
tainty to  specific  instruments  now  in  use. 
By  a  comparison,  however,  of  the  instru- 
ments probably  held  in  common  by  the 
Jews  with  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Egyp- 
tians, a  degree  of  probability  as  to  most  of 
them  has  been  secured.  They  were  of  3 
kinds : 


I,  Stringed  instruments — neginoth: 

I.  KiNNOR,  "the  harp,"  Gen.  4:21 ;  31:27. 

Frequently   mentioned   in    Scripture,  and 

probably  a  kind  of  lyre. 


2.  Nebel,  "the  psaltery,"  i  Sam.  10:5. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  name  of  vari- 
ous large  instruments  of  the  harp  kind. 

3.  AsoR,  signifying  lo-stringed.  In  Psa. 
92:3  it  apparently  denotes  an  instrument 
distinct  from  the  nebel  ;  but  elsewhere  it 
seems  to  be  simply  a  description  of  the 
NEBEL  as  lo-stringed.  See  Psa.  33:2; 
144:9. 

4.  GiTTiTH.  It  occurs  in  the  titles  of 
Psalms  8,  81,  84,  etc.  From  the  name  it  is 
supposed  that  David  brought  it  from  Gath. 
Others  conclude  that  it  is  a  general  name 
for  a  stringed  instrument. 

5.  MiNNiM,  strings,  Psa.  150:4.  Proba- 
bly a  general  name  for  stringed  instru- 
ments. In  Psa.  45:8,  for  "whereby,"  etc., 
read,  "  the  stringed  instruments  made  thee 
glad." 

6.  Sabbeca,  "sackbut,"  Dan.  3:5,  7,  10, 
15.     A  kind  of  lyre,  of  4  or  more  strings. 

7.  Pesanterin,  "psaltery,"  occurs  Dan. 
y.j,  and  is  supposed  to  represent  the  ne- 
bel. 

8.  Machalath.  Found  in  the  titles  of 
Psalms  53  and  88 ;  supposed  to  be  a  lute  or 
guitar.  Machol,  translated  "dance  "  in  the 
A.  v.,  was  probably  a  kind  of  pipe,  Exod. 
15:20;  Psa.  150:3-5. 

See  also  illustrations  in  Harp. 


II.    Wind  instrtinients  : 

9.  Keren,  "  horn,"  or  cornet,  Josh.  6:5; 
I  Chr.  25:5;  Psa.  150:4. 

10.  Shophar,  "trumpet,"  Num.  io:ro. 
Used  in  summoning  the  host,  etc.,  Exod. 
19:13;  Num.  10:10;  Judg.  3:27;  7:8;  2  Sam. 
6:15,  synonymously  with  keren. 

373 


MUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MYR 


11.  Chatzozkrah,  the  straight  trumpet, 
Num.  io:i-io;  Psa.  98:6. 

12.  JoBEL,  or  Keren  Jobel,  horn  of  ju- 
bilee, or  signal  trumpet,  Josh.  6:4.  Proba- 
bly the  same  with  9  and  10. 

13.  Chalil,  "pipe"  or  "flute."  The 
word  means  bored  through,  i  Sam.  10:5; 

1  Kin.  1:40;  Isa.  5:12;  30:29;  Jer.  48:36. 

14.  Mashrokitha,  Dan.  3:5,  etc.  Prob- 
ably the  Chaldaean  name  for  the  flute  with 

2  reeds. 

15.  Ugab,  "  organ  "  in  our  version,  Gen. 
4:21;  Job  21:12;  30:31;  Psa.  150:4.  It 
means  a  double  or  manifold  pipe ;  proba- 
bly the  same  as  the  syrinx  or  Pan's  pipe; 
or  perhaps  resembling  the  bagpipe,  num- 
bered 16  in  the  cut.    See  Dulcimer. 


III.  Instruments  zvhich  gave  out  sound 
07i  being  struck. 

17.  ToPH,  Gen.  31:27,  the  tambourine 
and  all  instruments  of  the  drum  kind, 
Exod.  15:20;  Job  21:12;  Psa.  68:25*  Isa. 
24:8. 

18.  Paamon,  "bells,"  E.\od.  28:33;  39:25. 
Attached  to  the  hem  of  the  high-priest's 
garment. 

19.  Tzeltzelim,  "  cymbals,"  2  Sam. 
6:5;  I  Chr.  16:5;  Psa.  150:5.  A  word  fre- 
quently occurring.  There  were  proba- 
bly 2  kinds,  hand-cymbals  and  finger-cym- 
bals. 

20.  Shaltshim,  I  Sam.  18:6.  In  our  ver- 
sion "  instruments  of  music."  Margin, 
"three-stringed  instruments."  Most  wri- 
ters identify  it  with  the  triangle. 

21.  Menaaneim,  "cymbals,"  2  Sam.  6:5, 
A.  V.  "  cornets."  Probably  the  sistrum. 
The  Hebrew  word  means  to  shake.  The 
sistrum  was  generally  about  16  or  18  inches 
long,  occasionally  inlaid  with  silver,  and 

374 


being  held  upright,  was  shaken,  the  bars 
moving  to  and  fro  in  the  frame. 

Further  particulars  concerning  some  of 
these  may  be  found  under  the  names  they 
severally  bear  in  our  English  Bible.  In 
Dan.  6: 18,  for  "  instruments  of  music  "  we 
should  perhaps  read  "  concubines." 

MUS'TARD.  A  species  of  this  annual 
shrub,  Sinapis  nigra,  is  found  in  Palestine, 
growing  to  the  height  of  7  to  9  feet,  and 
with  a  stem  more  than  an  inch  thick.  Prof. 
Hacket,  while  examining  a  field  of  these 
plants,  saw  a  bird  of  the  air  come  and  lodge 
in  the  branches  before  him,  Matt.  13:31,  32; 
Mark  4:31,  32.  "  A  grain  of  mustard"  was 
used  proverbially  to  denote  anything  ex- 
tremely small,  Matt.  17:20. 

MUTH-LAB'BEN,  in  the  title  of  Psalm  9, 
is  of  unknown  signification. 

MUZ'ZLE.     See  Thkkshint,. 

MY'RA,  balsams,  a  town  of  Lycia,  where 
Paul  embarked,  on  his  way  from  Cassarea 
to  Rome,  on  board  a  ship  of  Alexandria, 
Acts  27:5.  It  is  now  called  by  the  Turks 
Dembra. 


MYRRH:    BAI.SAMODENDRON    MVRRHA. 

MYRRH,  bitter,  a  precious  gum  yielded 
by  a  tree  common  in  Abyssinia  and  Ara- 


MYR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MYS 


bia,  which  is  about  8  or  9  feet  high,  its 
wood  hard  and  its  trunk  thorny.  It  was  of 
several  kinds,  and  of  various  degrees  of 
excellence.  The  best  was  an  ingredient 
in  the  holy  ointment,  Exod.  30:23.  It  was 
also  employed  in  perfumes,  Esth.  2:12; 
Psa.  45:8;  Song  4:6;  5:5,  13;  and  in  em- 
balming, to  preserve  the  body  from  cor- 
ruption, John  19:39.  The  magi  who  came 
from  the  East  to  worship  Christ  offered 
him  myrrh.  Matt.  2:11. 

In  Mark  15:23  is  mentioned  "wine  min- 
gled with  myrrh,"  which  was  offered  to 
Jesus  previous  to  his  crucifixion,  and  in- 
tended to  deaden  the  anguish  of  his  suffer- 
ings. It  was  a  custom  among  the  Hebrews 
to  give  such  stupefying  liquors  to  persons 
who  were  about  to  be  capitally  punished, 
Prov.  31:6.  Some  have  thought  that  the 
myrrhed  wine  of  Mark  is  not  the  same  as 
the  "vinegar  mingled  with  gall"  of  Matt. 
27:34.  They  suppose  the  myrrhed  wine 
was  given  to  our  Lord  from  a  sentiment  of 
sympathy,  to  prevent  him  from  feeling  too 
sensibly  the  pain  of  his  sufferings ;  while 
the  potation  mingled  with  gall,  of  which  he 
would  not  drink,  was  given  from  cruelty. 
But  the  other  explanation  is  the  more  prob- 
able.    See  Gall. 

Another  word  so  translated  in  Gen.  37 :  25 ; 
43 : 1 1 ,  is  thought  to  be  the  ladanum  of  com- 
merce, a  resinous,  aromatic,  and  narcotic 
gum,  from  a  low  tree  called  the  "rock- 
rose,"  or  Cistus  creticus. 


MYRTLE  :    MYRTUS   COMMUNIS. 

MYR'TLE,  a  beautiful  and  delightfully 
fragrant  evergreen-tree,  growing  wild 
throughout  the  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
the  north  of  Africa,  and  the  temperate 
parts  of  Asia,  principally  on  the  seacoast. 
The  leaves  are  of  a  rich  and  polished 
green,  the  flowers  white,  with  sometimes  a 


tinge  of  red  externally,  and  the  berries  are 
of  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  violet  or  whi- 
tish, sweetish,  and  with  the  aromatic  fla- 
vor which  distinguishes  the  whole  plant. 
These  are  used  for  spices  in  the  Levant. 
It  furnishes  a  useful  tonic  medicine,  and 
was  among  the  Jews  an  emblem  of  justice. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  8:15;  Isa.  41:19; 
55: 13;  Zech.  1:8,  10,  II. 

MYS'IA,  a  province  in  the  northwest  cor- 
ner of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  by  the 
Propontis,  west  by  the  .lEgean  Sea,  south 
by  Lydia,  and  east  by  Bithynia.  Paul 
traversed  this  country  on  his  first  journey 
to  Europe,  Acts  16:7,  8. 

MYS'TERY  means  strictly  a  secret,  and 
is  so  used  when  spoken  of  the  heathen 
"mysteries"  or  secret  rites,  which  were 
full  of  abominations.  In  the  Scriptures  the 
word  often  denotes  those  revealed  truths 
of  religion  which,  without  a  revelation  from 
God,  would  have  remained  unknown  to 
man,  Matt.  13:11.  Our  Saviour  says  to  his 
disciples  that  they  are  peculiarly  happy, 
because  God  has  revealed  to  them  "  the 
mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  Matt. 
16:17;  11:25;  Luke  10:21-24.  Paul  ex- 
plains the  word  in  Eph.  3:1-6;  and  often 
speaks  of  the  mystery  of  the  gospel,  of  the 
mystery  of  the  cross  of  Christ,  of  the  mys- 
tery of  Christ  which  was  unknown  to  for- 
mer ages,  of  the  mystery  of  the  incarna- 
tion, the  resurrection,  etc.,  Rom.  11:25; 
I  Cor.  2:7-10;  4:1-3;  13:2;  15:51;  Eph. 
3:4-6;  Col.  2:2;  I  Tim.  3:9,  16.  The  union 
of  Christ  and  his  church,  illustrated  by  mar- 
riage, is  a  mystery,  Eph.  5:31,  32.  These 
are  in  one  sense  mysteries,  not  only  be- 
cause they  included  some  things  which 
stretch  beyond  all  human  thought,  and  oth- 
ers which  would  never  have  been  known 
if  the  Son  of  God  and  his  Holy  Spirit  had 
not  revealed  them,  but  also  because  they 
were  not  opened  indifferently  to  every  one, 
according  to  the  advice  of  Christ  to  his 
apostles,  "  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto 
the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before 
swine,"  i  Cor.  2:14.  In  one  place  mystery 
seems  to  denote  the  whole  cycle  of  God's 
secret  plan  in  the  administration  of  the 
gospel,  gradually  unfolded  even  to  the  end, 
Rev.  10:7;  11:15. 

Mystery  signifies  also  an  allegory,  that 
is,  a  mode  of  information  under  which  par- 
tial instruction  is  given,  a  partial  discovery 
is  made,  but  there  is  still  a  cover  of  some 
kind,  which  the  person  who  desires  to 
know  the  whole  must  endeavor  to  remove. 
So  the  mystery  of  the  7  stars.  Rev.   1:20, 

375 


NAA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAB 


is  an  allegory  representing  the  7  Asiatic 
churches  under  the  symbol  of  7  burning 
lamps.  So  the  mystery,  "  Babylon  the 
Great,"  is  an  allegorical  representation  of 
the  spiritual  Babylon,  idolatry,  spiritual 
fornication,  etc.,  "  I  will  tell  thee  the  mys- 
tery of  the  woman,"  that  is,  I  will  explain 
to  thee  the  allegory  of  this  figure,  Rev. 
iJ'-S)  7-  The  "mystery  of  iniquity"  in 
2  Thess.  2:7,8,  is  the  wicked  principle  af- 
terwards developed  in  Antichrist. 

Christianity  is  a  revelation,  a  "  manifes- 
tation of  the  truth,"  2  Cor.  4:2,  and  has  no 
"mysteries"  for  a  priestly  few,  no  secret 
doctrines  to  be  withheld  from  public  teach- 
ing. And  while  it  is  impossible  for  the 
finite  ever  to  comprehend  the  infinite,  yet 
much  spiritual  truth  is  revealed  only  to 
those  who  live  nearest  to  God  and  study 
his  Word  most  devoutly. 


N. 

NA'AM,  pleasantness,  a  son  of  Caleb, 
I  Chr.  4: 15. 

NA'AMAH,  pleasant,  I.,  a  descendant  of 
Cain,  Gen.  4:22. 

II.  An  Ammonite  wife  of  Solomon,  mo- 
ther of  Rehoboam,  i  Kin.  14:21,  31;  2  Chr. 
12:13.     Compare  i  Kin.  11  :i. 

III.  A  town  of  Western  Judah,  Josh. 
15:41;  probably  Naaneh,  8  miles  east  of 
Yebna. 

IV.  Some  unknown  region  of  Arabia, 
the  home  of  Zophar,  Job  2:11;  1 1 :  i ;  20 :  i . 

NA'AMAN,  pleasantness,  I.,  a  grandson 
of  Benjamin,  Gen.  46:21;  Num.  26:40;  ap- 
parently called  Uzzi  in  i  Chr.  T.-j. 

II.  The  valiant  and  highly-esteemed  gen- 
eral of  Ben-hadad  II.,  king  of  Damascene 
Syria  in  the  time  of  Joram  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  afflicted  with  the  leprosy ;  but  was 
miraculously  cured  on  washing  7  times  in 
the  Jordan.  Lev.  14:7,  according  to  the  di- 
rection of  Elisha,  2  Kin.  5.  He  had  found 
all  his  honor  and  power  valueless,  and  all 
physicians  of  no  avail  for  his  cure ;  was  led 
to  renounce  his  pride  and  avail  himself  of 
the  simple  remedy  prescribed,  and  being 
cured,  was  grateful  not  only  to  the  prophet, 
but  to  the  prophet's  God.  He  frankly 
yielded  to  the  evidence  which  proved  that 
Jehovah  was  the  living  and  true  God ;  and 
took  home  with  him  2  mule-loads  of  earth 
for  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  E.xod.  20 :  24.  With 
respect  to  his  attending  Ben-hadad  while 
in  the  temple  of  Rimmon,  the  prophet  gave 
him  no  precise  rule,  but  dismissed  him  in 
376 


peace,  discerning,  we  may  suppose,  a  grow- 
ing fear  and  love  of  God  which  would  pre- 
serve him  from  all  even  outward  homage 
to  the  idol.  See  Gehazi.  It  is  an  unde- 
signed confirmation  of  the  authenticity  of 
Scripture  that  Luke,  "  the  physician,"  is 
the  only  evangelist  who  refers  to  this  mir- 
acle of  healing,  Luke  4:23-27.  A  hospital 
for  lepers  occupies  the  professed  site  of 
Naaman's  house  at  Damascus. 

NA'ARAH,  a  girl,  wife  of  Ashur,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  4:5,  6. 

NA'ARAI,  youthful,  an  officer  high  in 
David's  army,  i  Chr.  11:37;  called  Paarai, 
2  Sam.  23:35. 

NA'ARAN,  juvenile,  in  Josh.  16:7,  Na'- 
.■VR.^TH,  a  town  of  Ephraim,  towards  the 
east  border,  i  Chr.  7:28.  Probably  Kh.  el- 
Aujah,  6  miles  north  of  Jericho,  overlook- 
ing the  Jordan  valley. 

NA'ASHON,  Exod.  6:23,  in  the  A.  V.  Na- 
As'soN,  Matt.  1:4;  Luke  3:32.    See  Nah- 

SHON. 

^K'^KL.,  foolish,  a  descendant  of  Caleb, 
owner  of  a  large  property  in  lands  and 
flocks,  at  Maon  and  Carmel  in  the  south 
of  Judah.  He  was  under  great  obligations 
to  David  for  protecting  him  from  the  rob- 
bers of  the  desert;  and  yet  in  the  very 
hour  most  suggestive  of  a  grateful  gener- 
osity he  churlishly  refused  David's  modest 
request,  quite  in  harmony  with  the  unwrit- 
ten law  of  the  times,  of  provisions  for  his 
needy  troop.  Indignant  at  this  ingratitude 
and  inhospitality,  David  was  soon  on  his 
way  to  put  him  and  his  men  to  the  sword. 
Hai)pily,  the  discreet  intervention  of  Abi- 
gail convinced  David  that  vengeance  did 
not  belong  to  him,  and  averted  this  catas- 
trophe. Ten  da\s  after  the  Lord  smote 
him,  and  he  died,  i  Sam.  25.  See  Abigail. 
The  story  is  one  of  those  that  give  us  a 
glimpse  of  Hebrew  private  life. 

NA'BOTH,yr7///j  or  eminence,  an  Israel- 
ite at  Jezreel,  who  declined  selling  his  an- 
cestral vineyard  to  Ahab,  the  idolatrous 
king  of  Israel,  Lev.  25:23,  24;  and  was  in 
consequence  murdered,  on  a  false  charge 
of  blasphemy  contrived  by  Jezebel  the 
queen.  Ahab  took  immediate  possession 
of  the  coveted  vineyard — perhaps  as  being 
legally  forfeited  to  the  government,  con- 
struing blasphemy  as  treason;  or  it  may 
be  that  the  heirs,  his  children  having  per- 
ished with  him,  were  deterred  from  assert- 
ing their  claim  by  a  dread  of  the  unscrupu- 
lous arts  of  Jezebel.  Elijah,  however,  did 
not  fear  to  denounce  against  the  king  and 
queen  the  vengeance  of  One  "  higher  than 


'    {/M 


JERUSALEM  FROM  THE  MOUNT  OF  OLIVES. 


NAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAH 


thev,"  I  Kin.  21;  2  Kin.  9:24-26,  36;  Eccl. 
5:8: 

N A' CHON,  prepared,  a  threshing-floor  of 
Chidon,  adjoining  the  home  of  Obed-edom, 
near  which  Uzzah  was  slain — a  place  hence 
called  Perez-uzzah,  2  Sam.  6:6;  i  Chr.  13:9. 

NA'CHOR.     See  Nahor. 

NA'DAB,  liberal,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of 
Aaron  and  Elisheba,  Exod.  6 :  23 ;  Num.  3 : 2, 
anointed  to  the  priesthood,  Exod.  28:  i.  He 
was  chosen  to  await  the  descent  of  Moses 
from  his  long  interview  with  Jehovah  on 
Sinai,  E.xod.  24:  i.  He  and  Abihu  used  un- 
consecrated  and  forbidden  fire  in  burning 
incense.  Lev.  6:12;  10:1,  2;  Num.  3:4; 
26:61,  and  were  slain  for  their  presump- 
tion. Nadab  left  no  children,  i  Chr.  24:2. 
See  Abihu. 

n.  Son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  B.  C.  954,  and 
reigned  less  than  2  years,  being  assassina- 
ted while  besieging  Gibbethon,  then  in  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines,  by  Baasha,  of  the 
tribe  of  Issachar,  who  usurped  his  king- 
dom. Nadab  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord;  and  with  him  perished  his  children 
and  the  race  of  Jeroboam,  as  God  had  fore- 
told by  Ahijah,  i  Kin.  14:5-11;  15:25-30. 
Compare  i  Kin.  16:9-15  as  to  retribution 
on  Baasha's  posterity  at  the  same  place. 

IIL  Son  of  Shammai,  tribe  of  Judah, 
I  Chr.  2:28,  30. 

IV.  Son  of  Jehiel,  a  Benjamite,  founder 
of  Gibeon,  i  Chr.  8:30;  9:36. 

NAG'GE,  in  R.  V.  NAG'GAI,  brig-htness, 
a  son  of  David,  and  an  ancestor  of  Jesus, 
Luke  3:25;  possibly  the  man  called  Nea- 
riah  in  i  Chr.  3:22,  23. 

NA'HALAL,  and  NA'HALOL,  pashtre,  a 
Levitical  town  of  Zebulun,  Josh.  19:15; 
21 :35,  from  which  the  Canaanites  were  not 
at  once  wholly  excluded,  Judg.  1:30;  traced 
at  Mallil,  8^/^  miles  west  of  Mount  Tabor. 

NAHA'LIEL,  torrent  of  God,  51st  station 
of  the  Israelites,  Num.  21:19,  ^  wady  join- 
ing the  Arnon  from  the  north. 

NA'HARI,or  NAHARA'I,  snoring,  2  Sam. 
23:37;  I  Chr.  11:39,  Joab's  armor-bearer. 

NA'HASH,  serpent,  I.,  a  powerful  and 
brutal  king  of  the  Ammonites,  who  be- 
sieged Jabesh-gilead  and  offered  its  citi- 
zens barbarous  terms  of  capitulation,  but 
was  defeated  by  Saul,  who  came  to  their 
relief,  i  Sam.  11;  12:12.  He,  or  his  son  of 
the  same  name,  befriended  David,  as  did 
Shobi  son  of  Nahash,  2  Sam.  10:2;  17:27- 
29.     See  Hanun. 

II.  Apparently  the  husband  of  a  woman 
who  bore  him  Abigail  and  Zeruiah,  and 


was  afterwards  the  wife  of  Jesse,  2  Sam. 
17:25  ;   I  Chr.  2:16. 

NA'HATH,  rest,  I.,  an  Edomite  prince, 
Gen.  36:13,  17. 

II.  A  Levite,  ancestor  of  Samuel,  i  Chr. 
6:26;  called  Tohu  and  Toah  in  i  Sam.  1:1; 
I  Chr.  6:34. 

III.  A  Levite  under  Hezekiah,  2  Chr. 
31:13. 

NA'HOR,  Heb.  NA'CHOR,  snorting,  I., 
son  of  Serug,  and  father  of  Terah,  Gen. 
11:22-25;  Luke  3:34.      He  lived  148  years. 

II.  Son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abra- 
ham and  Haran.  He  married  Milcah  his 
niece  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  Gen.  11:26,  29, 
but  transferred  his  residence  to  Haran, 
Gen.  24:10;  27:43.  He  had  12  sons,  8  by 
his  wife,  and  4  by  his  secondary  wife  Reu- 
mah,  and  among  them  Bethuel,  the  father 
of  Rebekah,  Gen.  22:20-24.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  worshipper  of  the  true  God, 
Gen.  24:3,  4;  27:2;  31:53. 

NAH'SHON,  sorcerer.  See  N.\ASHON. 
He  was  the  son  of  Amminadab  and  one  of 
our  Lord's  ancestors.  Matt.  1:4;  Luke  3: 32; 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  desert. 
Num.  1:7;  2:3;  7:12;  10:14;  a"d  brother- 
in-law  of  Aaron,  Exod.  6:23;  Ruth  4: 18-20; 
I  Chr.  2: 10-12.  He  died  in  the  wilderness. 
Num.  26:64,  65.  His  son  Salmon  married 
Rahab. 

NA'HUM,  consolation,  the  7th  of  the  12 
minor  prophets.  The  circumstances  of 
Nahum's  life  are  unknown,  except  that  he 
was  a  native  of  Elkosh,  which  probably 
was  a  village  in  Galilee.  His  prophecy 
consists  of  3  chapters,  which  form  one  dis- 
course, in  which  he  foretells  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh  in  so  powerful  and  vivid  a 
manner  that  he  might  seem  to  have  been 
on  the  very  spot.  The  native  elegance, 
fire,  and  sublimity  of  his  style  are  univer- 
sally admired. 

Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  time  in 
which  Nahum  prophesied.  The  best  inter- 
preters adopt  Jerome's  opinion,  that  he 
prophesied  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  after 
the  war  of  Sennacherib  in  Egypt,  men- 
tioned by  Berosus.  Compare  Isa.  20:6  and 
Nah.  3:8.  Nahum  speaks  of  the  taking  of 
No-amon,  of  the  haughtiness  of  Rabsha- 
keh,  and  of  the  defeat  of  Sennacherib  as 
things  that  were  past.  He  implies  that  the 
tribe  of  Judah  were  still  in  their  own  coun- 
try, and  that  they  there  celebrated  their 
festivals.  He  notices  also  the  captivity 
and  dispersion  of  the  10  tribes.  Isaiah  and 
Micah  were  his  contemporaries.  Nineveh 
perished  about  100  years  later,  606  B.  C, 

377 


NAl 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAO 


and  its  exhumed  remains  well  accord  with 
his  description  of  it. 

NAILS  or  spikes  were  used  by  the  Ro- 
man soldiers  to  secure  the  Saviour  to  the 
cross,  John  20:25;  Col.  2:14.  The  "nail" 
with  which  Jael  killed  Sisera  was  rather  a 
tent-pin,  such  as  is  driven  into  the  ground 
in  order  to  fasten  the  cords  of  the  tent, 
Exod.  27:19;  Judg.  4:21,  22.  Sometimes 
tiie  Hebrew  word  is  used  for  the  wooden 
pins  or  iron  spikes  firmly  inwrought  into 
the  walls  of  a  building,  Ezra  9:8;  Ezek. 
15:3.  The  word  implies  fixedness,  Isa. 
22:23,  25,  and  a  firm  support,  Zech.  10:4. 
Another  Hebrew  word  describes  the  gold- 
en and  ornamental  nails  of  the  temple,  etc., 
2Chr.  3:9;  Eccl.  12:11;  Isa.  41 :7;  Jer.  10:4. 

NA'lti,  ^-reen  pastures,  where  Christ  per- 
formed one  of  his  chief  miracles,  in  raising 
to  life  a  widow's  only  son,  Luke  7:11-17, 
was  a  small  village  in  Galilee  beautifully 
situated  on  the  northwest  slope  of  Jebel  el- 
Duhy,  "the  hill  Moreh,"  4  miles  west  by 
south  of  Mount  Tabor,  and  looking  west 
over  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  It  is  now  a 
petty  hamlet  of  some  20  poor  dwellings, 
amid  extensive  ruins,  and  is  called  Nein, 
The  tombs  are  still  found  in  the  suburbs, 
and  the  traveller  may  trace  with  some 
probability  the  path  by  which  Christ  ap- 
proached it. 

NAI'OTH,  diveUings,  the  abode  of  Sam- 
uel and  his  pupils  in  a  "  school  of  the  proph- 
ets," I  Sam.  19:18-24;  20:1.  It  appeai-s  to 
have  been  a  suburb  of  Ramah ;  and  David, 
having  sought  refuge  there  with  Samuel, 
was  pursued  by  Saul. 

NA'KED,  in  the  literal  sense.  Gen.  2:25; 
Job  1:21;  Eccl.  5:15;  so  Hades  and  all  se- 
cret things  are  wholly  uncovered  before 
God,  Job  26:6;  Heb.  4:13.  It  often  means 
no  more  than  "not  fully  dressed."  So  in 
John  21 : 7  Peter  had  on  only  his  inner  gar- 
ment or  tunic.  See  Garmknts.  So  prob- 
ably in  I  Sam.  19:24;  Isa.  20:2;  Mic.  1:8; 
Acts  19:16.  Sometimes  poorness  and  in- 
suflSciency  of  clothing  are  meant,  as  in  Jas. 
2:15.  So  in  Isa.  58:7;  2  Cor.  11:27.  A 
nation  is  said  to  be  "  naked  "  when  stripped 
of  its  defences,  wealth,  etc.,  Gen.  42:9; 
Exod.  32:25  ;  2  Chr.  28: 19;  Jer.  49: 10. 

"Nakedness"  in  the  Bible  denotes  not 
only  shameful  exposure,  but  all  sin,  espe- 
cially idolatry,  Exod.  32:25;  Ezek.  16:36. 
To  "  uncover  the  nakedness  "  denotes  an 
unlawful  or  incestuous  union.  Lev.  20:19. 

NAMES  among  the  Hebrews  were  fre- 
quently significant,  Gen.  2:19 — sometimes 
of  a  personal  or  family  trait,  and  some- 
378 


times  of  circumstances  attending  the  birth 
of  a  child ;  and  were  given  by  one  or  both 
the  parents,  either  at  birth  or  at  circumcis- 
ion, sometimes  with  the  counsel  of  friends, 
Ruth  4:17;  Luke  1:59.  In  many  cases  they 
were  divinely  suggested,  with  a  prophetic 
meaning,  Isa.  7:14;  8:3;  Hos.  1:4,  6,  9; 
Matt.  1:21;  Luke  1:13,  60,  63;  or  changed 
later  in  life  for  a  like  cause,  as  were  Abram, 
Sarai,  Jacob,  and  many  others;  often,  too, 
they  were  assumed  afterwards  to  commem- 
orate some  striking  occurrence  in  ones 
history.  Compare  the  cases  of  Ishmael, 
Esau  and  Jacob,  Moses,  Ichabod,  etc.,  Gen. 
16:11 ;  17:5;  25:25,  26;  Exod.  2:10;  I  Sam. 
4:21.  Compound  names  were  frequent; 
and  often  a  part  of  the  name  of  God,  jah, 
KL,  jEHO,  etc,  was  emploj-ed,  as  in  Elie- 
zer,  Exod.  18:4,  Samuel,  Josiah,  Adonijah. 
Sometimes  a  whole  phrase  was  formed  into 
a  name,  as  Elioenai,  to  Jehovati  are  mine 
eyes,  i  Chr.  4:36.  Names  of  idols  were 
often  made  part  of  a  child's  name,  as  that 
of  Baal ;  or  children  took  the  parent's  name, 
with  the  prefix  of  Ben  or  Bar,  for  son,  or 
Bath,  meaning  daughter.  The  New  Tes- 
tament names  are  chiefly  ancient  and  fam- 
ily names  perpetuated,  Luke  1:61.  The 
men  of  the  East  change  their  names  for 
slight  causes;  and  hence  many  per.sons  oc- 
cur in  the  Bible  bearing  2  or  more  names, 
Ruth  1:20;  2  Sam.  23:8;  John  1:42;  Acts 
4:36.  Kings  often  changed  the  names  of 
those  to  whom  they  gave  offices,  Dan.  i  :6, 7; 
hence  the  honor  and  privilege  implied  in  a 
"  new  name,"  Rev.  2:17;  3:12.  Many  slight 
inflections  of  the  same  Hebrew  name  give 
it  a  very  different  appearance  to  an  Eng- 
lish eye,  as  Geshem  and  Gashmu,  Neh. 
6:1,  6.  A  Hebrew  name  was  sometimes 
transferred  to  the  Greek  with  but  little 
change :  thus  Elijah  became  Elias.  But 
sometimes  it  was  exchanged  for  the  Greek 
word  of  the  same  meaning,  though  very 
different  in  form;  Thomas  became  Didy- 
mus,  and  Tabitha,  Dorcas. 

The  "name  "  of  God  is  put  for  God  him- 
self, or  for  his  perfections,  Exod.  34:6; 
Psa.  8:1 ;  20:1  ;  John  17:26.  See  Jehovah. 
The  apostles  wrought  miracles  by  Christ's 
power,  Acts  3:6;  4:10;  and  they  baptized 
into  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  into  a  living 
union  with  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Spirit,  Matt.  28:19.  To  "raise  up  the 
name  of  the  dead  "  is  explained  in  Ruth  4 ; 
while  to  "put  out"  one's  name  means  to 
extinguish  his  family,  Psa.  9:5. 

NAO'MI,  my  deli£-ht  — contrasted  with 
Mara,  diiier,  Ruth  1:20,  21— wife  of  Elime- 


NAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAT 


lech,  of  Bethlehem,  where  she  was  highly 
esteemed,  ver.  19.  The  family  removed  to 
Moab  in  a  time  of  famine,  where  her  hus- 
band and  her  2  sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion, 
died,  leaving  with  her  their  young  Moabite 
widows,  Orpah  and  Ruth.  On  returning 
to  Judah  she  put  to  the  test  her  2  daugh- 
ters-in-law, and  though  both  loved  her, 
only  Ruth  loved  God  and  chose  the  better 
part.     See  Ruth. 

NA'PHISH,  or  NE'PHISH,  refreshed,  nth 
son  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  25:15;  i  Chr.  1:31; 
5 :  19-23.  His  posterity  were  a  pastoral 
people,  somewhere  on  the  southeast  of 
Harmon. 

NAPH'TALI,  my  wrestling,  the  6th  son 
of  Jacob,  and  the  2d  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's 
handmaid,  the  name  implying  Rachel's 
earnest  prayer  for  him.  Gen.  30:7,  8.  We 
know  but  few  particulars  of  the  life  of 
Naphtali.  His  sons  were  4,  Gen.  46:24; 
Exod.  1:4;  I  Chr.  7:13.  The  patriarch 
Jacob,  when  he  gave  his  blessing,  said, 
"  Naphtali  is  a  hind  let  loose ;  he  giveth 
goodly  words,"  graceful  and  eloquent,  Gen. 
49:21.     See  Hind. 

The  tribe  of  Naphtali,  called  Nephthalim 
in  Matt.  4:15,  A.  V.,  were  very  numerous  at 
the  exodus,  standing  midway  in  numbers 
and  in  position  in  the  camp  with  Dan  and 
Asher,  Num.  1 :43;  2:25-31.  Their  territory 
in  the  Holy  Land,  called  "  the  west  and  the 
south,"  A.  v.,  literally  "  the  sea  and  the 
circuit,"  Deut.  33:23;  Josh.  19:32-39,  was  in 
a  rich  and  fertile  portion  of  Northern  Pal- 
estine, having  Asher  on  the  west,  the  Upper 
Jordan  and  a  large  part  of  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias on  the  east,  and  running  north  into  the 
Lebanon  range,  some  lower  offshoots  of 
which  prolonged  to  the  south  formed  the 
"mountains  of  Naphtali,"  Josh.  19:32-39; 
20:7.  They  were  the  first  to  suffer  from 
hostile  approach  through  the  Lebanon  val- 
ley. They  attended  in  force  at  the  corona- 
tion of  David,  i  Chr.  12:34,  and  are  men- 
tioned with  honor  in  the  wars  of  the  Judges, 
Judg.  1:33;  5:18;  6:35;  7:23,  as  much  re- 
duced by  the  Syrians,  i  Kin.  15:20,  and  as 
among  the  first  captives  to  Assyria,  2  Kin. 
15:29;  Isa.  9:1.  Barak  was  their  most  no- 
table leader,  Judg  4:6-16.  Our  Saviour 
spent  much  time  in  the  southern  part  of 
this  region,  Matt.  4:13-15;  Mark  2:1-12, 
partially  fulfilling  Isa.  9:1,  2. 

NAPHTU'HIM,  Gen.  10:13;  I  Chr.  i:ii; 
possibly  to  be  traced  in  the  ancient  Mem- 
phites,  who  had  a  divinity  named  Phtah, 
see  NoPH ;  or  in  Naphata,  at  the  great 
bend  of  the  Nile  in  Meroe,  now  Soudan. 


NAP'KIN,  probably  a  linen  band  used 
either  as  a  turban  or  a  girdle,  Luke  19:20; 
John  11:44;  20:7;  translated  "handker- 
chief" in  Acts  19:12. 

NARCIS'SUS,  daffodil,  a  Roman,  many 
of  whose  household  Paul  salutes  as  Chris- 
tians, Rom.  16:  II. 

NA'THAN,  given,  L,  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
a  friend  and  counsellor  of  David.  He  as- 
sisted the  king  in  organizing  public  wor- 
ship and  the  temple  service,  2  Chr.  29:25, 
and  approved  his  purpose  of  building  a 
temple  to  the  Lord,  laut  by  divine  direction 
transferred  its  accomplishment  to  Solo- 
mon, 2  Sam.  7:1-17.  By  a  fine  parable, 
pointedly  applied,  he  convicted  David  of 
his  guilt  in  respect  to  Uriah  and  Bathshe- 
ba,  2  Sam.  12;  Psa.  51;  and  his  bold  fidel- 
ity here  seems  to  have  been  appreciated 
by  David  (see  Nathan,  H.),  and  is  worthy 
of  everlasting  remembrance:  Solomon  was 
probably  educated  under  his  care,  2  Sam. 
12:25,  and  was  effectually  aided  by  him 
in  his  peaceful  succession  to  the  throne, 
I  Kin.  I.  He  wrote  some  memorials,  long 
since  lost,  of  both  David  and  Solomon, 
I  Chr.  29:29.  From  2  Chr.  9:29  he  seems 
to  have  lived  through  a  large  part  of  Solo- 
mon's reign,  and  if  so  must  have  been 
much  younger  than  David.  Two  of  his 
sons  were  high  officers  at  Solomon's  court, 
I  Kin.  4:5. 

n.  A  son  of  David,  said  to  be  by  Bath- 
sheba,  i  Chr.  3:5;  14:4;  Zech.  12:12;  an 
ancestor  of  Christ,  Luke  3:31.  See  Gene- 
alogy. 

\\\.  A  Syrian  of  Zobah,  2  Sam.  23:36. 

IV.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  2:36. 

V.  A  friend  of  Ezra,  sent  for  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  restored  temple,  Ezra8:i6. 
Perhaps  not  the  son  of  Bani,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  foreign  wife,  Ezra  10:39. 

NATHAN'AEL,  the  gift  of  God,  a  disci- 
ple of  Christ,  probably  the  same  as  B.\r- 
THOLOMEW,  which  see.  He  was  a  native 
of  Cana  in  Galilee,  John  21:2,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  to  recognize  the  Messiah,  who 
at  their  first  interview  manifested  his  per- 
fect acquaintance  with  Nathanael's  secret 
heart  and  Messianic  hopes,  John  1:45-51. 
He  was  introduced  by  Philip  to  Jesus,  who 
on  seeing  him  pronounced  that  remarka- 
ble eulogy  which  has  rendered  his  name 
almost  another  word  for  sincerity :  "  Behold 
an  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom  is  no  guile." 
He  saw  Christ  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  after 
his  resurrection,  John  21:2,  witnessed  the 
ascension,  and  returned  with  the  other 
apostles  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  1:4,  12,  13. 

379 


NAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAZ 


NA'TION,  used  in  the  Bible  in  its  ordi- 
nary sense,  but  in  some  passages  implying 
not  only  foreigners  as  distinct  from  the 
Jews,  but  heathen,  as  in  Psa.  9:17,  20;  Isa. 
9:1;  36:18;  37:12.  The  term  nation  some- 
times denotes  the  inhabitants  of  a  country, 
Deut.  4:34,  the  country  itself,  Exod.  34:10, 
one's  fellow-countrymen.  Acts  26:4,  or  the 
founder  of  a  people.  Gen.  25:23.  In  Phil. 
2: 15  read  "generation,"  as  in  R.  V. 

NA'TURE  and  NAT'URAL  point  to  the 
origin,  birth,  and  native  character  of  a  per- 
son or  thing,  Rom.  2:27;  Gal.  2:15;  4:8; 
sometimes  as  merely  animal,  Rom.  1:26, 
27;  I  Cor.  11:14;  2  Pet.  2:12;  Jude  10;  and 
sometimes  as  distinguished  from  spiritual 
and  regenerate,  i  Cor.  2:14;  15:44,  46; 
Eph.  2:3. 

NAUGHT,  worthless,  2  Kin.  2:19;  Prov. 
20: 14;  Jer.  24:2.    Naugh'ty,  wicked,  Prov. 


6:12.  Naugh'tiness,  wickedness,  i  Sam. 
17:28;  Jas.  1 :2i. 

NA'UM,  Luke  3:25,  A.  V.     See  Nahum. 

NA'VEL,  Job  40:16;  Ezek.  16:4;  used 
figuratively  in  Prov.  3:8.  In  Song  7:2  per- 
haps a  bodice  or  similar  vestment. 

NAZARENE',  Matt.  2:23;  Acts  24:5,  and 
OF  NAZ'ARETH,  elsewhere,  as  in  Matt. 
21:11;  Mark  1:24;  14:67;  16:6;  Luke  4:34; 
Acts  2 :  22.  The  prophets  foretold,  Psa.  22 : 7, 
8 ;  Isa.  53 : 2,  that  the  Messiah  should  be  de- 
spised and  rejected  of  men ;  and  this  epi- 
thet, which  was  at  first  simply  a  designation 
of  his  residence,  but  afterwards  came  to 
be  used  as  a  term  of  reproach,  showed  the 
truth  of  these  predictions,  John  19:19;  Acts 
22:28.  He  is  called  Netser,  the  Heb.  root 
of  Nazareth,  in  Isa.  11  :i.  Nazareth  was  a 
small  city  in  the  north  part  of  Palestine. 
See  Galilee  and  Nazareth. 


MODERN    NAZARETH,  SEEN    FROM   THE   SOUTH. 


NAZ'ARETH,  from  the  Heb.  Netser,  a 
sprout,  the  early  home  of  the  Saviour,  com- 
pare Isa.  11: 1,  a  city  of  Lower  Galilee, 
about  65  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  in  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun.  It  was 
situated  on  the  side  of  a  hill  overlooking 
from  the  northwest  a  rich  and  beautiful 
valley,  surrounded  by  hills,  with  a  narrow 
outlet  towards  the  south,  opening  on  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  the  mouth  of  this 
ravine  the  monks  profess  to  show  the  place 
where  the  men  of  the  city  were  about  to 
cast  Jesus  from  the  precipice,  Luke  4:29. 
3S0 


Nazareth  is  nearly  6  miles  west-northwest 
of  Mount  Tabor,  and  nearly  half  way  from 
the  Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
called  "the  city  of  Jesus,"  because  it  was 
his  residence  during  the  first  30  years  of 
his  life,  Matt.  2:23;  Luke  1:26;  2:39,  51; 
4: 16.  He  visited  it  during  his  public  min- 
istry, but  did  not  perform  many  miracles 
there  because  of  the  unbelief  of  the  people, 
Matt.  13:54-58;  Luke  4: 16.  It  is  not  even 
named  in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  by  Jose- 
phus,  and  appears  to  have  been  a  small 
city  of  no   very   high   repute,  John   1:46. 


NAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAZ 


The  modern  town,  en-Nasirah,  is  a  seclu- 
ded village  of  5,000  inhabitants,  Greek  and 
Latin  Christians  and  Mohammedans.  It 
lies  1,144  fset  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  towns  in  Syria. 
Its  houses  are  of  stone,  2  stories  high,  with 
flat  roofs.  It  contains  a  mosque,  an  old 
synagogue  of  the  6th  century,  a  large  Fran- 
ciscan monastery  on  the  site  of  a  church  of 
the  Crusaders,  a  Maronite  church,  a  Greek 
church,  an  English  church,  a  hospital,  and 
an  orphanage.  East  of  the  town  is  a  per- 
ennial fountain  where  our  Lord  must  often 
have  slaked  his  thirst.  See  Wells.  The 
house  of  Joseph,  a  bull  of  Leo  X.  affirms, 
was  transported  through  the  air  to  Loretto 
in  the  13th  century;  but  he  failed  to  ex- 
plain the  change  of  the  material  from  the 
light  limestone  of  Nazareth  to  the  dark  red 
stone  of  the  Loretto  house.  The  tradition- 
ary "  Mount  of  the  Precipitation  "  is  nearly 
2  miles  from  the  town,  too  remote  to  have 
answered  the  purpose  of  the  enraged  Naz- 
arenes,  while  there  were  several  precipi- 
tous spots  close  at  hand  where  the  fall  is 
still  from  30  to  50  feet. 

From  the  summit  of  the  hill  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  which  Nazareth  lies  is  a  truly 
magnificent  prospect.  Towards  the  north 
the  eye  glances  over  the  countless  hills  of 
Galilee,  and  reposes  on  the  majestic  and 
snow-crowned  Hermon.  On  the  east  the 
Jordan  vallej'  may  be  traced,  and  beyond 
it  the  dim  heights  of  ancient  Bashan.  To- 
wards the  south  spreads  the  broad  and 
beautiful  plain  of  Esdraelon,  with  the  bold 
outline  of  Mount  Tabor  and  parts  of  Little 
Hermon  and  Gilboa  visible  on  its  eastern 
border,  and  the  hills  of  Samaria  on  the 
south,  while  Carmel  rises  on  the  west  of 
the  plain  and  dips  his  feet  in  the  blue  wa- 
ters of  the  Mediterranean.  Says  Dr.  Rob- 
inson in  his  "  Biblical  Researches  in  Pales- 
tine," "  I  remained  for  some  hours  upon 
this  spot  lost  in  the  contemplation  of  the 
wide  prospect  and  of  the  events  connected 
with  the  scenes  around.  In  the  village  be- 
low the  Saviour  of  the  world  had  passed 
his  childhood;  and  although  we  have  few 
particulars  of  his  life  during  those  early 
years,  yet  there  are  certain  features  of  na- 
ture which  meet  our  eyes  now  just  as  they 
once  met  his.  He  must  often  have  visited 
the  fountain  near  which  we  had  pitched  our 
tent,  his  feet  must  frequently  have  wan- 
dered over  the  adjacent  hills,  and  his  eyes 
have  doubtless  gazed  upon  the  splendid 
prospect  from  this  very  spot.  Here  the 
Prince   of  peace  looked   down   upon  the 


great  plain  where  the  din  of  battles  so  oft 
had  rolled  and  the  garments  of  the  war- 
rior been  dyed  in  blood;  and  he  looked 
out,  too,  upon  that  sea  over  which  the  swift 
ships  were  to  bear  the  tidings  of  his  salva- 
tion to  nations  and  to  continents  then  un- 
known. How  has  the  moral  aspect  of 
things  been  changed !  Battles  and  blood- 
shed have  indeed  not  ceased  to  desolate 
this  unhappy  country,  and  gross  darkness 
now  covers  the  people;  but  from  this  re- 
gion a  light  went  forth  which  has  enlight- 
ened the  world  and  unveiled  new  climes; 
and  now  the  rays  of  that  light  begin  to  be 
reflected  back  from  distant  isles  and  con- 
tinents to  illuminate  anew  the  darkened 
land  where  it  first  sprang  up." 

NAZ'ARITE,  rather  NAZ'IRITE,  separa- 
ted, i.  e.,  unto  God,  compare  Gen.  49:26; 
Lev.  22:2;  Deut.  33:16;  or  crowned,  Num. 
6:5,  7;  I  Sam.  1:11;  Judg.  13:4-14;  Lam. 
4:7;  under  the  ancient  Hebrew  law  a  man 
or  woman  engaged  by  a  vow  to  abstain 
from  all  intoxicating  liquors,  and  from  the 
fruit  of  the  vine  in  any  form;  to  let  the 
hair  grow;  not  to  enter  any  house  polluted 
by  having  a  dead  body  in  it,  nor  to  be 
present  at  any  funeral.  If  by  accident  any 
one  died  in  their  presence  they  recom- 
menced the  whole  of  their  consecration  and 
Nazariteship.  This  vow  generally  lasted  8 
days,  sometimes  a  month,  and  sometimes 
during  their  whole  lives.  When  the  time 
of  Nazariteship  expired  the  person  brought 
a  number  of  sacrifices  and  offerings  to 
the  temple — the  burnt-offering,  sin-offer- 
ing, and  peace-ofTering,  20  cakes  anointed 
with  oil,  the  customary  meat  and  drink 
offering.  Num.  28,  and  a  free-will  offering ; 
the  priest  then  cut  off  his  hair  and  burned 
it,  after  which  he  was  free  from  his  vow, 
Num.6;  Amos  2:11,  12.  Perpetual  Naza- 
rites  were  consecrated  as  such  by  their 
parents  from  their  birth,  as  was  proposed 
by  the  mother  of  Samuel,  i  Sam.  i:ii,  and 
continued  all  their  lives  in  this  state,  nei- 
ther drinking  wine  nor  cutting  their  hair. 
Such  were  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist, 
Judg.  13:4,  5;  Luke  1:15;  7:2,3-  Nazarite- 
ship was  a  symbolical  recognition  of  the 
obligation  to  keep  soul  and  body  holy  unto 
the  Lord,  Rom.  12:1. 

As  the  cost  of  the  offerings  required  at 
the  expiration  of  the  term  of  Nazariteship 
was  very  considerable  for  the  poor,  they 
were  often  relieved  by  persons  not  Naza- 
rites,  who  assumed  these  charges  for  them 
for  the  sake  of  performing  an  act  of  piety 
and  charity.     Paul  availed  himself  of  this 

381 


NEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEB 


custom  to  disarm  the  jealousy  of  those  who 
represented  him  as  hostile  to  the  faith  of 
their  fathers.  He  took  4  Christian  Jews 
whose  vow  of  Nazariteship  was  accom- 
plished, assumed  the  expense  of  their  offer- 
ings, and  with  them  went  through  the  cus- 
tomary services  and  purifications  at  the 
temple.  Acts  21:20-26.  There  is  also  in 
Acts  iS:i8  an  unexplained  allusion  to  some 
similar  vow  made  by  Paul  himself,  or  per- 
haps by  Aquila,  probably  in  view  of  some 
danger  escaped  or  some  blessing  received. 

NE'AH,  descent,  a  town  in  Zebulun,  Josh. 
19:13;  now  Kh.  Nejeimiyeh,  11  or  12  miles 
north  of  Mount  Tabor. 

NEAP'OLIS,  new  city,  a  maritime  city 
of  Macedonia,  near  the  borders  of  Thrace, 
whither  Paul  came  from  the  isle  of  Samo 
thracia  on  his  1st  visit  to  Europe,  Acts 
16:11.  From  Neapolis  he  went  to  Philippi. 
He  also  touched  it  twice  on  his  2d  visit, 
Acts  20:1,  6.  It  is  now  the  Turkish  Ka- 
valla,  on  a  promontory,  with  Mount  Sym- 
bolum  in  the  rear. 

NEARI'AH,  seti'ant  0/ Jehovah,  I.,  i  Chr. 
4:41-43— II-   I  Chr.  3:22,  23. 

HK'BAl,  fruitful,  Neh.  10:19. 

NEBA'IOTH,  and  NEBA'JOTH,  heights, 
the  firstborn  son  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  25:13, 
whose  posterity  occupied  the  pasture- 
grounds  of  Arabia  Deserta,  Isa.  60:7,  and 
ultimately  possessed  themselves  of  Edom. 
They  are  thought  to  have  been  the  Naba- 
theans  of  profane  history.     See  Idum^a. 

NEBAL'LAT,  secret  folly,  Neh.  11:34,  a 
town  on  the  border  of  Benjamin  and  Dan ; 
now  Beit  Nebala,  3  miles  nprtheast  of 
Lydda. 

NE'BAT,  aspect,  father  of  king  Jeroboam, 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  living  at  Zereda, 
I  Kin.  II  :26;  2  Chr.  9:29. 

NE'BO,  prophet,  I.,  a  town  in  the  vicinity 
of  Bethel  and  Ai,  Ezra  2:29;  10:43;  Neh. 

7:33- 

II.  A  city  of  Reuben,  Num.  32:38,  taken 
by  the  Moabites,  who  held  it  in  the  time  of 
Jeremiah,  Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  48:1,  22. 

III.  A  mountain  of  Moab,  whence  Moses 
had  a  view  of  the  promised  land,  and  where 
he  died.  It  is  a  summit  of  the  range  Aba- 
rim,  "over  against  Jericho,"  Deut. 32:49;  34. 
Jebel  Nebbah,  3  miles  southwest  of  Hesh- 
bon,  and  7  or  8  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan,  best  answers  the  Scriptural 
demands,  though  not  a  jirominent  height. 
It  has  several  rounded  summits,  about  2,700 
feet  above  the  sea.  Israel  encamped  "  be- 
fore," i.  e.,  on  the  east  of  Nebo,  before  cross- 
ing the  Jordan. 

382 


IV.  An  idol  of  the  Babylonians,  Isa.  46:  i. 
In  the  astrological  mythology  of  the  Baby- 
lonians this  idol  probably  represented  the 


NEBO:  ASSYRIAN;   BRITISH  MUSEUM. 

god  and  planet  Mercury.  It  was  also  wor- 
shipped by  the  ancient  Arabians.  The  ex- 
tensive prevalence  of  this  worship  among 
the  Chaldaeans  and  Assyrians  is  evident 
from  the  many  compound  proper  names 
occurring  in  the  Scriptures  of  which  this 
word  forms  part ;  as  Nebuchadnezzar,  Ne- 
buzar-adan,  Nebushasban,  Jer.  39:9,  13; 
48:1,  and  also  in  the  classics,  as  Naboned, 
Nabonassar,  Nabopolassar,  etc. 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR,  or  rather,  as  in 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  NEBUCHADREZ'- 
ZAR,  Nebo  his  protector,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Nabopolassar,  who  was  the  first 
who  reigned  over  Chaldaea  after  the  down- 
fall of  Assyria.  The  son  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom  of  Chaldaea  about  604  B.  C.  He 
had  been  some  time  before  associated  in 
the  kingdom,  and  was  sent  to  recover  Car- 
chemish,  which  had  been  wrested  from  the 
empire  by  Necho  king  of  Egypt.  Having 
been  successful,  he  marched  against  the 
governor  of  Phoenicia,  and  Jehoiakim  king 
of  Judah,  tributary  to  Necho  king  of  Egypt. 


NEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEB 


He  took  Jehoiakim  and  put  him  in  chains 
to  carry  him  captive  to  Babylon  ;  but  after- 
wards he  left  him  in  Judoea,  on  condition 
of  his  paying  a  large  annual  tribute.  He 
took  away  several  persons  from  Jerusalem ; 
among  others,  Daniel,  Hananiah,  Mishael, 
and  Azariah,  all  of  the  royal  family,  whom 
the  king  of  Babylon  caused  to  be  carefully 
educated  in  the  language  and  learning  of 
the  Chaldaeans,  that  they  might  be  em- 
ployed at  court,  2  Kin.  24:1;  2  Chr.  36:6; 
Dan.  1:1. 

Nabopolassar  dying,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who  was  then  either  in  Egypt  or  Judaea, 
hastened  to  Babylon,  leaving  to  his  gener- 
als the  care  of  bringing  to  Chaldcea  the 
captives  taken  in  Syria,  Judaea,  Phoenicia, 
and  Egypt;  for,  according  to  Berosus,  he 
had  subdued  all  these  countries.  He  dis- 
tributed these  captives  into  several  colo- 
nies, and  in  the  temple  of  Belus  he  depos- 
ited the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  and  other  rich  spoils.  Jehoia- 
kim king  of  Judah  continued  3  years  in 
fealty  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  then  revolt- 
ed ;  but  after  3  or  4  years  he  was  besieged 
and  taken  in  Jerusalem,  put  to  death,  and 
his  body  thrown  to  the  birds  of  the  air, 
according  to  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah, 
ch.  22. 

His  successor,  Jehoiachin,  or  Jeconiah, 
king  of  Judah,  having  revolted  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  was  besieged  in  Jerusa- 
lem, forced  to  surrender,  and  taken,  with 
his  chief  officers,  captive  to  Babylon ;  also 
his  mother,  his  wives,  and  the  best  work- 
men of  Jerusalem,  to  the  number  of  10,000 
men.  Among  the  captives  were  Kish,  the  an- 
cestor of  Mordecai,  and  Ezekiel,  the  proph- 
et, Esth.  2:6.  Nebuchadnezzar  also  took 
all  the  vessels  of  gold  which  Solomon  made 
for  the  temple  and  the  king's  treasury,  and 
set  up  Mattaniah,  Jeconiah 's  uncle  by  the 
father's  side,  whom  he  named  Zedekiah. 
Zedekiah  continued  faithful  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar 9  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he 
rebelled,  and  confederated  with  the  neigh- 
boring princes.  The  king  of  Babylon  came 
into  Judaea,  reduced  the  chief  places  of  the 
country,  and  besieged  Jerusalem;  but  Pha- 
raoh-hophra  coming  out  of  Egypt  to  assist 
Zedekiah,  Nebuchadnezzar  went  to  meet 
him,  and  forced  him  to  retire  to  his  own 
country,  Jer.  37:5,  8;  Ezek.  17:15.  This 
done,  he  resumed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
which  continued  more  than  a  year.  In  the 
nth  year  of  Zedekiah,  B.  C.  588,  the  city 
was  taken,  and  Zedekiah,  being  seized, 
Jer.  39:5,  was  brought  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 


who  was  then  at  Riblah  in  Hamath.  The 
king  of  Babylon  condemned  him  to  die, 
caused  his  children  to  be  put  to  death  in 
his  presence,  and  then  bored  out  his  eyes, 
loaded  him  with  chains,  and  sent  him  to 
Babylon,  2  Kin.  24;  25;  2  Chr.  36. 

During  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  the 
city  of  Babylon  and  the  kingdom  of  Babj- 
lonia  attained  their  highest  pitch  of  splen- 
dor. He  conquered  Phoenicia,  bringing  to 
a  close  a  long  siege  of  Tyre,  and  ravaged 
Egypt,  Jer.  46:1-26;  Ezek.  29:2-20;  30:6. 
He  constructed  great  reservoirs,  canals, 
and  palaces,  and  fortified  Babylon  with 
triple  walls.  The  bricks  now  found  in 
scores  of  places  through  that  region  all 
bear  his  name.  He  took  great  pains  in 
adorning  Babylon;  and  this  was  one  great 
object  of  his  pride.  "  Is  not  this,"  said  he, 
"  great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built  for  the 
house  of  my  kingdom,  by  the  might  of  my 
power,  and  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty?" 
But  God  vanquished  his  pride,  afflicting 
him  with  that  strange  form  of  madness 
called  zoanthropy,  under  which  a  man 
thinks  himself  changed  to  some  beast,  and 
acts  accordingly.  For  7  years,  apparently, 
Dan.  4:i'6,  he  thus  suffered,  till  he  learned 
wisdom  and  was  restored,  according  to  the 
predictions  of  Daniel.  See  Dan.  1-4.  An 
inscription  found  among  the  ruins  on  the 
Tigris,  and  now  in  the  East  India  House 
at  London,  gives  an  account  of  the  various 
works  of  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Babylon  and 
Borsippa.  Abruptly  breaking  off,  the  rec- 
ord says  the  king's  heart  was  hardened 
against  the  Chaldee  astrologers.  "  He 
would  grant  no  benefactions  for  religious 
purposes.  He  intermitted  the  worship  of 
Merodach,  and  put  an  end  to  the  sacrifice 
of  victims.  He  labored  under  the  effects 
of  enchantment."  Nebuchadnezzar  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  B.  C.  562,  after  a  reign 
of  about  43  years.  He  was  a  devoted  wor- 
shipper of  Bel-Merodach,  whose  gilded  im- 
age in  the  plain  of  Dura  was  60  cubits  high, 
with  its  pedestal.  Many  things  show  the 
cruelty  and  violence  of  his  nature.  His 
2d  queen,  Nitocris,  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
tus, was  an  Egyptian  woman. 

One  of  the  famous  structures  ascribed  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  in  which  no  doubt 
he  took  much  pride,  was  the  famous  "  hang- 
ing gardens,"  which  he  is  said  to  have 
erected  to  gratify  the  longing  of  his  first 
queen  Amuhia  for  elevated  groves  such  as 
she  was  accustomed  to  in  her  native  Me- 
dia. This  could  only  be  done,  in  a  coun- 
try so  level  as  Babylonia,  by  constructing 

383 


NEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEC 


an  artificial  mountain;  and  accordingly 
the  king  caused  one  to  be  made,  400  feet 
square  and  over  75  feet  high.  The  succes- 
sive terraces  were  supported  on  ranges  of 
regular  piers,  covered  by  large  stones,  on 
which  were  placed  thick  layers  of  matting 
and  of  bitumen  and  2  courses  of  stones, 
which  were  again  covered  with  a  solid 
coating  of  lead.  On  such  a  platform  an- 
other similar,  but  smaller,  was  built,  etc. 
The  various  terraces  were  then  covered 
with  earth,  and  furnished  with  trees,  shrub- 
bery, and  flowers.  The  whole  was  watered 
from  the  Euphrates,  which  flowed  at  its 
base,  by  machinery  within  the  mound. 
These  gardens  occupied  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  prodigious  area  of  the  palace, 
the  wall  inclosing  the  whole  being  6  miles 
in  circumference.  Within  this  were  2  other 
walls  and  a  great  tower,  besides  the  palace 
buildings,  courts,  gardens,  etc.  All  the 
gates  were  of  brass,  which  agrees  with  the 
language  used  by  Isaiah  in  predicting  the 
capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  Isa.  45:12. 
The  ruins  of  the  hanging  gardens  are  be- 
lieved to  be  found  amid  the  vast  irregular 
mound  called  Kasr,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Euphrates,  800  yards  by  600  at  its  base. 
The  bricks  taken  from  this  mound  are  of 
fine  quality,  and  are  all  stamped  with  the 
name  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Another  labor  of  this  monarch  was  that, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  now  called  Birs- 
Nimrfid,  about  8  miles  southwest  of  the 
above  structure.  See  Babel.  The  re- 
searches of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  have 
shown  that  this  was  built  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar on  the  platform  of  a  ruinous  edifice 
of  more  ancient  days.  It  had  7  terraces. 
On  the  top  was  the  sanctum  and  observa- 
tory of  the  temple,  now  a  vitrified  mass. 
Each  story  was  dedicated  to  a  different 
planet,  and  stained  with  the  color  appro- 
priated to  that  planet  in  their  astrological 
system.  The  lowest,  in  honor  of  Saturn, 
was  black;  that  of  Jupiter  was  orange,  that 
of  Mars  red,  that  of  the  Sun  yellow,  that  of 
Venus  green,  and  that  of  Mercury  blue. 
The  temple  was  white,  probably  for  the 
moon.  In  the  corners  of  this  long-ruined 
edifice,  recently  e.vplored,  were  found  cyl- 
inders with  arrow-headed  inscriptions,  in 
the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  inform 
us  that  the  building  was  named  "  The  Sta- 
ges of  the  Seven  Spheres  of  Borsippa," 
that  it  had  been  in  a  dilapidated  condition, 
and  that,  moved  by  Merodach  his  god,  he 
had  reconstructed  it  with  bricks  enriched 
w^  lapis  lazuli,  "without  changing  its  site 

«      384 


or  destroying  its  foundation  platform." 
This  restoration  is  also  stated  to  have  ta- 
ken place  504  years  after  its  first  erection 
in  that  form  by  Tiglath-pileser  I.,  1 100  B.  C. 
If  not  actually  on  the  site  of  tlie  tower  of 
Babel  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Belus  described  by  Herodotus,  this 
building  would  seem  to  have  been  erected 
on  the  same  general  plan.  Every  brick 
yet  taken  from  it  bears  the  impress  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar. Borsippa  appears  to  have 
been  a  suburb  of  ancient  Babylon. 

NEBUSHAS'BAN,  adorer  of  Nebo,  the 
Rab-saris  or  chief  chamberlain  of  the  king 
of  Babylon,  like  Ashpenaz,  Dan.  1:3;  lie 
sent  officials  to  release  Jeremiah  from  pris- 
on, Jer.  39:3,  13.     Compare  2  Kin.  18:17. 

NEBUZAR'-ADAN,  "  chief  of  the  execu- 
tioners "  under  king  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
his  agent  in  the  sacking  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  2  Kin.  25:8-21;  Jer.  39:8-10. 
He  greatly  befriended  Jeremiah  by  the 
king's  direction,  Jer.  39:11;  40:1-5.  Sev- 
eral years  later  he  carried  away  745  addi- 
tional captives,  Jer.  52:12-30. 

NE'CHO,  or  Pharaoh-necho,  an  Egyp- 
tian king,  mentioned  not  only  in  Scripture, 
but  by  Herodotus,  who  says  that  he  was 
son  of  Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
that,  having  succeeded  him  in  the  king- 
dom, he  raised  great  armies,  and  sent  out 
great  fleets,  as  well  on  the  Mediterranean 
as  the  Red  Sea;  that  he  expended  a  vast 
sum  and  many  thousand  lives  in  a  fruitless 
effort  to  unite  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  by 
a  canal ;  and  that  he  was  the  first  to  send  a 
ship  wholly  around  Africa.  Josiah  king  of 
Judah  being  tributary  to  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon, opposed  Necho  on  his  ist  expedition 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  gave  him 
battle  at  Megiddo,  where  he  received  the 
wound  of  which  he  died,  and  Necho  pressed 
forward  without  making  any  long  stay  in 
Palestine.  On  his  return  from  the  Euphra- 
tes, where  he  had  taken  and  garrisoned  the 
city  of  Carchemish,  B.  C.  610,  he  halted  in 
Riblah  in  Syria,  and  sending  for  Jehoahaz, 
king  of  the  Jews,  he  deposed  him,  loaded 
him  with  chains,  and  sent  him  into  Egypt. 
Then  coming  to  Jerusalem,  he  set  up  Elia- 
kim,or  Jehoiakim,  Josiah's  firstborn,  in  his 
place,  and  exacted  the  payment  of  100  tal- 
ents of  silver  and  i  talent  of  gold.  The 
accompanying  cut,  from  the  great  "  Tomb 
of  the  Kings  "  in  Egypt,  explored  by  Bel- 
zoni,  is  believed  to  represent  4  Jewish  hos- 
tages or  captives  of  distinction  presented 
before  Pharaoh-necho.  One  of  them  may 
be  meant  for  Jehoahaz.    They  were  colored 


NEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEH 


■white;  and  with  them  were  4  red,  4  black, 
and  4  others  white,  supposed  to  represent 
Babylonians,  Ethiopians,  etc.  They  were 
led  before  the  king,  seated  on  his  throne, 
by  one  of  the  hawk-headed  figures  so  fre- 
quent on  Egyptian  monuments.  Jeremiah, 
46:2,  tells  us  that  Carchemish  was  retaken 
by  the  army  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  in  the 
4th  year  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah ;  so 
that  Necho  did  not  retain  his  conquests 
in  Syria  more  than  4  years,  2  Kin.  23:29  to 
24:7;  2  Chr.  35:20  to  36:6. 

NECK.  The  phrases  to  "  harden  the 
neck,"  Prov.  29:1, and  to  be  "stiff-necked," 
like  a  headstrong  brute,  illustrate  the  wil- 
ful obstinacy  of  sinners  against  the  instruc- 
tions and  commands  of  God.  The  3'oke  of 
sin  is  of  iron,  Deut.  28 :  48,  but  that  of  Christ 
is  easy.  Matt.  11:29.  "To  lay  down  the 
neck"  is  to  hazard  one's  life,  Rom.  16:4. 
Conquerors  of  ancient  days  sometimes  put 
their  feet  on  the  prostrate  necks  of  princes 
in  token  of  their  subjugation,  trampling 
them  in  the  dust.  This  is  often  shown  in 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments.  Their 
mischief  sometimes  returned  upon  their 
own  heads.  Josh.  10:24;  Psa.  18:40. 

NECROMANCER,  one  who  pretended  to 
discover  unknown  and  future  events  by 
summoning  and  interrogating  the  dead, 
Deut.  18: 10,  II ;  2  Kin.  21 :6;  2  Chr.  33:6,  a 
crime  punishable  by  stoning  to  death,  Lev. 
19:31;  20:27.  See  Sorcerer.  No  good 
reason  can  be  given  for  believing  that  such 
pretended  communications  with  departed 
spirits  are  less  offensive  to  God  now  than 
in  the  time  of  Moses,  Isa.  8:19;  29:4. 

25 


NEE'DLE,  Matt.  19:24.  See  Camel. 
"Needlework"  in  Judg.  5:30  denotes  em- 
broidery. 

NEES'ING,  translated  sneezing  in  2  Kin. 
4:35 ;  used  in  Job  41 :  18  to  describe  the  vio- 
lent breathing  of  the  enraged  leviathan,  or 
crocodile. 

NEGI'NAH,  or  NEGI'NATH,  in  title  of 
Psa.  61,  and  NEGI'NOTH,  Hab.  3 :  19,  a  gen- 
eral name  of  stringed  instruments  used  by 
the  Hebrews,  or  the  music  or  song  for 
them,  I  Sam.  18:6;  Psa.  68:25,  translated 
"song"  in  Job  30:9;  Psa.  77:6;  Lam.  3:14. 
Psalms  4,  6,  54,  55,  67,  and  76  are  addressed 
to  the  chief  musician  with  Neginoth.  See 
Music. 

NEHEMI'AH,  consoled  by  Jehovah,  L,  the 
son  of  Hachaliah,  brother  of  Hanani,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  Neh.  1:1,  2;  2:3;  3:7,  pos- 
sibly of  the  royal  family.  He  was  born  at 
Babylon  during  the  captivity,  and  sustained 
the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  the  Persian  king 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  at  Susa.  Touched 
by  the  calamitous  state  of  the  colony  of 
Jews  which  had  formerly  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, he  laid  their  case  before  God  in 
penitent  and  importunate  prayer,  and  at 
length  besought  the  king  of  Persia  to  per- 
mit him  to  go  to  Jerusalem  and  aid  in  re- 
building it.  He  was  accordingly  sent 
thither  as  governor  in  the  20th  year  of  Ar- 
taxerxes, about  444  B.  C.  He  directed  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  great  but  essential 
task  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  the  city. 
The  enmity  of  the  Samaritans,  under  which 
the  colony  had  formerly  suffered,  was  now 
increased;  and  under  Sanballat,  the  gov- 

385 


NEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEP 


ernor  of  the  country,  they  cast  all  possible 
hindrances,  by  artifice  and  slander,  in  the 
way  of  the  Jews.  They  even  went  so  far 
as  to  attack  the  laborers  at  their  work,  so 
that  Nehemiah  had  to  cause  them  to  labor 
with  arms  in  their  hands ;  yet  in  one  year 
their  task  was  completed.  In  this  great 
work,  and  in  his  whole  administration,  his 
pious  zeal  and  disinterestedness,  courage, 
and  liberality,  his  love  for  the  people  and 
city  of  God,  and  his  prayerful  reliance  on 
divine  aid  were  crowned  with  success.  He 
had  the  cooperation  of  faithful  friends,  es- 
pecially of  Ezra,  Neh.  8: 1,  9,  13;  12:36,  and 
instituted  many  excellent  civil  improve- 
ments. About  432  B.  C,  though  perhaps 
not  for  the  first  time,  he  returned  to  his 
post  at  the  court  of  Babylon,  Neh.  2:6: 
5:14;  13:6;  but  after  a  few  years  was  re- 
called to  Jerusalem  to  reform  certain  grow- 
ing irregularities — neglect  of  the  temple 
service,  breaches  of  the  Sabbath,  marria- 
ges with  the  heathen,  etc.  He  required  of 
those  Jews  who  had  married  heathen  wives 
that  they  should  either  abandon  them  or 
else  themselves  quit  the  country.  This 
voluntary  exile  of  a  number  of  discontent- 
ed priests  may  have  given  occasion  to  the 
building  of  the  temple  on  Mount  (ierizim 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Samaritan 
worship.  See  S.\xn.4LLAT.  The  repaired 
temple  and  walls  were  solemnly  rededica- 
ted,  and  he  suppressed  usury  and  exaction 
from  the  poor,  fed  the  destitute,  provided 
for  the  temple  service,  and  was  in  all  things 
a  model  for  rulers. 

The  BOOK  OF  Nehemiah  contains  the 
history  of  all  these  transactions,  written  by 
himself  near  the  close  of  his  long  life,  B.  C. 
400.?  It  is  a  sort  of  a  continuation  of  the 
book  of  Ezra,  and  was  called  by  some  of 
the  fathers  the  Second  book  of  Ezra.  Some 
portions  of  it,  as  ch.  8  and  9  and  12:1-26, 
appear  to  be  compilations  from  public  reg- 
isters, etc.  The  mention  of  Jaddua  as 
high-priest  and  of  some  late  names  of  the 
line  of  David,  ch.  12:10-22,  may  perhaps 
have  been  made  by  some  subsequent  in- 
spired writer.  The  book  contains  much 
information  as  to  the  topography  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  genealogy  of  prominent  He- 
brews, and  the  trades  and  customs  of  the 
people.  With  it  the  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  close. 

II.  One  who  returned  to  Jerusalem  with 
Zerubbabel,  Ezra  2:2;  Neh.  7:7. 

III.  Son  of  Azbuk,ajudahite,  whohelped 
to  rebuild  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:16. 

NEHI'LOTH,   perforated,    supposed    to 
386 


mean  flutes  or  wind  instruments;  found 
only  in  the  title  of  the  5th  Psalm,  which 
was  perhaps  to  be  sung  with  this  accom- 
paniment only. 

NE'HUM,  consoled,  Neh.  7:7;  rather  Re- 
hum,  which  see,  as  in  Ezra  2:2. 

NEHUSH'TA,  copper,  wife  of  Jehoiakim 
and  mother  of  the  j'oung  king  Jeconiah, 
with  whom  she  was  probably  associated  in 
the  government,  as  she  is  in  the  reproaches 
of  Jeremiah,  2  Kin.  24:8;  Jer.  13:18;  29:2. 

NEHUSH'TAN,  brazen,  or  0/  copper,  a 
name  given  in  contempt  to  the  brazen  ser- 
pent that  Moses  had  set  up  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Num.  21:8,  and  which  had  been  pre- 
served by  the  Israelites  to  that  time.  The 
superstitious  people  having  made  an  idol 
of  this  serpent,  Hezekiah  caused  it  to  be 
broken — a  mere  piece  of  brass,  2  Kin.  18:4. 
Memorials,  relics,  and  other  outward  aids 
to  devotion  which  men  rel^'  upon  often  have 
the  opposite  effect ;  the  visible  emblem 
hides  the  Saviour  it  ought  to  reveal,  John 
3:14-16. 

NEI'EL,  abode  of  God,  Josh.  19:27,  a 
town  of  Asher  towards  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishon  ;  traced  at  Tell  en-Nahl,  4  miles 
east  of  Haifa. 

NEIGH'BOR.  At  the  time  of  our  Saviour 
the  Pharisees  had  restrained  the  meaning 
of  the  word  "neighbor"  to  those  of  their 
own  nation,  or  to  their  own  friends,  hold- 
ing that  to  hate  their  enemy  was  not  for- 
bidden by  the  law.  Matt.  5:43.  But  our 
Saviour  informed  them  that  the  whole 
world  were  neighbors,  that  they  ought  not 
to  do  to  another  what  they  would  not  have 
done  to  themselves,  and  that  this  charity 
extended  even  to  enemies.  See  the  beau- 
tiful parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  the  real 
neighbor  to  the  distressed,  Luke  10:29-37. 

NE'KEB,  the  cavern,  a  town  in  Naphtali; 
now  Kh.  Seiyadeh,  4  miles  south  by  west 
from  Tiberias. 

NEKO'DA,y(7«/o//5,  I.,  the  head  of  a  fam- 
ilvtliat  returned  from  Babylon,  Ezra  2:48; 
Neh.  7:50. 

II.  Ezra  2:60;  Neh.  7:62. 

NEMU'EL,  day  of  God,  I.,  son  of  Sime- 
on, Num.  26:12;  I  Chr.  4:24;  called  Jem- 
UEL  in  Gen.  46:10;  Exod.  6:15. 

II.  A  Reubenite,  brother  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram,  Num.  26:9. 

NE'PHEG,  sprout,  I.,  son  of  Izhar,  Exod. 
6:21.-11.  A  son  of  David,  2  Sam.  5:14,  15; 
I  Chr.  3:7  ;   14:6. 

NEPH'EWS.Judg.  12:14;  Job  18:19;  ^sa. 
14:22;  I  Tim.  5:4,  A.  v.,  means  grandchil- 
dren. 


NEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NET 


NE'PHISH,  I  Chr.  1:31;  5:19.     See  Na- 

PHISH. 

NEPH'THALIM,  A.  V.,  Matt.  4:13,  15; 
Rev.  7:6.     See  Naphtali. 

NEPHTO'AH,  opening,  a  flowing  spring 
near  the  border  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
Josh.  15:8,  9;  18:14-16;  probably  Lifta,  a 
village  and  fountain  2^  miles  northwest  of 
Jerusalem. 

NER,  light,  son  of  Jehiel,  i  Chr.  8:29,  30, 
compared  with  9:35,  36,  father  of  Kish,  ver. 
39,  and  grandfather  of  Saul,  i  Chr.  8:33; 
9:39.  He  also  had  a  brother  named  Kish, 
I  Chr.  9:36.  Jehiel  seems  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  Gibeon. 

NE'REUS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  Rom. 
16:15. 

NER'GAL,  great  hero,  a  prominent  idol 
of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  wor- 
shipped by  the  Cuthite  heathen  who  were 
transplanted  into  Palestine,  2  Kin.  17:30. 
This  idol  probably  represented  the  planet 
Mars,  which  was  ever  the  emblem  of  blood- 
shed. Mars  is  named  by  the  Zabians  and 
Arabians  ill-luck,  niisfortiuie.  He  was  rep- 
resented as  holding  in  one  hand  a  drawn 
sword,  and  in  the  other,  by  the  hair,  a  hu- 
man head  just  cut  off;  his  garments  were 
blood-red,  as  the  light  of  the  planet  is  also 
reddish. 

NER'GAL -SHARE'ZER,  Nergal  prince 
of  fire,  I.,  a  chief  officer  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Jer.  39:3. 

II.  The  rab-mag  or  chief  of  the  magi- 
cians, supposed  to  be  Neriglissar  men- 
tioned by  Berosus,  who  killed  his  brother- 
in-law  Evil-merodach,  king  of  Babylon, 
B.  C.  559,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Laborosoarchod,  B.  C.  556. 

NE'RI,  an  ancestor  of  Christ,  Luke  3:27, 
28.     See  Neriah. 

NERI'AH,  Jehovah  my  lamp,  the  father 
of  Seraiah  and  Baruch,  Jer.  32:12;  36:8,  14, 
32;  43:6;  45:1;  51:59- 

NE'RO,  the  infamous  Roman  Caesar  be- 
fore whom  Paul  appeared,  Acts  25:it; 
28:16,  and  under  whom  he  became  a  mar- 
tyr. He  is  not  mentioned  by  name  except 
in  the  note  appended  to  2  Timothy,  but  is 
referred  to  in  Phil.  1:12,  13;  4:22.  During 
his  reign  Rome  was  almost  destroyed  by 
a  fire  which  continued  more  than  a  week 
and  consumed  many  public  buildings,  tem- 
ples, monuments,  libraries,  works  of  art, 
and  human  lives;  and  such  was  his  char- 
acter that  the  charge  that  he  caused  the  fire 
for  the  sake  of  rebuilding  the  city  in  finer 
style  is  generally  believed.  Nero  himself 
charged  the  crime  upon  the  Christians,  and 


instituted  a  merciless  persecution  against 
them,  A.  D.  64.  Some  were  sewed  up  in 
the  skins  of  animals  and  thrown  into  the 
arena  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  dogs ;  others 
were  wrapped  in  cloths  dipped  in  pitch, 
fastened  to  stakes,  and  set  on  fire  as  night- 
torches.  He  perished  by  his  own  hand, 
A.  D.  68. 

NEST,  a  symbol  of  security  and  comfort. 
Job  29:18.  Scripture  writers  notice  the 
adaptation  of  the  thick  foliage  of  the  cedar 
for  birds'  nests,  Ezek.  31:3-6;  of  the  flat 
branches  of  the  fir-tree  for  storks,  Psa. 
104: 17,  and  the  hollows  in  the  rocks  for  the 
blue  rock-dove,  still  found  around  the  Dead 
Sea,  Jer.  48:28;  also  the  fondness  of  the 
swallow  and  sparrow  for  human  habita- 
tions, Psa.  84:3.  The  eagle's  nest  on  lofty 
cliffs.  Job  39:27,  28;  Obad.  4,  pointed  a 
a  reproof  of  pride  and  ambition,  Jer.  49: 16 ; 
Hab.  2:9.  The  Kenite's  nest  was  "in  a 
rock,"  Num.  24:21,  22.  See  Sela.  The 
prohibition  of  taking  a  mother-bird  with 
her  young,  Maimonides  says,  was  designed 
to  save  the  whole  nest,  since  the  eggs  and 
newly-fledged  birds  could  not  lawfully  be 
eaten. 

NETHAN'EEL,  given  by  God,  the  name 
of  9  or  10  men  mentioned  in  Num.  1:8; 
I  Chr.  2:14;  15:24;  24:6;  26:4;  2  Chr.  17:7; 
35:9;  Ezra  10:22;  Neh.  12:21,  36. 

ti\Wl\ih.U\' Kyi,givenby Jehovah,  I.,  i  Chr. 
25:2,  12. — II.  2  Chr.  17:8. — III.  Jer.  36: 14.^ 
IV.  Jer.  41. 

NETH'ER,  lower;  as  the  lower  stone  of 
a  handmill,  Deut.  24:6;  the  foot  of  Sinai, 
Exod.  19:17;  the  regions  of  the  dead,  Ezek. 
32:18. 

NETH'INIM,  or  NETHI'NIM,  given  or 
consecrated,  a  term  first  applied  to  the  Le- 
vites,  who  were  "given"  to  the  priests,  to 
serve  them  in  holy  things,  Num.  3:9;  8: 19; 
but  after  the  settlement  in  Canaan  to  ser- 
vants dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  tab- 
ernacle and  temple,  to  perform  the  most 
laborious  offices,  as  carrying  of  wood  and 
water.  Num.  31:47.  The  Gibeonites  were 
destined  to  this  station,  Josh.  9:21-27;  after- 
wards other  Canaanites  who  surrendered 
themselves  and  whose  lives  were  spared. 
Many  of  them  appear  to  have  been  first 
assigned  to  David,  Solomon,  and  other 
princes,  and  by  them  transferred  to  the 
temple  service,  i  Kin.  9:20,  21;  Ezra  2:58, 
70;  8:20;  Neh.  11:3.  It  is  probable  that 
they  became  proselytes,  Exod.  12:48;  Deut. 
29:11 ;  Neh.  10:28,  and  that  many  of  them 
could  cordially  unite  with  David  in  saying, 
"  I  had  rather  be  a  doorkeeper  in  the  house 

387 


NET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIC 


of  mj'  God  than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of 
wickedness,"  Psa.  84:10.  The  Nethinim 
were  carried  into  captivity  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  and  great  numbers  were  placed 
not  far  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  whence  Ezra 
brought  220  of  them  into  Judaea,  Ezra  8:17. 
They  probably  lodged  within  the  precincts 
of  tile  temple,  and  helped  to  fortify  Ophel 
on  its  south  side,  Neh.  3:26,  31  ;   11 :2i. 

NETO'PHAH,  dropping, 3,  town  of  Judah, 
the  home  of  many  Levites,  singers,  i  Chr. 
9:16;  27:13,15;  Ezra2:22;  Neh. 7:26;  12:28. 
The  Netophathites  are  called  "  sons  "  of 
Salma,  who  was  probablj-  the  founder  of 
the  town,  i  Chr.  2:54.  See  2  Sam.  23:28, 
29;  2  Kin.  25:23;  Jer.  40:8. 

NETS  are  often  referred  to  in  Scripture, 
Prov.  1:17;  Eccl.  7:26;  Isa.  19:8,  9;  Hab. 
1 :  15,  16,  particularly  in  connection  with  the 
first  disciples  of  Christ,  Matt.  13:47-50; 
Luke  5:1-10.  Before  the  invention  of  fire- 
arms nets  were  much  used  in  hunting  and 
fowling,  and  possibly  in  catching  men,  as 
robbers,  etc..  Job  19:6;  Psa.  140:5;  Mic. 
7:2.  Among  the  ancient  Romans  there 
was  a  gladiatorial  game  in  which  one  man 
was  armed  with  sword  and  shield,  and  his 
antagonist  with  a  net,  by  casting  which  he 
strove  to  entangle  the  other  so  that  he 
might  easily  despatch  him  with  his  dagger. 
Drag-nets  were  used  in  fishing,  Isa.  19:8; 
Hab.  1:14-17;  John  21:6-11.  The  apostles 
were  to  be  fishers  of  men.  Matt.  4:18-22. 
In  Luke  5:6  read,  "  their  nets  were  break- 
ing," as  in  R.  V. 

NET'TLE,  a  well-known  stinging  plant, 
growing  in  neglected  grounds,  Isa.  34:13; 
Hos.  9:6.  A  different  Hebrew  word  in 
Job  30:7;  Prov.  24:31 ;  Zeph.  2:9,  seems  to 
indicate  a  larger  species,  or  perhaps  the 
charlock  or  wild  mustard. 

NEW  MOON.  The  new  moon  was  the 
commencement  of  each  of  the  Hebrew 
months.  See  Month.  The  Hebrews  had 
a  particular  veneration  for  the  first  day  of 
every  month,  for  which  Moses  appointed 
peculiar  sacrifices.  Num.  28:11-15;  but  he 
gave  po  orders  that  it  should  be  kept  as  a 
holy  day,  nor  can  it  be  proved  that  the  an- 
cients observed  it  as  such ;  it  was  a  festi- 
val of  merely  voluntary  devotion.  It  ap- 
pears that  at  the  time  of  Saul  they  made 
on  this  day  a  sort  of  family  entertainment ; 
since  David  ought  then  to  have  been  at  the 
king's  table,  and  Saul  took  his  absence 
amiss,  i  Sam.  20:5, 18.  Moses  implies  that, 
besides  the  national  sacrifices  then  regu- 
larly offered,  every  private  person  had  his 
particular  sacrifices  of  devotion,  Num. 
388 


10:10.  The  beginning  of  the  month  was 
proclaimed  by  sound  of  trumpet,  Psa.  81 :3, 
and  the  offering  of  solemn  sacrifices.  But 
the  most  celebrated  new  moon  was  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  year,  or  the  first 
day  of  the  month  Tishri,  Lev.  23:24.  This 
was  a  sacred  festival,  on  which  no  servile 
labor  was  performed,  Amos  8 : 5.  See  Trum- 
pet. In  the  kingdom  of  the  10  tribes  it 
seems  to  have  been  a  custom  of  the  people 
to  visit  the  prophets  at  the  new  moons  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  them  jiresents  and 
hearing  their  instructions,  2  Kin.  4:23.  Eze- 
kiel  says,  45: 17  (see  also  i  Chr.  23:31 ;  2  Chr. 
8: 13),  that  the  burnt-offerings  offered  on  the 
day  of  the  new  moon  were  to  be  provided 
at  the  kings  e.xpense.  The  observance  of 
this  festival  was  discontinued  soon  after 
the  establishment  of  Christianity,  (ial.  4:9, 
10;  Col.  2:16,  though  the  Jews  take  some 
notice  of  the  day  even  now. 

NEW  YEAR.    See  Trumpet. 

NEZI'AH,  illustrious,  Ezra  2:54;  Neh. 
7:56;  the  father  of  Nethinim  who  returned 
from  Babylon. 

NE'ZIB,  a gar7-ison,]o^\\.  15:43,  a  city  of 
Judah,  in  the  lower  hill  region;  now  Beit 
Nusib,  8"j  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

NIB'HAZ,  barker,  according  to  the  Rab- 
bins a  dog-shaped  or  dog-headed  divinity 
of  Babylon,  brought  into  Samaria  b_\-  the 
Avites,  2  Kin.  17:31. 

NIB'SHAN,  /7<r«ar^,  Josh.  15:62,  a  town 
in  Judah  towards  En-gedi,  from  Bethlehem. 

NICA'NOR.  z'iclor.  one  of  the  first  7  dea- 
cons who  were  chosen  and  appointed  at 
Jerusalem  soon  after  the  pentecostal  de- 
scent of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  6: 1-6. 

NICODE'MUS,  conqucior  of  the  people,  a 
member  of  the  Jewisli  Sanhedrin,  at  first  a 
Pharisee,  and  afterwards  a  disciple  of  Je- 
sus. He  was  early  convinced  that  Christ 
came  from  God,  but  was  not  ready  at  once 
to  rank  himself  among  His  followers.  In 
John  3:1-20  he  first  appears  as  a  timid  in- 
quirer after  the  truth,  learning  the  great 
doctrines  of  regeneration  and  atonement. 
In  John  7:45-52  we  see  him  cautiously  de- 
fending the  Saviour  before  the  Sanhedrin. 
At  last,  in  the  trying  scene  of  the  crucifi.x- 
ion,  he  avowed  himself  a  believer,  and 
came  with  Joseph  of  Arimathiea  to  pay  the 
last  duties  to  the  body  of  Christ,  which  they 
took  down  from  the  cross,  embalmed,  and 
laid  in  the  sepulchre,  John  19:39.  He  is 
named  only  by  John,  who  knew  the  high- 
priest.  As  a  "  teacher  "  he  belonged  to  the 
learned  class.  His  coming  to  Christ  at 
night  may  have  suggested  our  Lord's  words 


NIC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIL 


in  John  3:19-21.  Many  are  deterred  by  the 
fear  of  man  from  coming  to  the  Saviour  at 
all. 

NICOLA'ITANS,  heretical  persons  or 
teachers,  mentioned  in  Rev.  2:6,  15.  Com- 
pare 2  Pet.  2:12,  19;  Jude  4,  7,  S,  11,  12. 
Some  suppose  them  to  have  been  followers 
of  Nicolas  the  deacon,  but  there  is  no  good 
evidence  that  he  ever  became  a  heretic. 

NICOLAS,  conqueror  of  the  people,  a 
proselyte  of  Antioch,  that  is,  one  converted 
from  paganism  to  the  religion  of  the  Jews. 
He  afterwards  embraced  Christianity,  and 
was  among  the  most  zealous  of  the  first 
Christians,  so  that  he  was  chosen  one  of 
the  first  7  deacons  of  the  church  at  Jerusa- 
lem, Acts  6:5. 

NICOP'OLIS,  city  of  victory,  a  city  where 
Paul  spent  probaiily  the  last  winter  of  his 
life,  having  previously  written  to  Titus  in 
Crete  to  meet  him  there.  Tit.  3:12.  He  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  Nicopolis  in  Epi- 
rus,  which  stood  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Ambracian  Gulf,  opposite  to  Actium,  and 
which  was  built  by  Augustus  in  honor  of 
his  decisive  victory  over  Antony,  B.  C.  31. 
Its  extensive  ruins,  amid  wide  desolation, 
attest  its  former  magnificence. 

NI'GER,  black,  Acts  13:1,  the  surname  of 
Symeon,  a  teacher  in  the  church  at  Anti- 
och. 

NIGHT.  The  ancient  Hebrews  began 
their  artificial  day  at  sunset,  and  ended  it 
the  next  sunset,  so  that  the  night  preceded 
the  day.  This  usage  may  probably  be 
traced  to  the  terms  employed  in  describing 
the  creation,  Gen.  1:5,  8,  13,  etc.,  "The 
evening  and  the  morning  were  the  first 
day."  The  Hebrews  allowed  12  hours  to 
the  night  and  12  to  the  day;  but  these 
hours  were  not  equal,  except  at  the  equi- 
nox. At  other  times,  when  the  hours  of 
the  night  were  long,  those  of  the  day  were 
short,  as  in  winter ;  and  when  the  hours  of 
night  were  short,  as  at  midsummer,  the 
hours  of  day  were  long  in  proportion.  See 
Hour. 

The  nights  are  sometimes  extremely  cold 
in  Syria  when  the  days  are  very  hot ;  and 
travellers  in  the  deserts  and  among  the 
mountains  near  Palestine  refer  to  their  own 
sufferings  from  these  opposite  extremes,  in 
illustration  of  Jacob's  words  in  Gen.  31:40, 
"  In  the  day  the  drought  consumed  me,  and 
the  frost  by  night;  and  my  sleep  departed 
from  mine  eyes."  The  twilight  in  tropical 
regions  is  very  short.  Gen.  15: 17;  Job  24:15; 
Ezek.  12:6,  7,  12. 

Night  is  a  time  of  danger,  Judg.  7:19; 


Job  24 :  14 ;  Psa.  91:5,  and  a  symbol  of  igno- 
rance, Mic.  3:6,  adversity,  Isa.  21:12,  and 
death,  John  9:4.  In  heaven  there  are  none 
of  these  evils.  Rev.  22:5.  They  who  work 
deeds  of  darkness  are  children  of  night, 
Prov.  7:9;  1  Thess.  5:5-7.  The  life  of  the 
Christian  on  earth  is  but  a  night  before  the 
endless  day,  Rom.  13:12. 


THE   SCREECH    OWL:    STRIX   FLAMMEA. 

NIGHT-HAWK,  an  unclean  bird.  Lev. 
11:16;  Deut.  14:15.  Its  name  seems  to  in- 
dicate voracity,  and  is  therefore  thought 
by  many  to  point  out  the  white  Syrian  owl, 
tlie  Strix  flammea,  a  more  powerful  bird 
than  the  night-hawk,  and  exceedingly  vo- 
racious ;  it  sometimes  attacks  sleeping  chil- 
dren. 

NILE,  bhie,  the  celebrated  river  of  Egypt. 
It  takes  this  name  only  after  the  junction 
of  the  2  great  streams  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, the  Bahr  el-Abiad,  or  White  River, 
which  flows  from  the  Lake  Victoria  Nyan- 
za  30  south  of  the  equator.  Lake  Albert 
Nyanza  100  miles  west,  and  Lake  Tangan- 
yika, still  farther  south,  and  runs  northeast 
till  it  is  joined  by  the  other*branch,  the 
Bahr  el-Azrek,  or  Blue  River,  which  rises 
in  Abyssinia,  and  after  a  large  circuit  to 
the  southeast  and  southwest,  in  which  it 
passes  through  the  Lake  of  Dembea,  flows 
northwards  to  join  the  White  River.  This 
Abyssinian  branch,  the  chief  source  of  the 
alluvial  soil  that  enriches  Egypt,  has  in 
modern  times  been  regarded  as  the  real 
Nile,  although  the  White  River  is  much  the 
larger  and  longer,  and  was  in  ancient  times 
considered  as  the  true  Nile.  The  junction 
takes  place  at  Khartoum,  the  capital  of 
Soudan,  about  lat.  160  north.  From  this 
point  the  Nile  flows  always  in  a  northerly 
direction,  with  the  exception  of  one  large 

389 


NIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIL 


bend  to  the  west.  About  1,300  miles  from 
the  sea  it  receives  its  last  branch,  the  At- 
bara,  or  Tacazze,  a  large  stream  from  Abys- 
sinia, and  having  passed  through  Nubia,  it 
enters  Egypt  at  the  cataracts  near  Syene, 
or  Essuan,  which  are  formed  by  a  chain  of 
rock  stretching  east  and  west.  There  are 
here  3  falls;  after  which  the  river  pursues 
its  course  in  still  and  silent  majesty  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  500 
miles.  Its  average  breadth  is  about  700 
yards.  In  Lower  Egj'pt  it  divides  into 
several  branches  and  forms  the  celebrated 
Delta;  for  which  see  under  Egvpt.  See 
also  a  view  of  the  river  in  Amon.  Its  en- 
tire length  is  at  least  2,500  miles  in  a 
straight  line. 

In  the  Bible  the  Nile  is  called  the  Shihor 
in  Hebrew,  and  named  as  the  extreme 
western  boundary  of  the  promised  land. 
Josh.  13:3;  I  Chr.  13:5;  Jer.  2:18;  also  "the 
river"  and  its  branches,  Psa.  78:44;  Isa. 
7:18;  19:6;  Ezek.  29:3;  30:12;  the  "river 
of  Egypt,"  Gen.  15:18,  and  "of  Ethiopia," 
Heb.  Cush,  Isa.  18:1. 

As  rain  very  seldom  falls,  even  in  win- 
ter, in  Southern  Egypt,  Zech.  14:17, 18,  and 
usually  only  slight  and  infrequent  showers 
in  Lower  Egypt,  the  whole  physical  and 
political  existence  of  Egypt  may  be  said  to 
depend  on  the  Nile ;  since  without  this  riv- 
er, and  even  without  its  regular  annual  in- 
undations, the  whole  land  would  be  but  a 
desert.  These  inundations,  so  mysterious 
in  the  view  of  ancient  ignorance  and  su- 
perstition, are  caused  by  the  regular  peri- 
odical rains  in  the  countries  farther  south, 
around  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  in  March 
and  later.  The  river  begins  to  rise  in 
Egypt  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  con- 
tinues to  increase  through  the  month  of 
July.  In  August  it  overflows  its  banks, 
and  reaches  its  highest  point  September 
20th ;  and  the  country  is  then  mostly  cov- 
ered with  its  waters,  Jer.  46:7,  8;  Amos  8:8; 
9:5;  Nah.  3:8.  In  the  beginning  of  Octo- 
ber the  inundation  still  continues;  and  it 
is  only  towards  the  end  of  this  month  that 
the  stream  returns  within  its  banks.  From 
the  middle  of  August  till  towards  the  end 
of  October  the  whole  land  of  Egypt  resem- 
bles a  great  lake  or  sea,  in  which  the  towns 
and  cities  ap]:)ear  as  islands  connected  by 
dykes. 

The  cause  of  the  fertility  which  the  Nile 
imparts  lies  not  only  in  its  thus  watering 
the  land,  but  also  in  the  thick  slimy  mud 
which  its  waters  bring  down  and  deposit 
on  the  soil  of  Egypt.  It  is  like  a  coat  of 
390 


rich  manure;  and  the  seed  being  immedi- 
ately sown  upon  it,  without  digging  or 
ploughing,  springs  up  rapidly,  grows  with 
luxuriance,  and  ripens  into  abundance. 
See  Egypt. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  suprposed  that 
the  Nile  spreads  itself  over  every  spot  of 
land,  and  waters  it  sufficiently  without  arti- 
ficial aid.  Niebuhr  justly  remarks,  "  Some 
descriptions  of  Egypt  would  lead  us  to 
think  that  the  Nile  when  it  swells  lays  the 
whole  province  under  water.  The  lands 
immediately  adjoining  to  the  banks  of  the 
river  are  indeed  laid  under  water,  but  the 
natural  inequality  of  the  ground  hinders  it 
from  overflowing  the  interior  country.  A 
great  part  of  the  lands  would  therefore 
remain  barren  were  not  canals  and  reser- 
voirs formed  to  receive  water  from  the  river 
when  at  its  greatest  height,  which  is  thus 
conveyed  everywhere  through  the  fields, 
and  reserved  for  watering  them  when  occa- 
sion requires."  In  order  to  raise  the  water 
to  grounds  which  lie  higher,  machines  have 
been  used  in  Egypt  from  time  immemorial. 
These  are  chiefly  wheels  to  which  buckets 
are  attached.  One  kind  is  turned  by  oxen  ; 
another  smaller  kind  by  men  seated  and 
pushing  the  lower  spokes  from  them  with 
their  feet,  while  they  pull  the  upper  spokes 
towards  them  with  their  hands,  Deut. 
11:10-12. 

As  the  inundations  of  the  Nile  are  of  so 
much  importance  to  the  whole  land,  struc- 
tures have  been  erected  on  which  the  be- 
ginning and  progress  of  its  rise  might  be 
observed.  These  are  called  Nilometers, 
that  is,  "  Nile  measures."  At  present  there 
is  one  1,000  years  old  and  half  in  ruins  on 
the  little  island  opposite  Cairo;  it  is  under 
the  care  of  the  government,  and  according 
to  it  the  beginning  and  subsequent  pro- 
gress of  the  rise  of  the  Nile  were  carefully 
observed  and  proclaimed  by  authority.  If 
"the  inundation  reached  the  height  of  22 
Paris  feet,  a  rich  harvest  was  expected,  be- 
cause then  all  the  fields  had  received  the 
requisite  irrigation.  If  it  fell  short  of  this 
height,  and  in  proportion  as  it  thus  fell 
short,  the  land  was  threatened  with  want 
and  famine,  of  which  some  horrible  exam- 
ples occur  in  Egyptian  history.  Should 
the  rise  of  the  water  exceed  28  Paris  feet  a 
famine  was  in  like  manner  feared.  The 
annual  rise  of  the  river  also  varies  exceed- 
ingly in  difierent  parts  of  its  course,  being 
20  feet  greater  where  the  river  is  narrow 
than  in  Lower  Egypt.  The  channel  is 
thought    to   be   gradually   filling   up,   and 


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many  of  the  ancient  outlets  at  the  Delta 
are  dry  in  summer  and  almost  obliterated. 
The  drying  up  of  the  waters  of  Egypt 
would  involve  its  destruction  as  a  habita- 
ble land  to  the  same  extent;  and  this  fact 
is  recognized  in  the  prophetic  denuncia- 
tions of  this  remarkable  country,  Isa.  ii :  15; 
19:1-10;  Ezek.  29:10;  30:12. 

The  water  of  the  Nile,  although  during 
a  great  part  of  the  year  turbid,  from  the 
effects  of  the  rains  above,  yet  furnishes, 
when  purified  by  settling,  the  softest  and 
sweetest  water  for  drinking.  Its  excel- 
lence is  acknowledged  by  all  travellers. 
The  Egyptians  are  full  of  its  praises,  and 
even  worshipped  the  river  as  a  god. 

The  Hebrews  sometimes  gave  both  to 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile  the  name  of 
"sea,"  Isa.  19:5;  Nah.  3:8.  In  this  they 
are  borne  out  by  Arabic  writers,  and  also 
by  the  common  people  of  Egypt,  who  to 
this  day  commonly  speak  of  the  Nile  as 
"the  sea.''  It  was  formerly  celebrated  for 
its  fish.  Compare  Num.  11:5;  Isa.  19:8. 
In  its  waters  were  likewise  found  the  croc- 
odile or  leviathan,  and  the  hippopotamus 
or  behemoth.     See  Egypt  and  Sihor. 

In  excavating  in  the  Nile  valley  a  piece 
of  glazed  pottery  was  found  at  such  a  depth 
that  Bunsen  declared  it  must  have  been 
dropped  there  11,000  or  13,000  years  B.  C. ; 
but  such  estimates  have  been  proved  utter- 
ly unreliable.  Champollion  concedes  that 
110  Egyptian  monument  is  older  than  2,200 
B.C. 

The  Nile  is  rendered  famous  by  the  his- 
tory of  Joseph,  of  the  7  years  of  plenty  and 
7  years  of  famine.  Gen.  41,  the  story  of  the 
infant  Moses,  Exod.  2,  of  2  of  the  10  plagues 
of  Egypt,  Exod.  7:17,  18;  8:1-3,  and  the 
predictions  in  Isa.  11:11-15;  19:4-8.  Our 
Saviour  in  his  infancy  may  have  looked  on 
its  waters  at  Heliopolis. 

NIM'RAH,  Num.  32:3,  plural  NIM'RIM, 
siveet  waters,  now  Nimrin,  3  miles  east  of 
the  Jordan,  above  Jericho.  See  Beth- 
NiMRAH.  There  is  also  a  Nimrim  on  the 
southeast  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  referred 
to,  some  think,  in  Jer.  48:34. 

NIM'RIM.     See  Beth-nimrah. 

NIM'ROD,  rebellion,  impiety,  a  son  of 
Cush  and  grandson  of  Ham,  proverbial 
from  the  earliest  times  as  a  mighty  hunter 
and  warrior.  Gen.  10:8-10;  i  Chr.  1:10.  He 
seems  to  ha-^e  feared  neither  God  nor  man, 
to  have  gathered  around  him  a  host  of 
adventurers,  and  extended  his  conquests 
from  Ethiopia  into  the  land  of  Shinar,  where 
he  founded  or  fortified  Babel,  Erech,  Ac- 


cad,  and  Calneh.  The  R.  V.  and  many 
authorities  render  Gen.  10:11,  "out  of  that 
land  Shinar)  he  went  to  Assyria,  and  build- 
ed  Nineveh,  Rehoboth,  Calah,  and  Resen  ;" 
he  also  founded  Nineveh  and  the  Assyrian 
empire,  though  this  is  usually  understood 
to  have  been  done  by  Asshur  when  ex- 
pelled by  Ninirod  from  the  land  of  Shinar, 


kimrod:  from  the  palace  of  khorsabad. 

Mic.  5:6.  Nimrod  is  supposed  to  have  be- 
gun the  tower  of  Babel;  and  his  name  is 
still  preserved  by  a  vast  ruinous  mound  on 
the  site  of  ancient  Babylon.     See  Babel. 

NIM'SHI,  saved,  the  grandfather  of  Jehu, 
2  Kin.  9:2,  14,  often  called  his  father,  being 
perhaps  more  known  than  Jehoshaphat, 
ver.  20;  I  Kin.  19:16;  2  Chr.  22:7. 

NIN'EVEH,  divelling  of  Ni'nus,  the  me- 
tropolis of  ancient  Assyria,  called  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  "the  great  Ninus;" 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  op- 
posite the  modern  Mosul.  Its  origin  is 
traced  to  the  times  near  the  flood.  See 
Nimrod.  For  nearly  15  centuries  after- 
wards it  is  not  mentioned,  though  Assyria 
is  named  prophetically  in  Num.  24:22-24; 
Psa.  83:8.  In  the  books  of  Jonah  and  Na- 
hum  it  is  described  as  an  immense  city,  3 
days'  journey  in  circuit,  containing  more 

391 


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WINGED  AND  HUMAN-HKAU    LIUN, 

than  120,000  young  children,  possibly  inclu- 
ding others  equally  untaught,  indicating  a 
population  of  half  a  million  or  more.  It 
contained  "much  cattle"  and  numerous 
parks,  gardens,  groves,  etc.  Its  inhabi- 
tants were  wealthy,  warlike,  and  far  ad- 
vanced in  civilization.  It  had  numerous 
strongholds  with  gates  and  bars,  and  had 
multiplied  its  merchants  above  the  stars; 
its  crowned  jirinces  were  as  locusts,  and 
its  captains  as  grasshoppers.  With  this 
description  agrees  that  of  the  historian 
Diodorus  Siculus,  who  says  Nineveh  was 
21  miles  long,  9  broad,  and  54  miles  in  cir- 
cumference ;  he  adds,  perhaps  with  some 
e.xaggeration,  that  its  walls  were  100  feet 
high,  and  so  broad  that  3  chariots  could 
drive  upon  them  abreast;  and  that  it  had 
1,500  towers,  each  200  feet  high. 

Nineveh  had  long  been  the  mistress  of 
the  East;  but  for  her  great  lu.vury  and 
wickedness  the  prophet  Jonah  was  sent, 
more  than  800  3'ears  before  Christ,  to  warn 
the  Ninevites  of  her  speedy  destruction. 
See  also  Isa.  14:24,  25.  Their  timely  re- 
pentance delayed  for  a  time  the  fall  of  the 
city;  but  about  753  B.  C,  the  period  of  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Medes  under  Arbaces;  and  nearly  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half  later,  according  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  Nahum,  ch.  1-3,  and  Zejihani- 
ah  2:13,  it  was  a  2d  time  taken  by  Cyax- 
ares  the  Mede  and  Nabopolassar  of  Baby- 
lon, after  which  writers  mention  it  but  sel- 
392 


FROM   THE   kUlNS  OF   NINEVEH. 

dom,  and  as  an  unimportant  place.  It  was 
probably  destroyed  between  the  days  of 
Zephaniah  and  Ezekiel,  about  606  B.  C, 
partly  bj^  fire,  as  secular  history  relates, 
confirming  both  the  prediction  of  Nahum 
and  the  testimony  of  modern  explorers, 
Nah.  3:13,  15.  The  last  mention  of  it  as 
an  inhabited  city  is  in  Zeph.  2 :  13.  So  com- 
plete w  as  its  destruction  that  for  ages  its 
site  has  been  well  nigh  lost,  and  infidels 
have  even  denied  that  the  Nineveh  of  the 
Bible  ever  existed.  The  mounds  which 
were  the  "grave"  of  its  ruins,  Nah.  1:14, 
were  so  covered  with  soil  as  to  seem  like 
natural  hills.  But  since  1843  Layard,  Bot- 
ta,  George  Smith,  and  others  have  been 
exploring  its  remains,  so  long  undisturbed. 
The  mounds  chiefly  explored  lie  at  3  cor- 
ners of  a  tra])ezium  about  18  miles  long  and 
12  miles  wide,  and  nearly  60  in  circumfer- 
ence, thus  confirming  the  ancient  accounts 
of  its  vast  extent.  Directly  opposite  Mosul 
is  a  continuous  line  of  earthworks,  8  miles 
in  circuit  and  40  feet  high,  marking  the 
course  of  an  ancient  wall  with  occasional 
elevations  on  the  site  of  towers  or  gates, 
and  with  two  large  and  notable  mounds, 
Koyunjik  and  Nebi  Yinius.  Koyunjik  is 
1,300  yards  long  and  500  yards  wide  where 
widest,  and  95  feet  high  where  highest. 
Nebi  Yunus,  near  by  on  the  south,  is 
smaller;  Khorsabad  is  13  miles  northeast 
of  Koyunjik,  Nimrud  iS  miles  south,  and 
Keramles  15  miles  southeast.     The  recent 


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excavations    disclose   temples    and 
palaces    guarded   by   huge    winged 
bulls  and  lions  with  human  heads. 
The  apartments  of  these  buildings 
are  lined  with  slabs  of  stone  covered 
with    sculptures  in  bas-relief,  and 
inscriptions   in  arrow-headed  char- 
acters which  have  been  in  part  de- 
ciphered; compare  Ezek.  4:1;   and 
these   scupltured  memorials  of  the 
history  and  customs  of  the  Assyri- 
ans, together  with  the  various  arti- 
cles made  of  glass,  wood,  ivory,  and 
metals,  now  brought  to  light  after  a 
burial  of  24  centuries,  furnish  inval- 
uable  aid  in  the   interpretation   of 
Scripture,  and  most  signally  confirm 
its  truth.      Our  surprise  is  equal  to 
our  gratification  when  we  behold  the 
actual   Assyrian  account  of  events 
recorded  in   Kings  and  Chronicles. 
Not  only  do  we  find  mention  made 
of  Jehu,  Menahem,  Hezekiah,  Omri, 
Hazael,  etc.,  and  of  various  cities  in 
Judaea  and  Syria,  but  we  discover 
Sennacherib's   own   account  of  his 
invasion   of   Palestine,    and   of  the 
amount  of  tribute  which  king  Heze- 
kiah was  forced    to  pay  him ;    also 
pictures  representing  his  capture  of 
Lachish,  2  Kin.  18:14,  and  his  offi- 
cers, perhaps  the  railing  Rab-shakeh 
himself,  presenting  Jewish  captives 
to  the  king,  etc.    (See  cut  and  details 
in  SENN.A.CHERIB.)   These  mural  tab- 
lets also  furnish  a  graphic  comment 
on  the  language  of  the  prophet  Eze- 
kiel ;  and  as  he  was  a  captive  in  the 
region  of  Nineveh,  he  had  no  doubt 
heard    of   and    had    probably    seen 
these  very  "  chambers  of  imagery," 
as  well   as  the  objects  they  repre- 
sent.    We  there  find  reproduced  to 
our  view  the  men  and  scenes  he  de- 
scribes in  chap.  23;   26:7-12:  "cap- 
tains and  rulers   clothed  most  gor- 
geously,"  "portrayed  with  vermil- 
ion," "girded with  girdles  upon  their 
loins,"  "  in  dyed  attire."     The  "  ver- 
milion" or  red  color  is  quite  preva- 
lent among  the  various  brilliant  col- 
ors with  which  these  tablets  were 
painted,  Ezek.  23:14,  15;    Nah.  2:3. 
Here   are   "  horsemen   riding  upon 
horses,"  "princes  to  look  to"  in  re- 
spect to  warlike  vigor  and  courage; 
and  their  horses  of  high  spirit,  noble 
form  and  attitudes,  and  decked  with 
showy  trappings.     (See  the  accom- 
393 


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NIS 


WARRIOR   AND   HORSES,  FROM   THE    MOCND   OF   KHORSABAD,  NINEVEH. 


panying  cut.)  Here,  in  fine,  are  the  idols, 
kings,  and  warriors  of  Nineveh  in  various 
scenes  of  worship,  hunting,  and  war;  for- 
tresses attacked  and  taken  ;  heaps  of  heads 
of  the  slain,  2  Kin.  10:8;  prisoners  led  in 
triumph,  impaled,  flayed,  and  otherwise 
tortured,  and  sometimes  actually  held  by 
cords  attached  to  hooks  which  pierce  the 
nose  or  the  lips,  2  Kin.  19:28;  Isa.  37:29, 
and  having  their  eyes  put  out  bj'  the  point 
of  a  spear,  2  Kin.  25:7.     For  other  cuts  see 


NisROCH,   Sennacherib,   Shalmaneser, 
and  W'ar. 

The  Christian  world  is  under  great  obli- 
gations to  Layard,  Botta,  and  Smith  for 
their  enterprising  explorations,  and  to 
Rawlinson  and  Hincks  for  their  literary 
investigations  of  these  remains.  To  the 
student  of  the  Bible  especially-  these  bur- 
ied treasures  are  of  the  highest  value,  and 
we  may  well  rejoice  not  only  in  this  new 
accumulation  of  evidence  to  the  truth  of 


the  history  and  prophecies  of  ScriiHure, 
but  in  the  additional  light  thus  thrown  on 
its  meaning.  How  impressive  too  the 
warning  which  these  newly-found  memo- 
rials of  a  city  once  so  vast  and  powerful 
bring  to  us  in  these  latter  days  and  in 
394 


lands  then  unknown,  to  beware  of  the  lux- 
ury, pride,  and  ungodliness  that  caused 
her  ruin. 

Nl'SAli,Jlowery,a  Hebrew  month,  near- 
ly answering  to  our  April,  but  varying 
somewhat  from  year  to  year,  according  to 


NIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NOA 


the  course  of  the  moon.  It  was  the  7th 
month  of  the  civil  year,  but  was  made  the 
1st  month  of  the  sacred  year  at  the  coming 
out  of  Egypt,  Exod.  12:2.  By  Moses  it  is 
called  Abib,  Exod.  13:4.  The  name  Nisan 
is  found  only  after  the  time  of  Ezra  and 
the  return  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon, 
JSTeh.  2:1;  Esth.  3:7.     See  Month. 


NIS'ROCH,  a  god  of  the  Assyrians,  in 
whose  temple  and  in  the  very  act  of  idola- 
try Sennacherib  was  slain  by  his  own  sons, 
2  Kin.  19:37.  According  to  the  etymology 
the  name  would  signify  "the  great  eagle;" 
and  the  earlier  Assyrian  sculptures  recent- 
ly exhumed  at  Nineveh  have  many  repre- 
sentations of  an  idol  in  human  form,  but 
with  the  head  of  an  eagle,  as  shown  above. 
Among  the  ancient  Arabs  also  the  eagle 
occurs  as  an  idol.  According  to  some,  the 
true  reading  for  Nisroch  is  Assarach,  which 
would  identify  him  with  Asshur.  The  ac- 
companying  cut,   representing   a   winged 


figure  in  a  circle,  armed  with  a  bow,  is  fre- 
quently met  on  the  walls  of  ancient  Nine- 
veh in  scenes  of  worship,  and  is  believed 
to  be  an  emblem  of  Asshur,  the  supreme 
divinity  of  the  Assyrians. 


NI'TRE,  not  the  substance  used  in  ma- 
king gunpowder,  but  natron,  a  mineral 
alkali  composed  of  an  impure  carbonate  of 
soda.  It  effervesces  with  vinegar,  Prov. 
25:20,  and  is  still  used  in  washing,  Jer. 
2:22.  Combined  with  oil  it  makes  a  hard 
soap.  It  is  found  deposited  in  or  floating 
upon  certain  lakes  west  of  the  Delta  of 
Egypt,  and  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea. 

NO,  or  NO-AMON.  See  Amon  and 
Ec;vPT. 

NOADI'AH,  met  by  Jeliovah,  I.,  a  Levite, 
Ezra  8:33. 

II.  A  prophetess  who  tried  to  put  Nehe- 
miah  in  fear,  Neh.  6:14.     Compare  Ezek. 

13:17- 

NO'AH,  rest,  comfort,  the  name  of  the 
celebrated  patriarch,  the  loth  from  Adam, 
who  was  preserved  by  Jehovah  with  his 
family,  by  means  of  the  ark,  through  the 
deluge,  and  thus  became  the  2d  founder 
of  the  human  race.  The  history  of  Noah 
and  the  deluge  is  contained  in  Genesis, 
ch.  5-9.  He  was  the  son  of  Lamech,  and 
grandson  of  Methuselah ;  was  born  A.  M. 
1056,  and  lived  600  years  before  the  deluge 
and  350  after,  dying  2  years  before  Abram 
was  born,  in  all  950  years,  only  126  years 
less  than  the  entire  period  from  Adam  to 
Abram.  His  name  may  have  been  given 
to  him  by  his  parents  in  the  hope  that  he 
would  be  the  promised  "  seed  of  the  wo- 
man "  that  should  "  bruise  the  serpent's 
head."  He  was  in  the  line  of  the  patri- 
archs who  feared  God,  and  was  himself  a 
just  man,  Ezek.  14: 14,  20,  and  a  "  preacher 
of  righteousness,"  i  Pet.  3:19,  20;  2  Pet. 
2:5.  His  efforts  to  reform  the  degenerate 
world,  continued  as  some  suppose  for  120 
years,  produced  little  effect,  Matt.  24:37; 
the  flood  did  not  "  find  faith  upon  the 
earth."  Noah,  however,  was  an  example 
of  real  faith :  he  believed  the  warning  of 
God,  was  moved  by  fear,  and  pursued  the 
necessary  course  of  action,  Heb.  11:7.  His 
first  care  on  coming  out  from  the  ark  was 
to  worship  the  Lord  with  sacrifices  of  all 
the  fitting  animals,  and  God_  covenanted 
anew  with  him  and  with  mankind,  in  con- 
nection with  the  rainbow,  and  gave  him 
His  blessing.  Little  more  is  recorded  of 
him  except  his  falling  into  intoxication,  a 
sad  instance  of  the  shame  and  misfortune 
into  which  wine  is  apt  to  lead.  The  chil- 
dren of  his  three  sons  peopled  the  whole 
world — the  posterity  of  Japheth  chiefly  oc- 
cupying Europe,  those  of  Shem  Asia,  and 
those  of  Ham  Africa. 

395 


NOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


NOP 


Numerous  traces  of  traditions  respecting 
Noah  have  been  found  all  over  the  world. 
Among  the  most  accurate  is  that  embodied 
in  the  legend  of  the  (ireeks  respecting 
Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  We  may  also  men- 
tion the  medals  struck  at  Apamea  in  Phry- 
gia,  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Pertinax,  and  bearing  the  name  N(JE,  an 
ark,  a  man  and  a  woman,  a  raven,  and  a 
dove  with  an  olive-branch  in  its   mouth. 


COIN  OF  APAMEA,  IN  PHRVGIA. 


The  cut  represents  another  Apamean  me- 
morial of  the  deluge.  See  Ark.  Legends 
respecting  the  deluge  have  been  found  also 
among  the  Hindoos,  Persians,  Chinese, 
Polynesians,  Mexicans,  from  none  of  which 
the  Bible  history  could  be  derived,  while 
they  all  may  have  originated  from  the  true 
history  in  Genesis.  Christ  sets  his  seal  to 
its  truth,  Matt.  24:37;  Luke  17:26.  See 
also  2  Pet.  3:3-13. 

NO'AH,  commotion,  a  daughter  of  Ze- 
lophehad.  Num.  26:33;  Josh.  17:3. 

NOB,  an  clei'ation,  a  city  of  priests,  in 
Benjamin,  on  a  hill  near  Jerusalem ;  its  in- 
habitants, including  85  priests,  were  once 
put  to  the  sword  by  command  of  Saul,  for 
their  hospitality  to  David,  i  Sam.  21:1; 
22:9-23.  The  tabernacle  and  ark,  with  the 
showbread,  seem  to  have  been  there  at 
that  time.  It  was  reinhabited  after  the 
Captivity,  Neh.  11:31-35.  It  lay  south  of 
Gibeah,  perhaps  on  the  height  es-Sfimah, 
from  which  Mount  Zion  can  be  seen,  Isa. 
10:28-32. 

NO'BAH,  a  barkhiff,  I.,  Num.  32:42,  an 
Israelite  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
who  led  in  the  conquest  of  Kenath  and  its 
villages,  east  of  the  Jordan. 

II.  Judg.  8: 11,  Kenath,  the  abode  of  No- 
bah  I.,  probably  traced  in  Kunawat,  a  town 
in  tlie  Ledjah. 

NO'BLEMAN,  John  4:46-53,  A.  v.,  one 
belonging  to  a  royal  court,  in  this  case  that 
of  Herod  Antipas. 

NOD,  flight,  or  wandering,   the   region 

396 


east  of  Eden  to   which  Cain   was  exiled, 
Gen.  4: 16. 

NO'DAB,  nobility,  a  large  pastoral  Arab 
tribe,  defeated  by  the  Reubenites,  i  Chr. 
5:19-22. 

NO'E,  in  the  A.  V.,  Matt.  24:37,  38;  Luke 
3:36;  17:26,27.     See  Noah. 

NO'GAH,  a  flash,  a  son  of  David,  i  Chr. 
3:7;  14:6. 

NO'HAH,  rest,  a  son  of  Benjamin,  and 
head  of  a  family,  i  Chr.  8:2. 

NOrsOME,  Psa.  91:3;  Ezek  14:15,  21, 
hurtful. 

NON,  I  Chr.  7:27,  A.  V.    See  Nun. 

NOON,  Gen.  43:16;  an  emblem  of  pros- 
perity, Amos  8:9;  Zeph.  2:4. 

NOPH,  sometimes  called  also  in  Hebrew 
Moi'H,  Hos.  9:6,  the  ancient  city  of  Mem- 
j)his  in  Egypt.  It  was  situated  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Nile,  just  within  the  val- 
ley of  Upper  Egypt,  and  near  the  apex  of 
the  Delta  where  Lower  Egypt  begins  to 
widen,  an  admirable  site  for  a  capital.  A 
few  scanty  remains  of  it  have  recenth'  been 
exhumed  some  10  miles  south  of  Old  Cairo. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Menes, 
the  Mizraim  of  Gen.  10:6,  some  2,200  B.  C, 
and  its  structures  were  second  to  those  of 
Thebes  alone.  Its  principal  temple  was 
that  of  Phthah,  the  Egyptian  Vulcan. 

Memphis  was  the  residence  of  the  an- 
cient kings  of  Egypt  till  the  times  of  the 
Ptolemies,  who  commonly  resided  at  Alex- 
andria. Here,  it  is  believed,  Joseph  was  a 
prisoner  and  a  ruler,  and  here  Moses  stood 
before  Pharaoh.  The  prophets  foretell  the 
miseries  Memphis  was  to  suffer  from  the 
kings  ofChaldcea  and  Persia:  and  threaten 
the  Israelites  who  should  retire  into  Egypt, 
or  should  have  recourse  to  the  Egyptians, 
that  they  should  perish  in  that  country,  Isa. 
19:13;  Jer.  2:16;  44:1;  46:14,  19;  Ezek. 
30:13,  16.  In  this  city  they  fed  and  wor- 
shipped the  sacred  bull  Apis,  the  embodi- 
ment of  their  false  god  Osiris;  and  Ezekiel 
says  that  the  Lord  will  destroy  the  idols  of 
Memphis.  Ezek.  30:13,  16.  The  city  be- 
came tributary  to  the  Babylonians,  then  the 
Persians,  Macedonians,  Romans,  etc.  It 
retained  much  of  its  splendor  till  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabians  in  the  i8th  or 
19th  year  of  the  Hegira,  A.  D.  641;  after 
which  it  was  superseded  as  the  metropolis 
of  Egypt  by  Fostat,  now  Old  Cairo,  in  the 
construction  of  which  its  materials  were 
employed.  Some  5  miles  away  stand  the 
Sphinx  and  the  pyramids  at  Ghizeh,  still 
c)ver  30  in  number,  "  which  kings  built  for 
themselves,"  and  which  Ewald  thinks  are 


NOP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NUR 


meant  by  "desolate  places"  in  Job  3:14; 
but  the  magnificent  city  that  stretched 
along  for  many  miles  between  them  and 
the  river  has  almost  wholly  disappeared. 

NO'PHAH,  height,  Num.  21 130,  a  town  of 
Moab,  near  Heshbon  and  Medeba. 

NORTH,  Job  37:9;  Prov.  25:23,  or  "the 
left  hand,"  Gen.  14:15;  Job  23:9.  See 
E.\ST.  The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians 
invaded  Israel  by  a  northern  route,  in  or- 
der to  avoid  the  desert,  Jer.  1:14;  46:6,24; 
Zeph.  2:13.  "Fair  weather,"  says  Job,  or 
golden  weather,  "  cometh  out  of  the  north," 
Job  37:22.  This  is  as  true  in  Syria  and 
Arabia  now  as  it  was  3,000  years  ago. 

NOSE.  Several  expressions  in  Scrip- 
ture grew  out  of  the  fact  that  anger  often 
shows  itself  by  distended  nostrils,  hard 
breathing,  and  in  animals  by  snorting, 
2  Sam.  22:9;  Job  39:20;  Psa.  18:8;  Jer. 
8:16.  Gold  rings  hung  in  the  cartilage  of 
the  nose  or  the  left  nostril  were  favorite 
ornaments  of  Eastern  women.  Gen.  24:22, 
47;  Prov.  11:22;  Isa.  3:21;  Ezek.  16:12,  as 
they  still  are.  Rings  were  inserted  in  the 
noses  of  animals  to  guide  and  control  them  ; 
and  according  to  the  recently-discovered 
tablets  at  Nineveh  captives  among  the  As- 
syrians were  sometimes  treated  in  the  same 
way,  2  Kin.  19:28;  Job  41:2;  Ezek.  38:4. 
See  Nineveh. 

NOVICE,  or  neophite,  one  recently  con- 
verted and  received  to  the  Christian  Church, 

1  Tim.  3:6. 

NUM'BER,  Isa.  65:11.    See  Gad,  III. 

NUM'BERS  were  designated  by  the  He- 
brews by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  some 
of  which  were  much  alike,  and  thus  mis- 
takes often  occurred.  Compare  2  Kin. 
24:8  with  2  Chr.  36:9,  and  i  Kin.  4:26  with 

2  Chr.  9:25;  also  2  Sam.  24:13  with  i  Chr. 
21  :i2;  2  Kin.  8:26  with  2  Chr.  22:2;  2  Sam. 
24:9  with  I  Chr.  21:5. 

To  a  certain  extent  a  special  significance 
belonged  to  some  of  the  numbers.  Thus 
seven,  the  symbol  of  perfection,  very  often 
occurs — as  in  the  7  days  of  the  week,  the  7 
altars  of  Balak,  the  7  times  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar; the  7-foId  candlestick  and  offer- 
ings, Exod.  25:37;  Lev.  13;  the  7  beati- 
tudes. Matt.  5;  Psa.  119:164;  the  Magda- 
lene's 7  devils,  Luke  8:2;  compare  Matt. 
12:45;  the  7-headed  dragon.  Rev.  12:3;  the 
7  last  plagues.  Rev.  15:1;  the  7  deacons. 
Acts  6;  and  the  7  spirits  before  the  throne. 

Three  is  a  symbol  of  the  Trinity,  Rev. 
1:4;  4:8.  It  appears  in  Isaiah's  thrice  holy, 
ch.  6:3;  in  the  customary  division  of  an 
army,  Judg.  7:16,  20;  9:43;  i  Sam.  11: 11; 


the  3  great  feasts,  Exod.  23:14-17;  Deut. 
16:16;  and  the  triple  blessing,  Num.  6:23- 
26;  2  Cor.  13: 14. 

Ten,  the  basis  of  the  decimal  system, 
suggested  by  the  10  fingers,  appears  in  the 
10  commandments,  the  measures  of  the 
tabernacle,  Exod.  26:27;  i  Kin.  6;  7,  and 
the  ritual  service,  Exod.  12:3;  Lev.  16:29; 
in  the  tithes.  Gen.  14:20,  the  10  plagues  of 
Egypt. 

Tivelve  appears  in  the  number  of  the 
tribes  and  of  the  apostles,  the  12  breast- 
plate-jewels, and  the  12  gates  of  the  New 
Jerusalem. 

Forty  also  frequently  occurs,  as  in  the 
40  days'  rain  of  the  deluge,  the  Israelites' 
40  years  in  the  desert,  Moses'  40  years  in 
Midian,  and  40  days  in  Mount  Sinai,  the  40 
stripes,  Deut.  25:3,  and  the  predictions  in 
Ezek.  4:6;  29:11 ;  Jonah  3:4. 

NUM'BERS,  THE  BOOK  OF,  Is  SO  Called 
because  the  first  3  chapters  contain  the 
numbering  of  the  Hebrews  and  Levites, 
which  was  performed  separately,  after  the 
erection  and  consecration  of  the  taberna- 
cle. See  also  ch.  26.  The  rest  of  the  book 
contains  an  account  of  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Israelites  from  Sinai,  and  their  subse- 
quent wanderings  in  the  desert,  until  their 
arrival  on  the  borders  of  Moab.  It  was 
written  by  Moses,  B.  C.  145 1,  and  is  the  4th 
book  of  the  Pentateuch.  See  Exodus  and 
Wanderings. 

NUN,  a  fish,  I  Chr.  7:27,  in  A.  V.,  Nox ; 
a  descendant  of  Ephraim,  and  father  of 
Joshua,  Num.  11:28;  14:6. 

NURSE,  in  Hebrew  both  masculine  and 
feminine,  Exod.  2:7;  Num.  11:12;  Ruth 
4:16.  The  Bible  contains  various  allusions 
to  the  tender  and  confidential  relation  an- 
ciently subsisting  between  a  nurse  and  the 
children  she  had  brought  up,  Isa.  49:22, 
23;  60:4;  I  Thess.  2:7,  8.  See  also  the 
story  of  Rebekah,  attended  through  life  by 
her  faithful  and  honored  Deborah,  the  oak 
under  which  she  was  buried  being  called 
"The  oak  of  weeping,"  Gen.  24:59;  35:8. 
The  custom  still  prevails  in  the  better  fam- 
ilies of  Syria  and  India.  Says  Roberts  in 
his  Oriental  Illustrations,  "  How  often  have 
scenes  like  this  led  my  mind  to  the  patri- 
archal age.  The  daughter  is  about  for  the 
first  time  to  leave  the  paternal  roof;  the 
servants  are  all  in  confusion ;  each  refers 
to  things  long  gone  by,  each  wishes  to  do 
something  to  attract  the  attention  of  his 
young  mistress.  One  says,  'Ah,  do  not 
forget  him  who  nursed  you  when  an  in- 
fant;' another,  'How  often  did  I  bring  you 

397 


NUT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OAT 


the  beautiful  lotus  from  the  distant  tank. 
Did  I  not  always  conceal  your  faults?'  As 
Rebekah  had  her  nurse  to  accompany  her, 
so  at  this  day  the  ava  who  has  from  infancy 
brought  up  the  bride  goes  with  her  to  the 
new  scene.  She  is  her  adviser,  her  assist- 
ant, and  friend,  and  to  her  will  she  tell  all 
her  hopes  and  all  her  fears." 

NUT,  in  Gen.  43:11,  the  pistachio-nut, 
fruit  of  the  Pistacia  vera,  a  tree  20  or  30 
feet  high,  the  nut  not  unlike  an  almond. 
In  Song  6:11  the  English  walnut,  fruit  of  a 
lofty,  wide-spreading  tree. 

NYM'PHAS,  a  prominent  Christian  at 
Laodicea,  whom  Paul  salutes,  together 
with  the  company  of  believers  wont  to  wor- 
ship at  his  house,  Col.  4:15;  iii  the  R.  V. 
"their  house." 


o. 

OAK.  Si.x  different  Hebrew  words  are 
translated  oak  in  the  A.  V.,  all  from  a  root 
signifying  slrenglh ;  none  of  them  deno- 
ting the  Quercus  robur  of  our  own  forests. 
A  true  oak  is  supposed  to  be  intended  in 
Gen.  35:8;  Josh.  24:26;  Isa.  1:29;  2:13; 
6:13;  44:14;  Ezek.  27:6;  Hos.  4:13;  Amos 
2:9;  Zech.  11:2.  In  some  passages  any 
strong  flourishing  tree,  Isa.  6:13;  61:3; 
Ezek.  31:14;  Dan.  4:10-26.  In  others  the 
terebinth,  Gen.  35:4;  Judg.  6:11;  2  Sam. 
18:9;  I  Kin.  13:14;  I  Chr.  10:12;  Isa.  1:30; 
Ezek.  6:13.  "Abraham's  oak,"  so  called 
for  centuries  after  Christ,  near  Hebron, 
was  of  this  kind,  the  Quercus  pseudo-coc- 
cifera,  a  deciduous  tree,  though  resembling 


ABRAHAM'S   OAK,   NEAR    HEBRON. 


an  evergreen  in  foliage.  The  tree  now 
called  "Abraham's  oak"  is  a  true  acorn- 
bearing  oak,  now  very  old,  and  22K  feet 
in  circumference.  The  terebinth  or  tur- 
pentine-tree, called  butm  by  the  Arabs,  is 
translated  "elm"  in  Hos.  4:13,  and  "teil- 
tree"  in  Isa.  6:13,  in  which  passages  the 
true  oak  is  also  mentioned.  In  some  pas- 
sages where  "plain"  or  "plains"  occurs, 
we  should  probably  understand  "oak,"  or 
"oak  grove,"  Gen.  12:6;  13:18;  14:13; 
18:1;  Deut.  11:30;  Judg.  4:11;  9:6,  2>7- 
Three  species  of  oaks  are  now  found  in 
Bible  lands,  and  in  Lebanon  some  are  of 
398 


large  size,  as  they  formerly  must  have 
been  in  Palestine.  Dr.  Robinson  saw  the 
crests  and  heights  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  clothed  as  in  ancient  times  with 
grand  oaks,  Zech.  11:2.  The  oak  is  a  long- 
lived  tree,  and  many  single  trees  or  groves 
were  notable  and  historical  landmarks, 
I  Sam.  10:3.  See  Moreh.  Under  the 
welcome  shade  of  oaks  and  other  large 
trees  many  public  affairs  were  transacted ; 
sacrifices  were  offered,  courts  were  held, 
and  kings  were  crowned.  Josh.  24:26;  Judg. 
6:11,  iq;  9.6.  See  Grove. 
OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation  or  promise 


OAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OBA 


accompanied  by  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Being  to  punish  the  swearer  if  his  state- 
ments are  not  true  or  his  promises  not 
kept,  Gen.  26:28;  2  Sam.  21:7;  Neh.  10:29, 
30.  An  oath  was  often  taken  when  im- 
portant declarations  were  made,  i  Kin. 
18:10,  a  vow  assumed,  Lev.  5:4,  a  solemn 
promise  given.  Gen.  14:22;  24:2-4;  50:25, 
or  a  covenant  made,  Gen.  31:53;  i  Chr. 
16:15-17.  God  has  prohibited  all  false 
oaths  and  all  useless  and  customary  swear- 
ing in  ordinary  discourse ;  but  when  the 
necessity  or  importance  of  a  matter  re- 
quires an  oath,  he  allows  men  to  swear  by 
his  name,  Exod.  22 : 1 1 ;  Lev.  5:1.  To  swear 
by  a  false  god  was  an  act  of  idolatry,  Jer. 
5:7;  12:16. 

Among  the  Hebrews  an  oath  was  admin- 
istered judicially,  not  only  to  witnesses, 
but  to  an  accused  person  whose  guilt  could 
not  be  proved,  that  upon  his  solemn  denial 
he  might  be  set  free,  Exod.  22: 10,  11 ;  Lev. 
5:1;  6:2-5;  Num.  5:19-22;  I  Kin.  8:31. 
The  judge  stood  up  and  adjured  the  per- 
son to  be  sworn  in  the  name  of  God,  also 
mentioning  one  or  more  of  His  infinite  at- 
tributes. In  this  manner  our  Lord  was 
adjured  by  Caiaphas,  Matt.  26:63.  Jesus 
had  remained  silent  under  long  examina- 
tion, when  the  high-priest,  rising  up,  know- 
ing he  had  a  sure  mode  of  obtaining  an 
answer,  said,  "  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the 
Christ."  To  this  oath,  thus  solemnly  ad- 
ministered, Jesus  replied  that  he  was  indeed 
the  Messiah. 

An  oath  is  a  solemn  appeal  to  God,  as  to 
an  all-seeing  witness  that  what  we  say  is 
true,  and  an  almighty  avenger  if  what  we 
say  be  false,  Heb.  6:16.  Its  force  depends 
upon  our  conviction  of  the  infinite  justice 
of  God;  that  he  will  not  hold  those  guilt- 
less who  take  his  name  in  vain ;  and  that 
the  loss  of  his  favor  immeasurably  out- 
weighs all  that  could  be  gained  by  false 
witness.  It  is  an  act  of  religious  worship ; 
on  which  account  God  requires  it  to  be 
taken  in  his  name,  Deut.  10:20,  and  points 
out  the  manner  in  which  it  ought  to  be  ad- 
ministered, and  the  duty  of  the  person  who 
swears,  Exod.  22:  II ;  Deut.  6:13;  Psa.  15:4; 
24:4.  Hence  atheists,  who  profess  to  be- 
lieve that  there  is  no  God,  and  persons  who 
do  not  believe  in  a  future  state  of  reward 
and  punishment,  cannot  consistently  take 
an  oath.  In  their  mouths  an  oath  can  be 
only  profane  mockery. 

God  himself  is  represented  as  confirm- 
ing his  promise  by  oath,  and  thus  conform- 


ing to  what  is  practised  among  men.  Gen. 
26:3;  Psa.  95:11;  Acts  2:30;  Heb.  6:13,  16, 
17.  The  oaths  forbidden  in  Matt.  5:34,  35; 
23:16-22;  Jas.  5:12,  must  refer  to  the  un- 
thinking, hasty,  and  frivolous  practices  of 
the  Jews,  not  to  reverent  appeals  to  God  on 
proper  occasion ;  otherwise  Paul  must  have 
acted  against  the  command  of  Christ,  Rom. 
1:9;  Gal.  1 :2o;  2  Cor.  1 :23.  That  person  is 
obliged  to  take  an  oath  whose  duty  requires 
him  to  declare  the  truth  in  the  most  solemn 
and  judicial  manner;  though  undoubtedly 
oaths  are  too  often  administered  unneces- 
sarily and  irreverently,  and  taken  with  but 
slight  consciousness  of  the  responsibility 
thus  assumed.  As  we  are  bound  to  mani- 
fest every  possible  degree  of  reverence  to- 
wards God,  the  greatest  care  is  to  be  taken 
that  we  swear  neither  rashly  nor  negli- 
gently in  making  promises.  To  neglect 
performance  is  perjury,  unless  the  promise 
be  contrary  to  the  law  of  nature  and  of 
God;  in  which  case  no  oath  is  binding; 
the  sin  is  in  taking  it.  See  Corban  and 
Vows. 

A  customary  formula  of  taking  an  oath, 
accompanied  perhaps  by  some  significant 
gesture,  was,  "The  Lord  do  so  to  me,  and 
more  also,"  that  is,  the  Lord  slay  me,  as 
the  victim  sacrificed  on  many  such  occa- 
sions was  slain.  Gen.  15:10,  17;  Jer.  34:18, 
and  punish  me  even  more  than  this,  if  I 
speak  not  the  truth,  Ruth  1:17;  i  Sam. 
3:17.  Similar  phrases  are  these:  "As  the 
Lord  liveth,"  Judg.  8:19;  "Before  God  I 
lie  not,"  Rom.  9:1;  "I  say  the  truth  in 
Christ,"  I  Tim.  2:7;  "God  is  my  record," 
Phil.  1:8.  Several  acts  are  alluded  to  as 
accompaniments  of  an  oath ;  as  putting  the 
hand  under  the  thigh,  Gen.  24:2;  47:29; 
and  raising  the  hand  towards  heaven,  Gen. 
14:22,  23;  Deut.  32:40;  Rev.  10:5.  Hence 
to  "  lift  up  the  hand  "  often  means  to  take 
an  oath,  Exod.  6:8;  Deut.  32:40;  Psa. 
106:26;  Ezek.  20:5-42. 

Perjury  or  false  swearing,  and  all  pro- 
fane mention  of  God's  names  or  attributes, 
are  grievous  sins  and  worthy  of  severe  pun- 
ishment, Exod.  20:7;  Lev. 19:12;  24:10-16; 
Deut.  19:16-19;  Hos.  4:2,3.  In  some  cases, 
less  of  heedlessness  than  of  wilful  defiance 
of  the  Almighty,  it  has  been  followed  by 
sudden  death. 

OBADI'AH,  Heb.  OBAD'YAH,  sen>ant  of 
Jehovah,  I.,  the  chief  ofificer  of  king  Ahab's 
household,  who  preserved  the  lives  of  100 
prophets  from  the  persecuting  Jezebel,  by 
concealing  them  in  2  caves  and  furnishing 
them  with  food,  i  Kin.  18:4.    He  was  trust- 

399 


OBA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OFF 


ed  by  Ahab,  and  in  time  of  famine  shared 
with  the  king  in  a  survey  of  the  land  for 
water  supplies — not  for  the  people,  but  for 
the  tyrant's  beasts — during  which  he  met 
the  prophet  Elijah,  and  was  sent  to  an- 
nounce his  coming  to  Ahab,  i  Kin.  18:3-16. 
True  piety  can  live  in  very  unfavorable 
circumstances,  i  Cor.  10:13. 
.  II.  The  4th  of  the  minor  prophets,  sup- 
posed to  have  prophesied  about  5S7  B.  C. 
It  cannot  indeed  be  decided  with  certainty 
when  he  lived,  but  it  is  probable  that  he 
was  contemporary  with  Jeremiah  and  Eze- 
kiel,  W'ho  denounced  the  same  dreadful 
judgments  on  the  Edomites,  as  the  punish- 
ment of  their  pride,  violence,  and  cruel  in- 
sultings  over  the  Jews  after  the  destruction 
of  their  city,  and  foretold  the  ultimate  tri- 
umph of  Zion,  ver.  17-21.  The  prophecy, 
according  to  Josephus,  received  its  initial 
fulfilment  about  5  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

Ten  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  3:21;  7:3;  8:38;  9:16,  44;  12:9; 
27:19;  2  Chr.  17:7;  34:12;  Ezra  8:9;  Neh. 
10:5. 

O'BAL,  bare,  Gen.  10:28,  son  of  Joktan 
and  head  of  an  Arabian  tribe ;  called  Ebal 
in  I  Chr.  1:22,  and  probably  residing  near 
the  strait  Bab  el-Mandeb. 

O'BED,  se7i'anl,  son  of  Boaz  and  Ruth, 
and  grandfather  of  David,  Ruth  4: 17;  i  Chr. 
2:12.  See  also  the  genealogies  of  Christ, 
Matt.  1:5;  Luke  3:32.  Four  others  are 
named  in  i  Chr.  2:37,  38;  11:47;  26:7; 
2  Chr.  23: 1. 

O'BED-E'DOM,  sei-'ant  of  Edom,  I.,  a 
Levite — called  a  Gittite,  from  Gath-rim- 
mon.  Josh.  21 :25 — whose  special  prosperity 
while  keeper  of  the  ark  after  the  dreadful 
death  of  Uzzah  encouraged  David  to  carry 
it  up  to  Jerusalem.  The  Kohathites  bore 
the  ark  on  their  shoulders,  as  the  law  di- 
rected, not  on  a  cart.  Obed-edom  and  his 
sons  were  made  doorkeepers  of  the  taber- 
nacle at  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6:10-12;  i  Chr. 
15:18-24;  16:38;  26:4-8,  15.  Happy  the 
family  that  reveres  and  cherishes  the  ark 
of  God,  though  it  brought  woe  to  the  Philis- 
tines. The  house  of  Obed-edom  is  sup- 
posed to  have  stood  on  a  level  plateau  of  4 
acres  on  a  ridge  6  miles  west  by  south  of 
Jerusalem;  it  is  named  Kuryet  es-Saideh, 
"abode  of  the  blessed  one." 

II.  Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  16:38;  2  Chr.  25:23,  24. 

OBE'DIENCE  to  God  is  the  supreme  duly 
of  men.  Acts  4:17;  5:29,  as  his  creatures, 
Psa.  95:6,  dependent  on   his  bounty,  Psa. 
400 


145;  Acts  14: 17,  subject  to  his  law,  Psa.  119, 
and  redeemed  by  his  grace,  i  Cor.  6:20.  It 
should  be  from  the  heart,  i  John  5:2-5,  in 
all  things  and  at  all  times,  Rom.  2:7;  Gal. 
6:9.  Obedience  is  due  from  children  to 
parents,  E.\od.  20: 12;  Eph.  6:1;  Col.  3:20; 
from  servants  to  their  employers,  Eph.  6:5; 
Col.  3:22;  I  Pet.  2:18;  and  from  citizens  to 
government,  Rom.  13:1-5;  Tit.  3:1. 

OBEI'SANCE.  See  Salutation,  Wor- 
ship. 

O'BIL,  camel-keeper,  the  name  or  title  of 
an  Arab  in  charge  of  David's  camels,  i  Chr. 
27:30. 

OBLA'TION.  See  Offering,  First- 
fruits. 

O'BOTH,  zvalcr-skins,  or  passes,  the  43d 
station  of  the  Israelites,  near  Moab,  south- 
east of  the    Dead   Sea,   Num.    21:10,    11; 

33:43.44- 

OBSERVE',  Mark  6:20,  treat  with  re- 
spect. 

OBSER'VERS  OF  TIMES,  Lev.  19:26; 
Deut.  18:10,  14;  2  Kin.  21:6;  2  Chr.  33:6; 
Gal.  4:10,  men  who  had  a  superstitious  re- 
gard for  supposed  lucky  or  unlucky  days 
as  determined  by  astrology.  They  are 
condemned  in  Scripture.  See  Divin.\tion. 
In  our  own  day  many  have  a  similar  weak- 
ness in  dreading  Friday,  the  day  of  our 
Lord's  death,  although  he  then  took  away 
man's  chief  occasion  for  fear. 

OCCUPY,  in  Exod.  38:24;  Judg.  16:11,  to 
use;  in  Ezek.  27:16,  19.  21,  22,  to  trade:  in 
Ezek.  27:9,  27,  to  trade  with;  in  Luke  19:13, 
employ  in  business. 

OC'RAN,  afflicted,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
Num.  1 :  13;  2:27;  7:72. 

O'DED,  erecting:,  I.,  father  of  Azariah  the 
prophet,  in  the  reign  of  Asa,  2  Chr.  15:1-8. 

II.  A  prophet  of  the  Lord,  who,  being  at 
Samaria  when  the  Israelites  under  king 
Pekah  returned  from  the  war  against  Ju- 
dah  and  brought  200,000  captives,  went  to 
meet  them  and  remonstrated  with  them; 
so  that  the  principal  men  in  Samaria  took 
care  of  the  prisoners,  gave  them  clothes, 
food,  and  other  assistance,  and  carried  the 
feeble  on  asses.  Thus  they  conducted  them 
back  to  Jericho,  2  Chr.  28:9,  etc. 

OF,  often  used  in  A.  V.  for  by,  Luke  14:8; 
Acts  23:27;  for  on,  Ruth  2:16;  and  for /or, 
Psa.  69:9;  John  2:17. 

OFFENCE'.  This  word  is  used  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  a  sin,  or  a  wrong  or  dis- 
pleasure, as  in  Eccl.  10:4;  Rom.  4:25;  5:15- 
20;  2  Cor.  11:7;  Jas.  2:10;  3:2,  and  in  the 
sense  of  a  stumbling-block  or  cause  of  sin 
to  others,  2  Cor.  6:3,  or  whatever  is  per- 


OFF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OIL 


verted  into  an  occasion  or  excuse  for  sin. 
So  with  the  verb  "to  offend,"  or  cause  to 
fall,  Psa.  119:165;  Matt.  5:29,  30;  18:6,  S,  9. 
To  be  "offended  "  is  to  be  led  to  fall  away, 
Matt.  13:21;  24:10.  Christians  are  required 
to  give  no  just  occasion  for  the  stumbling 
of  others,  even  denying  themselves  some 
things  otherwise  lawful,  Rom.  14:13-21; 
I  Cor.  8:9-13;  10:32;  2  Cor.  6:3.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  cross  was  fatally  offensive  to 
many  Jews,  as  it  still  is  to  human  pride, 
Rom.  9:33;  Gal.  5:11;  i  Pet.  2:8;  and  this 
was  foretold,  Isa.  8: 14,  and  should  not  sur- 
prise us. 

OF'FERING,  or  OBLA'TION,  anything 
prescribed  by  the  law  to  be  presented  to 
God  to  propitiate  him,  imploring  his  favor, 
or  expressing  gratitude.  Gen.  4:3-8;  8:20. 
In  the  Hebrew,  an  offering,  minchah,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  a  sacrifice,  zebah,  as  being 
bloodless.  In  our  version,  however,  the 
word  offering  is  often  used  for  a  sacrifice, 
as  in  the  case  of  peace-offerings,  sin-offer- 
ings, etc.  Of  the  proper  offerings,  that  is, 
the  unbloody  offerings,  some  accompanied 
the  sacrifices,  as  flour,  wine,  salt ;  others 
•were  not  connected  with  any  sacrifices. 
Like  the  sacrifices,  some,  as  the  firstfruits 
and  tenths,  were  obligatory;  others  were 
voluntary  offerings  of  devotion.  Various 
sorts  of  offerings  are  enumerated  in  the 
books  of  Moses.  Among  these  are,  i.  Fine 
flour  or  meal ;  2.  Cakes  baked  in  an  oven ; 

3.  Cakes  baked  on  a  plate  or  shallow  pan  ; 

4.  Cakes  cooked  in  a  deep  vessel  by  frying 
in  oil  (English  version  "  frying-pan,"  though 
some  understand  here  a  gridiron,  or  a  plate 
with  holes);  5.  Firstfruits  of  the  new  corn, 
either  in  the  simple  state,  or  prepared  by 
parching  or  roasting  in  the  ear  or  out  of 
the  ear.  The  cakes  were  kneaded  with 
olive  oil,  or  fried  in  a  pan,  or  only  dipped 
in  oil  after  they  were  baked.  The  bread 
offered  for  the  altar  was  without  leaven ; 
for  leaven  was  never  offered  on  the  altar, 
nor  with  the  sacrifices,  Lev.  2:11,  12.  But 
they  might  make  presents  of  common  bread 
to  the  priests  and  ministers  of  the  temple. 
Honey  was  never  offered  with  the  sacrifi- 
ces, but  it  might  be  presented  alone,  as 
firstfruits.  Lev.  2:11,  12.  6.  Clean  animals 
were  also  offered.  Lev.  22:18-23.  Those 
who  offered  living  victims  were  not  ex- 
cused from  giving  meal,  wine,  and  salt,  to- 
gether with  the  greater  sacrifices.  Those 
who  offered  only  oblations  of  bread  or  of 
meal  offered  also  oil,  incense,  salt,  and 
wine,  which  were  in  a  manner  their  sea- 
soning.    The  priest  in  waiting  received  the 

26 


offerings  from  the  hand  of  him  who  brought 
them,  laid  a  part  on  the  altar,  and  reserved 
the  rest  for  his  own  subsistence  as  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Lord.  Nothing  was  wholly  burned 
up  but  the  incense,  of  which  the  priest  re- 
tained none.     See  Lev.  2:2,  13,  etc.;  Num. 

15:4,  5- 

In  some  cases  the  law  required  only 
offerings  of  corn  or  bread,  as  when  they 
offered  the  firstfruits  of  harvest,  whether 
offered  solemnly  by  the  nation,  or  as  the 
devotion  of  private  persons.  The  unbloody 
offerings  signified  in  general  not  so  much 
expiation,  which  was  the  peculiar  meaning 
of  the  sacrifices,  as  the  consecration  of  the 
offerer  and  all  that  he  had  to  Jehovah. 
Only  in  the  case  of  the  poor  man,  who  could 
not  afford  the  expense  of  sacrificing  an  an- 
imal, was  an  unbloody  sacrifice  accepted  in 
its  stead.  Lev.  5:11.     See  S.-vcrifices. 

It  is  easier  to  make  costly  offerings  than 
to  forsake  beloved  sins,  and  God  many 
times  sternly  reproved  the  Hebrews  for 
relying  on  their  offerings,  without  the  wor- 
ship of  the  heart  and  life,  Isa.  1:11-17;  J^r- 
6:20;  7:21-23;  Hos.  6:6;  Amos  5:22-24; 
Mic.  6:6-8.  See  also  Psa.  50:8-23;  Rom. 
2:28,  29;  Heb.  10:1-14;  I3'i5i  16. 

OF'TEN,  I  Tim.  5:23,  frequent;  an  ad- 
jective in  old  English. 

OG,  long-necked,  an  Amoritish  king  of 
Bashan  east  of  the  Jordan,  defeated  and 
slain  by  the  Israelites  under  Moses  at  Ed- 
rei.  Compare  Josh.  24:12.  He  was  a  giant 
in  stature,  one  of  the  last  of  the  Rephaim 
who  had  possessed  that  region;  and  his 
iron  bedstead,  14  feet  long,  was  preserved 
after  his  death  as  a  relic.  Ashtaroth-car- 
naim  and  Edrei  were  his  chief  cities;  but 
there  were  many  other  walled  towns,  and 
the  land  was  rich  in  flocks  and  herds.  It 
was  assigned  by  Moses  to  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh,  Num.  21:33;  2>'^'-'i2>\  Dent.  1:4; 
3:1-13;  4:47;  31:4;  Josh.  2:10;  12:4;  13:30. 
His  fame  long  continued,  Psa.  135:11; 
136:20. 

OIL,  a  symbol  of  gladness,  Psa.  45:7; 
Isa.  61:3;  Joel  2:19,  was  employed  from 
the  earliest  periods  in  the  East,  not  only 
for  the  consecration  of  priests  and  kings. 
Lev.  8:12;  I  Sam.  10:1 ;  16:1,  but  to  anoint 
the  head,  the  beard,  and  the  whole  person 
in  daily  life,  Gen.  28:18;  Deut.  28:40;  Ruth 
3:3;  Psa.  92:10.  See  Anointing.  It  was 
employed  by  physicians,  Isa.  1:6;  Mark 
6:13;  Luke  10:34;  Jas.  5:14;  was  almost 
the  only  artificial  light,  Exod.  25:6;  27:20, 
21;  35:8;  Lev.  24:2;  I  Sam.  3:3;  and  was 
universally  used  as  food,  i  Kin.  5 :  11 ;  2  Chr. 

401 


OIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OLI 


2:10,  15;  Ezek.  16:13,  19-  tresh  and  sweet 
olive  oil  was  greatly  preferred  to  butter 
and  animal  fat  as  a  seasoning  for  food,  and 
to  this  day  in  Syria  almost  every  kind  of 
food  is  cooked  with  oil.  It  had  a  place  also 
among  the  meat-ofi'erings  in  the  temple, 
being  usually  mixed  with  the  meal  of  the 
oblation,  Lev.  5:  II ;  6:21.  For  lamps  also 
pure  olive  oil  was  regarded  as  the  best, 
and  was  used  in  illuminating  the  taberna- 
cle, Exod.35:i4;  39:37;  Num.  4: 16.  These 
many  uses  for  oil  made  the  culture  of  the 
olive-tree  an  extensive  and  lucrative  busi- 
ness, I  Chr.  27:28;  Ezek.  27:17;  Hos.  12:1. 
Oil  was  tithed  by  the  Mosaic  law.  Num. 
18:12;  Deut.  12:17;  Neh.  13:12,  and  was  as 
much  an  article  of  storage  and  of  traffic  as 
corn  and  wine,  i  Chr.  27:28;  2  Chr.32:28; 
Ezra  y.j.  The  best  oil  was  obtained 
from  the  fruit  while  yet  green,  in  No- 
vember, by  a  slight  beating  or  press- 
ing, Exod.  27:20;  29:40,  and  laying 
it  in  sloping  trays,  that  the  first  juice 
might  flow  off  into  receptacles.  The 
ripe  fruit,  from  December  to  Febru- 
ary, yielded  more  abundantly  but  a 
less  valuable  oil.  The  berries  were 
crushed  under  stone  rollers,  or  by 
subjecting  them  to  pressure  in  the 
oil-mill,  Hebrew  gath-shemen.  The 
olive-berries  are  not  now  trodden 
with  the  feet.  This,  however,  seems 
to  liave  been  practised  among  the 
Hebrews,  at  least  to  some  extent, 
when  the  berries  had  become  soft 
by  keeping,  Mic.  6:15.  Gethsemane, 
that  is,  oil-press,  probably  took  its 
name  originally  from  some  oil-press 
in  its  vicinity.     See  Oljve. 

OIL'-TREE,  Isa.  41:19;  in  i  Kin. 
6:23  called  "olive-tree;"  in  Neh. 
8:15  "pine-branches;"  supposed  to 
be  the  Pinus  pinea,  a  tall  and  beau- 
tiful cultivated  tree. 

OINT'MENTS,  of  various  ingredi- 
ents boiled  together.  Job  41 :3i,  were 
much  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
not  chiefly  for  medical  purposes  as 
among  us,  but  as  a  luxury,  Ruth 
2,:2,;  Psa.  104:15;  Song  1:3;  Matt. 
6:17;  Luke  7:46.  They  were  also  used  at 
funerals.  Matt.  26:12;  John  12:3,  7;  19:40. 
Their  perfumery  was  usually  prepared  in 
olive  oil,  and  not  in  volatile  extracts  and 
essences.  The  sacred  ointment  is  de- 
scribed in  Exod.  30:22-33.  It  was  used 
in  anointing  the  tabernacle,  the  table,  ves- 
sels, candlestick,  altar  of  incense,  altar  of 
burnt-offerings  and  its  vessels,  the  laver, 
402 


and  the  priests,  Exod.  29:7;  37:29;  40:9, 
15;  Psa.  133:2.  The  ointments  of  the  rich 
were  made  of  very  costly  ingredients,  and 
their  fragrance  was  highly  extolled,  Isa, 
39:2;  Amos  6:6;  Matt.  26:7-9;  John  12:5. 
See  Anointing. 

OLD  AGE.  Aged  people  were  to  be 
treated  witii  reverence  and  all  needful 
care,  Job  12:12;  15:10,  the  young  rising  at 
their  ap])roach.  Lev.  19:32,  and  any  lack 
of  respect  was  strongly  condemned,  Deut. 
28:50;  Lam.  5:12.  Corresponding  duties 
were  owed  by  them  to  the  young.  The 
wisdom  taught  by  experience  is  invalua- 
ble; comjjare  i  Kin.  12:1-16;  Job  32:7; 
and  the  responsibilities  of  church  and  state, 
both  in  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament 
times,  were  intrusted  to  "elders." 


olive:  olea  europ^a. 

OL'IVE,  Heb.  pleasa>tl  or  shining.  This 
is  one  of  the  earliest  trees  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  and  has  furnished,  perhaps  ever 
since  the  deluge,  the  most  universal  em- 
blem of  peace.  Gen.  8:11.  It  is  always 
classed  among  the  most  valuable  trees  of 
Palestine,  which  is  described  as  a  land  of 
oil  olive  and  honey,  Deut.  6:11;  8:8;  Hab. 
3:17.      No  tree  is    more   frequently  men- 


OLI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OLI 


tioned  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics. 
By  the  Greeks  it  was  dedicated  to  Minerva, 
and  employed  in  crowning  Jove,  Apollo, 
and  Hercules.  The  olive  is  never  a  very 
large  or  beautiful  tree,  and  seldom  exceeds 
30  feet  in  height ;  its  leaves  are  dark  green 
on  the  upper  surface  and  of  a  silvery  hue 
on  the  under,  and  generally  grow  in  pairs. 
Its  wood  is  hard,  like  that  of  bo.\,  and  very 
close  in  the  grain.  It  was  used  in  Solo- 
mon's temple,  i  Kin.  6:23-33.  The  branch- 
es were  employed  in  making  booths  for  the  ' 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Neh.  8:15.  It  blos- 
soms very  profusely,  and  bears  fruit  every 
other  year.  The  flower  is  at  first  yellow, 
but  as  it  expands  it  becomes  whiter,  leav- 
ing a  yellow  centre.  The  blossoms  are 
very  abundant,  but  many  drop  off  at  the 
lightest  breeze.  Job  15:33.  The  fruit  re- 
sembles a  plum  in  shape  and  in  color, 
being  first  green,  then  pale,  and  when  ripe 
almost  black.  It  is  gathered  by  shaking 
the  boughs  and  bj'  beating  them  with  poles, 
Deut.  24:20;  Isa.  17:6;  24: 13,  and  is  some- 
times plucked  in  an  unripe  state,  put  into 
some  preserving  liquid,  and  exported.  It 
is  principally  valuable  for  the  oil  it  pro- 
duces, which  is  an  important  article  of 
commerce  in  the  East.  A  full-sized  tree  in 
full  bearing  vigor  is  said  to  produce  50 
pounds  of  oil,  Judg.  9:8,  9;  2  Chr.  2:10. 
The  olive  delights  in  a  stony  soil,  and  will 
thrive  even  on  the  sides  and  tops  of  rocky 
hills  where  there  is  scarcely  any  earth ; 
hence  the  expression,  "  oil  out  of  the  flinty 
rock,"  etc.,  Deut.  32:13;  Job  29:6.  Yet  it 
will  grow  in  a  wet  soil.  It  is  an  evergreen 
tree,  and  very  long-lived,  an  emblem  of  a 
fresh  and  enduring  piety,  Psa.  52:8;  Jer. 
11:16;  Hos.  14:6.  Around  an  old  trunk 
young  plants  shoot  up  from  the  same  root, 
to  adorn  the  parent  stock  when  living  and 
succeed  it  when  dead;  hence  the  allusion 
in  describing  the  family  of  the  just,  Psa. 
128:3.  It  is  slow  of  growth,  and  no  less 
slow  to  decay.  The  ancient  trees  now  in 
Gethsemane  are  believed  by  many  to  have 
sprung  from  the  roots  of  those  which  wit- 
nessed the  agony  of  our  Lord.  Dr.  Martin 
and  Bovethinkthey  may  be  even  2,000  years 
old.  The  largest  is  6  yards  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  9  or  10  yards  high.  The  "  wild 
olive-tree  "  is  smaller  than  the  cultivated, 
and  inferior  in  all  its  parts  and  products. 
A  graft  on  it  from  a  good  tree  bears  good 
fruit;  while  a  graft  from  a  "wild"  olive 
upon  a  good  tree  remains  "  wild  "  as  be- 
fore. Yet,  "  contrary  to  nature,"  the  sin- 
ner engrafted  on  Christ  partakes  of  His 


nature  and  bears  good  fruit,  Rom.  11:13- 
26. 

An  "  olive-yard,"  or  grove  of  olive-trees, 
was  as  common  in  Palestine  as  vineyards 
or  grain  fields,  Exod.  23:11;  Josh.  24:13; 
I  Sam.  8:14;  2  Kin.  5:26;  i  Chr.  27:28; 
Neh.  5:11;  9:25. 

OL'IVES,  MOUNT  OF,  Zech.  14:4;  Ezek. 
11:23,  called  simply  "  the  mount  "  in  Neh. 
8:15,  also  "Olivet"  in  2  Sam.  15:30;  Acts 
1:12;  now  Jebel  et-Tur,  a  ridge  2  miles 
long  running  north  and  south  on  the  east 
side  of  Jerusalem,  its  summit  not  half  a 
mile  from  the  city  wall,  and  separated  fron: 
it  by  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  It  rises 
2,665  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Jordan  valley  14  miles  ofil'lies  3,500  feet  be- 
low. The  Church  of  the  Ascension,  on  the 
central  height,  is  due  east  from  the  Mosque 
of  Omar  ^  of  a  mile,  224  feet  higher  than 
Moriah  and  355  above  the  bed  of  the  Kid- 
ron. It  is  composed  of  a  chalky  limestone, 
the  rocks  everywhere  showing  themselves. 
The  olive-trees  that  formerly  covered  it 
and  gave  it  its  name  are  now  represented 
by  a  few  trees  and  clumps  of  trees  which 
ages  of  desolation  have  not  eradicated. 
There  are  3  prominent  summits  on  the 
ridge ;  of  these  the  southernmost,  which  is 
250  feet  lower  than  the  other  two,  is  now 
known  as  the  "  Mount  of  Offence,"  origi- 
nally the  "  Mount  of  Corruption,"  because 
Solomon  defiled  it  by  idolatrous  worship, 
I  Kin.  11:5-7;  2  Kin.  23:13,  14.  Over  this 
ridge,  between  the  northern  and  the  cen- 
tral summit,  passes  the  road  to  Bethany, 
the  most  frequented  road  to  Jericho  and 
the  Jordan.  The  sides  of  the  Mount  of  Ol- 
ives towards  the  west  contain  many  tombs 
cut  in  the  rocks.  The  central  summit,  di- 
rectly east  of  the  temple  area,  rises  200  feet 
or  more  above  Jerusalem,  and  presents  a 
fine  view  of  the  city,  and  indeed  of  the 
whole  region,  including  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim  on  the  north,  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  on  the  east,  a  part  of  the  Dead  Sea 
on  the  southeast,  and  beyond  it  Kerak  in 
the  mountains  of  Moab.  Perhaps  no  spot 
on  earth  unites  so  fine  a  view  with  so  many 
memorials  of  the  most  solemn  and  impor- 
tant events.  David  climbed  it  sadly,  flee- 
ing from  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:23-32.  Over 
this  hill  the  Saviour  often  passed  in  his 
journeys  to  and  from  the  holy  city.  Geth- 
semane lay  at  its  foot  on  the  west,  and 
Bethany  on  its  eastern  slope,  nearly  a  mile 
from  the  summit,  Matt.  21:1;  24:3;  26:30; 
Markii:i;  13:3  ;  John  8:  i.  It  was  proba- 
bly near  Bethany,  and  not  as  tradition  says 

403 


OLY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ONE 


on  the  middle  summit,  that  our  Lord  as- 
cended to  heaven,  Luke  24:50;  Acts  1:12, 
though  superstition  has  built  the  "  Church 
of  the  Ascerision  "  on  the  i>retended  sjiot, 
and  shows  the  i)rint  of  his  feet  on  the  rock 
whence  he  ascended !  From  the  summit, 
3  days  before  his  death,  he  beheld  Jerusa- 
lem, and  wept  over  it,  recalling  the  long 
ages  of  his  more  than  parental  care,  and 
grieving  over  its  approaching  ruin.  Scarce- 
ly anything  in  the  gospels  moves  the  heart 
more  than  this  natural  and  touching  scene. 
No  one  can  doubt  that  it  was  God  who 
there  spoke;  his  retrospect,  his  prediction, 
and  his  compassion  alike  proved  it.  See 
Luke  19:37-44,  in  connection  with  Matt. 
23:35-38,  spoken  the  next  day.  The  same 
spot  is  associated  with  the  predictions  of 
"his  future  judgments  in  the  earth,  Zech. 
14:4.  See  view  of  the  central  summit  in 
Gethsi:.mani;  ;  also  SiiPfLCHRES. 

OLYM'PAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  Rom. 
16: 15. 

O'MAR,  eloquent,  2d  son  of  Eliphaz,  Gen. 
36:11,  15;  I  Chr.  1:36. 

O'MEGA,  the  great  O,  or  long  O,  the  last 
letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet  as  Alpha  is  the 
first.  See  A.  Rev.  1:8,  11;  21:6;  22:13. 
Compare  Isa.  41 :4;  44:6.  Christ  performs 
what  he  begins,  Phil.  1:6;  Heb.  13:8. 

O'MER,  a  sheaf,  E.xod.  16:16-36,  a  He- 
brew measure  of  capacity,  the  loth  part  of 
an  ephah.  See  Me.\sures  and  Appendi.x 
Tables. 

OMNIP'OTENT,  Rev.  19:6,  in  the  He- 
brew Shaddai,  the  Almighty,  a  name  of 
God  signifying  his  infinite  power,  an  attri- 
bute only  partially  comprehended  by  us 
through  his  amazing  works  in  the  creation, 
preservation,  and  government  of  the  uni- 
verse, Gen.  17:1;  E.xod.  15:11,  12;  Deut. 
3:24;  Psa.  62:11;  65:5-13;  Matt.  19:26; 
Eph.  3:20.  It  is  the  name  given  to  God 
throughout  the  book  of  Job,  and  he  himself 
assumes  it  for  the  comfort  of  his  people 
and  the  dismay  of  his  enemies.  Gen.  35: 1 1 ; 
E.xod.  6:3;    Psa.  91:1;   2  Cor.  6:18;    Rev. 

19:15- 

OMNIPRES'ENCE,  an  infinite  attribute 
of  Jehovah  alone,  signifying  that  he  is  ev- 
erywhere present,  at  all  times,  and  in  the 
perfection  of  all  his  other  attributes.  His 
nature  is  undivided  and  wholly  distinct 
from  all  created  things.  The  thought  of 
his  presence  should  enter  into  all  our  life, 
to  restrain  from  sin,  and  to  strengthen, 
cheer,  and  inspire  us,  Gen.  16:13;  28:16, 
17;  Psa.  139;  Acts  17:27,28;  Heb.  1:3. 

OMNIS'CIENCE,  an  infinite  attribute  of 
404 


God,  in  virtue  of  which  he  perfectly  knows 
all  things  and  beings,  actual  and  possible, 
l)ast,  present,  and  future.  Like  all  God's 
attributes,  it  is  beyond  all  finite  compre- 
hension. Job  11:7;  Isa.  46:9,  10;  I  John 
3:20. 

OM'RI,  serz'ant  of  fehovah,  I.,  a  grand- 
son of  Benjamin,  i  Chr.  7:8. 

II.  The  son  of  Imri,  tribe  of  Judah,  i  Chr. 
9:4. 

III.  A  captain  under  David,  i  Chr.  27:18. 

IV.  Founder  of  the  3d  dynasty  of  Israel, 
and  previously  general  of  the  army  of  Elah 
king  of  Israel;  but  being  at  the  siege  of 
Gibbethon,  and  hearing  that  his  master 
Elah  was  assassinated  b\-  Zimri,  who  had 
usurped  his  kingdom,  he  raised  the  siege, 
and  being  elected  king  by  his  army, 
marched  against  Zimri,  attacked  him  at 
Tirzah,  and  forced  him  to  burn  himself 
and  all  his  family  in  the  palace  in  which 
he  had  shut  himself  up.  After  his  death 
half  of  Israel  acknowledged  Omri  for  king, 
the  other  half  adhered  to  Tibni,  son  of 
Ginath,  which  division  continued  4  years. 
When  Tibni  was  dead  the  people  united 
in  acknowledging  Omri  as  king  of  all  Is- 
rael, who  reigned  12  years,  6  years  at  Tir- 
zah and  6  years  at  Samaria,  i  Kin.  16:8- 
28.  His  wickedness  exceeded  that  of  his 
predecessors.  Compare  2  Chr.  22:2-4; 
Mic.  6:16.  He  lost  some  of  his  cities  to  the 
Syrians  under  Ben-hadad  I.,  i  Kin.  20:34; 
22:3.     His  son  and  successor  was  Ahab. 

Tirzah  had  previously  been  the  chief 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel ;  but  when 
Omri  purchased  the  hill  of  Shomeron, 
I  Kin.  16:24,  he  built  there  a  new  city, 
which  he  called  Samaria,  from  the  name  of 
the  previous  possessor,  Shemeror  Shomer, 
and  there  fixed  his  royal  seat.  From  this 
time  Samaria  was  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  10  tribes.  It  appears  under  the 
name  of  Beth-khuniri,  founded  by  Omri, 
on  the  stone  tablets  exhumed  by  Layard 
from  the  ruins  of  Nineveh. 

OH,  force,  I.,  a  Reubenite,  son  of  Peleth, 
engaged  at  first  in  the  mutiny  of  Korah, 
Num.  16: 1.  It  is  conjectured  that  he  with- 
drew and  escaped  ruin. 

II.  See  Heliopolis. 

O'NAN,  strong,  2d  son  of  Judah,  who 
refused  to  raise  up  children  by  the  widow 
of  his  deceased  brother,  as  the  law  required, 
Deut.  25:5-10;  Mark  12:19,  and  w-as  pun- 
ished by  death.  Gen.  38:4-9;  46:12. 

ONES'IMUS,  profitable,  a  slave  to  Phi- 
lemon of  Colossae  in  Phrygia,  who  ran 
away  from  him  and  fled  to  Rome;  but  be- 


ONE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OPH 


ing  converted  to  Christianity  through  the 
preaching  of  Paul,  he  was  the  occasion  of 
Paul's  writing  the  Epistle  to  Philemon, 
which  see.  He  ministered  tenderly  to  the 
apostle  in  his  imprisonment,  and  was  re- 
ceived by  his  former  master  as  "  a  brother 
beloved,"  Col.  4:9. 

ONESIPH'ORUS,  projit-bearing,  a  Chris- 
tian friend  of  Paul  at  Ephesus,  who  came 
to  Rome  while  the  apostle  was  imprisoned 
there  for  the  faith,  and  at  a  time  when  al- 
most everyone  had  forsaken  him.  This  is 
supposed  to  have  occurred  during  Paul's 
last  imprisonment,  not  long  before  his 
death.  Having  found  Paul  in  bonds,  after 
long  seeking  him,  he  assisted  him  to  the 
utmost  of  his  power,  and  without  regard  to 
danger;  for  which  the  apostle  implored  the 
highest  benedictions  on  him  and  his  fam- 
ily, 2  Tim. i:i6-iS;  4:19. 

ON'ION,  the  Allium  cepa,  one  of  the  veg- 
etables of  Egypt  for  which  the  Hebrews 
murmured  in  the  desert.  Num.  11:5.  Has- 
selquist  says  that  the  onions  of  Egypt  are 
remarkably  sweet,  mild,  and  nutritious. 
Juvenal,  Pliny,  and  Lucian  satirize  the 
superstitious  regard  of  the  Egyptians  for 
this  bulb. 

ON'L'y-BEGOT'TEN,  or  only  son,  Luke 
7:12,  a  Scriptural  title  of  Christ,  suggesting 
a  mysterious  relation  between  him  and  the 
Father  which  no  human  words  can  fully 
express  and  no  fiiAe  mind  comprehend, 
John  1 :  14. 

O'NO,  strong,  a  town  of  Dan,  afterwards 
of  Benjamin,  near  Lydda,  i  Chr.  8:12;  Ezra 
2:33  ;  probably  traced  in  Kefr  'Ana,  5  miles 
north  by  west  of  Lydda.  The  "  plain  of 
Ono "  denotes  a  portion  of  the  plain  of 
Sharon  near  Ono,  Neh.  6:2;  7 :  37 ;  11:35. 

ON'YCHA,  an  ingredient  of  the  sacred 
incense,  whose  fragrance  perfumed  the 
sanctuary  alone,  E.xod.  30:34.  It  is  conjec- 
tured to  mean  the  Blatta  Byzantina  of  the 
shops,  which  consists  of  the  cover  or  lid  of  a 
species  of  muscle,  and  when  burned  emits 
a  musky  odor.  The  best  onycha  is  found 
in  the  Red  Sea,  and  is  white  and  large. 

ON'YX,  a  nail,  the  nth  stone  in  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate,  Exod.  28:9-12,  20.  The 
modern  onyx  has  some  resemblance  to  the 
agate,  and  the  color  of  the  body  of  the  stone 
is  like  that  of  the  human  nail ;  hence  its 
name.  The  Hebrew  word  so  translated  is 
not  known  with  certainty  to  signify  the 
onyx,  but  denoted  some  valuable  stone, 
Exod.  25:7;  35:9;  39 -6,  13;  Job  28:16. 
They  were  found  in  Havilah,  Gen.  2:12, 
and  used  by  the  king  of  Tyre,  Ezek.  28 :  13. 


The  onyx  is  often  of  a  milk-white  color, 
with  brown  strata,  and  is  set  in  rings,  seals, 
and  cameos.  A  species  of  marble  resem- 
bling the  onyx  was  known  to  the  Greeks, 
and  may  have  been  the  "onyx-stones" 
stored  up  by  David  for  the  temple,  i  Chr. 
29:2. 

O'PHEL,  /he  k>ioll,  L,  a  quarter  of  Jeru- 
salem adjacent  to  the  temple,  and  therefore 
occupied  by  the  Nethinim,  Neh.  3:26,  27; 
11:21.  It  appears  to  have  been  inclosed 
by  a  wall  and  fortified  by  a  strong  tower, 
2  Chr.  27:3;  33:14,  and  is  thought  to  be 
meant  by  the  Hebrew  ophel,  translated 
"  stronghold  "  in  Mic.  4:8.  It  is  often  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  as  Ophla.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  name  belongs  to  the 
lower  ridge  into  which  Mount  Moriah  sinks 
south  of  the  area  of  the  mosque.  It  is  290 
feet  wide,  and  extends  i  ,550  feet  to  the  south, 
terminating  in  a  bluff  40  or  50  feet  high 
above  the  pool  of  Siloam.  It  is  separated 
from  Mount  Zion  on  the  west  by  the  valley 
called  Tyropoeon,  and  was  anciently  cov- 
ered with  houses,  but  is  now  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  olives,  figs,  and  other  fruit. 
Portions  of  the  ancient  wall  on  the  east 
have  been  found  by  recent  excavations  70 
feet  high,  connecting  it  with  the  temple 
area.     See  Jerus.\lem. 

II.  In  the  A.  V.  "the  tower,"  a  place  on 
a  height  near  Samaria,  in  a  house  of  which 
Gehazi  hid  his  spoils  received  from  Naa- 
man,  2  Kin.  5:24. 

O'PHIR,  fruitful  or  red,  I.,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Joktan,  who  settled  in  Southern 
Arabia,  Gen.  10:26-29. 

II.  A  country  to  which  the  ships  of  Solo- 
mon traded,  and  which  had  for  a  long  time 
been  celebrated  for  the  purity  and  abun- 
dance of  its  gold.  Job  22 :  24 ;  28 :  16.  "  Gold 
of  Ophir  "  was  proverbially  the  best  gold, 
Psa.  45:9;  Isa.  13:12.  The  only  passages 
which  give  us  any  information  as  to  the 
location  of  Ophir  are  i  Kin.  9:26-28;  10:11, 
22;  22:48,  with  the  parallel  passages  in 
2  Chr.  8: 18;  9:10,  21;  20:36,  37;  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  so-called  "ships 
of  Tarshish  "  went  to  Ophir;  that  these 
ships  sailed  from  Ezion-geber,  a  port  of 
the  Red  Sea ;  that  a  voyage  was  made  once 
in  3  years;  that  the  fleet  returned  freighted 
with  gold,  peacocks,  apes,  spices,  ivory, 
algum-wood,  and  ebony.  Upon  these  data 
interpreters  have  undertaken  to  determine 
the  situation  of  Ophir ;  but  they  have  ar- 
rived at  different  conclusions.  Josephus 
places  it  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  Oth- 
ers have  placed  it  at  Sofala,  in  South  Afri- 

405 


OPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ORG 


ca,  where  mines  of  gold  and  silver  have 
been  found,  which  apj^ear  to  have  been 
anciently  and  extensively  worked.  Others 
still  suppose  it  to  have  been  Southern  Ara- 
bia. General  opinion  now  inclines  to  the 
first  location,  and  in  Southern  India  alone 
all  Solomon's  articles  of  commerce  are 
found  together.     See  Uphaz. 

OPH'Nl,  J'aiiiine,  a  town  in  the  northeast 
of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:24,  the  Gophna  of 
Josephus,  now  Jufna,  a  poor  village  2% 
miles  northeast  of  Bethel. 

OPH'RAH,  afaioi,  I.,  a  town  of  the  Ben- 
jamites,  located  by  Eusebius  5  miles  east  of 
Bethel,  near  which  site,  towards  the  north, 
now  stands  et-Taiyibeh  on  a  conical  hill, 
with  an  old  tower  commanding  a  splendid 
view  of  the  Jordan  valley,  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  the  mountains  beyond.  Josh.  18:23; 
I  Sam.  13:17.  Probably  the  place  to  which 
Christ  went  after  the  resurrection  of  Laza- 
rus, John  11:54.     See  Ei'HR.A.i.M. 

II.  "Of  the  Abiezrites  "  (see  Abiezer), 
a  town  of  Manasseh  where  Gideon  resided, 
and  where  after  his  death  his  ephod,  made 
or  adorned  from  the  spoils  of  Zebah  and 
Zalmunna,  was  superstitiously  adored, 
Judg.  6:11-24;  8:27,32;  9:5.  It  overlooked 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon  from  the  southwest. 

III.  Son  of  Meonothai,  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah;  or  a  place  founded  by  him,  i  Chr. 
4:14. 

OR,  sometimes  in  A.  V.  means  ere,  be- 
fore,Tsa. ^0:2;  Prov. 8:23;  Song6:i2;  Dan. 
6:24;  Acts  23: 15. 

OR'ACLE,  the  secret  room  of  the  temple, 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  where  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  was  placed,  where  God  was  spe- 
cially present  between  the  cherubim,  ^nd 
delivered    his    messages,    2    Sam.    16:23; 

1  Kin.  6:5,  16,  19;  7:49;  8:6,  8;  2  Chr.  3:16; 
4:20;  5:7,9;  Psa.  28:2.  See  Mercy-seat. 
The  established  mode  of  "  inquiring  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lord"  was  through  the  high- 
priest,  by  means  of  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  I  Sam.  23:9;  30:7,  8.  In  the  New 
Testament  "oracles"  means  the  divine 
utterances,  the  entire  word  of  God,  Acts 
7:38;  Rom.  3:2;  Heb.  5:12;  i  Pet.  4:11. 

Strikingly  unlike  the  true  and  living  ora- 
cles of  God  were  the  famous  counterfeit 
oracles  of  numerous  heathen  temples,  often 
condemned    in    Scripture,   Judg.    17:1,   5; 

2  Kin.  1:2;  Hos.  4:12;  Hab.  2:19.  Among 
the  Greeks  the  most  famous  were  that  of 
Jupiter  under  the  oak  at  Dodona,  and  that 
of  Apollo  at  Delphi — where  the  priestess 
sat  on  a  tripod  over  a  fissure  in  a  rock, 
from  which  issued  an  intoxicating  vapor. 

406 


and  her  ravings  were  interpreted  by  the 
priests.  The  priests  who  pretended  to 
convey  to  applicants  the  responses  of  their 
gods  often  gave  a  reply  capable  of  two 
opposite  interpretations,  when  neither  pri- 
vate information  nor  their  own  experience 
or  sagacity  gave  them  the  clew  to  a  safe  an- 
swer. Thus  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  was 
encouraged  to  a  war  with  Rome,  by  an  ora- 
cle which  was  found  after  his  defeat  to 
foretell  defeat  as  much  as  victory :  Aio  te, 
Aeacida,  Romanos  vincere  posse. 

OR'ATOR,  the  ELOQi'ENT,  in  Isa.  2>'Zt 
A.  v.,  rather  "  skilful  of  speech,"  that  is, 
of  incantation  or  pretended  magic.  Com- 
pare Psa.  58:5.  In  Acts  24:1  the  Roman 
advocate  who  appeared  on  behalf  of  the 
Jews  against  Paul  in  the  court  at  Rome. 

OR'DER,  implying  system,  regularity, 
and  decorum,  whether  in  the  public  affairs 
of  church  and  state,  or  in  the  household 
and  individual  life,  is  both  beautiful  and 
essential  to  success.  It  is  commended  by 
the  example  of  God,  Gen.  18:19;  Josh. 
24:15;  Psa.  90:12;  119:133;  Eccl.  3:1,  11; 
I  Cor.  14:26-40;  Phil.  1:27. 

ORDINANCE,  a  decree,  charge,  or  law, 
Exod.  12:24;  15:25;  Lev.  18:30;  2  Chr. 
33:8;  Rom.  13:1;  Heb.  9:1,  10.  The  gos- 
pel enjoins  obedience  to  all  rightful  au- 
thority, I  Pet.  2:13,  especially  that  of  God, 
I* Cor.  11:2.  Church  ordinances,  so  called 
as  resting  on  Scriptural  authority,  are  such 
as  baptism,  the  Lord's  .Supper,  public  wor- 
ship— with  reading  and  expounding  God's 
Word,  preaching  the  gospel,  praise,  pra_ver, 
and  thanksgiving. 

O'REB  and  ZE'EB,  raven  and  ivolf,  2 
Midianite  chiefs,  captured  after  the  victory 
of  Gideon,  and  slain  by  the  men  of  Ejihraim 
at  the  spots  whither  they  had  fled,  and 
which  were  afterwards  called,  in  memory 
of  them,  "  the  rock  of  Oreb  "  and  the  wine- 
press or  cellar  of  Zeeb,  Judg.  7:25;  8:3. 
Their  punishment  foretells  that  of  all 
God's  enemies,  Psa.  >>t,;  Isa.  10:26.  Oreb 
is  placed  by  some  at  Ash  el-Ghurab,  3 
miles  north  by  east  of  Jericho;  and  the 
wine-press  of  Zeeb,  a  little  farther  north. 

O'REN,  ash-tree,  i  Chr.  2:25,  son  of  Je- 
rahmeel. 

OR'GAN,  Psa.  150:4,  a  wind 'instrument 
apparently  composed  of  several  pipes.  It 
cannot,  however,  mean  the  modern  organ, 
which  was  unknown  to  the  ancients,  but 
refers  probably  to  the  ancient  syrinx,  or 
pipes,  similar  to  the  Pandean  pipes,  a  se- 
ries of  7  or  more  tubes  of  unequal  length 
and  size,  closed  at  one  end,  and  blown  into 


ORI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


OS! 


witli  the  mouth  at  the  other,  Gen.  4:21 ;  Job 
21:12;  30:31.     See  Music. 

ORI'ON,  languid,  Job  9:9,  Heb.  chesll, 
\mos  5:8;  in  Isa.  13:10  translated  "con- 
stellations;" according  to  the  best  inter- 
preters and  the  ancient  versions  the  con- 
stellation Orion,  which,  on  account  of  its 
supposed  connection  with  storms,  Virgil 
calls  "  nimbosus  Orion."  It  lies  south  of 
the  ecliptic,  and  its  belt  of  3  bright  stars 
is  crossed  by  the  equator.  In  Job  38:31 
fetters  are  ascribed  to  him  ;  and  this  coin- 
cides with  the  Greek  fable  of  the  giant 
Orion,  bound  in  the  heavens  for  an  unsuc- 
cessful war  against  the  gods.  The  Arabs 
call  it  "  the  giant,"  meaning  Nimrod.  Some 
interpreters  identify  chesU  wiLh  the  star 
Canopus,  in  Arabic  sohail. 

OR'NAMENTS.  The  Hebrews  and  other 
Eastern  people  were  very  fond  of  these. 
The  men  wore  seal-rings,  gold  chains,  and 
costly  attire,  Gen.  41 :42;  the  women  richly- 
embroidered  garments,  with  rings  for  the 
fingers,  ears,  and  nose,  bracelets,  anklets, 
and  hair-ornaments,  Gen.  24:22,  53;  35:4, 
often  in  profusion,  E.xod.  3:22;  11:2;  33:4; 
Judg.  8:26 — see  Prov.  1:8,9;  Isa.  3:16-24 — 
and  especially  by  brides.  Song  1:10,  11; 
Jer.  2:32.  They  were  laid  aside  in  mourn- 
ing, Exod.  33:4-6;  2  Sam.  1:24;  Ezek. 
16:11;  24:17,  22.  Paul  and  Peter  exhort 
Christian  women  to  adorn  themselves 
chiefly  with  womanly  virtues,  i  Tim.  2:9, 
10;  I  Pet.  3:4.     Compare  Prov.  30:10-31. 

OR'NAN.     See  AR.A.UXAH. 

OR' PAH,  gazelle,  a  Moabitess,  wife  of 
Chilion  and  Naomi's  daughter-in-law,  who 
remained  with  her  people  and  gods  when 
Ruth  followed  Naomi  and  the  Lord,  Ruth 
1:4-14.  The  one  was  taken  and  the  other 
left.  Orpah's  name  disappears,  but  Ruth 
was  the  ancestor  of  a  long  line  of  kings 
and  of  our  Lord  himself.  Momentous  and 
everlasting  results  often  depend  on  the  de- 
cision of  a  single  hour. 

OR'PHANS  were  specially  provided  for 
by  the  Hebrew  law,  Deut.  14:29;  24:17; 
Jas.  1:27.  In  John  14:18  rendered  "com- 
fortless," in  R.  V.  "  desolate,"  one  left 
without  a  protector.  The  same  Greek 
word,  as  a  participle  is  used  in  i  Thess. 
2:17,  "bereaved  of  you." 

OSE'E,  Rom.  9:25,  Rosea,  as  in  R.  V. 

OSHE'A,  he  saves,  or  HOSHE'A,  Deut. 
32:44,  the  name  of  Moses'  successor, 
changed  to  Joshua,  Jehovah  saves,  in  honor 
of  his  faith.  Num.  13:8,  16. 

OS'PREY,  Heb.  powerful,  a  bird  of  the 
eagle  kind,  unfit  for  foocl.  Lev.  11:15.    It  is 


thought  to  be  the  sea-eagle,  or  the  black 
eagle  of  Egypt.     See  Birds. 

OS'SIFRAGE,  bone-breaker;  in  Hebrew 
Peres,  from  paras,  Io  break j-*an  unclean  ' 
bird  of  the  eagle  family,  Lev.  11:13;  Deut. 
14:12.  Some  interpreters  think  the  beard- 
ed vulttire  is  intended ;  others  a  mountain 
bird  like  the  lammergeyer  -of  the  Alps, 
which  breaks  the  bones  of  wild  goats  by 
hunting  them  over  precipices.  It  is  4  or  5 
feet  in  length  and  8  or  9  in  the  stretch  of 
its  wings. 


THE   ostrich:    STRUTHIO   CAMELUS. 

OS'TRICH,  the  largest  of  birds,  and  a 
sort  of  comiecting  link  between  fowls  and 
quadrupeds,  termed  by  the  Persians,  Arabs, 
and  Greeks  the  "camel-bird."  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  dry  and  torrid  regions  of  Africa 
and  Western  Asia.  The  gray  ostrich  is  7 
feet  high,  and  its  neck  3  feet  long ;  it  weighs 
nearly  80  pounds,  and  is  strong  enough  to 
carry  2  men.  The  other  species,  with 
glossy  black  wings  and  white  tail,  is  some- 
times 10  feet  high.  The  beautiful  plumes 
so  highly  valued  are  found  on  the  wings, 
about  20  on  each,  those  of  the  tail  being 
usually  broken  and  worn.  There  are  no 
feathers  on  the  thighs  or  under  the  wings, 
and  the  neck  is  but  scantilv  clothed  with 
thin  whitish  hairs.  The  weight  of  the  body 
and  the  size  and  structure  of  the  wings 
show  that  the  animal  is  formed  for  running 
and  not  for  fl3'ing. 

The  ostrich  is  described  in  Job  39:13-18, 
and  in  various  places  where  our  A.  V.  calls 
it   the    "owl,"  Job    30:29;   Jer.    50:39,   or 

407 


OST 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OWL 


"daughter  of  the  owl,"  Isa.  13:21;  34:13; 
43:20;  Mic.  1:8.  In  these  and  other  pas- 
sages it  figures  as  a  bird  of  the  desert.  Shy 
and  timorows,  it  is  occasionally  driven  by 
hunger  to  visit  and  ravage  cultivated  fields, 
but  is  usuallj^  found  only  in  the  heart  of 
the  desert,  in  troops  or  small  groups,  or 
mingling  familiarly  with  the  herds  of  wild 
asses,  gnus,  and  quaggas.  It  was  unclean 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  Lev.  11:16;  Deut.  14:15. 
Its  food  is  often  scarce  and  poor,  jilants  of 
the  desert  "  withered  before  they  are  grown 
up;"  also  snails,  insects,  and  various  rep- 
tiles; for  it  has  a  voracious  and  indiscrim- 
inating  appetite,  swallowing  the  vilest  and 
the  hardest  substances.  Job  speaks  par- 
ticularly of  the  speed  of  the  ostrich,  "  She 
scorneth  the  horse  and  his  rider."  So 
Xenophon,  the  biographer  of  C\-rus,  says 
of  the  ostriches  of  Arabia  that  none  could 
overtake  them,  the  baffled  horsemen  soon 
returning  from  the  chase. 

The  mother-bird   scoops  out  a  circular 
nest  in  the  sand,  and  lays  a  large  number 
of  eggs,  some  of  which   are  placed 
without  the  nest,  as  though  intend 
ed  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young 
brood.     Afterwards,  with  the   heli^ 
of  the  sun  in  the  tropics  and  of  her 
mate   in   the  cool    nights,  she  per- 
forms the  process  of  incubation ;  but 
her  timidity  is   such  that  she  flies 
from  her  nest  at  the  approach  of 
danger,  and  as  Dr.  Shaw  remarks, 
"  forsakes  her   eggs   or  her   young 
ones,  to  which  perhaps   she  never 
returns,  or  if  she  does,  it  may  be  too 
late  either  to  restore  life  to  the  one 
or  to  preserve  the  lives  of  the  oth 
ers.      The    Arabs   meet   sometime  s 
with  whole  nests  of  these  eggs  un 
disturbed,  some  of  them  sweet  and 
good,  others  addle  and   corrupted 
They  often  find  a  few  of  the  little  ones 
no  bigger  than  well-grown  pullets, 
half  starved,  straggling  and  moaning 
about  like  so  many  distressed  orphans  for 
their  mother.     In  this  manner  the  ostrich 
ma}'  be  said  to  be  '  hardened  against  her 
young  ones,  as  though  they  were  not  hers; 
her  labor,'  in  hatching  and  attending  them 
so  far,  'being  vain,  without  fear'  of  what 
becomes  of  them  afterwards.     This  want 
of  affection  is  also  recorded  in  Lam.  4:3, 
'The    daughter   of  my  people   is  become 
cruel,    like    the   ostriches    in    the    wilder- 
ness;' that  is,  api)arently  by  deserting  her 
own  children  and   receiving  others  in  re- 
turn." 

A08 


When  the  ostrich  is  provoked,  she  some- 
times makes  a  fierce,  angry,  and  hissing 
noise,  with  her  throat  inflated  and  her 
mouth  open  ;  at  other  times  she  has  a  moan- 
ing and  plaintive  cry;  and  in  the  night  the 
male  rej^eis  prowling  enemies  by  a  short 
roar  which  is  sometimes  taken  for  that  of  a 
lion,  Mic.  i  :!S. 

OTH'NI,  »ty  lion,  I  Chr.  26:7. 

OTH'NIEL,  lion  of  God,  son  of  Kenaz 
and  ist  judge  of  the  Israelites,  delivering 
them  from  the  tyranny  of  the  king  of  Meso- 
potamia, and  ruling  them  in  peace  40  years. 
His  wife  Achsah,  daugliter  of  his  uncle  Ca- 
leb, was  the  reward  of  his  valor  in  taking 
the  city  of  Debir,  Josh.  15:17;  Judg.  1:13; 
3:9,  10.  During  his  administration  the 
Hebrews  were  faithful  to  God,  and  pros- 
pered. Josh.  15:16-19;  Judg.  1:11-15;  3-8" 
II ;  I  Chr.  4: 13. 

OUCH'ES,  sockets  in  which  precious 
stones  were  set,  Exod.  28:11,  14,  25;  39:6, 
13-  16. 

OVEN.     See  Bread. 


SACRED   ibis:    IBIS   RELIGIOSA. 

OWL,  a  night  bird  of  prey,  unfit  for  food. 
Several  species  are  found  in  Palestine  and 
in  all  Western  Asia.  The  horned  owl,Otus 
ascalaphus,  is  probably  meant  in  the  A.  V. 
by  "  little  owl  "  in  Lev.  11:17;  Deut.  14:16, 
and  "owl"  in  Psa.  102:6;  and  the  Stri.x 
flammea  by  "screech  owl"  in  Isa.  34:14. 
Another  Hebrew  word,  bath -haya'anah, 
translated  owl  in  A.  V.,  Lev.  11:16;  Deut. 
14:15,  etc.,  means  the  ostrich  (which  see). 
Still  another  word,  j'anshijph,  translated 
"great  owl"  in  Lev.  11:17;  Deut.  14:16; 
and  "owl  '  in  Isa.  34:11,  A.  V.,  means  either 


ox 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OZN 


THE   NlGHl-HKKUN:  AKDE.A  NVCTICORAX. 

the  sacred  ibis,  or  more  probably  the  night- 
heron. 

OX,  or  BULL,  the  male  of  the  beeve  kind 
when  grown.  But  the  word  o.x  is  some- 
times used  in  a  general  sense  like  "herd," 
and  is  often  rendered  "  kine."  The  o.x  tribe 
were  clean  animals  by  the  Levitical  law, 
Deut.  14:4,  and  were  much  used  for  food, 
I  Kin.  1:9;  4:23 ;  19:21,  though  in  the  des- 
ert wanderings  those  only  were  eaten 
which  had  been  first  offered  in  sacrifice, 
Lev.  17:1-6.  They  supplied  milk,  butter, 
and  "cheese,"  Deut.  32:14;  2  Sam.  17:29; 
Isa.  7:22;  were  employed  as  beasts  of  bur- 
den, I  Chr.  12:40,  and  of  draught,  Num.  j:t,; 
I  Sam.  6:7;  2  Sam.  6:6;  in  ploughing,  Deut. 
22:10;  I  Sam.  14:14;  I  Kin.  19:19,  and  in 
treading  out  grain,  etc.,  Deut.  25:4;    Psa. 


THE   BULL   OF    SYRIA. 


144:14;  Hos.  10:11,  during  which  they  were 
not  to  be  muzzled,  i  Cor.  9:9,  but  well  fed, 
Isa.  30:24;  and  the  Sabbath  rest  was  to  be 
given  them,  E.xod.  23:12;  Deut.  5:14.  They 
were  sometimes  fattened  in  stalls,  i  Kin. 
4:23;  Prov.  15:17;  Luke  15:27,  and  barley 
was  the  grain  generally  given  them.  They 
constituted  no  small  part  of  the  wealth  of 
the  Hebrews  in  their  pastoral  life,  Gen. 
24:35;  Exod.  12:32,  38;  2  Sam,  12:2;  i  Chr. 
27:29;  Job  1:14:42:12.    Hundreds  of  them 


were  offered  in  sacrifice  every  year,  Exod. 
20:24;  and  these  were  to  be  the  best  of 
their  kind,  Mai.  i :  14.  The  region  east  of 
the  Jordan  was  a  famous  grazing  country, 
and  boasted  of  the  strongest  bullocks  and 
the  finest  herds.  .Those  roaming  at  large 
were  often  dangerous,  and  were  wont  to 
gather  ominously  around  any  object  that 
e.Kcited  their  suspicions,  as  is  the  habit  of 
half-wild  cattle  in  our  own  day,  Psa.  22: 12. 
See  Bashan,  Butter,  Milk.  Oxen  were 
driven  with  goads,  Judg.  3:31 ;  Acts  9:5.  A 
man  that  stole  an  ox  was  obliged  to  give  5 
oxen  in  return,  or  2  in  some  cases ;  and  a 
stray  ox  was  to  be  carefully  returned  to  its 
owner,  Exod.  22:1,  4;  23:4.  Unruly  cattle 
were  to  be  safely  kept,  or  tljpir  owner  was 
accountable  for  all  damage,  Exod.  21:28- 
36 — one  of  the  many  precepts  of  the  Jew- 
ish law  of  universal  equity  and  very  wide 
application  in  our  own  time.  The  testing 
of  a  new  yoke  of  oxen  is  still  a  business 
of  great  importance  in  the  East,  as  of  old, 
Luke  14: 19.  A  passage  in  Campbell's  trav- 
els in  South  Africa  well  illustrates  the  pro- 
verbial expression,  "  as  a  bullock  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  yoke,"  Jer.  31:18:  "When 
the  selection  fell  on  an  ox  I  had  received 
as  a  present  from  some  African  king,  of 
course  one  completely  unaccustomed  to 
the  3'oke,  such  generally  made  a  strenuous 
struggle  for  liberty,  repeatedly  breaking 
the  yoke  and  attempting  to  make  its  es- 
cape. At  other  times  such  bullocks  lay 
down  upon  their  sides  or  back,  and  re- 
mained so  in  defiance  of  the  Hottentots, 
though  2  or  3  of  them  would  be  lashing 
them  with  their  ponderous  whips.  Some- 
times, from  pity  to  the  animal,  I  would 
interfere,  and  beg  them  to  be  less  cruel. 
'Cruel,'  they  would  say,  'it  is  mercy;  for 
if  we  do  not  conquer  him  now  he  will  re- 
quire to  be  so  beaten  all  his  life.'  " 

The  buffalo  is  not  uncommon  in  modern 
Palestine,  and  is  used  with  the  neat  cattle 
around  Lake  Hflleh,  though  an  ugly,  sul- 
len animal.  See  Bulls  of  Bashan  and 
Unicorn. 

The  "  wild  ox,"  or  bull,  mentioned  in 
Deut.  14:5;  Isa.  51:20,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  oryx,  a  species  of  stag  or  ante- 
lope, large  and  powerful. 

OX-GOAD.     See  Goad. 

O'ZEM,  power,  I.,  a  son  of  Jesse. 

II.  Son  of  Jerahmeel,  i  Chr.  2:25. 

OZI'AS,  Matt.  1:8,  9,  A.  V.  See  Uz- 
ziah. 

OZ'NI,  Num.  26:16,  of  the  tribe  of  Gad; 
called  also  Ez'bon,  Gen.  46:16. 

409 


PAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAL 


PA'DAN-A'RAM,  llie  plains  of  Aram  or 
Syria,  Gen.  25:20;  28:2;  31:18,  or  simply 
Padan,  Gen.  48:7,  the  plain,  in  distinction 
from  the  "  mountains  "  of  Aram,  Num.  23:7. 
See  Mksoi'otamia  and  Syria. 

PAIN'FUL,  laborious,  Psa.  73:16;  2  Cor. 
11:27. 

PAINT,  PAINT'ING.  Among  the  He- 
brews the  walls  and  beams  of  houses  were 
often  i)ainted,  Jer.  22:14;  images  of  idols, 
or  drawings  of  them  on  temple  walls,  were 
also  thus  adorned  by  the  heathen,  E;zek. 
23:14.  The  Assyrian  ruins  and  Egyptian 
monuments  show  jiainted  figures  and  orna- 
mental device^.  See  Nineveh.  Cosmetic 
painting  was  common  among  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  women,  and  to  some  e.xtent 
among  the  Hebrews.     See  Eve. 

PAL'ACE  in  the  Old  Testament  denotes 
sometimes  all  the  buildings,  courts,  and 
gardens  inclosed  by  the  outer  wall  of  a 
royal  residence,  Dan.  1:4;  4:4;  i  Kin.  7:1- 
12;  sometimes  the  fortress  or  citadel,  1  Kin. 
16:18;  2Kin.  15:25.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  word  is  applied  to  the  residence  of  a 
man  of  wealth  or  high  position.  Matt.  26:3, 
69;  Mark  14:66;  Luke  11:21,  or,  as  in  the 
R.  v.,  its  "  court,"  around  which  the  house 
stood.  For  its  meaning  in  Phil.  1 :  13,  A.  V., 
see  Pr/ETORIU.m. 

PA'LAL,  />/<«•  t',  Neh.  3:25. 

PAL'ESTINE  denotes,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  country  of  the  Philistines,  "  Phi- 
listia,"  as  the  Hebrew  word  is  elsewhere 
translated.  It  was  that  part  of  the  Land  of 
Promise  extending  along  the  .Mediterra- 
nean Sea  on  the  varying  western  border 
of  Simeon,  Judah,  and  Dan,  Exod.  15:14; 
Isa.  14:29,  31;  Joel  3:4.  Palestine,  taken 
in  later  usage  in  a  more  general  sense, 
signifies  the  whole  country  of  Canaan,  as 
well  beyond  as  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan, 
though  frequently  it  is  restricted  to  the 
country  on  this  side  that  river ;  so  that  in 
later  times  the  words  Judaea  and  Palestine 
were  synonymous.  We  find  also  the  name 
of  Syria- Palestina  given  to  the  Land  of 
Promise,  and  even  sometimes  this  province 
is  comprehended  in  Ccele-Syria,  or  the 
Lower  Syria.  Herodotus  is  the  most  an- 
cient writer  known  who  speaks  of  Syria- 
Palestina.  He  places  it  between  Phoenicia 
and  Egypt.     See  Canaan. 

PALM'ER-WORM.      This   old    English 
term,   meaning  pilgrim-worm,  is   used  in 
Joel    1:4;    2:25;   Amos  4:9,   like  "canker- 
worm"   and  "caterpillar,"   for  some   de- 
410 


structive  insect,  perhaps  a  species  of  the 
locust;  but  in  this  case  probably  a  large 


pal.mer-worm  and  caterpillar:  plusia 
ga.m.ma. 
moth,  some  varieties  of  which  are  very  de- 
structive even  before  they  reach  the  winged 
state.     See  Locust. 

PALM-TREE,  Exod.  15:27.  This  tree  is 
called  in  Hebrew  tamar,  from  its  straight, 
upright,  branchless  growth,  Jer.  10:5,  for 
which  it  seems  more  remarkable  than  any 
other  tree.  It  grows  in  hot.  dry  climates 
and  in  sandy  soil,  sending  its  roots  down 
to  subterranean  waters,  but  flourishes  best 
near  streams  and  springs.  Its  graceful 
form  was  reproduced  in  the  columns  of 
costlj'  houses  and  on  the  doors  of  the  tem- 
ple, 1  Kin.  6 :  32 ;  2  Chr.  3 : 5 ;  compare  Ezek. 
41:18-20.     See  Tamar. 

The  palm  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
trees  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  trunk, 
of  nearly  uniform  size  throughout,  is  full  of 
rugged  knots,  which  render  it  compara- 
tively easy  to  climb  to  the  top  for  the  fruit. 
Song  7:7,  8.  These  projections  are  the 
vestiges  of  the  decayed  leaves ;  for  the 
trunk,  like  that  of  all  endogenous  trees, 
has  its  centre  filled  with  pith,  round  which 
is  a  tough  bark,  full  of  strong  fibres  when 
young,  whicli,  as  the  tree  grows  cjjd,  hard- 
ens and  becomes  ligneous.  To  this  bark 
the  leaves  are  closely  joined,  which  in  the 
centre  rise  erect,  but  after  they  are  ad- 
vanced above  the  sheath  that  surrounds 
them,  they  expand  very  wide  on  every  side 
the  stem,  and  as  the  older  leaves  decay, 
the  stalk  advances  in  height.  It  becomes 
30  or  40  feet  high,  and  in  some  instances 
60  to  100  feet ;  and  with  its  ever-verdant 
and  graceful  crown  continually  aspiring 
towards  heaven,  and  its  precious  fruit,  it  is 
an  apt  image  of  the  soul  growing  in  grace, 
Psa.  92:12,  14.  The  leaves,  when  the  tree 
has  grown  to  a  size  for  bearing  fruit,  are  6 


RUINED  FOUNTAIN  AT  JERICHO. 


PAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAM 


to  8  feet  long,  are  very  broad  when  spread 
out,  and  are  used  for  covering  the  tops  of 
houses,  for  fans,  and  similar  purposes. 


THE    date-palm:    PHCENIX    DACTYLIFERA. 

The  fruit,  from  which  one  sort  of  palm  is 
often  called  the  da/r-tree,  grows  below  the 
leaves  in  a  dozen  or  more  clusters,  some- 
times weighing  over  15  pounds,  and  is  of  a 
sweet  and  agreeable  taste.  The  palm  be- 
gins to  bear  when  about  10  years  old,  lives 
200  years  or  more,  and  yields  most  abun- 
dantly from  the  30th  to  the  8oth  year.  The 
ripe  dates  are  gathered  by  hand  or  shalcen 
into  a  net,  and  spread  out  in  the  open  air 
for  a  few  days ;  some  are  eaten  fresh,  others 
stored  for  future  use,  or  yield  a  rich  syrup 
from  their  expressed  juice,  or  a  pleasant 
drink  by  maceration  in  hot  water.  Such 
are  the  date-wines  of  the  East.  The  dili- 
gent natives,  says  Mr.  Gibbon,  celebrate, 
either  in  verse  or  prose,  the  360  uses  to 
which  the  trunk,  the  branches  or  long  leaf- 
stalks, the  leaves,  fibres,  and  fruit  of  the 
palm  are  skilfully  applied.  A  considera- 
ble part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  of  Ara- 
bia, and  Persia  subsist  almost  entirely  on 


its  fruit.  They  boast  also  of  its  medicinal 
virtues.  Their  camels  feed  upon  the  ground 
date-stone.  From  the  leaves  they  make 
couches,  baskets,  bags,  cordage,  mats,  and 
brushes;  from  the  branches  or  stalks,  ca- 
ges for  their  poultry  and  fences  for  their 
gardens;  from  the  fibres  of  the  trunk, 
thread,  ropes,  and  rigging;  from  the  sap  is 
prepared  a  spirituous  liquor;  and  the  body 
of  the  tree  furnishes  fuel:  it  is  even  said 
that  from  one  variety  of  the  palm-tree,  the 
plicenix  farinifera,  meal  has  been  extract- 
ed, which  is  found  among  the  fibres  of  the 
trunk,  and  has  been  used  for  food. 

Several  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  no  less 
than  of  Idumtea  that  lay  contiguous  to  it, 
are  described  by  the  ancients  to  have 
abounded  with  date-trees,  .'udrea  is  typi- 
fied in  several  coins  of  Vespasian  by  a  dis- 
consolate woman  sitting  under  a  palm- 
tree,  with  the  inscription,  Jl'd.-ea  Capta. 
See  Captivity.  The  Hebrews  carried  the 
leaves  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Neh. 
8:15.  Palms  flourished  in  Elim  and  Elath, 
in  Baal-tamar  and  Hazezon- tamar,  in 
Bethany,  "  house  of  dates,"  and  Phoenicia, 
"land  of  palms."  In  Deut.  34:3,  Jericho 
is  called  the  "  city  of  palm-trees  ;"  and  one 
of  these  trees  is  still  found  in  that  vicin- 
ity ;  but  in  general  they  are  now  rare  in 
Palestine.  Palm -wreaths,  and  branches 
waved  in  the  air  or  strewn  on  the  road,  are 
associated  as  a  symbol  of  victory,  not  only 
with  the  honors  paid  to  ancient  conquerors 
in  the  Grecian  games  and  in  war,  but  with 
the  triumphant  entry  of  the  King  of  Zion 
into  Jerusalem,  John  12:13,  ^"d  with  his 
more  glorious  triumph  with  his  people  in 
heaven.  Rev.  7:9. 

PAL'SY,  or  paralysis,  strikes  sometimes 
one  side  or  portion  of  the  body,  and  some- 
times the  whole,  affecting  the  power  of 
motion  or  the  power  of  sensation,  or  both, 
I  Kin.  13:4-6.  The  affected  part  sometimes 
becomes  withered,  the  muscles  contract- 
ing, Mark  3:1-5.  In  some  violent  forms, 
prevalent  in  the  East,  the  limbs  remain 
fixed  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack,  and 
the  suffering  is  intense,  death  ensuing  in  a 
few  days.  Matt.  8:5-13.  Palsy  is  one  of  the 
least  cui*able  of  diseases;  but  the  Saviour 
healed  it  with  a  word,  Matt.  4:24;  9:2-7; 
12:10;  Mark  2:3-12;  Acts  8:7;  9:33,  34- 
There  is  also  a  palsy  of  the  soul,  which  the 
Great  Physician  can  heal,  and  he  alone. 

PAL'TI,  ivhom  Jehovah  delivers,  one  of 
the  12  spies,  a  leader  in  Benjamin,  Num. 

PAMPHYL'IA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
411 


PAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAR 


having  Cilicia  east,  Lycia  west,  Pisidia 
north,  and  the  Mediterranean  south  —  a 
crescent-shaped  plain  sweeping  around  the 
seacoast,  Acts  27:5,  and  extending  north 
to  the  Taurus  Mountains,  being  about  80 
miles  long  and  30  wide.  The  river  Ceastrus 
was  formerly  navigable  7  miles  to  Perga, 
the  capital.  Attalia  was  the  chief  seaport, 
Acts  14:25,  26.  Strangers  from  Pamphylia 
were  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
Acts  2:10;  and  Paul  twice  visited  it  on  his 
first  missionary  tour,  and  parted  with  John 
Mark  here.  Acts  13:13;  14:24,25;  15:38. 

PAN'NAG,  in  Ezek.  27: 17,  is  the  Hebrew 
word  for  some  unknown  product  of  Pales- 
tine, which  the  Jews  sold  to  the  Tyrians. 
It  is  variously  understood  to  mean  millet, 
sweetmeats,  a  confection  or  delicate  spice, 
etc. 

PA'PER,  PAPY'RUS.     See  Book. 

PA'PHOS,  a  city  in  the  western  end  of 
Cyprus,  whose  Roman  governor  was  con- 
verted at  the  visit  of  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
Acts  13:6-13.  Old  Paphos,  now  Kuklia, 
said  to  have  been  founded  about  B.  C. 
1 184,  was  2  miles  from  the  shore,  and  was 
the  site  of  a  famous  temple  of  Venus,  often 
called  "the  Paphian  goddess,"  because  she 
was  fabled  to  have  risen  from  the  sea  here. 
New  Paphos,  now  Bafifa,  was  on  the  coast, 
about  10  miles  northwest  of  the  older  town ; 
it  had  a  tolerable  harbor,  now  nearly  filled 
up,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman  procon- 
sul.    See  ELYM.A.S  and  Sergius  P.\ulvs. 

PAR'ABLE,  Gr.  P.\RABOLE.  a  compari- 
son, as  in  Mark  4:30,  A.  V.,  Heb.  )iiiisliul,  si- 
viilihide,  translated  "^parable  "  in  Job  27:  i, 
A.  v.,  and  "proverb"  in  Prov.  1:1;  in  its 
wider  sense  any  form  of  teaching  by  anal- 
og}' or  figure :  including  metaphors,  Ezek. 
12:22:  Matt.  24:32,  proverbs  or  maxims, 
I  Sam.  10:12;  24:13;  2  Chr.  7:20;  Luke 
4:23,  obscure  prophetic  utterances,  Num. 
23:18;  Ezek.  20:49,  typical  or  symbolical 
signs,  Heb.  9:9.  In  its  narrower  sense,  as 
in  many  of  Christ's  teachings,  it  is  a  short 
narrative  of  some  actual  or  possible  occur- 
rence, enforcing  some  important  spiritual 
truth.  It  differs  from  xXiq  fable,  which  em- 
ploys reasoning  animals  or  plants  to  illus- 
trate a  wise  policy,  Judg.  9:8-15;  'and  from 
the  alleffoiy,  Psa.  80:8-16;  John  15:1-8,  in 
having  its  meaning  less  plainly  on  the  sur- 
face, and  requiring  a  careful  consideration 
of  the  personality  and  circumstances  of 
speaker  and  hearers. 

Parabolical    and    enigmatical    language 
was   much   used   by    Eastern   sages,    Psa. 
49:4;  78:2;  and  nothing  was  more  insup- 
412 


portable  than  to  hear  a  fool  utter  parables, 
Prov.  26:7.  A  parable  was  employed  by 
Nathan  in  reproving  David,  2  Sam.  12: 1-4; 
by  another  prophet  in  rebuking  Ahab, 
I  Kin.  20:39,  40;  by  Isaiah,  5:1-7.  This 
form  of  discourse  was  frequent  with  later 
Hebrew  writers  and  teachers,  and  has  ever 
been  much  admired  by  Oriental  people. 
Our  Saviour  frequently  addressed  the  peo- 
ple in  parables,  thereby  verifying  the  proph- 
ecy of  Isaiah,  6:9,  that  the  rebellious  peo- 
ple should  see  without  knowing,  and  liear 
without  understanding,  in  the  midst  of  in- 
structions, Matt.  13:10-15;  Mark  4:2,  10-13, 
2,2,,  34.  This  result,  however,  only  proved 
how  inveterate  were  their  hardness  of  heart 
and  blindness  of  mind ;  for  in  no  other 
way  could  he  have  offered  them  instruction 
more  invitingly,  clearly,  or  forcibly  than 
by  this  beautiful  and  familiar  mode ;  and 
to  all  who  really  desired  to  know  the  truth 
he  readily  gave  the  needed  e.xplanations. 

In  interpreting  a  parable,  its  primary 
truth  and  main  scope  are  to  be  chiefly  con- 
sidered. The  details,  though  often  signifi- 
cant, must  not  be  unduly  pressed ;  and  the 
special  aspect  of  divine  truth  which  it  jire- 
sents  is  not  to  be  insisted  on  to  the  e.xclu- 
sion  of  other  aspects  presented  in  other 
parables  or  in  the  more  direct  teaching  of 
Scripture.  Compare  Christ's  own  expla- 
nations of  the  parables  of  The  Sower  and 
The  Wheat  and  Tares. 

Matthew  and  Luke  record  most  of  his 
parables,  while  Mark  dwells  more  on  his 
acts  and  John  on  his  longer  discourses. 

The  following  jiarables  of  our  Lord  are 
recorded  by  the  evangelists: 

Wise  and  foolish  builders,  Matt.  7  :  24-27. 

Children  of  the  bride-chanibcr.  Matt.  9: 15. 

New  doth  and  old  sainient.  Matt.  9:  16. 

New  wine  and  old  bottles.  Matt.  9: 17. 

Unclean  spirit.  Matt.  12:43-45. 

Sower,  Matt.  13:3.  'S;  Luke  8: 5,  11. 

Tares,  Matt.  13  :  24-30,  36-43- 

Mustard-seed,  Matt.  i3:3i>32;  Luke  13: 19. 

Leaven,  Matt.  13:33- 

Treasure  hid  in  a  field.  Matt.  13:44- 

Pearl  of  great  price,  Matt.  13 :  45,  46. 

Net  cast  into  the  sea.  Matt.  13:47-50- 

Meats  defiling  not.  Matt.  15  :  io-2c. 

Unmerciful  servant.  Matt.  18:23-35. 

Laborers  hired,  Matt.  20: 1-16. 

Two  sons.  Matt.  21  :  28-32. 

Wicked  busbandmen.  Matt.  21 :  33-45- 

Marriage-feast,  Matt.  22:2-14. 

Fig-tree  leafing.  Malt.  24:32-34. 

Man  of  the  house  watching.  Matt.  24 :  43. 

Faithful  and  evil  servants.  Matt.  24:45-51. 

Ten  virgins,  Matt.  25: 1-13. 

Talents,  Matt.  25: 14-3"- 

Kingdom  divided  against  itself,  Mark  3  :  24. 


PAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAR 


House  divided  against  itself,  Mark  3  :  25. 

Strong  man  armed,  Mark  3  :  27  ;  Luke  11  :  21. 

Seed  growing  secretly,  Mark  4 :  26-29. 

Lighted  candle,  Mark  4:21  ;  Luke  11 :  33-36. 

Man  taking  a  far  journey,  Mark  13:34-37. 

Blind  leading  the  blind,  Luke  6  :  39. 

Beam  and  mote,  Luke  6:41,  42. 

Tree  and  its  fruit,  Luke  6  :  43-45, 

Creditor  and  debtors,  Luke  7  :  41-47. 

Good  Samaritan,  Luke  10  :  30-37. 

Importunate  friend,  Luke  11 :5-9. 

Rich  fool,  Luke  12  :  16-21. 

Cloud  and  wind,  Luke  12:54-57. 

Barren  fig-tree,  Luke  13  :6-9. 

Men  bidden  to  a  feast,  Luke  14:7-11. 

The  great  supper,  Luke  14 :  15-24. 

Builder  of  a  tower,  Luke  14 :  28-30,  33. 

King  going  to  war,  Luke  14 :  31-33. 

Savor  of  salt,  Luke  14  :  34,  35. 

Lost  sheep,  Luke  15:3-7. 

Lost  piece  of  silver,  Luke  15  :8-io. 

Prodigal  son,  Luke  15:  11-32. 

L'njust  steward,  Luke  16  :  1-8. 

Rich  man  and  Lazarus,  Luke  16:  19-31. 

Importunate  widow,  Luke  18:  i-S. 

Pharisee  and  publican,  Luke  18:9-14. 

Pounds,  Luke  19:12-27. 

Good  shepherd,  John  10  :  1-6. 

Vine  and  branches,  John  15  :  1-5. 

PAR'ADISE,  Gr.  PARADEisos,  a  word  of 
Persian  origin  answering  to  the  Heb.  g.\n, 
and  denoting  a  beautiful  park,  garden,  or 
orchard,  Neh.  2:8;  Eccl.  2:5;  Song  4:13. 
In  the  Septuagint  the  term  is  appHed  to 
the  garden  of  Eden,  Gen.  2:15,  commonly 
known  as  "the  terrestrial  Paradise."  In 
Jewish  theology  it  designates  the  abode  of 
the  righteous  in  the  unseen  world,  the  home 
of  repose  and  joy  beyond  the  grave.  In 
its  use  our  Saviour  promised  happiness  to 
the  penitent  thief,  Luke  23:43.  Paul  in  a 
vision  was  caught  up  into  paradise,  2  Cor. 
12:4.  And  in  Rev.  2:7;  22:14,  the  natural 
features  of  the  scene  where  innocence  and 
bliss  were  lost  are  used  to  depict  the  world 
where  these  are  restored  perfectly  and  for 
ever. 

PA'RAH,  the  tnouse,  Josh.  18:23,  a  town 
of  Benjamin,  possibly  at  the  ruins  now 
called  Farah,  on  the  point  made  by  wadies 
Faran  and  Suvveinit,  6  miles  northeast  of 
Jerusalem. 

PA'RAN,  beauty,  a  large  tract  of  desert 
country  south  of  Canaan,  a  high  limestone 
plateau  nearly  surrounded  by  mountains— 
the  short  ranges  on  its  east  side  running 
down  to  the  Arabah  valley  and  part  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  those  on  the  south  be- 
longing to  the  great  Sinai  group,  those  on 
the  west  separating  it  from  the  desert  of 
Etham  and  Shur.  On  the  north  it  merged 
in  the  Negeb  or  "south  country"  of  the 
Israelites,  and  included  the  deserts  of  Ka- 


desh  and  Zin,  Num.  13:21,  26;  33:36.  It  is 
described  as  a  dreary  expanse  of  chalky 
soil,  covered  with  coarse  gravel,  black  flint, 
and  drifting  sand,  with  scanty  vegetation. 
Some  cities  and  cultivated  grounds,  how- 
ever, and  patches  of  pasture  lands  were 
formerly  found  here.  Its  water-courses 
are  now  dry  except  in  the  rainy  season. 
Bedouin  tribes  roam  over  it  with  their 
flocks.  The  roads  from  Egypt  and  Mount 
Sinai  to  Canaan  cross  it.  In  this  region 
the  Israelities  dwelt  for  38  years,  from 
which  fact  it  derives  its  modern  name, 
"  Badiet  et-Tih,"  desert  of  the  wandering. 

The  first  mention  of  Paran,  "  El-paran," 
the  oak  of  Paran,  is  as  the  western  limit  of 
Chedorlaomer's  pursuit  of  the  Horites,  Gen. 
14:6.  It  became  the  home  of  Hagar  and 
Ishmael,  Gen.  21:21;  was  entered  by  the 
Israelites  soon  after  leaving  Sinai,  Num. 
10:12,  2,2,;  11:3,  34,  35;  12:16;  and  from  it 
the  spies  were  sent.  Num.  13:3,  26.  Isra- 
el's stations  in  it  are  mentioned,  Num. 
33:18-36;  David  retired  to  it,  i  Sam.  25:1, 
and  Hadad  went  through  it  to  Egypt, 
I  Kin.  II :  17,  18. 

"Mount  Paran,"  Deut.  33:2;  Hab.  3:3, 
was  probably  the  modern  Jebel  Magra'h,  a 
conspicuous  range  running  east  to  the  Ara- 
bah heights,  midway  between  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 

PAR'BAR,  I  Chr.  26:16,  18,  a  portico  or 
out-building  on  the  west  side  of  the  tem- 
ple, with  chambers  for  storage. 

PARCHED  GROUND,  in  Isa.  35:7,  A.  V., 
translated  by  Lowth  "  the  glowing  sand," 
by  Henderson  "  the  vapory  illusion,"  and 
in  German  sattd-nieer  and  wasserschein, 
"sand-sea"  and  "water-show,"  refers  to 
the  mirage,  an  optical  illusion  described 
by  almost  all  travellers  in  tropical  deserts. 
It  is  produced  by  an  unequal  refraction  of 
the  ra^'S  of  the  sun  in  the  lower  strata  of 
the  atmosphere  over  the  hot  sand.  The 
inexperienced  wanderer  sees  at  a  distance 
what  he  thinks  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  wa- 
ter, and  imagination  clothes  the  further 
shore  with  fresh  herbage  and  shrubbery, 
stately  palms  waving  in  the  breeze,  build- 
ings, etc. ;  but  on  hasting  towards  it  he 
iinds  the  delightful  vision  recede  and  at 
length  disappear,  and  nothing  remains  but 
the  hot,  dry  sands.  Instead  of  the  decep- 
tive and  vanishing  hopes  of  earth,  our  Sa- 
viour bestows  the  true  waters  of  eternal 
life. 

PARCH'MENTS,  2  Tim.  4:13.  Skins, 
rudely  prepared,  were  early  used  for  wri- 
ting.    Sheepskins  were  thus  used  by  the 

413 


PAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


PAS 


lonians  5  centuries  B.  C.  Under  Eume- 
nes,  a  king  of  Pergamos,  about  2  centuries 
B.  C,  a  better  mode  of  dressing  tlieni  was 
discovered,  and  they  were  called  in  Latin 
"  ciiarta  pergamena,"  whence  our  word 
parchment.     See  Book. 

PAR'DON,  Psa.  25:11,  God's  withholding 
the  punisiiment  due  to  us  for  our  sins,  and 
treating  us  as  though  we  had  not  offended. 
God  alone  can  grant  pardon,  Exod.  34:6, 
7;  Mark  2:7,  10-12,  out  of  his  free  love  and 
grace,  Isa.  43:25;  Rom.  5:8;  Eph.  1:6,  7, 
on  account  of  the  atonement  and  media- 
tion of  Christ,  Rom.  3:23-26;  Heb.  9:9-28, 
who  himself  bore  the  punishment  due  to 
sinners,  Isa.  53:4-12;  Gal.  3:10,  13.  Re- 
pentance and  faith  in  Christ  are  necessary 
to  secure  it,  Isa.  55:7;  John  3: 16,  18;  Acts 
10:43;  13:38,  39;  I  John  1:6-9.  Men  are 
commissioned  to  deliver  God's  message 
promising  pardon  to  repenting  and  belie- 
ving sinners,  but  no  man  has  power  t® 
pardon  sin,  Luke  24:47.  The  Scriptures 
show  the  completeness  of  God's  pardon  by 
speaking  of  it  as  the  covering  of  sin,  not 
imputing  it,  Psa.  32:1,  2,  taking  it  away, 
Psa.  103:12;  Mic.  7:19,  blotting  it  out  and 
not  remembering  it,  Psa.  51 : 1,9;  Heb.  8:12. 

PAR'LOR,  in  i  Chr.  28:11,  an  inclosed 
inner  room,  often  translated  "  chamber." 
In  I  Sam.  9:22  a  bedroom  or  "  chamber  " 
at  the  corner  of  a  court-yard.  In  Judg. 
3:20-25  a  cool  and  private  upper  chamber^ 
to  which  the  owner  repaired  for  his  noon 
siesta  or  for  purer  air  and  a  better  view. 

PAR'MENAS,  abidi)ig,  Acts  6:5,  one  of 
the  first  7  deacons. 

PA'ROSH,  or  Ph.\'rosh,  a  flea,  Ezra  2:3; 
8:3;  Neh.  3:25;  7:8;  10:14,  a  Jew  whose 
family,  in  number  2,712,  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem with  Zerubbabel,  besides  others  with 
Ezra. 

PARSHANDA'THA,  given  by  prayer,  a 
son  of  Haman,  Esth.  9:7. 

PAR'THIA,  originally  a  province  of  Me- 
dia, southeast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  appears 
to  have  been  conquered  by  Cyrus  B.  C. 
550,  and  was  subject  to  the  Persian  mon- 
archs  and  to  the  Seleucidze.  Under  Arsa- 
ces,  B.  C.  256,  it  established  its  independ- 
ence, and  in  apostolic  times  the  empire 
extended  from  India  to  the  Tigris.  Seleu- 
cia  and  Ctesiphon  were  chief  cities,  and 
Ecbatana  a  royal  summer  residence.  Par- 
thia  retained  its  power  nearlj'  500  years, 
and  was  not  subjugated  even  by  the  Ro- 
mans. But  in  A.  D.  226  the  Persians  con- 
quered the  last  of  the  Arsacidae  and  re- 
established the  Persian  Empire.  The  Par- 
414 


thians  were  a  rude  people,  of  Scythian  ori- 
gin. They  were  expert  horsemen,  armed 
chiefly  with  bows,  and  discharging  their 
arrows  with  wonderful  skill  while  riding 
at  full  sjieed  and  in  flight,  like  Indians  or 
Cossacks.  Parthia  proper,  now  called  Atak, 
is  included  in  modern  Khorassan.  Jews 
from  Parthia,  and  perhaps  Parthian  prose- 
lytes to  Judaism,  were  at  Jerusalem  at 
Pentecost,  speaking  the  Persian  language, 
Acts  2:9. 

PARTI'TION,  The  middle  wall  of, 
Eph.  2: 14,  the  wall  separating  the  court  of 
the  Gentiles  from  the  inner  courts  of  the 
temple,  denoting  whatever  distinguished 
the  favored  people  of  God  from  the  heath- 
en. This  distinction,  as  well  as  its  cere- 
monial tokens,  God  abolished  in  the  ful- 
ness of  time,  John  4:21-24;  Acts  11:1-18; 
14:27;  15:1-29.     See  Temple. 


GREEK  partridge:  caccabis  saxatilis. 

PAR'TRIDGE.  The  Greek  partridge  is 
common  in  Palestine,  and  at  least  one 
other  variety;  and  both  frequent  rocky 
hillsides,  and  when  disturbed  seek  safety 
by  running  rather  than  by  flight ;  and  the 
peasants  now  as  ancientl\-,  i  Sam.  26:20, 
chase  it  until  it  is  weary  and  knock  it  over 
with  a  stick  or  stone.  Its  numerous  eggs 
also  are  much  prized  for  food,  and  it  is  often 
driven  off  and  its  nest  robbed,  Jer.  17:11. 

PARU'AH.  blooming,  I  Kin.  4:17. 

PARVA'IM,  2  Chr.  3:6,  a  region  where 
fine  gold  was  found ;  the  word  is  translated 
by  Gesenius  "  eastern  regions."  The  loca- 
tion is  not  known. 

PAS-DAM'MIM,  boundary  of  flowings, 
I  Chr.  11:13,  called  Ephes-dammim  (see) 
in  I  Sam.  17:1.  It  was  near  Socoh,  i6  miles 
southwest  of  Jerusalem. 


PAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAS 


PASE'AH,  /awd",  I.,  a  descendant  of  Ju- 
dah,  I  Chr.  4:12. 

II.  Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  in  Ze- 
rubbabel's  time,  Ezra  2:49;  Neh.3:6;  7:51. 

PASH'UR,  prosperity,  I.,  son  of  Immer, 
a  priest  and  a  chief  officer  in  the  temple. 
In  Jehoiakim's  reign  he  persecuted  Jere- 
miah for  prophesying  evil  to  Jerusalem, 
and  incurred  a  fearful  punishment,  Jer. 
20: 1-6. 

II.  A  priest,  son  of  Malchiah,  sent  by 
king  Zedekiahto  ask  of  Jeremiah  the  issue 
of  Nebuchadnezzar's  preparations  against 
Jerusalem,  Jer.  21.  Afterwards,  when  the 
Babylonians  retired  from  the  city,  Jer.  37 ;  5, 
II,  he  demanded  the  prophet's  death  as  a 
traitor,  Jer.  38 : 1-13.  Many  descendants  of 
this  Pashur,  priests,  returned  from  captiv- 
ity at  Babylon,  i  Chr.  9:12;  Ezra  2:38; 
Neh.  11:12. 

PAS'SAGES,  Jer.  22:20.     See  Ab.\rim. 

PAS'SION,  Acts  1:3,  suffering ;  the  last 
sufferings  and  death  of  Christ.  See  Cross. 
In  Acts  14:15,  Jas.  5:17,  "like  passions"  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  "  the  same  human  na- 
ture." 

PASS'OVER,  Heb.  PES.A.CH,  Gr.  P.a.scha, 
the  name  given,  i,  to  the  victim  sacrificed 
to  insure  the  safety  of  the  firstborn  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt,  when  the  Lord  slew 
the  firstborn  in  every  Egyptian  family,  but 
passed  over  ihe  Israelites  to  protect  them, 
Isa.  31 :5,  where  the  blood  of  the  lamb  was 
sprinkled  on  the  doorway ;  and  2,  to  the 
festival  established  to  commemorate  that 
event  and  Israel's  release  from  bondage, 
E.xod.  12;  13:3-10.  This  feast,  marked  by 
the  sacrifice  of  the  passover,  was  one  of 
the  3  chief  festivals  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
was  like  a  sacrament — reminding  them  of 
God's  grace  to  them  in  the  past,  and  bind- 
ing them  still  to  obey  and  trust  him,  and 
so  secure  its  continuance.  It  was  called 
also  "  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,"  E.xod. 
23:14-18;  Deut.  16:2,  6,  16;  2  Chr.  30:1,  13, 
15;  Ezra  6:22;  Luke  22:1,  7;  i  Cor.  5:7. 

The  month  of  the  Exodus,  named  Abib, 
and  at  a  later  period  Nisan,  was  made  the 
first  month  of  the  sacred  year,  Exod.  12:2  ; 
13:4.  At  the  institution  of  the  festival  it  was 
commanded  that  the  lamb  or  kid  should 
be  selected  on  the  loth  day  of  Nisan.  It 
was  to  be  a  male  of  the  first  year.  Each 
family  was  to  take  a  lamb,  or  if  a  family 
was  too  small,  one  or  two  others  might  join 
it.  On  the  14th  day  all  leaven  was  scru- 
pulously removed  from  the  dwelling,  as  is 
the  custom  of  the  Jews  to  this  day.  At 
evening  (see)  the  passover  was  to  be  killed, 


and  some  of  its  blood  was  to  be  put  on 
the  door-posts  and  lintel.  It  was  to  be 
roasted  entire,  and  eaten  the  same  night; 
no  bone  must  be  broken,  and  any  residue 
must  be  burned  before  morning.  Unleav- 
ened bread  and  bitter  herbs  were  to  be  eat- 
en with  it,  and  no  leaven  was  to  be  used 
till  after  the  21st  day  of  the  month.  The 
equipments  and  posture  of  travellers  in 
haste  were  to  be  assumed.  At  every  new 
observance  of  the  festival  a  declaration  of 
its  meaning  was  to  be  made  by  the  father 
to  his  children.  The  first  full  day  of  the 
festival,  the  15th  of  Nisan,  was  to  be  ob- 
served as  a  holy  day  of  rest,  a  "sabbath," 
and  of  convocation,  as  was  also  the  last 
day,  Nisan  21st,  Lev.  23:5-8;  and  special 
sacrifices  were  appointed  for  each  day, 
Num.  28:16-25.  On  the  2d  day,  the  i6th 
of  Abib,  the  firstfruits  of  barley  were  to  be 
offered  to  the  Lord,  Lev.  23:10,  11,  and 
from  this  50  days  were  reckoned  to  "  the 
feast  of  weeks,"  ver.  15-21.  See  Pente- 
COST.  One  prevented  from  keeping  the 
feast  at  the  due  time  was  to  observe  it  in 
the  2d  month  ;  wilful  neglect  of  it  was  pun- 
ished with  death.  Num.  9:6-14;  foreigners 
who  had  entered  into  covenant  relation 
with  God  were  admitted  to  it,  Exod.  12:43- 
48.  The  prescribed  place  for  the  slaying 
of  the  passover  was  at  the  sanctuary  of 
God,  Deut.  16:16;  Josh.  18:1;  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  when  built,  2  Chr.  30:5,  8. 
The  slayer  was  the  head  of  the  family,  or 
else  a  priest  or  Levite.  The  blood  was 
sprinkled  on  the  altar,  where  also  the  in- 
ward fat  was  burned,  ver.  15-17.  Besides 
the  passover  and  the  required  national 
sacrifices  for  the  ensuing  days,  voluntary 
peace-offerings,  Heb.  cliagiffali,  were  given 
and  partaken  of  by  many  families.  Lev.  3; 
2  Chr.  30:21,  22;  35:13.  An  offering  of 
money  was  prescribed,  Exod.  23:15;  Deut. 
16:16,  17.  Women  were  permitted,  though 
not  commanded,  to  join  in  the  celebration, 

1  Sam.  1:3,  7 ;  Luke  2:41. 

The  chief  notices  of  the  observance  of 
the  feast  of  the  passover  are,  that  in  Egypt, 
Exod.  12:28;  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai, 
Num.  9:1-5;  the  first  in  Canaan,  Josh.  5: 10, 
II ;  those  by  Solomon,  2  Chr.  8: 13  ;  that  of 
Hezekiah,  the  reformer,  in  the  2d  month, 

2  Chr.  30:1-22;  that  by  Josiah,  2  Kin. 
23:21-23;  and  one  after  the  Captivity,  Ezra 
6: 19-22. 

Jewish  writers  state  that,  the  family  or 
families  having  performed  the  required 
purifications,  John  n  :55,  and  being  assem- 
bled at  the  table,  the  master  of  the  feast 

415 


PAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAT 


took  a  cup  of  wine  mixed  with  water  and 
blessed  God  for  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  of 
which  all  then  drank.  After  a  washing  of 
hands  the  passover  was  brought  in,  with 
unleavened  cakes,  bitter  herbs,  and  a  vin- 
egar or  fruit  sauce,  into  which  morsels  of 
the  food  were  to  be  dipped,  Matt.  26:23; 
John  13:26.  The  father  then  blessed  God 
for  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  made  the 
prescribed  explanations,  Exod.  12:26,  27. 
After  a  2d  cup  and  washing  of  hands,  an 
unleavened  cake  was  broken  and  distrib- 
uted, and  a  blessing  was  pronounced  upon 
the  Giver  of  bread.  When  all  had  eaten 
of  the  passover  a  3d  cup,  of  thanksgiving 
for  deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  gift  of 
the  law,  was  blessed  and  partaken  of.  Matt. 
26:27;  I  Cor.  10:16;  it  was  called  "the  cup 
of  blessing."  The  repast  was  usually  closed 
by  a  4th  cup  and  psalms  of  praise ;  Psalms 
115-118  were  sung  here  and  Psalms  113  and 
114  earlier  in  the  feast.  See  Hv.mn.  The 
whole  week  of  the  feast  was  one  of  rejoi- 
cing, Deut.  27:7. 

Mention  is  made  of  several  passovers  at- 
tended by  Jesus,  Luke  2:42,  43;  John  2:13. 
He  partook  for  the  last  time  and  instituted 
the  Christian  memorial  feast  of  his  own 
sacrifice,  typified  by  every  passover,  on  the 
evening  commencing  the  day  of  his  cru- 
cifixion. Matt.  26:17-30;  Mark  14:12-26; 
Luke  22:7-23;  John  13.  In  comparing  the 
4  accounts  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
term  "passover"  denotes  sometimes  the 
special  sacrifice  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  and 
sometimes  the  whole  festival  and  its  offer- 
ings, John  18:28.  Astronomical  calcula- 
tions show  that  the  14th  of  Nisan  fell  on  a 
Thursday  in  A.  D.  30,  the  year  of  our  Lord's 
crucifixion;  the  15th  day,  Friday,  begin- 
ning at  6  p.  M.,  when  the  14th  closed,  was 
accordingly  "the  preparation  "  (see)  for  the 
weekly  Sabbath — "  a  high  day  "  both  as  oc- 
curring in  the  Passover  week  and  as  pre- 
ceding the  presentation  of  the  first-fruits 
of  barley,  Mark  15:42;  Luke  23:54;  John 
19:14,  31,  42. 

The  Jews  still  observe  the  Passover, 
though  only  as  a  feast  of  unleavened  bread, 
all  their  sacrifices  having  ceased  with  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  A.  D.  70,  a  year 
when  their  last  full  celebration  of  the  feast 
called  multitudes  to  JerusAlem.  The  few 
Samaritans  at  Nablfis,  however,  still  slaj- 
and  eat  the  passover  on  Mount  Gerizim. 
The  continued  observance  of  this  festival 
is  a  living  proof  of  the  actual  occurrence  of 
the  great  events  it  commemorates. 

The  deliverance  from  death  and  bondage 
416 


thus  commemorated  was  a  type  of  the  infi- 
nitely greater  salvation  from  eternal  death 
and  the  bondage  of  sin,  through  the  sac- 
rifice of  "the  Lamb  of  God,"  "Christ  our 
Passover,"  i  Cor.  5:7;  compare  John  1:29; 
19:36.  Faith  in  him  is  essential  to  ])lace 
us  under  the  shelter  of  his  blood  and  ad- 
mit us  to  the  liberty  of  his  service ;  and  it 
must  needs  be  evinced  by  the  cleansing  of 
our  hearts  and  lives  from  "  the  old  leaven  " 
of  "malice  and  wickedness,"  and  by  obe- 
dience to  his  commands  in  "  sincerity  and 
truth,"  I  Cor.  5:8.     See  Lord's  Supper. 

PAS'TOR,/eeder,  shepherd,  Jer.  2 : 8 ;  3 :  15 ; 
10:21,  one  whose  office  it  is  to  feed  and 
guard  the  flock  of  Christ,  Eph.  4:11 ;  i  Pet. 
5:2.     See  Shkpherd. 

PAS'TURAGE.     See  Shkpherd. 

PAT'ARA,  a  maritime  city  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Lycia,  7  miles  east  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Xanthus  and  opposite  Rhodes. 
It  was  celebrated  for  an  oracle  of  Apollo, 
the  reputed  father  of  its  founder  Patarus. 
Its  harbor  was  much  frequented.  Paul 
reembarked  here  for  Phtenicia  on  his  last 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  21:1,  2.  A  Chris- 
tian church  was  early  established  here, 
and  was  represented  at  the  Council  of  Nice. 
Ruins  of  considerable  extent  mark  the  site 
and  retain  the  name  of  Patara,  but  the  har- 
bor is  now  filled  with  sand. 

PATE,  Psa.  7:16,  A.  v.,  the  crown  of  the 
head,  not  with  the  idea  of  contempt,  as 
"pate"  is  now  used. 

PATH'ROS,  Isa.  11: 11;  Jer.  44:1,  15: 
Ezek.  29:14;  30:14,  Upper  or  Southern 
Egypt,  one  of  the  2  main  divisions  of  the 
land ;  or  as  some  suppose,  the  Pathyrite 
district,  in  which  Thebes  lay,  and  which 
probably  derived  its  name  from  the  town 
Ha-hathor,  "the  abode  of  Hathor "  the 
Egyptian  Venus.  This  region  was  origi- 
nally independent  of  Egypt  and  had  its 
own  kings.  It  was  probably  identical  with 
the  Thebaid  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Said  of 
the  Arabs.  Its  early  inhabitants,  the  Path- 
rusim,  were  descendants  of  Mizraim,  Gen. 
10: 14.     See  Egypt. 

PA'TIENCE,  as  an  attribute  of  God,  de- 
notes his  long-suflfering  forbearance  from 
wrath  and  continuance  of  mercy  under 
great  and  manifold  provocations  from  man, 
Exod.  34:6,  7;  Rom.  2:4;  2  Pet.  3:9.  As  a 
Christian  grace  it  denotes  sometimes  tran- 
quil and  trustful  endurance  of  evil  and 
perseverance  in  faith  and  duty,  Luke  8:15; 
Rom.  5:3;  Jas.  1:3,  12;  2  Pet.  1:6;  and 
sometimes  forbearance  towards  fellow- 
mtn.  Matt.  18:26,  29;  1  Thess.  5:14;  2  Tim. 


PAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


2:24.  God  is  the  source  of  this  as  of  all 
grace,  Rom.  15:5;  and  the  Christian  is  to 
seek  it  from  him  in  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 


tures, and  of  Christ,  who  perfectly  exempli- 
fied it,  Rom.  15:1-5;  Gal.  5:22;  Heb.  6:12, 
15;  12: 1,  2;  Jas.  5:10,  II ;  I  Pet.  2:18-23. 


PATMOS  :  HARBOR  OF  LA  SCALA. 


PAT'MOS,  a  rocky  and  barren  island  in 
the  ^gean  Sea,  used  by  the  Romans  as  a 
place  of  exile  for  criminals,  and  to  which 
the  apostle  John  was  banished  by  Domi- 
tian,  A.  D.  95,  Rev.  1:9.  It  lies  20  miles 
south  of  Samos,  and  24  from  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor;  it  is  about  25  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  has  a  bold  and  deeply-indent- 
ed shore.  The  port  and  town  La  Scala 
are  on  the  eastern  side.  Crowning  the 
high  hill  on  which  the  town  lies  is  the  old 
monastery  of  St.  John.  Half  way  up  the 
hill  is  the  grotto  which  tradition  assigns  as 
the  place  where  John  saw  and  recorded  his 
prophetic  visions.  Patmos  was  called  Pal- 
mosa  in  the  middle  ages,  but  is  now  called 
Patino.  It  is  one  of  the  Sporades,  and  pays 
a  small  tribute  to  the  Turks. 

PA'TKIARCH,  palet-nal  ruler  of  sl  family 
■or  tribe,  applied  in  the  New  Testament  to 
Abraham,  Heb.  7:4,  Jacob's  sons,  Acts  7:8, 
9,  and  David,  Acts  2:29.  In  the  Septuagint 
it  is  sometimes  used  to  translate  the  He- 
brew word  for  "head"  or  "prince  "  of  a 
tribe,  i  Chr.  27:22.  In  common  usage  it 
■denotes  especially  the  men  whom  Scrip- 
ture mentions  as  living  before  Moses.  The 
form  of  government  indicated  by  the  word 
prevailed  in  the  early  history  of  the  He- 
brews. The  father  of  a  family  exercised 
authority  over  his  descendants  as  long  as 
he  lived ;  at  his  death  this  dignity  devolved 
on  one  of  his  sons — usually,  but  not  always, 
27 


the  eldest,  by  birthright  (see)— Gen.  27:29; 
49:8;  I  Chr.  5:1,  2.  From  the  heads  or  pa- 
triarchs of  the  families  composing  a  tribe 
a  prince  was  selected.  Num.  1:4-16.  See 
Elders.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem the  Jews  termed  the  2  heads  of  the 
Sanhedrin  patriarchs ;  and  the  word  has 
come  into  use  in  some  branches  of  the 
Christian  church  to  designate  dignitaries 
superior  to  archbishops. 

PAT'ROBAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome  salu- 
ted by  Paul,  Rom.  16:14.  The  imperial 
household  had  one  or  more  men  of  this 
name.     Compare  Phil.  1:13;  4:22. 

PAT'TERN,  I  Tim.  1:16,  an  example,  as 
in  the  R.  V.  In  Heb.  9:23,  copies,  as  in 
the  R.  v.,  of  the  models  mentioned  in  Heb. 
8:5. 

PA'U,  or  PA'I,  capital  of  Hadar  king  of 
Edom,  Gen.  36:39;  i  Chr.  1:50. 

PAUL,  liff/e,  the  distinguished  "apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,"  Rom.  11:13;  ^Iso  called 
Saul,  asked /or,  a  Hebrew  name.  He  is 
first  called  Paul  in  Acts  13:9,  and,  as  some 
think,  assumed  this  Roman  name  accord- 
ing to  a  common  custom  of  Jews  in  foreign 
lands  or  in  honor  of  Sergius  Paulus,  ver.  7, 
his  friend  and  an  early  convert.  Both 
names,  however,  may  have  belonged  to  him 
in  childhood.  He  was  born  at  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia,  and  inherited  from  his  father  the 
privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen.  His  parents 
belonged   to  the   tribe  of   Benjamin,   and 

417 


PAU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


brought  up  their  son  as  "  a  Hebrew  of  the 
Hebrews,"  Phil.  3:5.  Tarsus  was  highly 
distinguished  for  learning  and  culture,  and 
the  opportunities  for  improvement  it  af- 
forded were  no  doubt  diligently  improved 
by  Paul.  At  a  suitable  age  he  was  sent  to 
Jerusalem  to  complete  his  education  in  the 
school  of  Gamaliel,  the  most  distinguished 
Rabbi  of  that  age.  It  does  not  appear 
that  he  was  in  Jerusalem  during  the  minis- 
try of  Christ;  and  it  was  perhaps  after  his 
return  to  Tarsus  that  he  learned  the  art  of 
tent-making,  in  accordance  with  a  general 
practice  among  the  Jews  and  their  maxim, 
"  He  that  does  not  teach  his  son  a  useful 
handicraft  teaches  him  to  steal,"  Acts  18:3; 
20:34;  2  Thess.  3:8. 

We  next  find  him  at  Jerusalem,  appar- 
ently about  30  years  of  age,  high  in  the 
confidence  of  the  leading  men  of  the  na- 
tion. He  had  profited  by  the  instructions 
of  Gamaliel,  and  became  learned  in  the 
law;  yielding  himself  to  the  strictest  disci- 
pline of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  he  had 
become  a  fierce  defender  of  Judaism  and 
a  bitter  enemy  of  Christianity,  Acts  8:3; 
26:9-11.  After  his  miraculous  conversion, 
of  which  we  have  3  accounts,  Acts  9;  22; 
26,  Christ  was  all  in  all  to  him.  It  was 
Christ  who  revealed  himself  to  his  soul  at 
Damascus,  Acts  26:15;  i  Cor.  15:8;  to 
Christ  he  gave  his  whole  heart  and  soul, 
mind,  might,  and  strength ;  and  thence- 
forth, living  or  dying,  he  was  "the  ser- 
vant of  Jesus  Christ."  He  devoted  all  the 
powers  of  his  ardent  and  energetic  mind 
to  the  defence  and  propagation  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  more  particularly  among 
the  Gentiles.  His  views  of  the  pure  and 
lofty  spirit  of  Christianity,  in  its  worship 
and  in  its  practical  influence,  appear  to 
have  been  peculiarly  clear  and  strong;  and 
the  opposition  which  he  was  thus  led  to 
make  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Jewish  worship  exposed  him  everywhere 
to  the  hatred  and  malice  of  his  country- 
men. On  their  accusation  he  was  at  length 
put  in  confinement  by  the  Roman  officers, 
and  after  being  detained  for  2  years  or 
more  at  Caesarea,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  for 
trial,  having  himself  appealed  to  the  em- 
peror. There  is  less  certainty  in  respect 
to  the  accounts  which  are  given  of  Paul 
afterwards  by  the  early  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters. Still  it  was  a  very  generally-received 
opinion  in  the  earlier  centuries  that  the 
apostle  was  acquitted  and  discharged  from 
his  imprisonment  at  the  end  of  2  years, 
and  that  he  afterwards  returned  to  Rome, 
418 


where  he  was  again  imprisoned  and  put  to 
death  by  Nero. 

Paul  appears  to  have  possessed  all  the 
learning  which  was  then  current  among 
the  Jews,  and  also  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  Greek  literature,  as  appears  from  his 
mastery  of  the  Greek  language.  Wis  frequent 
discussions  with  their  philosophers,  and 
his  quotations  from  their  poets  —  Aratus, 
Acts  17:28;  Menander,  i  Cor.  15:33;  and 
Epimenides,  Tit.  i :  12.  Probably,  however, 
a  learned  Greek  education  cannot  with 
propriety  be  ascribed  to  him.  But  the  most 
striking  trait  in  his  character  is  his  enlarged 
view  of  the  universal  design  and  the  spirit- 
ual nature  of  the  religion  of  Christ,  and  of 
its  purifying  and  ennobling  influence  upon 
the  heart  and  character  of  those  who  sin- 
cerely profess  it.  From  the  Saviour  him- 
self he  had  caught  the  flame  of  universal 
love  and  the  idea  of  salvation  for  all  man- 
kind. Gal.  1:12.  Most  of  the  other  apostles 
and  teachers  appear  to  have  clung  to  Juda- 
ism, to  the  rites,  ceremonies,  and  dogmas 
of  the  religion  in  which  they  had  been 
educated,  and  to  have  regarded  Christian- 
ity as  intended  to  be  engrafted  upon  the 
ancient  stock,  which  was  yet  to  remain  as 
the  trunk  to  support  the  new  branches. 
Paul  seems  to  have  been  among  the  first  to 
rise  above  this  narrow  view  and  to  regard 
Christianity  in  its  true  light,  as  a  universal 
religion.  While  others  were  for  Judaizing 
all  those  who  embraced  the  new  religion 
by  imposing  on  them  the  yoke  of  Mosaic 
observances,  it  was  Paul's  endeavor  to 
break  down  the  middle  wall  of  separation 
between  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  show  them 
that  they  were  all  "  one  in  Christ."  To 
this  end  all  his  labors  tended ;  and,  ardent 
in  the  pursuit  of  this  great  object,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  censure  the  time-serving 
Peter  and  to  expose  his  own  life  in  resist- 
ing the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen.  In- 
deed his  5  years'  imprisonment  at  Jerusa- 
lem, Caesarea,  and  Rome  arose  chiefly  from 
this  cause. 

The  following  chronological  table  of  the 
principal  events  in  Paul's  life  may  be  of 
use  in  directing  and  assisting  inquiries  into 
this  most  interesting  portion  of  history. 
The  different  chronologies  of  Hug,  Lard- 
ner,  and  Conybeare  and  Howson  are  here 
presented  side  by  side ;  and  thus  the  table, 
while  it  shows  the  general  agreement  of 
chronologists  as  to  the  order  of  events, 
shows  also  that  it  has  thus  far  been  found 
impossible  to  arrive  at  entire  certainty  re- 
specting their  dates. 


PAU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


Paul's    conversion,    Acts   9.      In    the  x     2     u 

twenty-first  year  of  Tiberius 36    36    36 

He  goes  to  Arabia,  and  returns  to  Da- 
mascus, Gal.  1:17;  and  in  the  third 
year  escapes  from  Damascus  and  vis- 
its Jerusalem,  Acts  9:23-26,  in  the 

year 39    39    38 

From  Jerusalem  he  goes  to  Tarsus, 
Acts  9 :  30 ;  and  after  several  years  of 
labor  in  Cilicia  and  Syria,  Gal.  i  :2i, 
during  which  it  is  supposed  most 
of  the  sufferings  occurred  which  are 
mentioned  in  2  Cor.  11:24-26,  he 
went  with  Barnabas  to  Antioch  in 
Syria,  Acts  11 :  25,  26,  where  they  la- 
bored during  the  year  44    43    44 

From  Antioch  he  is  sent  with  Barna- 
bas to  Jerusalem,  his  second  visit,  to 
carry  relief  for  the  famine,  and  re- 
turns to  Antioch,  Acts  11 :  30- 45    44    45 

First  great  missionary  tour,  with  Bar- 
nabas, from  Antioch  to  Cyprus,  Anti- 
och in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe,  and  returning  through  the 
same  places  and  Attalia  to  Antioch, 
Acts  13;  14,  about  two  years,  com- 
mencing  —    45    48 

Third  visit  to  Jerusalem,  with  Barna- 
bas, to  consult  respecting  circumcis- 
ion, etc.,  and  return  to  Antioch,  Acts 

15:2-30 53    50    50 

Second  missionary  tour,  from  Antioch, 
through  Cilicia,  Derbe,  Lystra,  Phry- 
gia,  Galatia,  Troas,  Neapolis,  Philip- 
pi,  Thessalonica,  Beroea,  Athens,  and 
Corinth,  Acts   15:35  to  18:1,  where 

he  finds  Aquila    - 54    51     52 

After  eighteen  months  at  Corinth  he 
makes  his  fourth  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
by  Cenchrea,  Ephesus,  and  Csesarea, 
and  returns  to  Antioch,  Acts  18: 11- 

22,  in ---56    —    54 

Third  missionary  tour,  through  Gala- 
tia and  Phrygia,  arriving  at  Ephe- 
sus, Acts  19:  i,  in -- 57    53    54 

And  after  two  years  at  Ephesus,  going 
through    Troas  and    Macedonia   to 

Corinth,  Acts  20: 1 - 59    56    57 

Fifth  visit  to  Jerusalem,  from  Corinth, 
by  Philippi,  Troas,  Miletus,  Tyre, 
Ptolemais,  and  Caesarea,  Acts  20:3 

to2i:i5 - - 60    58    58 

After  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Jeru- 
salem and  Caesarea,  he  sails  from  Si- 
don,  by  Myra,  Fair  Havens,  etc.,  to 
Malta,  where  he  is  shipwrecked  ;  in 
the   spring    he   proceeds   to    Rome, 

Acts  21 :  17  to  28  :  16 63    61     61 

Two   years'   imprisonment   in    Rome, 

and  release.  Acts  28  :  30 65    63    63 

After  laboring,  as  some  think,  in  Spain, 
Rom.  15:24,  28,  also  in  Ephesus, 
Macedonia,  1  Tim.  i  :  3,  Crete,  Tit. 
1:5,  Asia  Minor,  2  Tim.  1:15,  and 
Nicopolis,  Tit.  3:12,  he  is  again  a 
prisoner  at  Rome,  joyfully  awaiting 
martyrdom,  though  almost  alone, 
2  Tim.  2  :9;  4  :6-i8 —    65    68 


These  various  journeys  of  St.  Paul,  many 
of  them  made  on  foot,  should  be  studied 
through  on  a  map,  in  connection  with  the 
inspired  narrative  in  Acts  and  with  his 
own  pathetic  description  of  his  labors, 
2  Cor.  11:23-29,  wherein  nevertheless  the 
half  is  not  told.  When  we  review  the 
many  regions  he  traversed  and  evangel- 
ized, the  converts  he  gathered,  and  the 
churches  he  founded,- the  toils,  perils,  and 
trials  he  endured,  the  miracles  he  wrought, 
and  the  revelations  he  received,  the  dis- 
courses, orations,  and  letters  in  which  he 
so  ably  defends  and  unfolds  Christianity, 
the  immeasurable  good  which  God  by  him 
accomplished,  his  heroic  life,  and  his  mar- 
tyr death,  he  appears  to  us  the  most  ex- 
traordinary of  men. 

The  character  of  Paul  is  most  fully  por- 
trayed in  his  epistles,  by  which,  as  Chrys- 
ostom  says,  he  "still  lives  in  the  mouths 
of  men  throughout  the  whole  world.  By 
them,  not  only  his  own  converts,  but  all  the 
faithful  even  unto  this  day,  yea,  and  all  the 
saints  who  are  yet  to  be  born  until  Christ's 
coming  again,  both  have  been  and  shall  be 
blessed."  In  them  we  observe  the  trans- 
forming and  elevating  power  of  grace  in 
one  originally  turbulent  and  passionate — 
making  him  a  model  of  manly  and  Chris- 
tian excellence;  fearless  and  firm,  yet  con- 
siderate, courteous,  and  gentle;  magnani- 
mous, patriotic,  and  self-sacrificing;  rich 
in  all  noble  sentiments  and  affections. 

Epistles  of  Paul. — There  are  14  epis- 
tles in  the  New  Testament  usually  ascribed 
to  Paul,  beginning  with  that  to  the  Romans, 
and  ending  with  that  to  the  Hebrews.  Of 
these  the  first  13  have  never  been  contest- 
ed ;  as  to  the  latter,  many  good  men  have 
doubted  whether  Paul  was  the  author,  al- 
though the  current  of  criticism  is  in  favor 
of  this  opinion.  These  epistles,  in  which 
the  principles  of  Christianity  are  devel- 
oped for  all  periods,  characters,  and  cir- 
cumstances, are  among  the  most  important 
of  the  primitive  documents  of  the  Christian 
religion,  even  apart  from  their  inspired 
character;  and  although  they  seem  to  have 
been  written  without  special  premedita- 
tion, and  have  reference  mostly  to  tran- 
sient circumstances  and  temporary  rela- 
tions, yet  they  everywhere  bear  the  stamp 
of  the  great  and  original  mind  of  the  apos- 
tle, as  purified,  elevated,  and  sustained  by 
the  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  following  is  Lardner's  arrangement 
of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  with  the  places 
where  they  were  written  and  the  dates: 

419 


PAY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PEA 


UriaTLKS.  IXACKS. 

1  Thessalonians- -Corinth 

2  Thessalonians--       " 


Gaiatians I  ^"""'"''^  °'' |       ^     .     ^"^  "!;  ■ 

I.    tphesus  J  or  beginmiig  of  ; 


52 
52 
52 
53 
I  Corinthians Ephesus beginning  of  56 

1  Timothy Macedonia 56 

Titus "        or  near  it,  near  end  56 

2  Corinthians "        about  Oct.,     57 

Romans Corinth "      Feb.,    58 

Ephesians Rome "     April,   6i 

2  Timothy "     ' "     May,     61 

Philippians "      before  end  of  62 

Colossians "      "         "         62 

Philemon "      "         "         62 

Hebrews Italy spring,  63 

The  arrangement  of  Hug  is  sotnewhat 
different;  and  most  critics  now  place  He- 
brews and  the  pastoral  epistles  to  Timothy 
and  Titus  latest  in  the  list,  while  those  who 
find  evidence  that  Paul  was  released  from 
his  first  imprisonment  and  lived  until  the 
spring  of  A.  D.  68,  assign  them  to  the  last 
years  of  his  life.     See  Timothy. 

PAVE'MENT,  Exod.  24:10;  2  Kin.  16:17; 
Esth.  1:6.    See  Gabbatha. 

PAVIL'ION,  a  tent,  as  for  kings  or  gen- 
erals in  time  of  war,  i  Kin.  20:12,  16.  Da- 
vid poetically  describes  the  Lord  as  dis- 
comfiting his  servant's  enemies  from  the 
midst  of  a  pavilion  of  dark  waters  and 
thick  clouds  of  the  skies,  Psa.  18:6-14; 
compare  Josh.  10:10,  11.  He  is  a  secure 
shelter  to  those  who  trust  in  him,  Psa. 
31:20;  83:3. 

PEACE.  The  2  or  3  Hebrew  words  thus 
translated  are  very  comprehensive,  deno- 
ting primarily  wholeness,  i.  e.,  health,  wel- 
fare, or  good  of  all  kinds.  Gen.  29:6,  mar- 
gin; Exod.  4:18;  Num.  6:26;  peace  as  op- 
posed to  war,  Eccl.  3:8;  concord  or  friend- 
ship, Psa.  41:9,  margin."  The  Greek  word 
in  the  New  Testament  has -much  the  same 
breadthof  meaning,  Luke  1 :  79;  2:14;  7:50; 
12:51;  14:32.  "Peace  be  unto  you,"  the 
common  salutation  in  the  East,  Christ  re- 
alized for  his  disciples  in  the  highest  sense, 
John  14:27;  20:19,  21,  26,  in  the  reconcilia- 
tion made  through  his  death  between  God 
and  man,  and  in  all  the  blessings  which 
flow  from  it,  Col.  1:19-23;  compare  Psa. 
85:5;  Isa.  9:6;  53:5. 

The  Christian  grace  of  peace  is  that 
tranquillity  of  conscience,  mind,  and  heart 
which  God  confers  in  assuring  the  believer 
of  his  pardon,  Rom.  5:  i ;  15: 13.  It  may  be 
enjoyed  amid  great  outward  adversity,  John 
16:33.  While  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
naturally  awakens  opposition  of  thought, 
aim,  and  effort  between  believers  and  re- 
jecters of  Christ,  Matt.  10:34,  a  kindly  dis- 
420 


position  towards  others  is  an  essential  fruit 
of  the  Spirit  in  all  who  are  Christ's,  Gal. 
5:22;  Col.  3:15;  and  its  active  manifesta- 
tion is  blessed  by  Christ,  Matt.  5:9,  and 
enjoined  by  him  and  his  apostles,  Mark 
9:50;  2  Cor.  13:  II ;  Heb.  12:14;  i  t'et.  3:11. 
The  old  English  idiom,  "to  hold  one's 
peace,"  means  simply  to  be  silent,  Psa. 
39:12;  Mark  3:4. 


PEA'COCKS  were  imported  by  Solomon, 
I  Kin.  10:22;  2  Chr.  9:21,  and  the  Hebrew 
word  so  translated  closely  resembles  the 
modern  Tamul  or  Malabar  term.  See 
Tarshish.  In  Job  39: 13  the  word  transla- 
ted peacocks  should  be  rendered  ostriches, 
and  that  rendered  ostricli  should  be  stork, 
as  it  is  elsewhere  translated. 

PEARL,  in  Job  28: 18,  A.  v.,  should  prob- 
ably be  "crystal."  Pearls  have  always 
been  highly  prized  as  personal  ornaments, 
and  the  ancients  accorded  them  a  high 
rank  among  precious  substances.  Matt. 
7:6;  13:45,  46;  Rev.  2i:2i.  Pearls  are  a 
globular  deposit  of  nacre,  the  lining  sub- 
stance of  many  shells,  and  are  found  in 
several  mollusks,  whose  nacre  is  called 
"  mother  of  pearl."  The  pearl-oysters  grow 
in  deep  water,  in  clusters,  on  rocks  called 
"pearl-banks,"  and  are  found  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  on  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon,  on 
the  coasts  of  Java,  Sumatra,  etc.,  and  in 
smaller  quantities  elsewhere  in  both  hemi- 
spheres. The  oysters  are  brought  up  by 
trained  divers,  who  can  pursue  their  dan- 
gerous trade  only  during  a  few  weeks  or 
months  of  calm  spring  or  summer  weather. 
Few  pearls  are  as  large  as  a  cherry-stone, 


PEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PEL 


yet  some  have  reached  the  size  of  a  wal- 
nut, and  one  has  been  valued  at  $350,000. 


The  value  and  beauty  of  such  a  stone,  ac- 
quired with  such  severe  toil,  make  it  an 
apt  illustration  of  the  blessing  of  salva- 
tion, obtained  for  us  by  the  self-sacrifice  of 
Christ,  and  which  it  is  our  wisdom  to  ac- 
quire at  any  cost.  Matt.  13:45,  46;  Prov. 
2:3-9;  Rev.  3:18. 

PECU'LIAR,  Exod.  19:5;  Deut.  26:18; 
Psa.  135:4;  Tit.  2:14;  I  Pet.  2:9,  signifies 
God's  own  special  possession. 

PEEP,  in  Isa.  8:19,  denotes  the  stifled, 
piping  voice  of  necromancers. 

PE'KAH,  open-eyed,  son  of  Remaliah, 
and  general  of  Pekahiah  king  of  Israel. 
He  conspired  against  his  master,  and  hav- 
ing slain  him,  B.  C.  758,  he  reigned  in  his 
place  20  years,  2  Kin.  15:25-28.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  evil  reign  he  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  and 
early  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  Pekah  and  Re- 
zin  invaded  Judah  and  besieged  Jerusa- 
lem, ch.  16: 1-6.  Though  unable  to  take  the 
holy  city,  Isa.  7;  8:1-10,  the  allies  killed 
many  warriors  of  Judah  and  took  many 
prisoners,  2  Chr.  28:5-8;  but  the  Israelites 
were  divinely  ordered  to  restore  their  cap- 
tives, ver.  9-15;  Lev.  25:39,  42,  43,  46. 
Ahaz  seeking  the  aid  of  Assyria,  Tiglath- 
pileser  defeated  Syria  and  Israel,  and  de- 
prived Pekah  of  the  country  beyond  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  taking  the  inhabitants  cap- 
tive, 2  Kin.  15:29;  16:7-9;  I  Chr.  5:26; 
Isa.  17.  Soon  afterwards  Pekah  was  slain 
by  Hoshea,  who  after  a  9  years'  interreg- 
num usurped  the  throne,  2  Kin.  15:30; 
17:1.  Pekah  was  the  last  of  the  4  kings  of 
Israel  assassinated  in  the  troublous  times 
of  the  prophet  Hosea,  Hos.  1:1;  8:4;  10:7, 
15;  compare  2  Kin.  15:8-10,  13,  14,  23-25, 
30. 

PEKAHI' AH,  whose  eyes  the  Lord  opened, 
son  and  successor  of  Menahem  king  of 
Israel,  was  a  wicked  prince,  and  reigned 
but  2  years,  B.  C.  760-758.     Pekah,  son  of 


Remaliah,  conspired  against  him,  and  killed 
him  in  his  own  palace,  2  Kin.  15:22-25. 

PE'KOD,  visitation,  a  name  applied  to 
Babylon,  or  perhaps  denoting  a  Chaldaean 
province,  Jer.  50:21 ;  Ezek.  23:23. 

PE'LEG,  division,  Gen.  10:25;  11:16-19; 
I  Chr.  1 :  19-25,  a  son  of  Eber  and  brother 
of  Joktan.  His  name  refers  to  a  division 
made  in  his  time  in  the  family  of  Eber, 
whose  elder  branch,  that  of  Peleg,  remained 
in  Mesopotamia,  while  sons  of  the  younger, 
Joktan,  migrated  to  Southern  Arabia. 

PEL'ETHITES  and  CHER'ETHITES,  Da- 
vid's body-guard,  2  Sam.  8: 18 ;  15:18;  20:7, 
23;  I  Kin.  1:38,  44.  The  names  have  been 
translated  "executioners  and  couriers;" 
but  many  suppose  they  were  foreign  mer- 
cenaries, their  names  implying  their  origin 
and  not  their  duties,  and  that  Pelethites  is 
another  word  for  Philistines.     See  Chere- 

THITES. 


PEL'ICAN,  vomiter.  Lev.  ii:i«,  a  vora- 
cious water-fowl,  of  a  rank  oily  flesh,  un- 
clean by  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is  gregarious 
and  migratory.  The  common  white  peli- 
can, still  found  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  is 
nearly  6  feet  long,  and  resembles  the  goose 
in  shape.  Its  broad  flat  bill  is  15  inches  in 
length,  and  has  a  pouch  underneath,  near- 
ly invisible  when  empty,  but  capable  of 
containing  2  or  3  gallons  of  water.  This  it 
uses  as  a  scoop-net  in  catching  fish,  of 
which  it  holds  enough  for  6  men.  The 
young  are  fed  on  the  regurgitated  food  of 
the  parent;  hence  its  name,  the  process 
being  aided  by  pressure  of  the  bill  on  the 
breast.  The  bill  terminates  in  a  bright  red 
hook,  and  may  have  given  rise  to  the  fable 
that  the  pelican  feeds  its  young  with  its 
blood.  It  is  a  good  flyer  as  well  as  diver 
and  swimmer,  and  having  loaded  itself 
with  fish  retires  to  some  lonely  spot  to  di- 
gest its  food  ;  it  then  has  a  dull  and  melan- 

421 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PEN 


choly  aspect,  Psa.  102:6.  Its  voice  is  harsh. 
In  the  prophecies  of  the  desolation  of  Idu- 
maea,  Isa.  34:11,  and  of  Nineveh,  Zeph. 
2:14,  the  presence  of  the  pelican,  called 
cormorant  in  A.  V.,  is  mentioned. 

PEN,  Judg.  5:14;  Psa.  45:1;  Jer.  8:8. 
For  inscriptions  on  stone,  Exod.  24:12; 
Job  19:24,  or  metallic  plates,  Isa.  8:1,  where 
"  roll  "  is  really  a  polished  "  writing-table" 
or  tablet,  Isa.  30:8,  the  ancients  used  a  sty- 
lus of  hardened  iron,  sometimes  perhaps 
tipped  with  a  hard  stone,  Jer.  17:1.  See 
Diamond.  For  tablets  of  wood  coated  with 
wax,  Luke  1:63,  the  stylus  had  one  end 
broad  and  smooth  for  erasing  errors.  For 
soft  materials,  such  as  papyrus,  skin,  lin- 
en, parchment,  a  fine-pointed  hair-pencil, 
dipped  in  ink,  was  used,  as  by  the  Chinese 
now.  In  later  times  the  reed  pen  was  used, 
at  first  with  an  unsplit  point,  prepared  with 
a  particular  kind  of  knife,  Jer.  36:18,  23; 
3  John  13.  The  reed  pen  is  still  used  by  the 
Syrians,  Turks,  etc.    See  Ink,  Sceptre. 

PENI'EL,  or  PENU'EL,  the  face  of  God, 
the  place  where  Jacob  wrestled  with  the 
Angel-Jehovah  "  face  to  face,"  Gen.  32:24- 
31  ;  Hos.  12:4.  It  was  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  near  the  Jabbok.  There  was  a  town 
so  called  500  years  later,  the  tower  of  which 
Gideon  destroyed,  Judg.  8:8-17.  About 
250  years  later  Penuel  was  rebuilt  or  forti- 
fied by  Jeroboam  I.,  I  Kin.  12:25.  Dr.  Mer- 
rill would  place  its  site  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Jabbok  and  near  its  mouth. 

PENIN'NAH,  the  2d  wife  of  Elkanah  the 
father  of  Samuel.  See  Hannah.  Their 
story  illustrates  the  evils  of  polygamy, 
I  Sam.  I. 


PEN'NY,  Matt.  18:28;  Mark  6:37,  the  de- 
narius, the  chief  Roman  silver  coin,  equal 
to  about  16  cents.  The  Greek  drachma, 
"piece  of  silver,"  Luke  15:8,  was  of  about 
the  same  value.  Distressing  scarcity  is 
indicated.  Rev.  6:6,  when  a  whole  day's 
wages  can  buy  only  a  "chcenix  "  (less  than 
a  quart)  of  wheat — what  a  single  man 
would  need ;  a  denarius  usually  purchased 
a  bushel.  The  "penny"  shown  to  Christ 
bore  Tiberius'  likeness  and  name,  Matt. 
22:19,  21.  Even  the  nominal  value  of  the 
denarius  would  be  better  expressed  by 
422 


"shilling"  or  "franc;"  and  its  real  value, 
in  purchase  of  labor  or  commodities,  was 
far  greater  formerly  than  now,  the  Samari- 
tan's gift  equalling  at  least  two  dollars 
with  us,  Luke  10:35. 

PEN'TATEUCH.yJz'*"  volumes,  the  collec- 
tive name  of  the  5  books  of  Moses :  Gene- 
sis, Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deu- 
teronomy. See  these  titles,  and  also  Mo- 
ses. The  name  as  well  as  the  individual 
titles  of  the  books  is  of  Greek  origin,  prob- 
ably given  by  the  Alexandrian  translators 
of  the  Old  Testament.  See  Septuagint. 
By  the  Hebrews  the  roll  or  volume  was 
called  ToRAH,  "the  Law."  The  Greek 
names  describe  the  contents  of  each  book, 
the  Hebrew  names,  Bereshilh,  "in  the  be- 
ginning," etc.,  are  either  an  initial  word  or 
a  prominent  word  in  the  initial  verse.  The 
Pentateuch  is  called  in  the  Bible  "  the  law," 
Neh.  10:34,  36;  Matt.  12:5;  Luke  10:26; 
John  8:17  (though  "the  law"  sometimes 
includes  all  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  John 
15:25,  which  were  otherwise  divided  into 
"the  law  and  the  prophets,"  Matt.  22:40, 
or  "  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  psalms," 
Luke  24:44);  the  "book  of  Moses,"  2  Chr. 
25:4;  "  the  law  of  Moses,"  i  Kin.  2:3;  Dan. 
9:11,  13;  John  7:23;  Acts  13:39  with  John 

1  •  i7>  451  "  the  book  of  the  law,"  2  Kin.  22:8, 
II  ;  "the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,"  Josh. 
8:31;  Neh.  8:1;  "  the  book  of  the  covenant," 

2  Kin.  23:2,  21;  "the  book  of  the  law  of 
Jehovah,"  2  Chr.  17:9;  "the  law  of  Jeho- 
vah," 2  Chr.  31:3;  and  "a  book  of  the  law 
of  Jehovah  given  by  Moses,"  2  Chr.  34:14. 
The  grand  subject  of  the  Pentateuch  is  the 
Hebrew  theocracy :  Genesis  showing  the 
preparation  for  it.  Exodus  the  foundation  of 
it,  Leviticus  its  internal  constitution.  Num- 
bers its  actual  establishment  in  wilderness 
journeys  and  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  and 
Deuteronomy  being  a  recapitulation  and 
enforcement  of  the  legislation  relating  to  it. 
The  Pentateuch  bears  its  own  testimony  to 
its  authorship  by  express  mention  of  Moses 
as  the  writer  of  several  portions,  Exod. 
17:14;  24:3-7;  34:27;  Num.  33:2;  Deut. 
^1:9-12,  19,  22,  24-26;  without  strong  rea- 
son for  the  contrary  opinion,  such  as  exists 
as  to  the  account  of  his  death,  Deut.  34,  it 
is  fair  to  presume  that  he  wrote  the  rest, 
and  this  presumption  is  confirmed  by  the 
unity  of  the  composition  as  a  whole,  by  the 
language  of  other  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures and  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  by  the 
constant  tradition  of  the  Jewish  and  the 
Christian  church,  and  by  the  internal  evi- 
dence of  the  work  itself,  which  calls  for  the 


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authorship  of  a  man  with  the  precise  prov- 
idential qualifications  which  Moses  alone 
had — through  his  Egyptian  education  and 
his  leadership  in  the  wilderness  journey- 
ings.  The  antiquity  of  the  book  is  further 
evidenced  by  its  primitive  theology  and  the 
archaic  Hebrew  in  which  it  is  written,  in 
both  which  respects  it  differs  from  the  wri- 
tings of  the  Davidic  period,  and  still  more 
from  those  of  the  post-exilian  period,  to 
which  some  modern  critics  would  assign 
it.  While  Moses  thus  appears  to  have  been 
the  only  possible  author  of  the  Pentateuch, 
he  may,  by  and  under  divine  direction, 
have  made  use  of  ancient  records  of  events 
preceding  his  time — a  supposition  which 
may  well  account  for  alleged  differences, 
in  style  and  the  use  of  the  names  of  God, 
on  which  a  modern  critical  school  has 
grounded  objections  against  the  Mosaic 
authorship.  The  anticipatory  use  of  cer- 
tain local  names  before  their  application 
after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  —  as  Dan, 
Gen.  14:14;  Deut.  34:1  with  Josh.  19:47, 
and  Hebron,  Gen.  13:18;  23:2  with  Josh. 
14:15;  Judg.  1:10 — may  be  explained  on 
the  ground  of  prophetic  foreknowledge,  or 
of  substitution  in  later  editions  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch after  the  names  became  settled. 

Some  section  of  the  Pentateuch  was  reg- 
ularly read  in  each  Jewish  synagogue  on 
the  Sabbath,  Acts  13:15;  15:21.  It  was 
and  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  Samaritans, 
who  accept  no  other  part  of  the  Bible. 

PEN'TECOST,  7i/77WA,  Acts  2:1-41,  the 
Greek  name  for  the  2d  of  the  3  great  festi- 
vals which  Israel  was  commanded  to  keep 
at  the  national  sanctuary,  Exod.  23:14-17. 
It  was  celebrated  on  the  "fiftieth"  day 
after  the  i6th  of  Nisan,  which  is  the  2d 
day  of  the  Passover  festival,  Lev.  23:15,  16; 
and  it  fell  on  the  6th  day  of  the  3d  month. 
In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  called  "  the 
feast  of  weeks,"  Exod.  34:22,  "  the  feast  of 
harvest,"  Exod.  23:16,  and  "the  day  of  the 
first-fruits,"  Num.  28:26,  and  was  institu- 
ted as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  to  God  for  the 
grain-"  harvest,"  which  in  Palestine  was 
usually  gathered  during  the  7  "  weeks " 
between  the  Passover  and  this  festival,  and 
which  was  completed  with  the  wheat-har- 
vest. The  "  first-fruits"  of  the  latter  were 
offered  on  the  appointed  day  in  2  leavened 
loaves,  each  containing  6  pints  of  the  finest 
wheat  flour,  Lev.  23:17.  Special  bloody 
sacrifices  were  also  prescribed,  Lev.  23:18- 
21 ;  Num.  28:26-31 ;  and  the  day  was  to  be 
one  of  holy  rest  and  rejoicing,  of  gratitude 
prompting  new  obedience,  and  of  hospi- 


tality to  the  needy.  Of  each  participant  a 
free-will  offering  proportioned  to  his  means 
was  required,  Deut.  16:9-12. 

The  later  Jews,  after  their  dispersion  at 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  regarded  this 
festival  as  commemorative  of  the  giving  of 
the  law  from  Mount  Sinai,  Exod.  20:1-20, 
an  event  whose  near  coincidence  with  the 
time  appointed  for  "  the  feast  of  weeks  " 
may  be  inferred  from  Exod.  19:1,  10,  11, 
16.  This  is  the  chief  significance  of  the 
festival  among  modern  Jews. 

On  the  day  of  Pentecost  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  poured  out  on  the  Christian  church. 
Acts  2:1-3.  This  gift  of  a  divine  Enlight- 
ener  and  Sanctifier  bore  to  the  deliverance 
wrought  by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  as  the 
true  Passover  a  relation  similar  to  that 
which  the  giving  of  the  law  bore  to  the  de- 
liverance from  Egypt,  but  was  of  a  more 
glorious  efficacy,  and  designed  for  all  na- 
tions and  the  whole  period  of  the  gospel 
dispensation.  Acts  2:17,  38,  39.  On  this 
day,  in  the  conversion  of  the  3,000,  the 
"  first-fruits  "  of  a  grand  spiritual  "  har- 
vest "  were  presented  to  the  Lord.  Com- 
pare Matt.  9:37,  38;  John  4:35,  36.  The 
mighty  effects  then  produced  foreshow  the 
yet  greater  work  the  Spirit  will  perform  in 
answer  to  prayer. 

PENU'EL.     See  Peni'el. 

PEO'PLE,  usually  foreign  nations,  some- 
times the  common  people,  John  7:20. 

PE'OR,  cleft,  a  mountain-peak  in  Moab, 
the  last  of  the  3  stations  from  which  Ba- 
laam beheld  and  blessed  Israel,  Num.  23:27 
to  24:19,  then  encamped  in  the  valley  east 
of  the  Jordan  near  the  Dead  Sea,  Num. 
22:1;  24:2,  5.  Peor,  like  Pisgah,  Num. 
21:20,  faced  Jeshimon.  Prof.  Paine,  of  the 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society, 
in  1873  identified  Pisgah  with  Jebel  Siagh- 
ah,  whose  3  summits,  it  is  probable,  were 
the  sites  of  Balaam's  3  views.  See  Jeshi- 
mon and  Pisgah.  In  Num.  25:18;  31:16: 
Josh.  22:17,  Peor  is  a  contraction  for  Baal- 
peor.  Num.  25:3. 

PERA'ZIM,  breaches,  Isa.  28:21;  an  idol- 
atrous high-place,  elsewhere  called  B.-val- 
PERAZiM  (see),  2  Sam.  5:18-21;  i  Chr. 
14:8-12. 

PERDI'TION.  Christ  calls  Judas  "the 
son  of  perdition,"  John  17:12  with  Mark 
14:21;  Acts  1:25,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
idiom  describing  his  character  and  destiny. 
See  Son.  Perdition  is  signified  in  Scrip- 
ture by  "the  lake  of  fire,"  Rev.  17:8,  11; 
19:20,  the  dreadful  final  abode  of  the  devil 
and  of  men  "  not  written   in  the  Lamb's 

423 


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book  of  life,"  Rev.  20: 10-15.  Our  Saviour 
refers  to  it  as  "  the  furnace  of  fire,"  Matt. 
13-50.  "the  Gehenna  of  fire,"  "  the  eternal 
fire  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels," 
Matt.  18:9;  25:41.  See  Hkll,  Ill.,and  Hin- 
NOM.  The  Greek  word  in  Rev.  17:8,  11, 
also  translated  "destruction,"  Rom.  9:22; 
2  Pet.  2:1,  3,  R.  v.,  has  a  general  sense  of 
loss,  destruction,  and  ruin,  Matt.  26:8; 
Acts  8 :  20,  and  is  often  used  in  a  special 
sense  to  denote  the  loss  of  eternal  life  and 
blessedness.  Matt.  7:13;  John  17:12;  Heb. 
10:39;  2  Pet.  3:7.  That  this  does  not  mean 
simple  loss,  or  the  annihilation  of  the  wick- 
ed, is  proved  by  the  language  in  which  the 
Bible  depicts  the  enduring  guilt,  defilement, 
shame,  and  anguish  of  the  doomed,  Dan. 
12:2;  Matt.  13:40,50;  18:34,35;  25:30,41; 
Mark  3:29;  9:44-48;  Rom.  2:4-9;  R^v. 
14:9-11 ;  21 :8. 

The  same  Greek  word  is  used  by  the 
Septuagint  to  translate  the  Hebrew  Adad- 
don,  "  destruction,"  which  is  generally  un- 
derstood as  referring  to  the  place  of  gloom 
and  suffering  in  the  unseen  world,  Job 
26:6;  28:22;  Psa.  88:11;  Prov.  15:11. 

The  Greek  verd  from  which  the  noun  is 
derived  likewise  has  a  general  sense  of 
loss,  destruction,  and  ruin,  Matt.  2:13; 
8:25;  9:17;  Luke  15:8,  9,  24,  32,  and  like 
the  noun  it  is  specially  applied  to  the  de- 
praved and  ruined  condition  of  man  as  a 
sinner.  Matt.  18:11;  Luke  19:10;  from 
which  he  may  be  saved  through  faith  in 
Christ,  John  3:16;  10:28;  2  Pet.  3:9,  but 
which  if  continued  in  through  this  life, 
2  Cor.  2:15;  4:3,  will  terminate  in  that  com- 
plete "  perdition  "  in  sin  and  misery  which — 
both  as  the  natural  result  of  persistence  in 
sin,  unbelief,  and  enmity  to  God,  John  8:24; 
Matt.  12:31,  32;  John  3:36,  and  by  the  di- 
rect sentence  and  infliction  of  the  Judge- 
involves  those  condemned  to  follow  out  the 
choice  of  their  lives  and  depart  from  Christ, 
Matt.  25:41,  46;  10:28.  From  2  Thess.  2:3, 
etc.,  we  learn  that  another  "  son  of  perdi- 
tion "  would  come  in  "  the  last  times,"  "  the 
man  of  sin,"  and  "  that  wicked  "  or  "  law- 
less one,"  apparently  the  final  embodiment 
of  ungodliness— whether  a  person  or  an 
organization  we  are  not  told— destined  to 
be  destroyed  by  Christ. 

PE'RES,  division,  Dan.  5 :  28.    See  Uphar- 

SIN. 

PE'REZ,  Neh.  11:4,  6.    See  Pharez. 
PE'REZ-UZ'ZAH,  2  Sam.  6:8.     See  Uz- 

Z.\H. 

PER'FECT,  luhole,  complete,  having  every 
essential   component  part.  Lev.  22:21-24; 
424 


1  Cor.  13:10.  Men  are  called  perfect  who, 
though  by  no  means  sinless,  were  yet  com- 
paratively blameless,  truly  possessing  the 
qualities  required  by  God,  as  faith  in  him, 
love  to  him,  and  the  spirit  of  obedience. 
Gen.  6:9;  I  Kin.  15:14;  2  Kin.  20:3;  Job 
I :  I. 

To  be  "perfected,"  or  "made  perfect," 
is  to  be  brought  to  some  particular  con- 
templated end,  2  Chr.  8:16;  as  Christ  to 
his  foretold  death,  Luke  13:32  with  ver.  31, 
T^T),  and  to  a  complete  fitness  for  his  medi- 
atorial work,  Heb.  2:10  with  ver.  18  and 
5:9;  and  as  the  believer  in  Christ  comes  to 
peace  of  conscience,  Heb.  10:14  with  7:19; 
9:9;  10:1,  2;  to  the  full  reception  of  the 
promise  of  the  Messiah,  Heb.  11:39,40;  to 
the  goal  of  spotless  holiness,  complete  con- 
formity to  Christ,  Phil.  3:12  with  ver.  8-10, 
and  to  the  holiness  and  blessedness  of  the 
redeemed  spirit  after  death,  Heb.  12:23. 

A  "perfect  "  man  in  Christ  is  one  spirit- 
ually full-grown  in  faith,  love,  knowledge, 
and  strength  for  action,  as  contrasted  with 
a  "  babe  "  in  Christ,  i  Cor.  2:6;  Heb.  5: 14, 
margin;  compare  ver.  12,  13;  6:1.  Paul 
classes  himself  among  the  "perfect,"  Phil. 
3: 15,  but  does  not  regard  himself  as  "  made 
perfect,"  ver.  12;  see  above. 

Believers  are  exhorted  to  "  be  perfect- 
ed," 2  Cor.  13:11,  to  "go  on  unto  perfec- 
tion," Heb.  6: 1,  acquiring  through  the  grace 
of  God,  Heb.  13:21,  a  character  ripened 
into  Christian  manhood,  complete  in  every 
Christian  grace,  Eph.  4:13  with  Jas.  1:4; 

2  Pet.  1:1-11.  God,  in  all  his  imitable 
qualities,  is  the  model  set  before  them, 
Matt.  5:48. 

PER'FUMES  were  anciently,  and  still 
are,  much  used  in  the  East,  Prov.  27:9; 
Isa.  57:9;  and  were  applied  to  the  person, 
John  12:3,  as  well  as  to  garments,  Psa.  45:8, 
and  to  beds,  Prov.  7:17,  and  carried  burn- 
ing before  the  litters  of  princes.  Song  3:6, 
7.  Moses  speaks  of  the  art  of  the  perfu- 
mer, A.  V.  "apothecary,"  and  gives  the 
composition  of  the  2  sacred  perfumes  used 
in  the  tabernacle  service,  the  one  as  an- 
ointing oil,  the  other  as  incense,  Exod. 
30:23-33,  34-38.  Perfumes  were  used  in 
embalming  the  dead,  Mark  16 :  1 ;  John 
19:39,40.  See  Embalming,  Incense,  Oint- 
ments, Spices. 

PER'GA,  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  on  the  river 
Cestrus,  7  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  river 
is  now  obstructed  by  a  bar,  but  was  an- 
ciently navigable  as  far  as  Perga,  where 
Paul  and  Barnabas  landed  on  their  first 
missionary  tour,  with  Mark — who  there  left 


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them,  Acts  13:13.  Paul  revisited  Perga  on 
his  return,  Acts  14:25.  It  was  the  original 
capital  of  Pamphylia,  and  after  the  division 
of  the  province  remained  the  capital  of  one 
part,  and  Side  became  the  chief  city  of  the 
other.  Perga  had  fine  public  buildings,  and 
on  an  adjacent  height  a  splendid  temple  of 
Diana,  which  gave  celebrity  to  the  city — 
some  of  whose  discovered  coins  bear  the 
image  of  that  goddess.  Extensive  ruins 
remain,  called  by  the  Turks  Eski-Kalessi. 

PER'GAMOS,  R.  V.  PER'GAMUM,  a  city 
of  Mysia,  3  miles  north  of  the  river  Caicus, 
and  20  miles  from  the  ^gean  Sea,  It  was 
the  residence  of  the  Attalian  dynasty  of 
kings,  who  raised  it  to  eminence  as  a  seat 
of  art,  literature,  and  idolatry.  Their  do- 
minions fell  to  the  Romans  B.  C.  133,  and 
became  the  province  of  Asia  proper.  Eu- 
menes  II.,  B.  C.  197-159,  founded  a  library 
which  increased  to  200,000  volumes  ;  being 
presented  by  Antony  to  Cleopatra,  and  re- 
moved to  Ale.\andria,  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  Caliph  Omar  with  the  famous  Alexan- 
drine library.  In  transcribing  manuscripts 
for  it  great  quantities  of  sheepskin  were 
used,  and  great  improvement  was  made  in 
the  preparation  of  it  for  writing ;  the  im- 
proved material  was  called  "  charta  perga- 
mena "  (paper  of  Pergamos),  whence  our 
word  "  parchment."  A  beautiful  grove 
near  the  city  contained  temples  of  Jupiter, 
Miiierva,  Apollo,  Venus,  Bacchus,  and  ^s- 
culapius.  Special  prominence  was  given 
anciently  to  the  worship  of  Venus,  and 
afterwards  of  ^Esculapius,  the  god  of  med- 
icine and  pharmaceutical  magic,  whose 
emblem  was  a  serpent.  Some  interpret 
the  expressions  in  Christ's  message  to  the 
church  here.  Rev.  i:ii;  2:12-17,  "the 
throne  of  Satan,"  etc.,  as  referring  espe- 
cially to  the  worship  of  this  serpent-idol ; 
compare  Rev.  12:9;  others  apply  them  to 
the  abundant  idolatries  and  impurities  of 
the  city  and  the  hostility  to  Christianity 
already  begun  there  in  the  slaying  of  An- 
tipas.  Ruins  of  ancient  buildings  show 
the  former  magnificence  of  Pergamos,  now 
Bergama,  but  the  modern  houses  are  poor. 
It  has  a  population  of  20,000,  chiefly  Turks 
and  Mohammedans,  with  about  2,000  Greek 
and  Armenian  Christians.  A  remarkable 
conical  height  near  the  city,  now  crowned 
with  ruins,  was  held  sacred  by  the  heathen 
from  early  antiquity,  and  in  time  was  oc- 
cupied by  a  fortress. 

PER'IZZITES,  Gen.  15:20,  ancient  in- 
habitants of  Palestine,  often  enumerated 
with  other  tribes  descended  from  Canaan. 


They  were  widely  scattered:  in  Abraham's 
time  near  Bethel,  Gen.  13:7;  in  Jacob's, 
near  Shechem,  Gen.  34:30;  in  Joshua's,  on 
the  wooded  slopes  of  Carmel,  Josh.  17:15; 
and  afterwards  in  the  territory  of  Judah, 
Judg.  1:4,  5.  From  this  apparent  disper- 
sion, from  the  probable  meaning  of  the 
word,  rustics  or  villagers,  and  from  their 
being  associated  several  times  with  the 
Canaanites  alone,  who  appear  to  have  oc- 
cupied cities,  some  conjecture  that  by  the 
Perizzites  are  denoted  the  rural  population 
or  villagers  of  the  land.  The  Perizzites 
were  chiefly  slain  or  expelled  by  the  Isra- 
elites, who  however  wickedly  mingled  with 
the  remainder,  Judg.  3:5,  6.  Some  were 
left  in  Solomon's  day,  i  Kin.  9:20,  and  per- 
haps after  the  Captivity,  Ezra  9:1. 

PERSECU'TION  is  a  crime,  whether  com- 
mitted by  the  church  or  by  the  civil  power. 
Rightly,  the  church  has  no  temporal  penal- 
ties, but  spiritual  only,  and  for  its  own 
members ;  and  the  civil  power  has  penal- 
ties only  for  overt  acts,  and  not  for  spirit- 
ual offences.  Persecution  occurs  when 
either  party  transcends  these  bounds; 
whether  those  who  inflict  it  are  malignant 
haters  of  the  truth  or  mistaken  good  men, 
and  whether  the  sufferers  are  faithful  mar- 
tyrs for  Christ  or  the  worst  of  errorists. 
The  coercion  of  heretics  by  pains,  penal- 
ties, and  death  has  been  defended  by  ref- 
erence to  Old  Testament  laws.  But  under 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  when  God  was 
the  recognized  legislative,  judicial,  and  ex- 
ecutive Head  of  the  nation,  the  worship  of 
another  god  was  treason,  and  incurred  the 
penalty  of  death.  Lev.  20:1-5;  Deut.  13,  as 
did  outrageous  breaches  of  others  of  the 
commandments,  which  were  the  law  of  the 
land.  By  severe  chastisements  God  taught 
the  early  ages  of  mankind  the  fatal  nature 
of  sin,  which  unrepented  of  involves  the 
sinner  in  endless  death.  The  death-pen- 
alty indeed  may  not  have  been  often  in- 
flicted, but  in  signal  instances,  e.  g.,  Lev. 
24:11-14;  I  Kin.  18:40;  and  idolatry  had 
many  patrons  among  the  kings  of  Israel. 
An  appeal  also  to  the  Supreme  Judge  was 
always  possible  through  appointed  means, 
which  now  do  not  exist.  The  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation is  abolished,  and  nothing  in  the 
precepts  or  spirit  of  the  New  Testament 
warrants  coercion  in  spiritual  matters. 
The  State  has  no  right  to  intrude  with  its 
penalties  on  the  domain  of  conscience, 
and  the  church's  kingdom  is  "  not  of  this 
world,"  and  has  no  "carnal  weapons,"  but 
relies  on  the  power  of  truth,  on  conscience, 

425 


PER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PKR 


and  the  Spirit  of  God,  Luke  9:53-55;  John 
18:36;  2  Cor.  10:4. 

PER'SIA  proper,  probably  intended  in 
Ezek.  38:5,  extended  from  tiie  Persian  Gulf 
north  to  Media,  between  Carmania  on  the 
east  and  Elani  or  Susiana  on  the  west.  The 
country  and  name  are  represented  by  the 
division  of  modern  Persia,  called  Fars  or 
Farsistan.  The  southern  low  tract  on  the 
gulf  is  sandy  and  unproductive ;  but  north 
of  this  is  a  mountainous  region,  with  beau- 
tiful and  fertile  valleys  and  plains,  avera- 
ging about  4,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
chief  cities  w  ere  Pasargadae,  the  older  cap- 
ital, now  Murgab,  where  the  reputed  tomb 
of  Cyrus  is  shown,  and  Persepolis,  the  la- 
ter capital,  founded  by  Darius  Hystaspis, 
and  burned  by  Alexander  the  Great  when 
drunk,  B.  C.  330. 

Other  Scripture  passages  refer  to  the 
Persian  Empire,  whose  greatest  extent  was 
from  the  Indus  to  Thrace,  and  from  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  Persian  Gulf,  and  Egypt,  including 
all  Western  Asia  and  parts  of  Europe  and 
Africa. 

Persia  proper  was  occupied  by  the  Per- 
sians, an  Aryan  people  akin  to  the  Medes, 
after  B.  C.  880,  when  they  are  first  men- 
tioned in  Assyrian  inscriptions.  They  mi- 
grated from  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and 
were  led  into  Persia  by  Achsemenes,  B.  C. 
700.  The  Persian  kingdom  became  tribu- 
tary to  the  Medes  about  B.  C.  630.  In  558 
Cyrus,  son  of  Cambyses  king  of  Elam, 
revolted,  and  in  550,  having  added  the  do- 
minions of  the  Medes  to  his  own,  he  began 
a  career  of  conquest  which  extended  his 
sway  from  the  Indus  to  the  ^gean  Sea, 
thus  founding  the  2d  great  world-kingdom, 
Dan.  2:32;  7:5;  8:1-4;  Isa.  44:28;  45:1-4. 
He  conquered  Babylon,  B.  C.  538,  and  fol- 
lowing his  conciliatory  policy  issued  a  de- 
cree authorizing  the  return  of  the  captive 
Jews  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  2  Chr. 
6:20-23;  Ezra  1:1-4.  His  son  and  succes- 
sor Cambyses,  B.  C.  529,  the  "  Ahasuerus  " 
of  Ezra  4: 6,  conquered  Egypt,  which  in  sub- 
sequent reigns  repeatedly  revolted.  The 
usurper  Pseudo-Smerdis,  B.  C.  522,  "  Arta- 
xerxes,"  forbade  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple, Ezra  4:7-24.  Under  his  deposer  and 
successor  Darius  Hystaspis,  B.  C.  521-485, 
the  temple  was  completed,  Ezra  4:5,  24; 
5:1-6;  6:15;  Hag.  1:1;  Zech.  i  :i ;  7:1.  In 
this  reign  Shushan  (see)  became  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Persian  Empire.  Persia  was 
defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon,  B.  C. 
490.  Darius'  successor,  B.  C.  485-465,  was 
426 


the  "  fourth  king"  of  Dan.  11:2,  the  Xerxes 
who  invaded  Greece  B.  C.  480,  and  suf- 
fered defeat  at  Salamis,  the  "Ahasuerus  " 
of  Esther.  He  was  followed  first  by  the 
usurper  Artabanus,  then  by  his  son  Arta- 
xerxes  Longimanus,  B.  C.  464-424,  Ezra 
7:1,  11-26;  Neh.  2:1-8,  in  whose  reign  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  were  restored,  Neh. 
2:11  to  6:15.  Of  his  successors,  the  last, 
Darius  Codomanus,  B.  C.  335,  is  probably 
referred  to  in  Neh.  12:22;  he  was  subdued 
and  slain  by  Alexander  the  Great,  B.  C. 
330,  and  thus  the  Persian  Empire  ended, 
Dan.  8:5-7,  20.  After  Alexander's  death 
Persia  was  ruled  by  the  Seleucida;  until 
annexed  to  the  Parthian  Empire,  B.  C.  164 ; 
was  independent  under  the  Sassanidae,  A. 
D.  226;  in  A.  D.  642  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabs,  who  established  Mohammedanism. 
It  was  overrun  by  the  Tartars  under  Jen- 
ghis  Khan  in  1206,  by  Tamerlane  in  1380, 
and  by  the  Turks  in  the  i6th  century.  The 
present  Turkoman  dynasty,  whose  capital 
is  Teheran,  was  established  in  1796. 

The  ancient  Persians  were  witty,  brave, 
and  comparatively  truthful,  but  passionate, 
vain,  and  fickle.  Their  language,  like  that 
of  the  Medes,  was  akin  to  the  Sanscrit.  Its 
earliest  forms  appear  in  their  sacred  wri- 
tings, the  Zendavesta ;  modern  Persian  is 
derived  from  it,  but  has  a  large  mixture  of 
Arabic.  The  Persians  worshipped  Or- 
muzd,  the  good  spirit  and  giver  of  life,  and 
feared  Ahriman,  the  inflicter  of  all  evil. 
They  also  recognized  inferior  spirits,  good 
and  bad.  They  used  no  images,  and  their 
worship  was  originally  simple,  without  al- 
tars, sacrifices,  or  priests,  but  became  cor- 
rupted by  Magianism,  the  religion  of  Scyth- 
ic  tribes,  from  whom  the  immigrating  Per- 
sians adopted  the  worship  of  the  elements, 
especially  fire,  the  Magian  ceremonial,  and 
divination,  and  special  worship  of  the  sun, 
Mithra,  and  the  moon,  Homa. 

Modern  Persia,  or  Iran,  is  bounded  north 
by  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Russia,  west  by 
Asiatic  Turkey,  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf, 
Strait  of  Ormuz,  and  Gulf  of  Oman,  east  by 
Beloochistan  and  Afghanistan.  It  has  an 
area  of  550,000  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  perhaps  10,000,000.  The  sovereign 
or  Shah  is  leader  of  the  unorthodox  or 
Sheah  sect  of  Mohammedans,  including 
9-ioths  of  the  population.  The  rest  are 
Armenian  and  Nestorian  Christians,  Jews, 
and  about  5,000  Parsees,  representing  the 
ancient  religion.  The  people  are  described 
as  handsome,  intellectual,  social,  untruth- 
ful, and  polite — "the  French  of  the  East." 


PER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PET 


In  1833  the  American  Board  established 
a  mission  among  the  Nestorians,  whose 
ancient  church  was  sunk  in  superstition 
and  ritualism.  The  mission  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  187 1. 
It  has  met  with  encouraging  success — ex- 
tending to  Jews  and  Armenians,  and  even 
Moslems,  who  are  beginning  to  be  more 
accessible  than  formerly  to  Christian  influ- 
ences. Well-administered  European  and 
American  charities  in  times  of  famine  have 
operated  favorably  in  creating  a  feeling 
favorable  to  Christianity  as  well  as  in  sav- 
ing many  lives. 

PER'SIS,  Persian,  a  Christian  woman  at 
Rome,  whom  Paul  salutes,  Rom.  16:12. 

PES'TILENCE,  Exod.  5:3;  9:15,  or 
PLAGUE,  E.xod.  9:14,  in  the  Bible  ex- 
pressed all  sorts  of  distempers  and  calam- 
ities, the  former  word  in  the  A.  V.  rep- 
resenting the  Hebrew  word  translated 
"plagues"  in  Hos.  13:14,  and  "mur- 
rain" in  Exod.  9:3;  Psa.  78:50,  margin. 
"  Plague  "  in  the  A.  V.  is  the  rendering  of 
4  other  Hebrew  and  2  Greek  words,  all  in- 
volving the  idea  of  a  stroke  or  blow,  as 
from  God,  2  Sam.  24:16.  Compare  (i)  Num. 
16:48-50;  (2)  Lev.  26:21;  Num.  11:33; 
(3)  Exod.  ii:i;  Lev. '13:2,  etc. ;  (4)  Num. 
16:46;  (5)  Mark  3:10;  (6)  Rev.  9:20;  11:6. 
Pestilence  is  appropriately  called  "  the 
sword  of  the  Lord,"  i  Chr.  21:12,  and  is 
associated  with  war  and  famine.  Lev.  26:25, 
26;  2  Sam.  24:13-15.  A  "pestilent  fellow," 
Acts  24:5,  is  a  corrupting  plague. 

It  cannot  be  determined  that  there  is  any 
reference  in  the  Bible  to  the  specific  conta- 
gious and  destructive  disease  now  called 
"the  plague,"  which  has  in  modern  times 
ravaged  Egypt  and  other  Oriental  coun- 
tries, and  which  Is  considered  to  be  a  viru- 
lent typhus  attended  by  severe  eruptions. 
In  the  14th  century  "the  black  death" 
overran  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  25,- 
000,000  are  estimated  to  have  died  of  it 
within  3  years. 

PES'TLE,  Prov.  27:22.     See  Mortars. 

PE'TER,  Gr.  PET'ROS,  Syr.  CE'PHAS, 
stone  or  rock,  one  of  the  12  apostles,  and, 
Avith  James  and  John,  one  of  the  3  most 
intimately  associated  with  our  Lord.  He 
was  probably  a  native  of  Bethsaida,  John 
1 :44,  and  was  the  son  of  Jonas  or  John,  a 
fisherman,  and  brother  of  Andrew,  a  fel- 
low-apostle. His  original  name  was  Simon 
or  Simeon,  Matt.  16:17;  Acts  15:14,  and 
the  name  Cephas  was  prophetically  given 
to  him  when  first  introduced  to  Jesus  in 
Peraea   by  Andrew,  John    1:28,  35,  40-42. 


He  was  called  to  go  with  Christ  when  la- 
boring at  his  trade  as  a  fisherman,  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  near  Capernaum,  with  his 
brother  Andrew  and  their  partners  James 
and  John,  Matt.  4:18-22;  Mark  1:16-20; 
Luke  5:1-11,  and  learned  to  be  a  "fisher 
of  men."  His  residence  was  then  at  Ca- 
pernaum, with  his  brother,  his  wife,  and 
his  mother-in-law.  Matt.  8:14;  Mark  1:21, 
29-31.  He  seems  to  have  left  a  considera- 
ble business  and  a  comfortable  home  to 
follow  Christ,  Mark  10:28.  After  continu- 
ing with  the  disciples  for  some  time  he  was 
chosen  and  commissioned  as  one  of  the 
12  apostles,  Matt.  10:1-11;  Mark  3:13-19; 
Luke  6:12-16,  when  his  name  Cephas  or 
Peter  seems  to  have  been  reconferred.  It 
was  confirmed  when  with  the  other  apos- 
tles he  so  boldly  avowed  the  Messiahship 
and  divinity  of  Christ,  Matt.  16 :  16-18.  The 
name,  petros,  and  Christ's  declaration, 
"  Upon  this  rock,"  petra,  etc.,  were  pro- 
phetic of  the  special  work  and  prominent 
position  of  Peter  as  a  confessor  of  Christ 
in  the  earliest  age  of  the  church.  He  was 
the  spokesman  of  the  apostles  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  when  3,000  Jewish  converts 
were  added  to  the  church.  Acts  2;  and  he 
was  divinely  chosen  to  receive  the  Gentiles 
into  the  Christian  church  at  the  conversion 
of  Cornelius,  Acts  10:11;  15:7;  compare 
I  Cor.  3:11;  Eph.  2:20-22;  Rev.  21:14.  The 
churchly  powers  conferred  upon  him  were 
subsequently  bestowed  on  the  disciples 
generally.  Matt.  18:18.  His  ardent,  impul- 
sive, hopeful,  and  energetic  temperament, 
with  his  liability  to  overestimation  of  him- 
self and  to  inconsistency  and  change,  are 
illustrated  by  many  remarkable  incidents 
recorded  in  the  Gospels,  among  which  we 
may  mention  his  errors  as  to  the  design  of 
Christ's  incarnation,  for  which  he  was  se- 
verely rebuked.  Matt.  16:21-23;  his  warm 
attachment  to  the  divine  Teacher,  John 
6:67-69;  his  boastful  pledge  to  adhere  to 
his  Master  under  all  circumstances,  his 
subsequent  denial  of  him  with  oaths,  and 
his  poignant  repentance.  Matt.  26:31-35, 
69-75;  Mark  14:27-31,66-72;  Luke  22:31- 
34,  54-62;  John  13:36-38;  18:15-18,  25-27. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  apostles  to  behold 
Jesus  after  his  resurrection,  Luke  24:34; 
1  Cor.  15:5;  he  was  afterwards  solemnly 
commissioned  by  Christ  on  his  utterance 
of  a  3-fold  assurance  of  his  love,  corre- 
sponding to  his  3-fold  denial,  John  21:15- 
19.  The  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ, 
and  the  accompanying  circumstances,  led 
to  a  marked  change  in  the  apostle's  mind, 

427 


PET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PET 


and  thenceforward  his  course  was,  almost 
witliout  exception,  bold  and  steadfast,  and 
worthy  of  his  name.  He  is  prominent  in 
word  and  deed  through  the  first  12  chap- 
ters of  the  Acts.  After  his  miraculous  re- 
lease from  prison,  about  A.  D.  44,  we  lose 
sight  of  him  till  A.  D.  50,  when  he  appears 
at  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  and  though  he 
does  not  preside,  contributes  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  important  question  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Gentile  Christians  to  the  Mosaic 
law,  Acts  15.  Two  years  later,  Paul,  who 
speaks  of  himself  as  in  no  way  inferior  or 
subordinate  to  Peter,  Gal.  1:15-18;  2:6-9, 
rebuked  him  for  inconsistent  conduct  at 
Antioch,  Gal.  2:11,  etc.;  a  rebuke  which 
did  not  permanently  disturb  the  affection 
which  Peter  cherished  for  his  "  beloved 
brother  Paul,"  2  Pet.  3:15.  Paul  mentions 
him  again,  A.  D.  57,  as  engaged  in  mission- 
ary labors,  in  company  with  his  wife,  i  Cor. 
9:5,  perhaps  among  the  dispersed  Jews 
in  Asia  Minor,  i  Pet.  1:1.  Peter  seems  to 
have  labored  at  Corinth,  i  Cor.  1:12;  3:22, 
and  at  Babylon,  i  Pet.  5:13.  Papal  wri- 
ters affirm  that  he  was  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
and  resided  there  25  years.  But  the  evi- 
dence is  strongly  against  this  assertion. 
Paul  does  not  mention  Peter  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  written  A.  D.  58,  though 
he  sends  courteous  salutations  to  leading 
Christians  there,  men  and  women ;  nor  does 
it  appear  from  the  inspired  narrative  in 
the  Acts,  or  from  Paul's  numerous  epistles 
from  Rome — in  which  he  sends  the  saluta- 
tions of  many  Roman  believers — that  Peter 
was  there  in  61,  when  Paul  arrived  there, 
or  during  Paul's  imprisonment  there,  61-63, 
Acts  28:14-31,  or  that  Peter  had  previously 
been  there  at  all.  It  is,  however,  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  Christian  writers  that  Pe- 
ter suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  at  or  about 
the  same  time  as  Paul,  though  the  exact 
date  is  not  given.  His  death  may  possibly 
have  occurred  in  64,  during  the  Neronian 
persecution,  after  the  great  fire,  but  rather 
in  67  or  68.  He  is  said  to  have  been  cruci- 
fied, thus  following  the  Lord  in  the  mode 
of  his  death,  John  21:18,  19.  Origen  says 
that  at  his  own  request,  under  a  feeling  of 
his  unworthiness,  he  was  crucified  head 
downward.  There  is  no  evidence  in  the 
Bible  that  Peter  had  any  supremacy  over 
the  other  apostles,  compare  Acts  6:1-6; 
8:14;  15:13,  22;  I  Cor.  1:12,  13;  3:21,  22; 
Gal.  2:1,  2,  6-9,  II,  or  any  successor  in  that 
influence  naturally  accorded  to  him  as  one 
of  the  oldest,  most  active,  and  most  faith- 
ful of  those  who  had  "seen  the  Lord." 
428 


The  Gospel  of  Mark,  whom  Peter  calls 
his  "son,"  I  Pet.  5:13,  is  believed  to  have 
been  written  under  the  influence  of  Peter. 
See  Mark. 

Epistles  of  Peter.  We  have  2  epis- 
tles attributed  to  Peter  by  the  common 
consent  of  the  Christian  church.  The  gen- 
uineness of  the  first  has  never  been  dis- 
puted ;  it  is  referred  to  as  his  accredited 
work  by  several  of  the  apostolic  fathers. 
It  was  addressed  to  Christian  churches  in 
Asia  Minor,  composed  primarily  of  con- 
verted Jews  and  proselytes,  but  including 
many  converts  from  paganism,  i  Pet.  4:3. 
It  was  written  probably  at  Babylon  on  the 
Euphrates,  i  Pet.  5  :  13.  See  Babylon. 
Some,  however,  interpret  this  of  Rome,  and 
others  of  a  pettj-  town  in  Egypt  called  Bab- 
ylon, near  Old  Cairo.  The  "fiery  trials" 
through  which  the  church  was  then  passing 
are  supposed  to  have  been  the  persecu- 
tions in  the  later  years  of  Nero's  reign, 
which  terminated  A.  D.  68.  Peter  exhorts 
them  to  faith,  obedience,  and  patience,  in 
view  of  the  truth  of  the  gospel  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  salvation  in  Christ. 

The  2d  epistle  was  addressed  to  the  same 
persons  as  the  former  one ;  its  general  de- 
sign being  to  confirm  the  doctrines  which 
had  been  delivered  in  that,  and  to  excite 
the  Christian  converts  to  a  course  of  con- 
duct becoming  in  every  respect  their  high 
profession  of  attachment  to  Christ.  This 
epistle  was  less  confidently  ascribed  to  the 
great  "apostle  of  the  circumcision"  by  the 
early  church  than  the  first  epistle.  There 
is  no  sufficient  ground,  however,  for  doubt- 
ing its  canonical  authority,  or  that  Peter 
was  its  author,  2  Pet.  1:1,  18;  3:1.  Com- 
pare also  I  Pet.  3:20;  2  Pet.  2:5.  In  many 
passages  it  resembles  the  Epistle  of  Jude. 
Both  epistles  attest  the  harmony  between 
the  doctrines  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  by 
their  humble,  meek,  patient,  and  lovely 
spirit  show  the  mastery  of  divine  grace  in 
the  writers.  "  The  faith  expounded  by 
Paul  kindles  into  fervent  hope  in  the  words 
of  Peter,  and  expands  into  sublime  love  in 
those  of  John." 

PE'THOR,  interpret  alio  n,  the  residence 
of  Balaam  in  Mesopotamia,  and  probably 
on  the  Euphrates,  Num.  22:5;  Deut.  23:4. 
Its  site  is  unknown. 

PHA'LEC.  Luke  3:35,  Peleg,  as  in  R.  V. 

PHAL'TI,  or  PHAL'TIEL,  whom  God  de- 
livers, son  of  Laish,  of  Gallim,  to  whom  for 
policy  Saul  gave  David's  wife.  See  Mi- 
CHAL.  He  seems  to  have  loved  her  devo- 
tedly, I  Sam.  25:44;  2  Sam.  3:15,  16. 


PHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHA 


PHANU'EL,  whom  God  beholds,  Luke 
2:36. 

PHA'RAOH,  thegeneral  title  of  the  Egyp- 
tian kings.  It  was  formerly  thought  to  be 
compounded  from  the  Egyptian  article,  Pi 
or  Ph,  and  Ra,  the  sun,  the  king  being  re- 
garded as  the  earthly  representative  of  the 
sun-god ;  or  of  the  article  Ph  and  the  Cop- 
tic word  ouro,  king.  But  recent  Egyptolo- 
gists translate  it  the  great  house,  equiva- 
lent to  the  Turkish  "the  sublime  porte." 
In  the  still  uncertain  state  of  Egyptian 
chronology,  and  of  Bible  chronology  before 
Solomon,  it  is  difficult  to  identify  the  Pha- 
raohs of  the  Old  Testament  with  kings 
whose  proper  names  are  known  to  us  from 
other  sources.  Thirty  royal  dynasties,  e.x- 
tending  from  Menes,  the  first  king,  to  Nec- 
tanebo  II.,  the  last  native  ruler,  Ezek. 
30:13,  dethroned  at  the  2d  Persian  con- 
quest, B.  C.  343,  are  enumerated  by  Mane- 
tho,  an  Egyptian  priest  and  historian,  B. 
C.  300-250.  Some  of  these  were,  however, 
contemporary  kings  of  different  parts  of 
Egypt.  The  term  Pharaoh  is  applied  to 
all  the  Egyptian  kings  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture except  4. 

1.  The  Pharaoh  of  Abraham,  whose  visit 
to  Egypt,  Gen.  12:15-20,  occurred  during 
the  period  of  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd- 
kings — Semitic  foreigners  who  conquered 
Egypt,  and  ruled  at  least  Lower  Egypt  for 
several  centuries,  including  the  15th,  i6th, 
and  17th  dynasties.  The  common  chronol- 
ogy dates  this  visit  B.  C.  1920.  R.  S.  Poole 
of  the  British  Museum  dates  it  at  B.  C.  2080, 
and  under  the  reign  of  Salatis,  the  head  of 
the  15th  dynasty. 

2.  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph,  Gen.  37:36; 
39  to  50.  Joseph  may  have  arrived  in 
Egypt  B.  C.  1728,  under  an  earlier  king 
than  the  one  who  exalted  him,  B.  C.  1715. 
Eusebius  says  the  latter  was  Apophis ;  and 
the  date  of  his  reign  is  given  by  some  as 
B.  C.  1876-1850.  H.  Brugsch,  the  learned 
Egyptologist,  claims  to  have  found  in  the 
tomb  of  Baba  —  time  of  the  Shepherd- 
kings — an  undoubted  reference  to  Joseph 
and  the  7  years  of  famine:  "I  gathered 
grain  as  were  I  a  friend  of  the  gods  of  the 
harvests.  .  .  .  And  when  a  famine  arose 
that  lasted  many  years,  then  I  distributed 
grain  to  the  city  in  its  distress." 

3.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression,  un- 
der whom  Moses  was  born,  Exod.  1:8  to 
2:23;  Acts  7:18-20;  Heb.  11:23,  B.  C.  1571. 
Biblical  scholars  and  Egyptologists  now 
identify  this  king  with  Rameses  II.,  whose 
date  Lepsius  gives  as  B.  C.  1388-1322.     He 


was  the  3d  king  of  the  19th  dynasty,  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  Sesostris,  and  was 
the  most  famous  of  all  the  Pharaohs,  a 
mighty  conqueror  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  Eu- 
rope, and  an  extensive  builder.  His  stat- 
ues and  temples  are  found  throughout  the 
Nile  valley  from  Zoan  to  Nubia.  The 
mummy  of  Rameses  II.,  with  many  others 
of  royal  and  priestly  persons,  was  discov- 
ered in  1881  in  a  rock-chamber  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Nile  at  Deir  el-Bahari,  near 
Thebes,  and  transferred  to  the  Boulak  Mu- 
seum at  Cairo.  It  is  he  who  is  depicted  as 
slaughtering  prisoners  on  p.  150. 

4.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  Pharaoh 
of  Moses'  exile  to  Midian  at  the  age  of  40, 
Exod.  2:11-22,  was  distinct  both  from  the 
king  under  whose  reign  he  was  born,  and 
from  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  when 
Moses  was  80  years  old ;  and  that  this  Pha- 
raoh of  Moses  in  Midian  was  Rameses  II. 

5.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  Exod. 
2:23  to  15:19;  2  Kin.  17:7;  Neh.  9:10;  Psa. 
135:9;  136:15;  Rom.  9:17;  Heb.  11:27. 
B.  C.  1491.  He  is  generally  identified  with 
Meneptha  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ra- 
meses II.  His  reign,  according  to  the 
monuments,  was  inglorious,  and  he  died 
without  finishing  his  father's  tomb.  A 
monument  at  Tanis  mentions  his  loss  of  a 
son,  which  Dr.  Brugsch  connects  with  the 
dea;th  of  the  first-born.  The  many-cham- 
bered and  painted  tombs  of  the  Pharaohs 
of  the  i8th,  19th,  and  20th  dynasties  cata- 
comb the  limestone  hills  near  Thebes. 
Thence,  it  is  believed,  the  newly-discov- 
ered mummies  were  removed  to  the  cavern 
where  they  were  found,  to  secure  them  after 
the  downfall  of  the  Rameses  dynasty. 

6.  The  Pharaoh  whose  daughter  Bithiah 
became  the  wife  of  Mered,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  I  Chr.  4:18. 

7.  The  Pharaoh  in  David's  time,  who 
married  his  wife's  sister  to  Hadad  the 
Edomite,  i  Kin.  11:14-22.  About  B.  C. 
1030.     See  Tahapanes. 

8.  Pharaoh,  whose  daughter  Solomon 
took  to  wife,  B.  C.  loii,  i  Kin.  3:1,  and 
who  took  Gezer  from  the  Canaanites  and 
presented  it  to  his  daughter,  i  Kin.  9:16. 
This  king  and  No.  7  probably  belonged  to 
the  2istor  Tanite  dynasty  in  Lower  Egypt. 

9.  Shishak,  near  the  end  of  Solomon's 
reign  and  during  Rehoboam's,  B.  C.  975. 
See  Shishak. 

10.  Zerah,  king  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia 
in  the  time  of  Asa,  B.  C.  930.     See  Zerah. 

11.  So,  or  Sevechus,  contemporary  with 
Ahaz,  B.  C.  738,  2  Kin.  17:4.     See  So. 

429 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHA 


12.  Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  B.  C.  720,  2  Kin. 
19:9;  Isa.  37:9.     See  Tirhakah. 

13.  The  Pharaoh  in  whom  king  Hezekiah 
trusted,  in  his  war  with  Sennacherib,  2  Kin. 
18:21,  about  B.  C.  712.  This  was  probably 
the  Sethos  of  Herodotus,  the  Zet  of  Mane- 
tho,  last  king  of  the  23d  dynasty.  A  bent 
reed  is  the  hieroglyphic  sign  of  the  king  of 
Upper  Egypt. 

14.  Pharaoh -nechoh,  or  simply  Necho, 
B.  C.  612-596,  in  the  time  of  king  Josiah, 
2  Kin.  23:29,  30;  2  Chr.  35:20-24;  Jer.  46. 
See  Necho. 

15.  Pharaoh  -  hophra,  about  B.  C.  590- 
570,  grandson  and  2d  successor  of  Necho, 
is  the  Apries  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus. 
Early  in  his  reign  he  subdued  PhcEnicia, 
taking  Zidon,  and  returned  to  Egypt  with 
great  spoil.  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of 
Judah,  sought  his  help  in  rebelling  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Ezek.  17:11-17.  His  ad- 
vance caused  the  Babylonians,  who  were 
besieging  Jerusalem,  to  draw  off  their  for- 
ces; but  they  soon  returned  and  captured 
Jerusalem,  B.  C.  588,  the  Egyptians  aban- 
doning their  allies,  Jer.  34:1;  37:5-11; 
2  Kin.  25 : 1-4.  Nebuchadnezzar  afterwards 
successfully  invaded  Egypt,  Jer.  46:13-26; 
Ezek.  30:20-25.  Pharaoh-hophra  was  de- 
posed by  his  subjects  after  a  disastrous 
e.xpedition  against  Cyrene.  His  successor 
Amasis  at  first  treated  him  kindly,  but  was 
finally  compelled  by  the  popular  sentiment 
to  strangle  him,  Jer.  44:30.  Hophra's  ar- 
rogance, as  depicted  by  Jeremiah  and  by 
Ezekiel,  ch.  29-32,  is  described  by  Herodo- 
tus also. 


Pharaoh's  Daughter,     i.  The  preser- 
ver of  Moses,  Exod.  2:5-10;  Acts  7: 20,  21. — 
430 


2.  Bithiah,  the  wifeof  Mered,  i  Chr.  4:18. — 

3.  A  wifeof  Solomon,  i  Kin.  3:1 ;  7:8;  9:24; 
2  Chr.  8:11.  She  was  treated  with  distinc- 
tion, but  apparently  remained  an  idola- 
tress. 

The  cut,  from  an  ancient  Egyptian  mon- 
ument, is  believed  to  be  a  genuine  likeness 
of  some  Pharaoh's  daughter,  probably  Shi- 
shak's. 

PHA'REZ,  a  breach,  son  of  Judah  and 
Tamar,  twin  brother  of  Zarah,  Gen.  38:29; 
46:12,  and  ancestor  of  the  great  family  of 
Pharzites,    Num.   26:20;    Ruth   4:12,    18; 

1  Chr.  9:4;  called  Perez,  Neh.  11:4,  6,  and 
Phares,  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  t,.2,2»  A.  V. 

PHAR'ISEES,  separated,  a  numerous  and 
dominant  party  of  the  Jews,  in  New  Testa- 
ment times  the  orthodox  exponents  and 
defenders  of  the  law,  as  contrasted  with  the 

2  other  sects,  the  Sadducees  and  Essenes. 
The  Pharisees  agreed  on  main  points  of 
doctrine  and  practice,  but  were  divided 
into  different  schools  on  minor  points,  un- 
der leaders  such  as  Hillel  and  Shammai, 
celebrated  rabbins  of  the  generation  pre- 
ceding Christ.  The  origin  of  tlie  Pharisees 
is  obscure,  but  they  were  probably  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Assideans — "  the  pious  " — 
a  party  existing  at  the  time  of  the  Maccabe- 
an  rising,  zealous  for  the  external  obser- 
vance of  the  law,  I  Mace.  2:42 ;  7: 13 ;  2  Mace. 
14:6,  in  opposition  to  the  Hellenizing  fac- 
tion, who  favored  conforming  to  heathen 
practices — yielding  to  their  Syrian  rulers,, 
who  sought  thus  to  amalgamate,  by  perse- 
cution, if  needful,  the  different  nationali- 
ties vmder  their  sway,  i  Mace.  1:41-64. 
This  position  of  orthodoxy  and  intense  na- 
tionalism was  maintained  by  the  Pharisees 
in  our  Lord's  day,  though  the  former  had 
degenerated  into  an  empty  formalism,  Matt. 
23,  and  the  latter  into  an  unreasonable  spir- 
it of  rebellion.  At  the  accession  of  Herod 
6,000  of  them  at  first  refused  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  the  Pharisees  organized  the 
desperate  resistance  to  the  Romans  which 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  slaughter  or  dispersion  of  the  Jew- 
ish people.  The  popularity  and  influence 
of  the  Pharisees  may  be  ascribed  to  their 
political  attitude  as  well  as  to  their  pro- 
fessed sanctity  and  close  adherence  to  the 
external  forms  of  piety. 

While  they  esteemed  the  written  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  thej^  attributed  equal 
authority  to  traditional  precepts  supple- 
mental to  the  written  law,  claiming  that 
God  had  commimicated  them  to  Moses  for 
oral   transmission;   see   Tradition;   and 


PHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


they  finally  exalted  these  precepts,  chiefly 
as  to  external  rites,  above  the  written  law, 
whose  spirit  they  often  violated  by  their 
rigid  application  of  its  letter  and  their  tra- 
ditional and  philosophical  interpretations. 
Matt.  12:1-8;  15:1-9.  Besides  this  belief 
in  traditions,  which  the  Sadducees  reject- 
ed, they  differed  from  the  Sadducees  in 
holding  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  Acts  23:8,  the 
doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, and  of  a  divine  Providence  cooper- 
ating with  human  free-will,  Acts  5:34-39. 

While  the  Pharisees  scrupulously  tithed 
the  most  trifling  products,  they  disobeyed 
the  divine  requirements  of  justice,  mercy, 
and  humility.  Matt.  23:23;  compare  Mic. 
6:8 ;  while  they  rigidly  fasted  at  fixed  times, 
they  neglected  that  abstinence  from  selfish- 
ness which  God  commands,  Luke  18:12; 
Matt.  23:14;  compare  Isa.  58:6-10;  and 
while  they  carefully  practised  external  ab- 
lutions of  the  person  and  of  utensils,  they 
were  unmindful  of  purity  of  heart,  Matt. 
23:25-28;  Mark  7:4-23.  They  taxed  the 
conscience  of  the  people  with  puerile  ques- 
tions, such  as  whether  it  was  lawful  to  eat 
an  egg  laid  on  the  Sabbath,  or  of  what  ma- 
terial the  wick  of  the  Sabbath  lamp  should 
be  made,  Matt.  23:4. 

Though  Christ  recognized  the  authority 
of  their  Scriptural  teachings,  Matt.  23:2,  3, 
he  repeatedly  rebuked  their  unscriptural 
traditions  and  their  pride,  covetousness, 
ostentation,  and  hypocrisy,  Luke  16:14,  15; 
and  thereby  he  incurred  their  hatred,  for 
the  gratification  of  which  they  allied  them- 
selves with  their  political  and  religious  op- 
ponents, Herodians  and  Sadducees,  Matt. 
22 :  15-34.  They  formed  a  part  of  the  coun- 
cil that  sentenced  him  to  death,  Matt.  26:59- 
68  with  Acts  23 : 6. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  appear  to  have 
been  among  them  individuals  of  probity 
and  even  of  genuine  piety,  such  as  Joseph 
of  Arimathaea,  Nicodemus,  and  others,  Luke 
23 :  50-53 ;  John  3:1;  7 :  50,  51  •  Saul  of  Tar- 
sus was  a  Pharisee,  Acts  26:5;  Gal.  1:14. 
The  essential  features  of  their  character 
are  still  common  in  Christian  lands,  and 
are  no  less  odious  to  Christ  than  of  old. 

PHAR'PAR,  rapid.     See  Abana. 

PHE'BE,  rather  PHCE'BE,  a  Christian 
woman,  apparently  a  deaconess  of  the 
church  at  Cenchrea,  and  bearer  of  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  to  whose  Christian 
confidence  and  care  he  commends  her  and 
her  mission,  Rom.  16:1,  2.  One  who,  like 
Phoebe,  succors  a  faithful  servant  of  Christ, 


may  thereby  aid  in  accomplishing  immeas- 
urable good.  See  Cenchrea  and  Dea- 
coness. 

PHE'NICE  (by  some  PHENI'CE)  or  Phce- 
NiCE,  L,  the  proper  form  for  Phoenicia, 
which  see,  Acts  II :  19;  15:3. 

IL  A  town  and  harbor  of  Crete,  more 
properly  Phcenix,  as  in  R.  V.  The  name 
is  the  Greek  for  the  date-palm,  a  tree  indig- 
enous to  the  island.  The  town,  lying  on 
the  southwest  coast,  had  a  safe  winter  har- 
bor, which  the  ship  bearing  Paul  vainly 
tried  to  reach  after  leaving  Fair  Havens, 
Acts  27:8-15.  The  harbor  of  Lutro,  with 
which  Phoenix  has  been  identified,  is  about 
35  miles  west-northwest  from  Cape  Mata- 
la ;  it  is  of  good  depth,  and  sheltered  from 
winter  winds. 

PHl'CHOL,  apparently  the  title  rather 
than  the  name  of  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  king  of  Gerar  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
and  Isaac,  Gen.  21:22;  26:26. 

PHILADEL'PHIA,  brotherly  love,  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  7  churches.  Rev.  i :  11 ;  3 : 7-13, 
was  a  city  of  Lydia,  on  the  border  near 
Phrygia,  and  about  27  miles  southeast  of 
Sardis.  It  was  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  in  a  volcanic  region  frequently 
visited  and  desolated  by  earthquakes.  It 
was  named  for  its  founder,  Attalus  Phila- 
delphus,  king  of  Pergamos,  who  died  B.  C. 
138.  With  the  rest  of  the  province  of  Asia 
it  was  bequeathed  to  Rome  by  the  last  king 
of  Pergamos,  B.  C.  133.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  under  Bajazet  I.,  A.  D.  1392,  after 
a  brave  and  long  resistance.  The  church 
here  was  highly  commended  by  Christ  for 
its  fidelity,  and  the  preservation  of  the  city 
in  spite  of  earthquakes  and  wars  is  note- 
worthy. In  the  4th  century  its  churches 
were  represented  in  the  Councils  of  Nice, 
Laodicaea,  and  Constantinople.  It  escaped 
the  ravages  of  Tamerlane,  who  destroyed 
the  seats  of  the  other  6  churches,  and  it 
then  afforded  an  asylum  to  Christian  refu- 
gees from  Sardis.  The  modern  city  covers 
4  or  5  flat  summits  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  is  mean  and  ill-built,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  10,000,  mostly  Turks, 
with  some  Greek  Christians.  One  of  the 
mosques  is  said  to  have  been  the  very 
church  in  which  the  Christians  addressed 
by  John  worshipped.  The  ruins  include 
about  20  churches.  A  solitary  pillar  is  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  remains,  remind- 
ing the  beholder  of  the  promise  in  Rev. 
3:12.  The  modern  name  of  the  city  is  Alah 
Shehr,  "beautiful  city,"  from  its  pictur- 
esque site. 

431 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


PHILE'MON,  affectionate,  a  resident  of 
ColossiE,  apparentlj"  a  man  of  means  and 
influence  and  of  marked  Christian  charac- 
ter, warm  sympathy,  and  large  hospitality 
and  beneficence.  He  was  converted  by 
the  instrumentality  of  Paul,  who  after- 
wards, near  the  close  of  his  first  imprison- 
ment at  Rome,  A.  D.  62  or  63,  wrote  to 
him. 

PHILE'MON,  EPISTLE  TO.  The  occa- 
sion of  this  letter,  written  at  the  same  time 
as  those  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians, 
was  the  penitent  return  of  Onesimus,  an 
escaped  slave,  converted  at  Rome  under 
the  teaching  of  Paul,  to  his  master  Phile- 
mon, whose  kind  reception  of  him  as  a 
brother  in  Christ  Paul  bespeaks  as  a  favor 
to  himself.  Compare  Col.  3:23  to  4:1  with 
Phile.  7-9.  This  epistle,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly genuine,  is  admirable  for  its  Christian 
courtesy,  delicacy,  and  manliness.  See 
Onesimus  and  Colossi. 

PHILE'TUS,  beloved,  one  against  whom 
Paul  warns  Timothy,  associating  him  with 
Hymenaeus  as  a  holder  and  teacher  of  er- 
ror, 2  Tim.  2:16-18.  See  Hymen^us.  It 
has  been  suggested  by  Waterland  that  they 
regarded  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
as  an  allegory,  "resolving  it  all  into  figure 
and  metaphor." 

PHIL'IP,  lover  of  horses,  I.,  the  tetrarch, 
Luke  3: 1.     See  Herod,  V. 

II.  The  husband  of  Herodias,  Matt.  14:3. 
See  Herod,  II. 

III.  The  apostle,  a  native  of  Bethsaida,  a 
disciple  at  first  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  one 
of  the  12  who  were  earliest  called  to  follow 
Christ,  Matt.  10:3;  John  1:43-48;  Acts  1:13. 
He  is  several  times  mentioned  in  the  Gos- 
pels, John  6:5-7;  12:21,22;  14:8-10.  Tra- 
dition says  that  he  preached  the  gospel  in 
Phrygia  and  died  at  Hierapolis. 

IV.  The  evangelist;  one  of  the  7  first 
deacons  in  the  primitive  church  at  Jerusa- 
lem, Acts  6:1-6.  When  the  Christians,  ex- 
cept the  apostles,  were  driven  from  Jerusa- 
lem by  persecution  after  Stephen's  death, 
Philip  went  to  Samaria,  where  he  preached 
the  gospel  with  great  success  and  wrought 
many  miracles,  "  amazing  "  the  sorcerer 
Simon,  Acts  8:1-13,  R-  V.  From  populous 
Samaria  Philip  was  divinely  sent  to  a  lone- 
ly spot,  on  that  one  of  the  roads  between 
Jerusalem  and  Gaza  which  led  through 
a  region  then  comparatively  unsettled. 
There  he  was  to  accost  an  Ethiopian  of 
high  rank,  a  proselyte  to  Judaism  and  a 
student  of  the  Bible,  on  his  way  home  from 
one  of  the  Jewish  festivals,  and  was  suc- 

432 


cessful  in  leading  him  to  Christ,  the  Holy 
Spirit  presently  confirming  his  faith  by 
miraculously  removing  Philip.  From  Azo- 
tus  he  preached  the  gospel  through  the  in- 
tervening towns  to  Caesarea,  where,  18  or 
19  years  later,  Paul  and  his  companions 
were  his  guests  for  a  time.  Acts  8:26-40; 
21:8-10.  He  had  4  daughters  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  prophecy;  compare  Acts 
2:17. 

PHILIP'PI,  the  chief  city  of  Eastern 
Macedonia,  was  near  the  Thracian  border, 
on  a  fertile  plain  between  2  mountain  ran- 
ges. It  derived  its  name  from  Philip  of 
Macedon,  who  took  it  from  the  Thracians, 
B.  C.  358,  strongly  fortified  and  garrisoned 
it,  and  resumed  the  working  of  the  gold 
mines  near  it.  The  town  had  been  called 
Datum,  and  still  earlier  Crenides,  "foun- 
tains," from  its  copious  springs.  Philippi 
was  the  "  first"  city  reached  after  leaving 
its  seaport  Neapolis,  Acts  16:12,  R.  V., 
northwest  of  which  it  lay,  at  about  10  miles' 
distance,  by  the  Via  Egnatia,  a  paved  Ro- 
man road  over  a  steep  height  called  Sym- 
bolum.  On  the  plain  of  Philippi  was  fought 
the  famous  battle  in  which  Brutus  and  Cas- 
sius  were  overthrown  by  Octavius  and 
Antony,  B.  C.  42.  Later,  when  Octavius 
had  become  the  Emperor  Augustus,  he 
transported  Roman  citizens  to  Philippi  and 
made  it  a  "colony" — a  miniature  Rome, 
where  Roman  laws,  customs,  and  language 
prevailed,  the  people  were  governed  by 
their  own  magistrates,  and  possessed  the 
rights  of  Roman  citizens. 

Here  began  the  triumphs  of  the  gospel 
in  Europe.  The  first  convert  to  the  preach- 
ing of  Paul  and  Silas,  divinely  sent  hither 
from  Troas,  A.  D.  51,  was  the  proselyte 
Lydia.  The  missionaries  having  excited 
the  opposition  of  mercenarj'  men  by  a  mi- 
raculous exorcism  wrought  through  Paul 
on  a  slave  girl,  were  cruelly  scourged  and 
imprisoned.  Compare  i  Thess.  2:2.  But 
their  bonds  were  miraculously  loosed,  their 
jailer  was  concerted,  and  the  magistrates 
discharged  them  with  honor;  they  proceed- 
ed southwestward  to  Amphipolis,  Acts  16:8 
to  17:1.  Luke  parted  company  with  Paul 
here,  but  was  with  him  here  again,  A.  D. 
58,  on  Paul's  5th  and  last  visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem, Acts  20:3-6.  The  Christians  of  Phi- 
lippi partook  of  the  .spirit  of  the  generous 
and  true-hearted  Lydia;  on  several  occa- 
sions they  sent  contributions  to  the  sup- 
port of  Paul,  Phil.  2:25;  4:15,  16,  18,  with 
4:10;  2  Cor.  8:1.  He  wrote  to  them  dur- 
ing his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  A.  D. 


PHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


62  or  63,  when  he  hoped  to  revisit  them, 
Phil.  2 :  23,  24.  Ignatius  stopped  at  Philippi, 
A.  D.  107,  on  his  way  from  Antioch  to  mar- 
tyrdom at  Rome. 

The  ruins  of  the  uninhabited  city,  now 
embraced  in  Turkey,  include  the  citadel 
on  a  hill,  traces  of  the  city  wall,  and  parts 
of  the  forum  where  Paul  and  Silas  were 
scourged.  On  the  west  of  Philippi  is  a 
small  river,  the  Bournabachi,  on  whose 
bank  was  probably  the  Jewish  place  of 
prayer.  Acts  16:13,  there  having  perhaps 
been  too  few  Jews  in  the  city  to  maintain  a 
synagogue. 

PHILIP'PIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  In 
this  Paul  commends  their  Christian  zeal 
and  firmness  under  persecution,  informs 
them  of  his  own  temporal  and  spiritual 
condition,  and  of  the  progress  of  Christian- 
ity at  Rome,  gratefully  acknowledges  their 
continued  affection  to  him,  and  the  receipt 
of  their  gift  by  favor  of  Epaphroditus ;  ex- 
horts them  to  unity  and  to  a  lowly  and 
unselfish  life,  like  Christ's,  Phil.  2:1-5; 
warns  them  against  Judaizing  teachers  and 
the  example  of  worldly  men,  3 : 1-19.  This 
epistle,  written  by  Paul  while  a  prisoner  at 
Rome,  A.  D.  62  or  63,  is  remarkable  for  its 
Christian  joy  and  for  the  warm  affection 
.  the  apostle  shows  for  the  Philippian  con- 
verts, 4:1.  It  contains  important  teach- 
ing as  to  the  humiliation  and  exaltation  of 
Christ,  2:5-11,  and  the  resurrection  of  be- 
lievers, 3:21.  The  Philippian  Christians 
are  reminded  that  as  believers  in  Christ 
they  partake  of  a  dignity  and  privileges 
far  more  exalted  than  those  belonging  to 
them  as  Roman  citizens,  Acts  16:12,  and 
are  exhorted  to  live  worthily  of  their  heav- 
enly citizenship,  Phil.  3:20;  1:27,  R.  V. 
See  Philippi. 

PHILIS'TIA,  land  of  sojourners,  Psa. 
60:8;  87:4;  108:9;  in  Psa.  83:7  "Philis- 
tines," and  in  all  other  passages  "  Pales- 
tine," the  country  inhabited  by  the  Philis- 
tines, who  are  called  by  Josephus  "  Pales- 
tines."  Philistia  embraced  the  seacoast 
plain  extending  from  Joppa  and  the  plain 
of  Sharon  on  the  north,  to  the  valley  of 
Gerar  and  "the  south  country,"  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  foot  of  the  Judae- 
an  hills.  Its  length  was  about  40  miles,  its 
width  10  miles  at  the  north,  and  about  20 
in  the  south,  where  it  seems  to  have  reached 
Beer-sheba,  Gen.  21:33,  34;  26:1;  E.xod. 
23:31;  Josh.  13:2,  3.  Warren  limited  it  to 
the  plain  between  Ekron  and  Gaza,  32  miles 
long  and  9  to  16  wide. 

On  the  shore  are  white  sand-dunes,  en- 
28 


croac^ing  when  neglected  on  the  fertile 
ground.  East  of  these  is  an  undulating 
plain  with  deep,  rich  soil,  from  50  to  300 
feet  above  the  sea.  On  the  east  of  this 
plain  low  spurs  jut  out,  and  higher  ridges 
run  nearly  north  and  south,  falling  off  on 
the  east  side  into  a  valley  beyond  which 
rises  "the  hill  country"  of  Judah.  The 
torrents  which  pour  through  its  deep  ra- 
vines in  the  rainy  season  form  marshes 
and  pools  on  reaching  the  Philistine  plains, 
and  sinking  into  the  soil  often  find  under- 
ground ways  to  the  sea.  The  Hebrew 
name  for  this  whole  maritime  plain  was  the 
Shephelah,  translated  the  "  low  country" 
in  2  Chr.  26:10;  28:18;  "low  plains"  in 
I  Chr.  27:28;  2  Chr.  9:27;  "the  plain,"  Jer. 
17:26,  and  "the  valley,"  Josh.  11:16;  Judg. 
1:9.  Its  fertility  is  frequently  implied, 
Gen.  26:1,  2, 12;  Judg.  15:5;  2  Kin.  8:2. 

The  Philistines  are  generally  believed  to 
have  been  descendants  of  Ham's  son  Miz- 
raim.  They  are  said  to  have  migrated  into 
Canaan  from  Caphtor,  which  is  variously 
understood  as  Crete,  Egypt,  Cyprus,  or 
Cappadocia,  Jer.  47:4;  Amos  9:7.  They 
are  doubtless  the  Caphtorim  who  supplant- 
ed the  Avim,  dwellers  in  Hazerim,  the  vil- 
lages, "  even  to  Azzah,"  or  Gaza,  Deut.  2 :  23. 
In  their  migration  they  may  have  passed 
through  the  country  of  the  Casluhim,  prob- 
ably Lower  Egypt,  on  their  way  from  Crete 
to  Canaan,  Gen.  10: 14.    On  Egyptian  mon- 


uments of  about  1200  B.  C.  the  Philistines 
are  depicted  as  tall  and  well-proportioned, 
lighter  in  color  than  Egyptians,  and  with 
close-shaven  faces. 

The  Philistines  with  whom  both  Abraham 
and  Isaac  formed  treaties  appear  as  a  pas- 
toral people  in  the  far  south,  with  a  king  or 
chief,  and  some  sort  of  warlike  organiza- 
tion, Gen.  20:1,  2,  14,  15;  21:22-34;  26:1,6, 
12-23,  26-31.  It  was  apparently  after  this 
period  that  they,  or  fresh  immigrants  from 
Caphtor,  dispossessed  the  Avim  and  seized 
Gaza,  then  a  Canaanite  town  on  the  bor- 
der. Gen.  10: 19.  At  the  time  of  the  Exode 
the  Philistines  were  powerful  and  warlike, 

433 


PHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


Exod.  13:17.  Their  country  was  included 
in  the  land  promised  to  Israel,  Num.  34:5, 
6,  and  was  assigned  to  Judah  and  Dan, 
Josh.  15:45,47;  19:41-46.  They  formed  a 
confederacy  under  the  "  lords  "  of  their  5 
chief  cities.  No  attempt  to  conquer  them 
was  made  by  Joshua,  Josh.  13:1-3,  but  after 
his  death  Judah  took  Gaza,  Ashkelon,  and 
Ekron,  Judg.  i :  18.  These  conquests,  how- 
ever, were  not  permanent,  Judg.  2:1-3,  11- 
14;  3:1-4.  The  Philistines  oppressed  the 
Hebrews  during  the  period  of  the  Judges, 
Shamgar  and  Samson  effecting  onl}-  tem- 
porary deliverances,  Judg.  3:31  ;  5:6-8,  11; 
10:6,  7;  13  to  16.  Israel's  resistance  in 
Eli's  last  days  was  quelled  by  a  Philistine 
victory  at  Aphek,  where  the  ark  was  cap- 
tured ;  but  it  was  soon  after  restored,  i  Sam. 
4-6.  Under  Samuel  the  Philistines  were 
again  temporarily  subdued,  i  Sam.  7:3-14; 
they  were  again  dominant  at  Saul's  acces- 
sion, ch.  9:16;  13,  were  defeated  at  Mich- 
mash,  and  driven  out  of  the  central  terri- 
tory of  Saul,  ch.  14:1-7,  52.  David's  vic- 
tory over  Goliath  in  the  valley  of  Elah  in- 
augurated a  series  of  Hebrew  successes 
in  Saul's  time,  whose  reign  and  life  were 
however  ended  by  the  Philistine  victory  at 
Mount  Gilboa,  ch.  17;  18:30;  19:8;  23:1-5; 
29:1,  11;  31;  2  Sam.  I.  David  had  twice 
sought  refuge  from  Saul  in  Philistia,  i  Sam. 
21:10-15;  Psa.  34,  title;  56,  title;  i  Sam. 
27;  28:1,2;  29:2-11.  They  made  war  upon 
him  as  king,  but  he  was  enabled  to  subdue 
them,  2  Sam.  5:17-25;  8:1,  11,  12.  They 
continued  in  subjection  to  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
2:39,  40;  4:21,  24,  and  his  son  Rehoboam 
fortified  Gath,  2  Chr.  11:8.  After  the  divis- 
ion of  Judah  and  Israel  the  Philistines  were 
engaged  in  war  at  various  times  with  both 
kingdoms,  and  gained  great  successes  over 
Judah  in  Ahaz's  time,  i  Kin.  16:15;  2  Chr. 
21:16,  17;  28:18.  Jehoshaphat.  Uzziah,  and 
Hezekiah  were  successful  against  them, 
2  Chr.  17: 10,  II ;  26:6,  7;  2  Kin.  iS:8.  Gath, 
omitted  from  the  prophetic  denunciations 
of  the  other  cities,  appears  to  have  early 
lost  its  power,  2  Chr.  26:6:  Amos  6:2. 

Philistia,  being  on  the  route  between 
Assyria  and  Egypt,  was  often  overrun  in 
their  wars  and  subdued  by  each  in  turn. 
.-Vfter  Egyptian  successes  in  Philistia,  Sar- 
gon  the  Assyrian  took  Ashdod,  B.  C.  700. 
Psammetichus  I.  of  Egypt  besieged  Ash- 
dod 29  years,  and  finally  took  it  about  B.  C. 
635.  At  nearly  the  same  time  Ashkelon 
suffered  from  a  Scythian  horde  returning 
from  an  invasion  of  Egypt.  Nebuchadnez- 
zar probably  reduced  the  Philistines  as 
4,U 


well  as  Phoenicia  and  the  Holy  Land  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Tyre,  ending  B.  C.  592. 
Pharaoh-hophra  took  Gaza,  Jer.  47:  i.  The 
Philistine  kingdom  had  dwindled  away 
before  the  captivity  of  Judah.  Ezekiel  de- 
nounced them  for  their  hostility  to  Judah 
at  that  time,  Ezek.  25: 15-17.  After  the  re- 
turn, some  of  the  Jews  married  Philistine 
women,  Neh.  13:23,  24.  The  nation  was 
included  in  the  Persian  Empire.  Alexan- 
der the  Great  destroyed  Gaza,  which  with- 
stood him  5  months.  The  land  afforded 
aid  and  refuge  to  Syrian  oppressors  of  the 
Jews,  and  suffered  from  the  arms  of  Ju- 
das Maccabeus  and  his  brother  Jonathan, 
I  Mace.  3:24,  41 ;  5:66,  68;  10:69-87.  Pom- 
pey  annexed  Philistia  to  the  province  of 
Syria,  B.  C.  63,  but  Gaza,  Jamnia,  Ashdod, 
and  Ashkelon  were  assigned  to  Herod. 
The  country  shared  in  the  desolations  of 
the  Jewish  and  Roman  wars.  The  denun- 
ciatory predictions  of  Amos,  1:6-8,  and 
Isaiah,  14:29-31,  in  the  8th  century  B.  C. ; 
of  Zephaniah,  2:5,  and  Jeremiah,  25:15-20; 
47,  in  the  7th  century;  of  Ezekiel,  25:15-17, 
and  Obadiah,  19,  in  the  6th  century,  and  of 
Zechariah,  9:5,  6,  in  the  5th  century,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  abundantly  fulfilled. 

The  Philistines  excelled  in  war,  having 
powerful  forces  of  chariots  and  cavalry  as 
well  as  foot-soldiers,  well  armed,  i  Sam. 
17:4-7.  They  were  also  skilled  in  agricul- 
ture and  other  peaceful  arts,  Judg.  15:5; 
I  Sam.  13:20;  and  possessed  a  navy,  as 
the  Egyptian  monuments  show,  competing 
with  the  Phernicians  in  commerce  by  sea, 
besides  maintaining  an  inland  caravan 
traffic.  They  traded  in  slaves  with  Edom 
and  Southern  Arabia,  Amos  1:6;  Joel  3:4-6. 
Their  chief  gods  were  Dagon,  Judg.  16:23; 
I  Sam.  5  :  1-5,  Ashtoreth,  i  Sam.  31  :  10. 
Baal-zebub,  2  Kin.  1:2-6,  and  Derceto  or 
Atergatis,  a  female  divinity  worshipped, 
like  Dagon,  under  the  form  of  a  fish.  They 
were  very  superstitious,  I  Sam. 31 :9;  2Sam.  ^ 
5:21;  and  their  priests  and  diviners  pos- 
sessed much  influence,  i  Sam.  6:2-11 ;  Isa. 
2:6. 

The  principal  cities  of  Philistia,  Gaza. 
Ashkelon,  Joppa,  Ashdod,  Lachish,  Ekron. 
and  Gath,  still  exist  as  inhabited  towns  or 
known  sites,  under  names  similar  to  their 
Bible  names,  and  many  low  mounds  show 
where  other  towns  formerly  stood.  Mons. 
Ganneau  has  suggested  that  the  fellahin 
or  Mohammedan  peasantry  of  Palestine,  a 
race  differing  from  the  nomadic  Arabs,  are 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Canaanites,  in- 
cluding the  Philistines.     The  plain  of  Phi- 


PHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHCE 


listia,  though  miserably  cultivated,  is  still 
exceptionally  fertile,  being  described  by 
travellers  as  a  vast  wheat-rteld ;  by  check- 
ing the  inrolling  sands,  draining  the  la- 
goons, and  observing  a  rotation  of  crops, 
it  might  be  made  to  yield  much  more  abun- 
dantly. 

PHILOL'OGUS,  lover  of  letlers,  a.  Chris- 
tian at  Rome,  saluted  in  Paul's  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  16:15. 

PHILOS'OPHY,  love  of  wisdom,  in  the 
New  Testament  means  the  vain  and  perni- 
cious speculations  of  human  reason,  in 
opposition  to  the  gospel  truth  revealed  by 
God;  compare  i  Cor.  i :  18-27  ;  i  Tim.  6:20. 
At  Athens,  A.  D.  51,  Paul  came  in  contact 
with  Western  philosophy  in  his  encounter 
with  some  Epicurean  and  Stoic  philoso- 
phers, representatives  of  the  2  great  schools 
of  Greek  moral  philosophy,  who  treated 
his  doctrine  with  contempt  or  indifference, 
Acts  17:18-32.  See  Epicureans  and  Sto- 
ics. In  his  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  10 
years  later,  he  cautioned  them  against  al- 
lowing any  man  to  "  spoil "  or  plunder  them 
through  philosophy;  referring  doubtless  to 
some  of  the  early  efforts  of  Eastern  specu- 
lation to  dissipate  the  mysteries  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  "  philosophy "  of  which  he 
spoke  was  a  prototype  of  Gnosticism,  after- 
wards in  various  forms  so  prominent  an 
error  in  the  Eastern  church ;  elements  sim- 
ilar to  those  subsequently  embodied  in 
diflferent  Gnostic  sects  are  referred  to  in 
Col.  2:8,  16-23.  P3.UI  anticipated  the  rising 
of  false  teachers  in  Ephesus,  Acts  20:30, 
and  writing  to  Timothy,  who  was  then  la- 
boring there,  he  refers  to  2  forms  of  error 
besides  Judaism:  "  a  vain  spiritualism  in- 
sisting on  ascetic  observances  and  inter- 
preting the  resurrection  as  a  moral  change," 

1  Tim.  1:6;  4 : 1-7  ;  6 :  20 ;  2  Tim.  2  :  16-18  ; 
and   "  a   materialism    allied   to   sorcery," 

2  Tim.  3:13;  compare  Acts  8:9;  19:19.  In 
other  passages  in  his  epistles,  i  Cor.  2; 
3:18-20,  Paul  opposes  the  false  wisdom  of 
the  age,  that  is,  the  pagan  philosophy,  to 
the  wisdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  true 
religion,  which  to  the  philosophers  and 
sophists  seemed  to  be  mere  folly,  because 
it  was  built  neither  on  the  eloquence  nor 
the  subtlety  of  those  who  preached  it,  but 
on  the  power  of  God,  and  on  the  operations 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  hearts  and  minds 
of  believers;  and  because  it  did  not  amuse 
and  flatter  man,  but  proved  him  a  guilty 
rebel  against  God,  in  perishing  need  of  a 
Saviour. 

As  there  arose,  under  the  influence  of  phi- 


losophy, several  sects  among  the  Greeks, 
as  the  Academics,  the  Peripatetics,  and  the 
Stoics,  so  also  there  arose  among  the  Jews 
several  sects,  as  the  Essenes,  the  Pharisees, 
and  the  Sadducees.  The  Pharisees  had 
some  resemblance  to  the  Stoics,  the  Sad- 
ducees to  the  Epicureans,  and  the  Essenes 
to  the  Academics.  The  Pharisees  were 
proud,  vain,  and  boasting,  like  the  Stoics; 
the  Sadducees,  who  denied  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  and  the  existence  of  spirits, 
freed  themselves  at  once,  like  the  Epicure- 
ans, from  all  solicitude  about  futurity :  the 
Essenes  were  more  moderate,  more  simple 
and  religious,  and  therefore  approached 
nearer  to  the  Academics. 

The  danger  against  which  Paul  warned 
the  church  in  his  day  still  exists.  Pride  of 
intellect  naturally  allies  itself  with  the 
atheism  and  impenitence  of  the  heart,  re- 
fuses to  yield  to  the  claims  of  revelation, 
and  rejects  whatever  displeases  its  taste  or 
rises  above  its  comprehension.  True  wis- 
dom, on  the  contrary,  is  humble  and  do- 
cile, Matt.  11:25;  Mark  10:15. 

PHIN'EHAS,  ^Iterance,  I.,  son  of  Elea- 
zar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron  the  high-priest, 
E.xod.6:25.  His  zealous  and  decided  char- 
acter was  shown  in  the  prompt  execution 
of  the  profligate  prince  of  Simeon,  and  his 
companion  a  woman  of  Midian,  in  the 
plains  of  Moab,  Num.  25.  For  this  bold 
and  timely  service  the  high-priesthood  was 
secured  to  his  family,  also  remaining  faith- 
ful ;  and  e.xcept  during  an  interval  from 
Eli  to  Zadok,  his  posterity  were  at  the  head 
of  the  priesthood  till  the  destruction  of  the 
temple,  i  Chr.  6:4-15;  Hag.  1:1.  Phinehas 
led  the  host  of  Israel  in  the  subsequent  bat- 
tle with  the  Midianites,  Num.  31:6;  Psa. 
106:30,  31.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  dep- 
utation sent  to  remonstrate  with  the  tribes 
beyond  the  Jordan  respecting  the  altar  they 
had  erected,  Josh.  22:10-34.  During  the 
life  of  his  father  he  was  superintendent  of 
the  Levites,  Num.  3:32;  compare  i  Chr. 
9  :  20 ;  and  afterwards  became  the  high- 
priest.  Josh.  24:33,  and  as  such  communi- 
cated the  will  of  God  as  to  the  punishment 
of  the  men  of  Gibeah,  Judg.  20:28. 

II.  A  son   of  Eli   the  high-priest.     See 

HOPHNI. 

III.  A  Levite,  Ezra  8:33. 
PHLEG'ON,    burning,    a    Christian     at 

Rome,  Rom.  16:14. 

PHCE'BE.     See  Phebe. 

PHCENI'CIA,  Acts  11:19;  15:3.  R-  v.; 
21 : 2 — so  called  by  the  Greeks,  either  from 
an   ancient  abundance   of  palm-trees,   or 

435 


PHCE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHCE 


from  Phoenix  the  brother  of  Cadmus — was 
a  narrow  strip  of  country  between  the  Leb- 
anon Mountains  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  PhcEnicia  proper  extended  from  "  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre,"  a  promontory  south  of 
Tyre,  to  the  river  Bostrenus,  Nahr  el-Awali, 
2  miles  north  of  Sidon.  The  length  of  this 
undulating  plain  was  about  30  miles;  its 
width  2  miles  near  Sidon,  and  5  near  Tyre. 
But  its  boundaries  varied  at  different  times  : 
from  the  8th  century  B.  C.  it  extended  90 
miles  farther  north  to  the  island  city  of 
Arvad  or  Aradus,  Ezek.  27:8,  11,  the  ut- 
most width  of  this  northern  strip  being  20 
miles.  In  its  largest  sense  the  name  Phoe- 
nicia was  applied,  by  one  or  two  Greek 
writers  about  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  to  almost  the  entire  length 
of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  coast.  Back 
from  the  sandy  seashore  strip  Phoenicia, 
being  well  watered  by  the  Leontes,  Bostre- 
nus, Eleutherus,  Lycus,  and  other  streams, 
was  generally  fertile,  and  the  slopes  of 
Lebanon  afforded  good  pasture  and  an 
abundance  of  fine  timber.  The  coast  was 
indented  by  several  harbors,  as  at  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  though  that  at  Beirut  is  now  the 
best.  The  principal  cities  were  Zidon, 
Tyre,  Arvad,  Tripolis,  and  Berytus,  now 
Beirut.  The  native  name  of  the  country 
was  Chna  or  Canaan,  i.  e.,  lowland.  The 
Greek  name  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  there  are  many  references  to 
Tyre  and  Zidon. 

PhcEnicia  was  included  in  the  territory 
promised  to  the  Israelites,  and  allotted  to 
Asher,  but  from  lack  of  faith,  etc.,  was  not 
conquered  by  them,  Josh.  13:4-6;  19:24- 
29;  Judg.  1:31,  32.  It  afforded  refuge  to 
Elijah,  I  Kin.  17:8-24;  Luke  4:26;  sent  fol- 
lowers to  Jesus,  Mark  3:8;  Luke  6 : 1 7 ;  and 
was  visited  by  him.  Matt.  15:21;  Mark  7 :  26, 
and  by  Paul,  Acts  21:2-7;  27:3. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  the  Phoenicians 
appear  as  a  rich,  cultivated,  and  powerful 
commercial  people.  In  race  they  were  Ca- 
naanites.  Gen.  10:15,  19.  Their  language 
belonged  to  the  Semitic  group,  and  was 
nearly  allied  to  the  Hebrew,  by  means  of 
which  the  few  remnants  of  Phoenician, 
names  of  persons  and  places,  and  inscrip- 
tions on  coins  and  monuments,  may  still 
be  understood.  Their  religion  was  a  base 
and  corrupting  nature-worship.  Baal  and 
Ashtoreth,  their  chief  divinities,  were  wor- 
shipped with  cruel  and  impure  rites.  The 
Phoenicians  imparted  their  own  civiliza- 
tion to  other  nations :  from  them  the  Greeks 
received  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  the  use 
436 


of  astronomy  in  navigation,  of  glass,  pur- 
ple, etc.  Besides  the  towns  that  crowded 
their  own  coast,  the  Phoenicians  had  com- 
mercial stations  on  the  Red  Sea  and  all 
along  the  Mediterranean.  Carthage,  the 
early  rival  of  Rome,  and  Cadiz  and  Tar- 
shish  in  Spain,  were  Phoenician  colonies. 
They  reached  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  as 
Britain,  and  the  productions  of  all  known 
lands  were  exchanged  in  their  markets, 
Ezek.  27.  Each  great  city,  with  the  adja- 
cent territory,  was  governed  by  its  own 
king,  and  in  time  of  danger  they  formed  a 
confederation  under  the  leadership  of  the 
most  powerful.  The  Phoenicians  suffered 
from  the  attacks  of  the  kings  of  Assyria 
and  Babylon,  and  were  successively  sub- 
ject to  the  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
The  land  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
7th  century,  and  held  by  the  Crusaders  in 
the  nth  and  12th  centuries,  since  which 
time  it  has  been  subject  to  the  Turks. 

The  Phoenicians  were  among  the  oppres- 
sors of  Israel  in  the  period  of^  the  Judges, 
Judg.  3:3;  io:i2.  Friendly  relations  seem 
to  have  existed  afterwards,  and  alliances 
were  formed  between  the  Tyrian  king  and 
David,  and  afterwards  Solomon,  2  Sam. 
5:11;  I  Kin.  5.  Palestine  was  the  granary 
of  Phoenicia,  i  Kin.  5:11;  2  Chr.  2:10,  15; 
compare  Acts  12 :  20,  and  Phoenicia  the 
commercial  agent  of  Palestine,  Ezek.  27: 17, 
the  Jews  having  no  good  ports.  In  ex- 
change for  agricultural  products  the  Phoe- 
nicians aided  Solomon  with  materials  and 
workmen  in  the  building  of  the  temple. 
They  also  joined  him  in  establishing  a  har- 
bor at  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea,  and 
in  fitting  out  and  navigating  trading  ves- 
sels, I  Kin.  9:26-28;  10:11,  12.  After  the 
division  of  the  kingdom  they  sided  with 
Israel,  and  broke  the  covenant  with  Judah, 
even  selling  Jews  to  the  Edomites  as  slaves, 
Joel  3:4-8;  Amos  1:9,  10;  Isa.  23;  Ezek. 
28.  Phoenician  idolatry  early  ensnared  the 
Israelites,  Judg.  2:13;  10:6,  was  encour- 
aged by  Solomon,  i  Kin.  ii:i,  4,  5,  8,  t,t„ 
and  prevailed  more  or  less  under  the  kings 
of  Judah.  It  flourished  in  Israel  under 
Ahab,  whose  queen  was  a  Zidonian,  re- 
ceived   a    temporary    check    from    Elijah, 

1  Kin.  16:31-33;  18:4,  18-40;  2  Kin.  3:2, 
and  afterwards  from  Jehu,  2  Kin.  10:18-28, 
but  continued  to  be  an  offence  to  God  un- 
til the  final  captivity  of  Israel,  B.  C.  721, 

2  Kin.  17:16-18. 

The  Phoenician  coast,  from  the  "  Ladder 
of  Tyre"  northward,  is  now  strewn  with 
ruins.      Porter  speaks   of  the   "  mournful 


PHR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHY 


and  solitary  silence  "  reigning  there,  and 
Stanley  was  equally  impressed  with  its 
desolateness  and  the  complete  destruction 
of  the  Phoenician  power  denounced  by  the 
prophets.  Within  the  bounds  of  ancient 
Phoenicia,  however,  is  situated  the  most 
civilized,  prosperous,  and  promising  city 
of  Syria,  if  not  of  all  Turkey— Beirut, 
whose  flourishing  Protestant  missions,  col- 
lege, schools,  and  printing-offices  make  it 
a  centre  of  Christianizing  influences  for 
the  East. 

PHRY'GIA,  parched,  a  central  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  whose  boundaries  varied  great- 
ly at  different  times ;  so  that  when  it  inclu- 
ded Galatia  it  is  said  to  have  touched  every 
other  province.  It  was  very  early  settled; 
the  ancients  believed  its  inhabitants  to  have 
migrated  from  Macedonia  before  the  Tro- 
jan war.  It  was  afterwards  divided  into 
Phrygia  Major  on  the  south,  and  Phrygia 
Minor  on  the  west,  reaching  to  the  Helles- 
pont. The  Romans,  into  whose  hands  it 
fell,  B.  C.  133,  divided  it  into  3  districts.  In 
apostolic  times  most  of  it  belonged  to  the 
province  of  Asia,  and  part  of  it  to  Cilicia. 
The  country  was  a  high  table-land,  fruitful 
in  corn  and  wine,  but  including  some  bare 
mountain  and  salt-marsh  tracts.  Of  its 
cities,  Laodicaea,  Hierapolis,  Colossae,  and 
Antioch  of  Pisidia  are  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.  It  probably  contained  many 
Jews,  Acts  2 :  10.  Antiochus  the  Great,  B.  C. 
223-187,  transported  to  Lydia  and  Phrygia 
2,000  Jewish  families  from  Mesopotamia. 
The  apostle  Paul  twice  passed  through  it, 
preaching  and  "  strengthening  the  disci- 
ples," Acts  16:6;  18:23.  Its  churches  were 
represented  in  the  Councils  of  Nice  and 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  325  and  381. 

PHU'RAH,  a  bough,  Gideon's  servant, 
Judg.  7:10,  II. 

PHUT,  or  PUT,  afflicted,  or  a  bow,  Gen. 
10:6 ;  I  Chr.  1 :8,  a  son  of  Ham ;  elsewhere 
his  descendants  and  the  country  of  their 
abode.  In  Nah.  3:9;  Jer.  46:9,  margin,  and 
Ezek.  30:5,  margin,  they  are  mentioned  as 
allies  of  Egypt;  in  Ezek.  27:10  as  allies  of 
Tyre;  and  in  Ezek.  38:5,  margin,  as  allies 
of  Gog.  In  the  A.  V.  the  word  is  some- 
times translated  "Libya,"  or  "the  Liby- 
ans." Josephus  and  many  modern  schol- 
ars identify  Put  with  Libya,  west  of  Egypt, 
the  region  now  occupied  by  the  Moors ;  see 
Libya;  others  with  modern  Nubia,  the  re- 
gion between  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  called 
in  Egyptian  monuments  To-pet,  "  the  re- 
gion of  the  bow." 

PHU'VAH,  mouth,  PU'A,  and  PU'AH,  a 


son  of  Issachar,  Gen.  46:13;  Num.  26:23; 
I  Chr.  7:1. 

PHYGEL'LUS,  or  PHY'GELUS,/M^i7zV<?, 
a  Christian  from  Asia  who  forsook  Paul  at 
Rome,  2  Tim.  1:15;  4:16. 

PHYLACTERIES  were  little  rolls  of 
parchment,  in  which  were  written  certain 
words  of  the  law,  and  which  were  worn  by 
male  Jews  from  the  age  of  13  upon  their 
foreheads  and  upon  the  left  arm.  The  cus- 
tom was  founded  on  a  literal  interpretation 
of  Exod.  13:9,  16,  "And  it  shall  be  for  a 
token  upon  thy  hand,  and  for  frontlets  be- 
tween thine  eyes." 

Leo  of  Modena  informs  us  particularly 
about  these  rolls.  Those  worn  upon  the 
forehead  have  been  described  under  the 
article  Frontlets,  which  see.  Those  that 
were  to  be  fastened  to  the  arm  were  2  rolls 
of  parchment  written  in  square  letters,  with 
an  ink  made  on  purpose,  and  with  much 
care.  They  were  rolled  up  to  a  point,  and 
inclosed  in  a  sort  of  case  of  black  calfskin. 
They  were  then  put  upon  a  square  bit  of 
the  same  leather,  whence  hung  a  thong  of 
the  same,  of  about  a  finger's  breadth,  and 
about  2  feet  long.     These  rolls  were  placed 


at  the  bending  of  the  left  arm,  and  after  the 
thong  had  made  a  little  knot  in  the  form 
of  the  letter  Yodh  (1),  it  was  wound  about 
the  arm  in  a  spiral  line,  which  ended  at  the 
top  of  the  middle  finger.  They  were  called 
the  Tephila  of  the  hand. 

The  phylactery,  from  a  Greek  word  sig- 
nifying preservative,  was  regarded  not  only 
as  a  remembrancer  of  God's  law,  but  as  a 
protection  against  demons.  It  was  proba- 
bly introduced  at  a  late  period  in  the  Old 
Testament  history,  and  is  still  continued. 
Our  Saviour  reproaches  the  pride  and  hy- 
pocrisy of  the  Pharisees,  shown  in  making 
their  phylacteries  broad  as  a  sign  of  their 
superior  wisdom  and  piety,  Matt.  23:5. 
David,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  "  Thy  word 
have  I  hid  in  my  heart,  that  I  might  not 
sin  against  thee,"  Psa.  119:11. 

PHYSI'CIANS.  The  medical  skill  of  the 
Egyptians  was  widely  celebrated ;  Pha- 
raoh had  many  physicians,  and  among 
them  professional  embalmers.  Gen.  50:2. 
They  also  had  midwives,  Exod.  1:15,  as 
well  as  the  Hebrews.     The  latter  also  had 

437 


PIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PIL 


professional  physicians,  Exod.  21 :  19;  Prov. 
17:22;  Matt.  9:12;  Luke  4:23;  8:43.  See 
Luke.  They  had  little  anatomical  skill, 
partly  on  account  of  the  ceremonial  defile- 
ment caused  by  touching  a  corpse.  They 
gave  their  attention  to  external  rather  than 
to  internal  injuries  and  diseases,  Isa.  1:6; 
Ezek.  30:21;  though  they  also  prescribed 
for  internal  and  mental  disorders,  i  Sam. 
16:16;  2  Chr.  16:12.  They  made  use  of 
salves,  balms,  and  poultices,  hyssop,  oil 
baths,  mineral  baths,  and  river  bathing, 
with  many  other  remedies,  Jer.  46 :  1 1 ; 
Ezek.  47:12;  Rev.  22:2.  Many  wickedly 
had  recourse  to  superstitious  practices  and 
to  amulets  and  enchantments.     See   Dis- 

EASKS. 

PI-BE'SETH,  an  important  city  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  eastern  or  Pelusiac  branch 
of  the  Nile,  about  40  miles  northeast  of 
Memphis.  The  city  and  the  goddess  after 
whom  it  was  named  were  called  by  the 
Greeks  Bubastis.  The  hieroglyphic  name 
of  the  cit)'  is  Pe-Bast,  "  the  house  of  Bast," 
the  beneficent  goddess  of  fire,  depicted 
with  the  head  of  a  lioness  or  a  cat,  and  to 
whom  the  cat  was  sacred.  Herodotus  de- 
scribed her  temple  of  red  granite  at  Bu- 
bastis as  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen. 
Pharaoh-necho's  canal  to  the  Red  Sea  be- 
gan here.  Manetho  speaks  of  a  destructive 
earthquake  here  during  the  2d  dynasty, 
and  of  the  22d  dynasty  of  Pharaohs  as 
reigning  here.  Ezekiel,  30: 17,  predicts  the 
ruin  of  the  city.  It  was  taken  by  the  Per- 
sians and  its  walls  destroyed  B.  C.  352 ;  but 
it  survived  and  was  a  place  of  some  note 
under  the  Romans.  Its  site,  marked  by 
e.vtensive  mounds  and  broken  pottery,  is 
called  Tel  Basta. 

PICTURES,  Num.  33:52,  idolatrous  rep- 
resentations, either  separate  images,  or 
stones  "portraj-ed,"  /.  e.,  cut  in  low  relief, 
or  engraved,  and  colored;  compare  Ezek. 
23:14.  "Pictures  of  silver,"  Prov.  25:11, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  wall-surfaces  or 
cornices  with  carving ;  compare  i  Kin. 
6'32,  35.  Movable  paintings  in  the  mod- 
ern sense  were  doubtless  unknown  to  the 
Hebrews.  See  Paint.  In  Isa.  2:16  the 
word  translated  "  pictures  "  may  be  ren- 
dered "  objects,"  or  perhaps  "  flags  "  of  a 
ship;  compare  Ezek.  27:7. 

PIECE  OF  GOLD,  or  OF  SILVER,  a  shek- 
el by  weight,  i  Sam.  2:36;  Psa.  68:30.  In 
many  Old  Testament  passages  the  Hebrew 
text  would  read,  e.  .?^.,  as  in  Gen.  20:16, 
"  1, 000  of  silver,"  and  in  2  Kin.  5:5,  "6,000 
of  gold."  The  A.  V.  translators  often  sup- 
438 


plied  the  word  pieces,  and  sometimes  shek- 
els, the  usual  Hebrew  weight  for  precious 
metals — coined  money  being  unknown  in 
Palestine  till  a  late  period.  Gen.  45:22; 
Judg.  17:2-4,  10. 

In  Luke  15:8,  9,  "  piece  of  silver  "  is  the 
translation  of  "drachma,"  a  Greek  coin 
answering  to  the  Roman  "denarius."  The 
same  coin  is  probaby  meant  in  Acts  19:19. 
See  Penny.  In  Matt.  26:15;  27:3,5,6,9, 
a  term  is  used  denoting  the  material  of  the 
coin  rather  than  its  value;  probably,  how- 
ever, as  in  Matt.  17:27,  staters  or  shekels 
are  meant ;  compare  Zech.  1 1 :  12, 13 ;  Exod. 
21:32.    See  Money  and  Measures. 

PI'ETY,  I  Tim.  5:4,  filial  affection  and 
reverence. 

PlG'EONS.     See  Doves. 

PI-HAHI'ROTH,  mouth  of  c aver 71  s,  or  of 
deliverance,  the  place  of  the  3d  and  last 
encampment  of  the  Israelites  before  cross- 
ing the  Red  Sea,  Exod.  14:2,  9;  Num. 
33:7,  8.  Robinson  and  Lepsius  place  it  at 
Adjrfld,  now  a  watering-pl^ce  for  camels 
12  miles  northwest  of  Suez;  other  high 
authorities  at  Jebel  Ataka,  a  curving  ridge 
ending  in  a  promontory,  Ras  Ataka,  which 
projects  into  the  sea  some  8  miles  south  of 
Suez.    See  Exodus. 

PI'LATE,  Pon'tius,  under  whom  our 
Lord  taught,  Luke  3:1,  suffered,  and  died. 
Matt.  27;  Mark  15;  Luke  23;  John  18:28  to 
19:42,  was  the  5th  Roman  procurator  in  the 
province  of  Judaea  after  the  banishment  of 
Archelaus,  A.  D.  6.  He  was  appointed 
A.  D.  26,  and  continued  10  years.  He  be- 
came odious  both  to  the  Jews  and  to  the 
Samaritans  for  the  arbitrary  offensiveness 
and  cruelty  of  his  administration.  One  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  transfer  the  soldiers' 
headquarters  from  Coesarea  to  Jerusalem, 
where  the  presence  of  the  military  stand- 
ards bearing  images  of  the  emperor,  ob- 
jects of  idolatrous  worship  to  the  army,  so 
enraged  the  Jews  that  they  thronged  to 
Pilate  at  Caesarea  demanding  their  remo- 
val. Wearied  with  their  importunity,  he 
caused  his  soldiers  to  surround  them,  and 
threatened  them  with  instant  death  if  they 
did  not  disperse;  but  when  they  declared 
their  readiness  to  die  rather  than  submit  to 
the  defilement  of  the  Holy  City,  he  became 
frightened  and  yielded.  The  slaughter  of 
the  Galileans,  Luke  13:1,  must  have  oc- 
curred at  some  feast,  in  the  outer  court  of 
the  temple.  His  official  residence  was  at 
Caesarea,  but  during  the  great  festivals  he 
stayed  at  Jerusalem  to  preserve  order, 
probably  occupying   the   palace   built    by 


PIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PIN 


Herod  the  Great.  Though  the  revenues 
were  the  chief  concern  of  such  a  ruler,  the 
procurator  of  Judaea,  which  was  subordi- 
nate to  the  province  of  Syria,  was  at  the 
head  of  the  entire  local  administration, 
military  and  judicial.  When  therefore  Je- 
sus had  been  condemned  by  the  high-priest 
and  the  Sanhedrin,  he  was  brought  before 
Pilate  the  governor,  without  whose  consent 
he  could  not  be  executed.  Pilate  saw  in 
Jesus  an  innocent  victim  of  Jewish  malice, 
and  desired  to  save  him.  Though  dull  and 
ignorant  as  to  religious  truth,  he  had  some 
dim  sense  of  the  superiority  of  Christ's 
character,  and  feared  to  wrong  him.  All 
that  he  saw  of  Christ  deepened  this  feel- 
ing, and  he  tried  every  method  to  soften 
the  obduracy  of  the  Jews.  But  he  had  not 
■  the  firmness  of  character,  the  deep-rooted 
principle  of  justice,  and  the  consciousness 
of  rectitude  necessary  to  carry  him  through ; 
and  after  repeated  efforts,  Luke  23:7,  14- 
22;  John  18:31-39;  19:4-6,  9-12,  15,  he  at 
length  gave  way,  and  sacrificed  a  righteous 
man  rather  than  to  provoke  complaints 
against  his  administration  and  an  investi- 
gation by  the  emperor.  His  washing  of  his 
hands  and  his  inscription  upon  the  cross 
only  condemned  himself  He  would  un- 
doubtedly, as  law  and  custom  required, 
send  a  detailed  report  of  his  procedures  to 
Tiberius ;  and  the  early  defenders  of  Chris- 
tianity, Justin  and  Tertullian,  publicly  re- 
fer the  Roman  authorities  to  these  docu- 
ments, and  quote  from  them  as  existing  in 
their  own  time.  The  "  Acts  of  Pilate," 
however,  now  in  existence,  are  a  subse- 
quent fabrication.  The  Roman  historian 
Tacitus,  speaking  of  Christians,  says,  "  The 
author  of  this  name  was  Christ,  who  was 
capitally  punished  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
by  Pontius  Pilate." 

In  A.  D.  36  the  Samaritans,  whose  turbu- 
lence Pilate  had  quelled  with  bloody  meas- 
ures, accused  him  before  Vitellius,  gov- 
ernor of  Syria,  by  whom  Pilate  was  sent  to 
Rome  to  answer  before  the  emperor.  Be- 
fore his  arrival  Tiberius  died;  and  Pilate 
is  said  to  have  been  banished  by  Caligula 
to  Vienna  on  the  Rhone,  in  Gaul,  and  there 
to  have  killed  himself;  another  wild  legend 
links  his  name  to  the  mountain  now  called 
I'ilatus  on  the  south  of  Lake  Lucerne.' 

PIL'DASH,  a  flame,  a  son  of  Nahor  and 
Milcah,  Gen.  22:22.  The  place  of  his  set- 
tlement is  unknown. 

PIL' GRIM,  a  sojourner  in  a  foreign  land; 
metaphorically,  the  believer  while  absent 
from  his  heavenly  home,  Gen.  47:9;  Psa. 


119:54:  Heb.  11:13;  I  Pet.  2:11.  Some- 
times rendered  "stranger,"  Gen.  17:8; 
I  Pet.  1:1. 

PILLAR  sometimes  means  a  monument- 
al column.  Gen.  35:20;  2  Sam.  18:18;  or  a 
column  of  cloud  or  smoke,  Exod.  13:21; 
Judg.  20:40.  The  stately  column  which 
adorns  and  supports  the  front  of  a  temple, 
Judg.  16:25-30;  Job  9:6;  26:11,  illustrates 
the  position  of  prophets,  Jer.  i :  18,  apos- 
tles. Gal.  2:9,  believers.  Rev.  3:12,  and  the 
church  itself,  respecting  the  truth,  i  Tim. 

3:15- 

The  "plain  of  the  pillar,"  Judg.  9:6,  is 
properly  "  the  oak  of  the  pillar,"  as  in  the 
margin,  A.  V. 

PIL'LAR  OF  SALT.     See  SALT. 

PILLED,  peeled,  as  a  tree  of  its  bark, 
Gen.  30:37. 

PIL'LO'W,  I.,  I  Sam.  19:13,  16,  probably 
a  goat's  hair  mat  or  mattress  rolled  up. 
Pillow  in  Mark  4:38  is  rendered  "cush- 
ion "  in  the  R.  V.  The  ancient  Egyptians 
used  a  low  wooden  frame  to  support  the 
head  in  sleep,  as  do  the  Japanese.  Com- 
pare Gen.  28:  II,  18. 

II.  The  "  pillows  "  which  the  lying  proph- 
etesses of  peace  to  Jerusalem  sewed  to 
their  own  elbows  and  to  those  of  the  per- 
sons who  consulted  them,  Ezek.  13:17-20, 
were  appliances  of  physical  ease  and  em- 
blems of  the  false  security  produced  by  pre- 
dictions of  prosperity;  or,  as  some  think, 
amulets  or  charms  worn  on  the  arm;  a 
similar  practice  prevails  among  the  mod- 
ern Egyptians  and  Nubians. 

PINE,  Isa.  41:19;  60:13.  It  is  uncertain 
what  tree  of  Lebanon  is  here  meant;  the 
Hebrew  word,  however,  indicating  dura- 
tion or  curvature,  is  thought  to  exclude  the 
pine.  The  elm,  also  found  on  Mount  Leb- 
anon, the  oak,  etc.,  have  been  suggested. 
Thomson  thinks  the  "fir"  of  the  A.  V., 
Hebrew  berosh,  means  the  "  stone-pine  " 
which  abounds  on  Lebanon.  In  Neh.  8:15 
"pine-branches"  stands  for  another  He- 
brew term,  elsewhere  properly  rendered 
"oil-tree,"  which  see. 

PIN'NACLE,  Matt.  4:5;  Luke  4:9,  liter- 
ally the  wing  of  the  temple,  the  last  word 
including  the  whole  of  the  sacred  inclo- 
sure  and  buildings.  The  place  indicated 
may  have  been  the  roof,  accessible  by 
stairs,  of  the  eastern  colonnade,  "  Solo- 
mon's porch,"  which  overlooked  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Kidron  at  a  height,  according 
to  Josephus,  of  600  feet,  or  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  lofty  southern  colonnade, 
Herod's  "  royal  portico,"  of  which  Josephus 

439 


PIP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PIT 


says  that  if  one  "  looked  down  from  the 
top  of  the  battlements"  into  the  Kidron 
valley  he  would  become  dizzy  and  unable 
to  see  to  the  bottom. 

PIPE,  the  principal  musical  wind  instru- 
ment of  the  Hebrews,  consisting  of  a  tube 
with  holes,  like  a  flute  or  clarionet.  It  was 
made  of  reed,  copper,  or  bronze,  and  was 
used  on  all  occasions,  in  religious  worship, 
processions,  feasts,  and  mourning,  i  Sam. 
10:5;  1  Kin.  1:40;  Psa.  87:7;  Isa.  5:12; 
30:29;  Jer.  48:36;  Matt.  9:23;  Luke  7:32. 
Pipes,  both  single  and  double,  were  as 
much  used  in  Egyptian  social  life  as  among 
the  Hebrews.  The  double  pipe  had  2 
tubes,  sometimes  uniting  in  the  mouth- 
piece; the  tube  played  with  the  left  hand 
had  few  holes,  emitted  a  few  deep  sounds, 
and  served  as  a  bass.  The  right-hand  pipe 
had  more  holes  and  sharper  tones.  The 
Scotch  Deputation  of  Inquiry  speak  of 
overtaking  among  the  hills  of  Judaea  "an 
Arab  playing  with  all  his  might  upon  a 
shepherd's  pipe  made  of  2  reeds.  This 
was  the  first  time  we  had  seen  any  marks 
of  joy  in  the  land,  for  certainly  'all  joy  is 
darkened,  the  mirth  of  the  land  is  gone,'  " 
Isa.  24:11.    See  Music. 

PIR'ATHON,  pi'incely,  in  Ephraim,  the 
home  and  burial-place  of  Abdon  the  judge, 
Judg.  12:15;  also  of  one  of  David's  mighty 
men,  2  Sam.  23:30;  i  Chr.  11:31;  27:14. 
Robinson  and  others  identify  it  with  the 
village  Fer'ata,  on  an  eminence  among  low 
hills,  6  miles  west-southwest  of  Nablfls. 

PIS'GAH,  fragment,  the  summit  from 
which  Moses  viewed  the  Promised  Land, 
Deut.  34: 1-4.  It  was  east  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan,  a  part  of  the  Abarim  range, 
associated  with  Nebo,  and  within  the  lim- 
its of  Reuben,  Num.  21:20;  27:12;  Deut. 
3:27;  4:49;  32:49.  There  were  level  spa- 
ces upon  it,  as  "  the  field  of  Zophim," 
Num.  23:14.  It  commanded  a  view  of  the 
Israelitish  camp  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Jordan  and  of  the  heights  of  the  entire 
Holy  Land. 

Until  recently  the  precise  position  of 
Pisgah  and  Nebo  was  unknown.  Robin- 
son and  De  Saulcy  heard  of  a  Jebel  Neba 
in  the  neighborhood  indicated  in  the  Bible. 
In  1S64  Tristram  visited,  and  described, 
1865,  the  height  which  lay  about  3  miles 
southwest  of  Hesban,  and  i"^  miles  due 
west  of  Main,  and  which  he  took  for  Pis- 
gah. There  was  a  long  ridge  command- 
ing a  magnificent  view  of  Mount  Hor  and 
the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan  valley,  Jerusa- 
lem, Gerizim,  Carmel,  Tabor,  Gilboa,  and 
440 


snowy  Hermon.  Prof.  Paine,  of  the  Amer- 
ican Palestine  Exploration  Society,  in  1873, 
claims  to  have  identified  the  range  which 
includes  both  Nebo  and  Pisgah  as  rising 
in  a  promontory  overtopping  all  the  near 
hills,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  HesbSn — 
running  westward  in  a  series  of  flat  sum- 
mits, and  suddenly  falling  away  into  the 
valley.  The  eastern  and  highest  portion 
of  the  range  is  called  Jebel  Neba,  Mount 
Nebo.  Its  western  end  is  composed  of  3 
summits  in  a  cluster,  of  which  one,  lying 
to  the  southwest  and  called  Jebel  Siaghah, 
he  identifies  with  the  Pisgah  of  Moses.  It 
is  2,360  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  com- 
mands an  e.xtensive  view  of  Palestine  east- 
ward and  northward,  and  westward  and 
southward,  as  described  Deut.  34:1.  The 
Due  de  Luynes,  in  a  visit  to  the  spot  in 
1864,  arrived  independently  at  the  same 
identification  of  Nebo  and  Pisgah.  Prof. 
Porter  of  Belfast  concurs  in  this  opinion, 
and  comparing  the  prospect  from  the  moun- 
tain with  the  description  of  Moses'  view, 
was  impressed  with  its  faithfulness  in  every 
particular. 

PIS'GAH,  SPRINGS  OF,  Deut.  4:49,  the 
same  as  ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH,  Deut.  3:17; 
Josh.  12:3;  13:20,  a  valley  or  town  at  the 
base  of  Pisgah,  in  the  territory  of  Sihon, 
assigned  to  Reuben,  near  the  portion  of 
Gad. 

PISID'IA,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  sep- 
arated from  the  Mediterranean  by  Pam- 
phylia,  lying  on  Mount  Taurus  and  the 
high  table-land  north  of  it,  and  running  up 
between  Phrygia  and  Lycaonia  as  far  as 
Antioch  its  chief  city.  The  Pisidians,  like 
most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Taurus  range, 
were  an  unsubdued  and  lawless  race; 
through  the  deep  defiles  of  their  mountains 
swift  torrents  poured ;  and  Paul,  in  his  2 
journeys  through  Pisidia,  Acts  13:14;  14 :  24, 
may  have  been  in  peril  by  "  waters"  {R.  V. 
"rivers")  as  well  as  by  "robbers,"  2  Cor. 
11:26.  He  refers  to  the  persecution  en- 
dured at  Antioch,  Acts  13:44-50,  in  a  letter 
to  Timothy,  2  Tim.  3:11.  Churches  con- 
tinued to  e.x-ist  here  for  7  or  8  centuries. 

PI'SON,  streajning,  one  of  the  4  rivers 
that  watered  Paradise,  Gen.  2:11,  12,  and 
which  ran  through  all  the  land  of  Havilah, 
where  excellent  gold  was  found.  It  has, 
of  course,  been  placed  as  variously  as  the 
garden  of  Eden,  to  which  article  and  Eu- 
phrates the  reader  is  referred. 

PIT,  a  cistern  for  rain-water.  Dry  pits 
were  sometimes  used  as  dungeons.  Gen. 
37:20;  Jer.  38:6;  or  being  slightly  covered 


PIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PLO 


and  baited,  they  served  as  traps  to  catch 
wild  beasts,  a  device  which  illustrates  the 
plots  of  designing  men  and  women,  Psa. 
119:85;  Prov. 22:14;  26:27;  Ezek.  19:4.  In 
Isa.  51:1,  "pit"  seems  to  mean  the  quarry 
or  cavern  whence  huge  stone  columns  and 
blocks  are  cut ;  like  that  under  Jerusalem, 
from  which  some  of  the  beautiful  temple 
stones  were  quarried.  The  word  pit  is  also 
used  to  denote  Hades,  the  under-world  of 
spirits,  Psa.  28 :  i ;  30 : 3,  9,  and  hell,  the  pris- 
on of  wicked  spirits.  Rev.  20:1;  compare 
Luke  8:3r,  where  the  same  word  is  trans- 
lated "  deep." 

PITCH,  Gen.  6:14;  Exod.  2:3,  translated 
"slime"  in  Gen.  11:3;  14:10,  is  properly 
bitumen  or  asphaltum,  anciently  found  on 
and  near  the  Dead  Sea,  which  was  hence 
called  the  Lake  Asphaltites.  It  abounded 
in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon,  and  was  used 
as  fuel.  The  ark  of  Noah  and  that  of  Mo- 
ses were  rendered  waterproof  by  it;  and 
the  bricks  of  the  tower  of  Babel  were  ce- 
mented with  it.  It  is  commonly  found  in 
a  solid  state,  of  a  shining  black,  and  brit- 
tle; but  being  liquefied  by  heat  and  used 
as  a  mortar,  it  becomes  as  hard  as  the 
Tocks  it  cements  together.  It  is  still  thrown 
tip  by  earthquakes  from  the  bottom  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  floats  to  the  shore  some- 
times in  large  masses.     See  Sea,  III. 

PI'THOM,  house  of  Turn  (the  sun-god  of 
On),  a  "treasure-city,"  or  provision-depot, 
built  by  the  Israelites  for  Pharaoh  in  Go- 
shen, Exod.  i:ii.  It  has  been  regarded 
as  the  Pathumos  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
as  near  Pi-beseth,  on  the  canal  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  Recent  exca- 
vations in  a  mound  at  Tel  el-Maschuta,  in 
Wady  et-Tumeilat,  between  Ismailia  and 
Tel  el-Kebir,  have  revealed  the  site  of  what 
seems  to  have  been  a  store  city,  contain- 
ing a  small  temple  dedicated  by  Rameses 
II.  to  Tum,  and  a  large  crude-brick  build- 
ing, 650  feet  square,  with  walls  8  feet  thick 
and  many  rooms  without  doors,  apparent- 
ly used  as  a  granary.  This  site,  which 
local  inscriptions  call  both  Pithom  and 
Succoth,  Brugsch  and  Poole  identify  with 
Pithom,  and  with  Succoth,  the  Israelites' 
first  camping-place,  Exod.  12:37. 

PIT'IFUL,  Lam.  4:10;  Jas.  5:11;  1  Pet. 
3:8,  not  pitiable,  but  compassionate. 

PLACE,  I  Sam.  15:12,  monument  or  pil- 
lar. 

PLAGUE.     See  Exodus,  Pestilence. 

PLAIN,  any  level  tract  of  land,  as  in 
I  Kin.  20:23;  2  Chr.  26:10.  With  the  arti- 
cle in  Heb.,  the  high  level  plateau  of  Moab, 


Deut.  3:10;  4:43;  Josh.  13:9,  16;  20:8;  Jer. 
48:8,  21.  The  "plains  of  Moab"  were  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Jordan,  opposite  Jeri- 
cho, Num.  22:1;  26:63;  Josh.  13:32.  For 
other  uses  gf  the  word  plain  see  Arabah, 
Canaan,  Moreh,  Oak,  Shephelah. 

PLAIT'ING  the  hair,  1  Pet.  y.T^.  Jewish 
writers  mention  elaborate  hair-dressing  as 
a  special  art  practised  by  women ;  compare 
Isa.  3:18-22.  Arab  ladies  of  the  present 
day  in  Palestine  often  spend  a  whole  day 
in  arranging  their  hair  in  minute  braids,  70 
or  80  in  number,  which  hang  around  their 
shoulders  and  are  frequently  ornamented 
with  gold  and  jewels. 

PLAN'ETS,  2  King,  23:5.  The  Hebrew 
word  means  j«wj  or  lodgings,  and  is  used 
with  reference  to  the  sun,  denoting  the  12 
constellations  of  the  zodiac,  the  houses  of 
the  sun  in  its  annual  apparent  course  round 
the  heavens.  These  constellations  are  here 
spoken  of  as  objects  of  idolatrous  worship 
in  Judah.     See  Mazzaroth. 

PLAS'TER  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  on 
the  walls  of  houses.  Lev.  14:42,  48 ;  and  as 
a  coating  of  stones  on  which  inscriptions 
had  been  or  were  afterwards  to  be  made, 
Deut.  27:2,  4;  Josh.  8:32.  The  tiles  of  an- 
cient Babylon  were  coated  or  enamelled 
with  stucco. 

PLEDGE.  The  Mosaic  law  protected  the 
poor  who  were  obliged  to  give  security  for 
a  loan  or  the  fulfilment  of  a  contract.  If  a 
man  pawned  his  robe,  the  usual  covering 
for  the  cool  nights,  it  must  be  returned  on 
the  same  day,  Exod.  22:26,  27.  The  cred- 
itor could  not  enter  a  house  and  take  what 
he  pleased;  and  the  hand-mill,  being  a 
necessary  of  life,  could  not  be  taken,  Deut. 
24:6,  10,  II.  Compare  Job  22:6;  24:3,  7. 
These  prohibitions  were  sometimes  disre- 
garded, Amos  2:6-8.  See  Loans.  Pledges 
are  necessary  from  the  heedless  and  vi- 
cious, who  cannot  be  trusted,  Prov.  20:16. 

PLE'IADES,  a  cluster  of  7  stars  in  the 
neck  of  Taurus,  or  the  Bull,  one  of  the  12 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  The  sun  now  enters 
the  constellation  Taurus  about  the  middle 
of  May,  anciently  much  earlier;  and  the 
appearance  of  the  Pleiades  marked  the  re- 
turn of  spring.  Job  9:9;  38:31 ;  Amos  5:8. 

PLOUGH,  a  slight  and  inefificient  instru- 
ment in  the  East,  but  used  from  the  earli- 
est times.  Gen.  45:6;  Deut.  22: 10;  Job  i :  14. 
See  cut  in  Merom.  The  plough  now  gen- 
erally used  in  Syria  consists  substantially 
of  but  3  parts:  the  beam  or  pole  fastened 
to  the  yoke,  the  ploughshare,  and  the  han- 
dle.    The  2  latter  parts,  and  even  all  3,  are 

441 


POE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POE 


ANCIKNT    PLOUGH,    YOKES,    SHARES,    AND   GOAD. 

sometimes  formed  of  a  single  branch  of  a 
tree  with   2   limbs  projecting   in  opposite 


directions.  The  ploughshare  is  sometimes 
defended  by  a  strip  or  point  of  iron,  Isa. 
2:4;  Joel  3:10.  As  the  handle  was  single, 
and  with  attention  was  easily  managed  by 
one  hand,  Luke  9:62,  the  plougliman  bran- 
dished in  the  other  a  formidable  goad,  6  or 
8  feet  long,  armed  at  the  point  with  a  pike, 
and  at  the  heavy  end,  which  was  2  inches 
thick,  with  a  small  iron  spade  for  clearing 
the  share  from  clay,  Judg.  3:31;  i  Sam. 
13:21;  Acts  9:5.  Ploughs  were  drawn  b_\- 
oxen,  asses,  and  heifers,  Deut.  22:10;  Judg. 
14: 18;  at  this  day  camels  and  cows  are  also 


PLOUGHING  AND  SOWING:    FROM   AN  ANCIENT   EGYPTIAN   PAINTING. 


used  in  Palestine.  Ploughing  commenced 
soon  after  the  autumnal  rains  set  in,  to- 
wards the  last  of  October.  The  Arabs  of 
Palestine  often  plough  in  somewhat  large 
companies,  as  of  old,  i  Kin.  19:19. 

PO'ETRY  OF  THE  Hebrews.  Poetry 
combined  with  music  was  an  attendant 
upon  many  of  the  scenes  of  Hebrew  life  as 
pictured  in  the  Bible.  Moses  and  Deborah 
celebrated  victory  with  songs,  Exod.  15:1- 
21;  Judg.  5;  death  was  lamented  in  like 
manner,  2  Sam.  i :  17-27 ;  feasts  were  accom- 
panied by  music  and  singing,  Amos  6:5; 
and  the  chanting  of  sacred  songs  formed 
an  important  part  of  the  temple  worship. 
Under  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  the 
Hebrews  carried  religious  poetry  to  the 
highest  degree  of  perfection.  The  poetry 
of  this  people  was  almost  wholly  lyric ; 
whether  didactic,  elegiac,  pastoral,  or  pro- 
phetic, it  was  still  LYRIC.  The  essence  of 
lyric  poetry  is  the  vivid  expression  of  inter- 
nal emotions.  It  is  therefore  subjective, 
in  opposition  to  epic  poetry,  which  treats 
of  external  objects,  and  is  therefore  objec- 
tive. The  chief  subject  of  Hebrew  poetry 
was  religion,  and  then  patriotism,  which, 
under  the  theocracy,  was  very  nearly  allied 
to  religion.  The  most  obvious  and  stri- 
king characteristic  of  the  poetry  of  the  He- 
442 


brews  is  sublimity.  The  present  prevail- 
ing views  of  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry 
were  first  developed  in  the  last  century  by 
Bishop  Lowth  in  his  Lectures  on  the  Poe- 
try of  the  Hebrews. 

Hebrew  poetry  differs  from  Hebrew 
prose  in  3  respects:  i.  In  the  peculiar  po- 
etical nature  of  the  contents,  of  which  the 
characteristics  are  sublimity,  boldness,  ab- 
ruptness, lofty  metaphors,  personifications, 
etc.  2.  In  the  peculiarities  of  the  poetic 
dialect  or  diction,  which,  however,  are  not 
so  striking  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. 3.  In  rhythm,  which  differs  from 
metre — the  latter  importing  a  measure  of 
syllables  or  feet,  the  former  a  harmonious 
arrangement  of  words  and  members.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  those  best  acquainted  with 
the  subject  that  the  Hebrews  had  no  pros- 
ody, that  is,  no  measure  of  syllables  into 
poetic  feet,  as  dactyles,  trochees,  and  spon- 
dees. It  is  believed  that  the  Hebrew  poe- 
try, much  of  which  was  designed  to  be 
sung  or  chanted,  was  characterized  by  a 
certain  melodious  flow  and  cadence  which 
is  now  irrecoverably  lost,  together  with  the 
true  pronunciation  of  the  language. 

But  aside  from  this,  the  rhythm  of  He- 
brew poetry  consists  in  what  is  called  its 
PARALLELISM,  of  which   the   fundamental 


POE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POE 


principle  is  that  every  verse  must  consist 
of  at  least  two  corresponding  parts  or 
members. 

The  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry  occurs 
either  in  the  thought,  or  solely  in  the  form. 
Of  the  former  there  are  3  kinds:  namely, 

1.  Synonymous;  where  the  2  members 
express  the  same  idea  in  different,  but 
closely,  and  often  literally,  corresponding 
words:  as  for  example, 

What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him? 
And  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  dost  visit  him? 

Psa.  8 : 4. 
Why  do  the  heathen  rage  ? 
And  the  people  imagine  a  vain  thing? 

Psa.  2 : 1. 

He  that  sitteth  in  the  heavens  shall  laugh ; 
The  Lord  shall  have  them  in  derision. 

Psa.  2  :4. 

Doth  the  wild  ass  bray  when  he  hath  grass? 
Or  loweth  the  ox  over  his  fodder?    Job  6 : 5. 

So  also  the  song  of  Lamech,  Gen.  4:23, 
and  Job  7:1,  etc. 

2.  Antithetical ;  where  an  antithesis  of 
thought  is  expressed  by  corresponding 
members :  as  for  example, 

The  house  of  the  wicked  shall  be  overthrown, 

But  the  tabernacle  of  the  upright  shall  flourish. 

Prov.  14 :  II. 

A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  ; 

But  grievous  words  stir  up  anger. 

Prov.  15  :  I. 

3.  Synthetic;  which  is  a  mere  juxtaposi- 
tion ;  or  rather,  the  thought  is  carried  for- 
ward in  the  2d  member  with  some  addition, 
the  correspondence  of  words  and  construc- 
tion being  as  before :  as  for  example. 

The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  converting  the 
soul: 

The  testimony  of  the  Lord  is  sure,  making  wise 
the  simple. 

The  statutes  of  the  Lord  are  right,  rejoicing  the 
heart : 

The  commandment  of  the  Lord  is  pure,  enlight- 
ening the  eyes. 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  clean,  enduring  for  ever : 

The  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and  right- 
eous altogether.  Psa.  19  : 7,  8,  9. 

Mere  rhythmical  parallelism  is  that  in 
which  no  similarity  or  correspondence  of 
thought  exists,  but  the  verse  is  divided  by 
the  ccesu?-a,  as  it  were,  into  corresponding 
numbers.  This  is  the  most  imperfect  spe- 
cies of  parallelism,  and  may  be  compared 
with  the  hexameter,  divided  by  the  caesura : 
as  for  example, 


Yet  have  I  set  my  king 
I'pon  my  holy  hill  of  Zion. 


Psa.  2 : 6. 


Many  there  be  which  say  of  my  soul, 
There  is  no  help  for  him  in  God. 

Psa.  3 : 2. 

This  is  most  common  in  the  book  of  Lam- 
entations, where  there  is  hardly  any  other 
species  of  parallelism. 

Thus  far  we  have  had  regard  to  the  sim- 
plest and  most  perfect  parallelisms  of  2 
members,  such  as  are  more  usually  found 
in  the  Psalms,  Job,  etc.  But  in  the  proph- 
ets and  a  few  of  the  Psalms  we  find  a  less 
regular  and  sometimes  cornpoiaid  paral- 
lelism. Thus  the  parallelism  is  irregular 
when  one  member  is  shorter  than  the  other, 
as  Hosea  4:17: 

Ephraim  is  joined  to  idols ; 
Let  him  alone. 

Of  compound  parallelisms  there  are  vari- 
ous kinds,  as  when  the  verse  has  3  mem- 
bers either  parallel  with  each  other,  as  in 
Job  3:4,  or  2  of  them  standing  opposed  to 
the  3d:  as  for  example. 

For  the  ways  of  the  Lord  are  right. 

And  the  just  shall  walk  in  them. 

But  the  transgressors  shall  fall  therein. 

Hos.  14:9. 

Or  when  the  verse  has  4  members,  either 
compounded  of  2  simple  parallels,  or  the 
ist  line  answering  to  the  3d  and  the  2d  to 
the  4th,  or  all  4  nearly  parallel  to  each 
other:  as  for  example, 

The  ox  knoweth  his  owner, 
And  the  ass  his  master's  crib  ; 
But  Israel  doth  not  know. 
My  people  doth  not  consider. 

Isa.  1:3. 

As  the  heaven  is  high  above  the  earth, 

So  great  is  his   mercy  towards  them  that   fear 

him; 
As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west. 
So  far  hath  he  removed  our  transgressions  from 

us.  Psa.  103  :  II,  12. 

They  have  mouths,  but  they  speak  not ; 
Eyes  have  they,  but  they  see  not ; 
They  have  ears,  but  they  hear  not ; 
Neither  is  there  any  breath  in  their  mouths. 
Psa.  135  :  16,  17. 

We  may  name  Psalms  2  and  15  as  afford- 
ing examples  of  most  of  the  species  of  po- 
etic parallelism. 

In  the  common  manuscripts  and  editions 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  members  of  the 
parallelisms  in  the  poetical  parts  are  not 
written  or  printed  separately,  but  the  ac- 
cents serve  to  divide  them.  In  other  edi- 
tions, however,  the  members  are  printed 
separately.  It  is  matter  of  regret  that  this 
mode  was  not  adopted  in  our  English 
version,  since  in  many  cases  the  common 

443 


POL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POO 


reader  has  now  no  means  of  distinguishing 
whether  what  he  reads  is  poetry  or  prose 
in  Hebrew. 

The  preceding  principles  refer  solely  to 
the  rhythm  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Besides 
this,  there  are  other  peculiarities;  as,  for 
example,  the  strophe,  as  in  Psa.  107  and  in 
Psa.  42,  43,  where  ver.  5,  11,  and  5  are  a 
burden  or  refrain,  repeated  at  the  end  of 
each  strophe.  So  also  the  alphabetic  Psalms 
and  poems  (see  Letter),  and  the  Psalms 
of  degrees,  in  which  the  chief  words  of  each 
verse  are  taken  up  and  repeated  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  verse.    See  Degrees. 

More  than  a  third  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  poetry  in  Hebrew,  including  most  of 
Job,  the  Psalms,  Solomon's  books,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  prophets ;  technically, 
however,  in  the  usage  of  the  Jews,  the  3 
poetic  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  Job, 
Psalms,  and  Proverbs,  which  have  a  sys- 
tem of  accentuation  peculiar  to  themselves. 
Poetic  fragments  are  also  found  here  and 
there  in  the  historical  books,  as  in  Gen. 
4:23,  24;  Exod.  32:18;  Num.  21:14,  15,  18, 
27-30;  23:7,  18;  24:3,  15.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament also  many  passages  occur  in  which 
this  Hebrew  style  seems  to  be  transferred 
to  the  Greek,  Matt.  8:20;  Luke  1:46,  47; 
Rom.  11:33-35;  Rev.  18;  19:1-3. 

POLL,  the  head.  Num.  1:2,  18;  3:47.  To 
poll  the  head  is  to  cut  off  the  hair,  2  Sam. 
14:26;  Ezek.  44:20;  Mic.  1:16. 

POL'LUX.    See  Castor. 


POMEGRAN'ATE,  from  the  Latin  Po- 
mum  granatum,  grained  apple,  the  fruit 
containing  many  seeds.  The  tree  or  bush 
belongs  to  the  myrtle  family,  and  is  the 
Punica  granatum  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  rarely 
over  10  feet  high,  has  a  straight  stem,  red- 
dish bark,  many  spreading  branches,  small, 
lance-shaped,  glossy  leaves,  which  remain 
green  through  the  winter,  and  large,  bril- 
liant scarlet  or  orange  blossoms.  The 
444 


fruit,  which  ripens  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber, is  of  the  size  of  an  orange,  with  a  red- 
dish-brown, hard,  astringent  rind,  used  in 
making  morocco  leather.  Within  is  a  very 
juicy  and  beautiful  pink  pulp.  Song  4:3; 
6:7,  containing  an  abundance  of  seeds, 
each  with  its  own  coating  of  pulp.  This 
pulp  has  a  very  agreeable  flavor  in  the 
cultivated  tree,  some  specimens  of  which 
bear  sweet  fruit  and  some  acid.  The  juice 
was  made  into  wine  or  sherbet,  Song  8:2. 
The  fruit  of  the  wild  pomegranate  is  small, 
very  sour,  and  worthless.  The  tree  grows 
wild  in  Persia  and  Syria,  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  north  of  Africa.  It  was  early 
cultivated  in  Egypt,  Num.  20:5,  and  abound- 
ed in  Palestine,  Num.  13:23;  Deut.  8:8; 
Joel  1:12;  Hag.  2:19,  where  "  Rimmon," 
the  Hebrew  term  for  pomegranate,  was 
the  name  of  several  places.  The  value  of 
the  fruit  and  the  beauty  of  the  flower  made 
the  tree  welcome  in  gardens.  Song  4:13; 
6:11.  Artificial  pomegranates  were  used 
as  ornaments  on  the  robe  of  the  high-priest, 
Exod.  28:33,  and  as  an  architectural  orna- 
ment in  Solomon's  temple,  i  Kin.  7:18,  20, 
41,  42.  Carved  pomegranates  may  often 
be  seen  on  broken  columns  in  Oriental 
temple  ruins.     See  Rimmon. 

POM'MELS,  or  "bowls,"  as  in  i  Kin. 
7:41,  globular  ornaments  affixed  to  the 
capitals  of  columns,  2  Chr.  4:12,  13. 

PON'TUS,  the  sea,  the  northeastern  prov- 
ince of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  by  the 
Euxine  Sea,  west  by  Galatia  and  Paphla- 
gonia,  south  by  Cappadocia  and  part  of 
Armenia,  and  east  by  Colchis.  It  was  orig- 
inally governed  by  kings,  and  was  in  its 
most  flourishing  state  under  Mithridates 
the  Great,  who  waged  a  long  and  celebra- 
ted war  with  the  Romans,  but  was  at  length 
subdued  by  Pompey,  B.  C.  66;  after  which 
Pontus  became  a  province  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  geographer  Strabo  was  born 
in  Amasia,  its  capital ;  and  one  of  its  prin- 
cipal towns,  Trapezus,  still  flourishes  un- 
der the  name  of  Trebizond.  Many  Jews 
resided  there,  and  from  time  to  time  "  went 
up  to  Jerusalem  unto  the  feast,"  Acts  2:9. 
The  devoted  Aquila  was  a  native  of  Pon- 
tus, Acts  18:2;  and  the  gospel  was  planted 
there  at  an  early  period,  i  Pet.  1:1.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks,  its  present  mas- 
ters, A.  D.  1461. 

POOLS,  large  reservoirs  for  spring  or 
rain  water,  for  the  public  benefit,  while  cis- 
terns were  for  private  use.  See  Cisterns. 
The  failure  of  the  water  supply  in  the  pools 
was  an  irreparable  calamity,  Jer.  14:3. 


POOL  OF  HEZEKIAH:    JERUSALEM. 


POO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


PCS 


There  were  numerous  pools  in  and 
around  Jerusalem,  the  most  noted  being 
these:  (i)  The  "Upper  Pool  of  Gihon," 
2  Kin.  18:17;  Isa.  7:3;  36:2,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  city,  south  of  the  Jaffa  road  and 
more  than  }^  of  a  mile  from  the  Jaffa  gate. 
It  is  now  the  "  Birket  Mamilla,"  lies  at  the 
head  of  the  Gihon  valley,  and  is  connected 
by  conduits  with  (2)  "  Hezekiah's  Pool," 
2  Kin.  20:20;  2  Chr.  32:30,  now  "  Birket  el 
Hammam,"  not  far  within  the  Jaffa  gate. 
(3)  The  "  Lower  Pool  of  Gihon,"  Isa.  22:9, 
lay  down  in  the  valley,  west  of  Zion,  and 
is  now  called  "  Birket  es-Sultan."  (4)  The 
"Pool  of  Siloah,"  Neh.  3:15;  John  9:7,  now 
Birket  Silwan,  near  the  opening  of  the  Ty- 
ropcEon;  and  (5)  the  "Old  Pool,"  Isa. 22:11, 
a  smaller  pool,  south  of  the  other  and  re- 
ceiving water  from  it.  (6)  The  "  King's 
Pool,"  Neh.  2: 14,  now  the  "  Fountain  of  the 
Virgin,"  on  the  east  side  of  Ophel,  identi- 
fied by  some  with  "  Solomon's  pools  "  and 
with  "  Bethesda,"  (7)  though  the  "  Pool  of 
Bethesda,"  John  5:2,  has  usually  been  sup- 
posed to  mean  Birket  es-Serain  or  Israel, 
within  the  western  wall  of  the  city,  and 
north  of  the  temple  area.  Under  this  area 
also  were  vast  reservoirs  cut  in  stone.  See 
Solomon's  Pools. 

POOR,  Psa.  12:5;  41:1-3,  especially  cared 
for  in  the  Old  Testament  dispensation, 
Exod.  23:6;  Psa.  112:9;  Prov.  14:31,  and 
even  more  so  under  the  gospel.  Matt. 
25:42-45;  Jas.  2:5.  The  slight  offerings 
required  of  them  by  the  law  were  as  ac- 
ceptable as  the  hecatombs  of  the  rich.  Lev. 
5:7-13;  Mark  12:41-44.  The  gleanings  of 
the  fields,  the  olive-trees,  and  the  vines 
were  to  be  left  for  them,  Lev.  19:9,  10; 
Deut.  24:19,  21 ;  Ruth  2:2.  Every  7th  year 
the  spontaneous  products  of  the  ground 
were  free  to  all,  Lev.  25:6;  and  in  the  Ju- 
bilee their  alienated  inheritance  returned 
to  their  possession.  Compare  also  Lev. 
25 ;  Deut.  24.  Beggars  ought  to  have  been 
rare  under  Hebrew  institutioas ;  yet  they 
increased  as  the  State  decayed,  and  in 
Christ's  day  stationed  themselves  in  public 
places,  Mark  10:46;  Luke  16:20;  Acts  3:2. 
Neglect  and  oppression  of  the  poor  were 
severely  reproved  by  the  prophets,  Isa. 
10:2;  Jer.  5:28;  Amos  2:6.  Judges  were 
not  to  favor  them  unjustly  on  account  of 
their  poverty.  Lev.  19:15;  but  charity  to 
the  poor  was  an  eminent  virtue  arriong 
primitive  Christians,  Matt.  6:2-4;  Luke 
10:33-35;  19:8;  Acts  9:36-39;  10:2;  11:29, 
30,  and  an  essential  evidence  of  piety, 
I  John  3:17.     The  word  "poor"  is  spiritu- 


ally used   in    Matt.   5:3;    Rev.  3:17.      See 
Tithes. 

POP'LAR,  Gen.  30:37;  Hos.  4:13,  proba- 
bly the  white  poplar,  so  called  from  the 
whiteness  of  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
It  is  a  beautiful  and  shady  tree,  common 
in  Palestine  and  its  vicinity.  According  to 
some  the  stora.x  -  tree  is  intended ;  this, 
however,  being  only  a  shrub  from  9  to  12 
feet  high,  does  not  so  well  suit  the  passage 
in  Hosea.     See  Stacte. 

PORCH.     See  House  and  Temple. 

POR'TERS  kept  the  gates  of  private 
houses  and  of  cities,  2  Sam.  18:26;  2  Kin. 
7:10;  Mark  13:34;  John  10:3.  The  word 
as  used  in  the  Bible  is  from  port,  a  gate, 
Neh.  2 :  13,  A.  V.,  not  from  "  porto,"  to  carry. 
The  porters  of  the  temple  were  Levites,  at 
one  period  4,000  in  number,  divided  into 
courses,  i  Chr.  16:42;  23:5.  They  stood 
on  guard  at  every  gate,  while  on  duty  with- 
in the  temple  in  their  regular  courses,  with 
leaders,  i  Chr.  26:1-19;  2  Chr.  8:14;  31:14; 
35-:  15-  By  night  also  they  cheered  the 
lonely  hours  with  songs  of  praise,  Psa.  134. 
We  read  in  2  Chr.  23:2-19  of  the  faithful 
service  they  rendered  in  protecting  Joash 
and  slaying  Athaliah,  and  in  i  Chr.  9:17-27 
of  their  reorganization  after  the  Captivity; 
compare  Ezra  2:42;  Neh.  7:45;  12:44-47. 

POSSESSED'.     See  Devil,  II. 

POSTS,  I.,  in  Heb.  runners,  special  mes- 
sengers charged  to  bear  important  tidings 
swiftly ;  such  were  early  employed  in  the 
East,  Job  9:25.  A  body  of  runners  were 
in  attendance  on  Saul.  See  Footmen  and 
Guard.  Swift  couriers  were  employed  to 
carry  messages  in  David's  time,  2  Sam. 
18 :  22-27.  Such  may  have  been  the  "  posts  " 
of  Hezekiah,  2  Chr.  30:6,  10,  and  of  Baby- 
lon, Jer.  51:31.  Experienced  runners  will 
tire  and  outrun  a  horse  in  long  journeys. 
The  Persian  kings  appointed  sentinels  at 
proper  distances  to  transmit  public  tidings 
by  shouting  one  to  another.  Cyrus,  how- 
ever, established  a  system  of  "  posts  "  that 
rode  on  horses,  camels,  etc.,  night  and 
day  to  convey  important  despatches,  fresh 
relays  of  men  and  animals  being  stationed 
at  convenient  distances,  Esth.  3:13,  15; 
8:10,  14.  The  Persians  and  Romans  im- 
pressed men  and  beasts  into  this  public 
service,  a  custom  hated  by  the  Jews ;  see 
Matt.  5:41.  The  Roman  posts  were  noted 
for  swiftness  and  regularity. 

II.  The  "door-post"  or  "side -post," 
Heb.  Mezuzah,  on  which  the  door  hinged 
and  turned,  Exod.  12:7,  22,  22,;  21:6;  Judg. 
16:3;    Prov.   8:34,   was   peculiarly   sacred 

445 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POU 


among  the  Hebrews,  not  only  because  the 
blood  of  the  passover  was  sprinkled  upon 
it,  but  because  the  name  of  God  and  some 
word  from  him  were  inscribed  on  it,  Deut. 
6:4-9;  11:18-21.  In  time  the  name  mezu- 
zah  was  applied  to  the  sacred  words  them- 
,  selves;  and  the  pious  Jew  on  going  out  or 
in  would  touch  the  divine  name  with  his 
finger,  which  he  would  then  kiss,  and  re- 
peat Psa.  121:8.  The  Moslems  also  do  not 
regard  a  new  gate,  fountain,  bridge,  or 
house  as  complete  without  inscribing  on  it 
a  passage  from  the  Koran  or  one  of  their 
best  poets. 

POT'IPHAR,  dmoted  to  Pliar,  a  high  offi- 
■cer  of  Pharaoh,  who  purchased  Joseph  of 
the  Midianites,  and  made  him  overseer  of 
liis  house,  but  afterwards  imprisoned  him 
oil  a  false  charge,  Gen.  37:36;  39.  Accord- 
ing to  Prof.  Ebers,  Egyptian  monuments 
show  that  a  "  captain  of  the  guard  "  was 
commander  of  a  regiment  of  2,000  men 
serving  as  the  king's  body-guard ;  and  dur- 
ing his  regiment's  term  of  service  its  cap- 
tain was  chief  inspector  of  State  prisoners 
and  chief  executioner  of  corporal  and  cap- 
ital punishment.  The  "  captain  of  the 
guard"  mentioned  Gen.  40:3  may  have 
been  a  successor  of  Potiphar. 

POTI-PHE'RAH,  belonging  lo  the  sun,  the 
priest  of  On,  city  of  the  sun,  whose  daugh- 
ter Asenath  was  the  wife  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
41 :45.  The  name  is  found  in  various  forms 
on  ancient  Egyptian  monuments. 

POTS,  Job  41 :  20,  applied  in  Scripture  to  a 
great  variety  of  domestic  vessels,  of  earth- 
enware, iron,  brass,  and  gold,  used  for 
cooking  and  serving  food,  etc.,  Judg.  6:19; 
2  Kin.  4:40;  Psa.  58:9;  Eccl.  7:6;  Heb. 
9:4.  Large  stone  water-pots,  of  20  to  27 
gallons,  were  seen  by  Clark  at  Cana. 
Similar  pots  for  wine,  amphora;,  are  fre- 
quently found  in  Pompeii.  In  Psa.  68:13, 
"  though  ye  have  lain  among  the  pots,"  the 
Hebrew  word  means  originally  cattle-folds, 
almost  the  same  Hebrew  word  being  trans- 
lated "sheep-folds"  in  Judg.  5:16,  and 
"hooks"  in  Ezek.  40:43,  A.  V.,  where 
movable  inclosures  for  sacrificial  Iambs,  in 
the  outer  court  of  the  temple,  seem  to  be 
meant;  and  in  Psa.  81:6,  "  his  hands  were 
delivered  from  the  pots,"  the  baskets  used 
by  the  Hebrews  in  the  hard  service  exact- 
ed of  them  in  Egypt,  Exod.  i :  14. 

POT'SHERDS,  broken  pieces  of  earthen- 
ware, Job  2:8;  Isa.  30:14,  fit  types  of  the 
worthlessness  and  fragility  of  man,  Psa. 
22:15;  Prov.  26:23;  Isa.  45:9.  The  ruins 
of  many  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  the 
446 


world  show  little  but  such  fragments  of 
pottery  covering  the  ground;  it  is  usually 
coarse  in  grain,  but  well  glazed.  Such 
fragments  are  used  by  the  poor  in  various 
ways,  if  not  utterlj^  broken  into  bits,  Isa. 
30:14.  At  this  day  it  is  common  to  find 
pieces  of  broken  jars  at  Eastern  wells  and 
pools  to  drink  from,  and  to  see  hot  embers 
and  coals  carried  in  them  from  one  spot  to 
another. 

POT'TAGE.     See  Edo.m  and  Food. 

POT'TER,  a  maker  of  earthenware.  Gen. 
24: 14,  15;  Judg.  7:16,  19;  Psa.  2:9.  Ancient 
Egyptian  paintings  represent  the  potter 
turning  and  shaping,  on  his  small  and  sim- 
ple wheel  made  to  revolve  rapidly  by  the 
foot,  the  lump  of  clay  which  he  had  previ- 


ously kneaded  with  his  feet.  A  pan  of 
water  stands  by  his  side,  with  which  he 
kept  the  clay  moist.  After  the  body  of  the 
vessel  was  worked  into  shape  and  beauty, 
the  handle  was  affixed  to  it,  devices  traced 
upon  it,  and  after  being  coated  with  glaze 
it  was  taken  to  the  oven  and  baked.  The 
potter's  control  over  the  clay  illustrates 
the  sovereignty  of  God,  who  made  us  of 
clay,  and  forms  and  disposes  of  us  as  he 
deems  good,  Jer.  18:1-6;  Rom.  9:20,  21. 
The  ease  with  which  earthen  vessels  are 
broken  furnishes  striking  illustrations  of 
(iod's  power,  Isa.  30:14;  Rev.  2:27. 

POT'TER'S  FIELD.     See  ACELDAM.\. 

POUND,  a  weight  and  a  sum  of  money, 
put  in  the  Old  Testament,  i  Kin.  10:17; 
Ezra  2:69;  Neh.  7:71,  for  the  Hebrew  ma- 
NKH,  which  see;  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Luke  19:12-27,  for  the  Attic  mina, 
which  was  equivalent  to  100  drachmae,  or 
about  $16.    See  Measures. 


POW 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRA 


POW'ER,  2  Chr.  32:9,  force  or  army. 
For  the  use  of  this  word  in  i  Cor.  11:10, 
see  Veil. 

PR.ffiTO'RIUM,  the  headquarters  of  a 
Roman  military  commander  or  governor. 
Three  are  mentioned  in  Scripture:  i.  Mark 
15:  i6,  the  residence  of  the  Roman  governor 
of  Judaea  when  in  Jerusalem ;  in  the  R.  V. 
"  palace ;"  in  the  A.  V.  called  the  "  common 
hall,"  Matt.  27:27, or  "judgment-hall," John 
18:28,  33;  19:9.  This  was  probably  the 
magnificent  palace  erected  by  Herod  the 
Great  on  the  western  hill  of  Jerusalem, 
and  communicating  with  the  temple  on  the 
■eastern  hill  by  a  causeway  across  the  Ty- 
ropoeon  valley.  The  extensive  rectangu- 
lar space  occupied  by  this  palace  contained 
barracks  for  soldiers.  A  military  force 
also  garrisoned  the  fortress  Antonia,  "  the 
castle  "  of  Acts  21  -.54,  37,  etc.,  north  of  the 
temple ;  and  some  regard  this  as  the  prae- 
torium  of  Pilate. — 2.  The  official  residence 
at  Caesarea  of  the  governor  Feli.x,  where 
Paul  was  imprisoned  2  years.  Acts  23:35. 
This  palace  also  was  built  and  formerly 
occupied  by  Herod  the  Great. — 3.  At  Rome, 
Phil.  1 :  13,  in  the  R.  V.  "  praetorian  guard." 
Some  interpret  this  of  the  palace  of  the 
Caesars  on  the  Palatine  hill,  garrisoned  by 
the  emperor's  guard,  called  Praetorians ; 
others  refer  it  to  the  general  camp  of  the 
Praetorian  guard,  which  was  established  by 
Tiberius  just  outside  of  the  city  walls,  on 
the  northeast  of  Rome. 

PRAYER  is  the  offering  of  the  emotions 
and  desires  of  the  soul  to  God,  in  the  name 
and  through  the  mediation  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  John  16:23-27.  It 
is  the  communion  of  the  heart  with  God 
through  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Rom. 
8:26,  27,  and  is  to  the  Christian  the  very 
life  of  the  soul.  Without  this  filial  spirit 
no  one  can  be  a  Christian,  Job  21 :  15;  Psa. 
10:4. 

In  all  ages  God  has  delighted  in  the 
prayers  of  his  saints.  In  the  Mosaic  law 
the  duty  of  prayer  is  taken  for  granted,  as 
an  adjunct  of  sacrifice,  rather  than  directly 
enjoined,  except  where  it  is  prescribed  in 
the  offering  of  the  first-fruits.  Dent.  26:12- 
15.  But  at  the  first,  as  in  later  ages,  public 
prayer  by  the  priests  and  Levites  doubt- 
less accompanied  public  sacrifice,  i  Chr. 
23:30;  Neh.  9:5-38;  11:17;  I-uke  1:10. 
Compare  also  i  Kin.  8 :  22-61,  and  the 
Psalms  of  David  for  temple  worship.  Pray- 
er formed  a  part  of  the  synagogue  services 
in  Jerusalem  and  elsewhere;  and  in  places 
where  a  synagogue  was  not  maintained  a 


place  of  prayer,  sometimes  a  slight  struc- 
ture, and  often  roofless,  was  resorted  to  by 
resident  Jews,  Acts  16:13. 

Pious  men  were  accustomed  to  pray 
thrice  in  the  day,  at  fixed  hours,  Psa.  55:17; 
Dan.  6:10.  See  Hour.  Social,  family, 
and  secret  prayer  were  all  habitual  with 
Bible  saints,  as  well  as  brief  ejaculations 
in  the  midst  of  their  ordinary  business, 
Neh.  2:4;  5:19.  No  uniform  posture  in 
prayer  is  enjoined  in  the  Bible;  standing 
with  the  hands  outspread,  i  Kin.  8:22; 
bowing  the  head.  Gen.  24:26;  sitting  on  the 
ground,  2  Sam.  7:18;  i  Chr.  17:16;  kneel- 
ing, Luke  22:41;  and  prostration  on  the 
ground,  Matt.  26:39,  were  all  practised. 
Prayer  should  be  offered  with  submission 
to  God's  will,  fervently,  perseveringly,  and 
with  a  confiding  reliance  on  God  in  Christ; 
it  should  be  accompanied  by  humble  con- 
fession and  hearty  thanksgiving,  and  with 
supplications  for  all  living  men,  as  well  as 
for  our  friends  and  those  nearest  to  us. 
Habitual  prayer  to  God  is  a  duty  enjoined 
upon  us  by  sound  reason  and  by  right 
affections;  and  he  who  lives  without  it 
thereby  reveals  the  atheism  of  his  heart. 
God  requires  all  men  thus  to  worship  him, 
Ezek.  36:37;  Matt.  7:7-11;  Phil.  4:6; 
I  Tim.  2:1-3;  Jas.  1:5;  and  for  neglecting 
this  duty  there  can  be  no  sufficient  excuse. 
It  is  often  said  that  prayer  cannot  alter  the 
unchangeable  purposes  of  God;  but  the 
great  scheme  of  his  providence  embraces 
every  prayer  that  shall  be  offered  as  well 
as  the  answer  it  shall  receive.  It  is  object- 
ed that  praVer  cannot  increase  his  knowl- 
edge of  our  wants,  nor  his  readiness  to 
supply  them ;  and  that  in  any  case  he  will 
do  what  is  for  the  best.  But  he  deems  it 
best  to  grant  many  blessings  in  answer  to 
prayer  which  otherwise  he  would  with- 
hold :  "  He  will  be  very  gracious  unto  thee 
at  the  voice  of  thy  cry;  when  he  shall  hear 
it  he  will  answer  thee."  The  words  of 
David  will  be  those  of  every  truly  praying 
man:  "  This  poor  man  cried,  and  the  Lord 
heard  him,  and  saved  him  out  of  all  his 
troubles,"  Psa.  34:6. 

The  whole  tenor  of  the  Bible  certifies 
that  God  always  hears  the  prayers  offered 
in  the  right  spirit,  and  many  specific  prom- 
ises taken  literally  seem  to  assure  us  that 
every  such  request  shall  be  granted.  Matt. 
17:20;  21:21,  22;  John  14:13,  14;  16:23. 
But  Christian  experience  as  well  as  com- 
mon sense  show  that  God  cannot  thus 
place  omnipotence  in  the  hand  of  any  crea- 
ture.    It  would  be  a  curse  to  the  suppliant 

447 


PRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRE 


and  to  the  universe.  Nothing  better  can 
be  conceived  than  to  know,  when  we  pour 
out  our  hearts  to  God,  that  infinite  wisdom, 
love,  and  power  direct  the  answer.  The 
true  design  of  these  passages  is  to  encour- 
age the  most  undoubting  assurance  that 
God  hears  every  true  prayer,  and  will 
grant  it  if  it  is  best.  If  not,  we  ought  not 
to  wish  it  granted ;  so  that  every  right  pe- 
tition has  in  it,  "  Not  my  will,  but  thine,  be 
done."  Yet  God  undoubtedly  has  power 
to  awaken  in  a  believer's  heart  the  desire 
for  a  specific  favor  which  He  designs  to 
bestow,  and  to  give  him  an  assurance  of 
His  purpose.  It  was  so  in  the  miracles 
wrought  by  ancient  prophets  and  apostles, 
and  is  so  now  no  doubt  in  occasional  cases, 
though  the  need  of  miracles  is  past.  We 
may  well  rejoice  when  He  thus  testifies 
anew  that  he  is  the  hearer  of  prayer,  but 
must  beware  of  mistaking  our  enthusiasms 
for  the  witness  of  his  Spirit. 

False  and  formal  religion  makes  a  merit 
of  its  prayers,  as  though  "  much  speaking  " 
and  "  vain  repetitions "  could  atone  for 
heartlessness.  Hypocrites  also  are  wont 
to  pray  chiefly  that  they  may  have  praise 
of  men.  These  sins  Christ  reproves  in 
Matt.  6:5-15,  and  gives  to  his  disciples  the 
form  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  as  a  beautiful 
model.  InEph.  6:18;  iThess.  5:17;  i  Tim. 
2:8,  Paul  directs  that  believers  should  pray 
in  all  places  and  at  all  times,  lifting  up 
pure  hands  towards  heaven,  and  blessing 
God  for  all  things,  whether  in  eating,  drink- 
ing, or  whatever  they  do  ;  and  that  every- 
thing be  done  to  the  glory  of  God,  i  Cor. 
10:31.  In  a  word,  our  Saviour  has  recom- 
mended to  us  to  pray  without  ceasing,  Luke 
18:1;  21:36;  and  he  has  set  us  the  e.xam- 
ple,  Mark  1:35;  Luke  3:21;  6:12;  9:29; 
ii:i;  22:44;  see  especially  his  wonderful 
intercessory  prayer,  John  17. 

PREACH'ING,  the  public  and  oral  incul- 
cation of  the  truths  of  religion,  especially 
of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  Isa.  61:1;  Acts  8:4; 
2  Cor.  5:20;  Eph.  3:8.  Public  instruction 
in  religion  was  no  doubt  given  in  the  ear- 
liest ages.  Enoch  prophesied,  Jude  14,  15; 
and  Noah  was  a  preacher  of  righteousness, 
2  Pet.  2:5.  Frequent  instances  of  religious 
addresses  occur  in  the  history  of  Moses, 
the  Judges,  and  the  prophets ;  and  these 
were  to  some  extent  in  connection  with  the 
Jewish  ritual,  Neh.  8.  The  Psalms  sung  in 
the  temple  conveyed  instruction  to  the  peo- 
ple. After  the  Captivity  numerous  syna- 
gogues were  erected,  in  which  the  Word  of 
God  was  read  and  expounded  from  Sab- 
448 


bath  to  Sabbath.  Under  the  gospel  dis- 
pensation, the  preaching  of  Christ  crucified 
by  those  whom  he  calls  to  be  his  ambassa- 
dors is  an  established  ordinance  of  prime 
importance — God's  chief  instrumentality 
for  the  conversion  of  the  world,  Mark  16: 15; 
I  Cor.  1 :2i ;  2  Tim.  2:2;  4:2. 

PREPARA'TION,  a  term  applied  to  the 
6th  day  of  the  week,  because  on  it  prepara- 
tion of  meals,  etc.,  was  made  for  the  ensu- 
ing Sabbath,  which  commenced  at  sunset. 
Matt.  27:62;  Mark  15:42;  Luke  23:54; 
John  19:14,  31,  42.  The  day  on  which 
Christ  was  crucified,  Friday,  the  15th  of 
Nisan,  is  called  "  the  Preparation  of  the 
Passover,"  John  19:14,  because  it  prece- 
ded the  Sabbath  that  occurred  in  Passover 
week. 

PRES'BYTERY,  I  Tim.  4:14,  a  body  of 
elders,  translated  "  elders  "in  Luke  22:66; 
Acts  22:5.     See  Elders. 

PRES'ENTLY,  immediately,  Prov.  12:16; 
Matt.  21:19;    Phil.  2:23.     See   Straigh  r- 

WAV. 

PRESS,  WINE -PRESS,  WINE -FAT, 
PRESS-FAT,  or  VAT,  Prov.  3:10;  Isa.  5:2; 
63:2;  Hag.  2:16.  Wine-presses  were  often 
constructed  on  a  hillside,  and  with  2  parts : 
the  upper  trough,  into  which  the  grapes 
were  thrown,  and  trodden  by  the  bare  feet 
of  men,  and  the  lower  trough,  into  which 


the  expressed  juice  flowed.  Both  are  re- 
ferred to  in  Joel  3:13.  These  vats  were 
sometimes  excavated  in  the  rock,  or  in 
the  ground  and  lined  with  masonry.  Matt. 
21:33.  Robinson  describes  one  which  he 
saw  in  Palestine,  the  upper  vat  being  8  feet 
square  and  15  inches  deep,  and  the  smaller 
vat,  2  feet  below,  4  feet  square  and  3  feet 
deep.  The  treaders  shouted  and  sang,  Isa. 
16:10;  Jer.  25:30,  and  their  garments  and 
skin  became  stained,  Isa.  63 : 1-3 ;  Rev. 
I9-I3-I5'     ^^  such   presses   travellers  in 


PRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRI 


Syria  often  see  one  man,  or  a  company  of 
2  to  5  men,  treading  grapes  in  the  season. 
A  similar  press  was  used  for  olives,  Mic. 
6:15.  The  Hebrew  word  for  wine-press, 
gath,  appears  in  several  names  of  places. 
An  ancient  Egyptian  mode  of  expressing 
grape  juice  was  by  placing  the  grapes  in  a 
bag  set  horizontally  in  a  frame,  and  twisted 
by  several  men,  the  juice  being  caught  in  a 
large  vessel  below.     See  Wine. 

PRESSED  in  spirit.  Acts  18:5,  engrossed 
or  "  constrained  by  the  word,"  R.  V. 

PREVENT',  in  the  A.  V.  means,  not  to 
hinder,  but  to  precede,  Psa.  59: 10;  i  Thess. 
4:15;  to  anticipate,  Psa.  119:147,  148;  Matt. 
17:25  :  or  to  seize,  2  Sam.  22:6;  Job  30:27. 

PRICKS,  the  points  with  which  o.\ -goads 
were  armed,  by  kicking  against  which  a 
refractory  bullock  only  hurt  itself  the  more. 
Hence  a  proverb,  found  in  Greek  and  Lat- 
in as  well  as  in  Hebrew,  applied  to  those 
who  resist  lawful  authority  or  the  power  of 
God,  Acts  9:5,  A.  V. ;  26: 14.  Compare  Job 
15:25,  26.     See  Goad,  Plough. 

PRIDE,  Psa.  31:20,  in  the  R.  V.  plottings. 

PRIEST,  from  presbyter,  elder,  one  who 
officiated  in  the  public  worship  of  God,  es- 
pecially in  making  expiation  for  sin,  being 
"  ordained  for  men  in  things  pertaining  to 
God,  to  offer  both  gifts  and  sacrifices  for 
sins."  The  priesthood  was  not  anne.xed 
to  a  certain  family  till  after  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  law  by  Moses.  Before  that  time 
the  firstborn  of  each  family,  the  fathers,  the 
princes,  the  kings,  were  priests  in  their 
own  cities  and  in  their  own  dwellings. 
Cain  and  Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  and  Job, 
Abimelech  and  Laban,  Isaac  and  Jacob, 
offered  personally  their  own  sacrifices.  In 
the  solemnity  of  the  covenant  made  by  the 
Lord  with  his  people  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai,  Moses  performed  the  office  of  medi- 
ator, and  young  men  were  chosen  from 
among  Israel  to  perform  the  office  of  priests, 
Exod.  24:5.  But  after  the  Lord  had  cho- 
sen the  tribe  of  Levi  to  serve  him  in  his 
tabernacle,  and  the  priesthood  was  an- 
nexed to  the  family  of  Aaron,  the  right  of 
offering  sacrifices  and  oblations  to  God 
was  reserved  to  the  priests  of  this  family. 
Num.  16:40.  The  punishment  of  Uzziah 
king  of  Judah  is  well  known:  having  pre- 
sumed to  offer  incense  to  the  Lord,  he  was 
suddenly  smitten  with  leprosy,  2  Chr.  26: 19. 
See  also  the  case  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  13:7-14. 
However,  it  seems  that  on  certain  occa- 
sions the  Hebrew  prophets  offered  sacri- 
fice to  the  Lord,  especially  before  a  con- 
stant place  of  worship  was  fixed  at  Jerusa- 
29 


lem.  See  i  Sam.  7:9,  where  Samuel,  who 
was  not  a  priest,  offered  a  lamb  for  a  burnt- 
sacrifice  to  the  Lord.  See  also  i  Sam.  9:13; 
16:5;  I  Kin.  18:31,  2,2>- 

The  Lord  having  reserved  to  himself 
the  firstborn  of  Israel  because  he  had  pre- 
served them  from  the  hand  of  the  destroy- 
ing angel  in  Egypt,  by  way  of  exchange 
and  compensation  he  accepted  the  tribe  of 
Levi  for  the  service  of  his  tabernacle,  Num. 
3:41.  Thus  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi  was 
appointed  to  the  sacred  ministry,  but  not 
all  in  the  same  manner;  for  of  the  3  sons 
of  Levi,  Gershom,  Kohath,  and  Merari,  the 
headsof  the  3  great  families,  the  Lord  chose 
the  family  of  Kohath,  and  out  of  this  fam- 
ily the  house  of  Aaron,  to  exercise  the  func- 
tions of  the  priesthood.  All  the  rest  of  the 
family  of  Kohath,  even  the  children  of  Mo- 
ses and  their  descendants,  remained  among 
the  Levites. 

The  high-priest,  who  inherited  his  office 
as  the  eldest  son,  was  at  the  head  of  all  re- 
ligious affairs,  and  was  the  ordinary  judge 
of  all  difficulties  that  belonged  thereto,  and 
even  of  the  general  justice  and  judgment 
of  the  Hebrew  nation,  as  being  at  the  head 
of  all  the  priests  by  whom  this  was  admin- 
istered, Deut.  17:8-12;  19:17;  21:5;  33:8, 
10;  Ezek.  44:24.  He  alone  had  the  privi- 
lege of  entering  the  sanctuary'  once  a  year, 
on  the  day  of  solemn  expiation,  to  make 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  people. 
Lev.  16:2,  etc.  He  was  to  be  exempt  from 
corporal  defect.  In  general,  no  priest  who 
had  any  such  defect  could  offer  sacrifice  or 
enter  the  holy  place  to  present  the  show- 
bread.  But  such  were  to  be  maintained  by 
the  sacrifices  offered  at  the  tabernacle.  Lev. 
21 :  17-22.  The  priests  also  received  a  tithe 
from  the  Levites,  Num.  18:28. 

God  appropriated  to  the  high-priest  the 
oracle  of  his  truth,  so  that  when  he  was 
habited  in  the  proper  garments  of  his 
office,  and  with  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
God  answered  questions  proposed  to  him, 
and  disclosed  to  him  secret  and  future 
things.  He  was  to  marry  only  a  virgin  of 
his  own  people.  Lev.  21:13,  14,  not  even 
the  widow  of  a  priest.  He  was  forbidden 
to  mourn  for  the  death  of  any  of  his  rela- 
tions, even  for  his  father  or  mother,  or  to 
enter  into  any  place  where  a  dead  body 
lay,  that  he  might  not  contract  or  hazard 
the  contraction  of  uncleanness.  Lev.  21 :  10- 
12.  Less  stringent  rules  regulated  the 
mourning  of  the  priests. 

The  priests  served  immediately  at  the 
altar.     They  slew  and  dressed  the  public 

449 


PRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRI 


sacrifices,  or  at  least  it  was  done  by  the 
Levites  under  their  direction.  Private  of- 
ferers slew  their  own  victims,  except  in 
the  case  of  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons. 
Lev.  I.  But  all  offerings  upon  the  altar, 
the  sprinkling  of  blood  included,  were 
made  by  the  priests  alone.  They  kept  up 
a  perpetual  fire  on  the  altar  of  burnt  sacri- 
fices, and  in  the  golden  lamps  in  the  sanc- 
tuary; they  kneaded  the  loaves  of  show- 
bread,  baked  them,  offered  them  on  the 
golden  table  in  the  holy  place,  and  changed 
them  every  Sabbath  day.  Compare  E.xod. 
28;  29;  Lev.  8.  They  were  forbidden  to 
drink  wine  while  on  duty,  Lev.  10:9.  In 
the  time  of  David  a  division  of  the  priests 
was  made  into  24  courses,  which  served 
in  turn  a  week  at  a  time,  i  Chr.  24:1-19; 
2  Chr.  23:18.  During  the  Captivity  this 
arrangement  seems  to  have  been  somewhat 
disordered,  Ezra  2:36-39;  Neh.  7:39-42. 
Every  day,  night  and  morning,  a  priest, 
appointed  by  casting  of  lotsrat  the  begin- 
ning of  the  week,  brought  into  the  sanc- 
tuary a  smoking  censer  of  incense,  and  set 
it  on  the  golden  altar,  otherwise  called  the 
.altar  of  incense,  Luke  1:9. 


The  sacred  dress  of  the  priests  consist- 
ed of  the  following  articles:  short  linen 
drawers ;  a  close-fitting  tunic  of  fine  linen, 
woven  in  square  or  diamond-shaped  fig- 
ures— "  broidered  " — reaching  to  the  feet, 
and  furnished  with  sleeves;  a  girdle  of 
fine  linen,  interwoven  with  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet,  Exod.  28;  39.  Plain  linen 
ephods  are  also  ascribed  to  them,  i  Sam. 
22 :  18 ;  and  a  bonnet  or  turban,  also  of  fine 
linen,  in  many  folds.  The  priests  always 
officiated  with  uncovered  feet.  The  high- 
450 


priest  wore  nearly  the  same  dress  with  the 
priests,  and  4  articles  in  addition:  an  outer 


ANCIENT   EGYPTIAN   PRIEST,   WITH   INCENSE. 

tunic,  called  the  robe  of  the  ephod,  woven 
entire,  blue,  with  an  ornamented  border 
around  the  neck,  and  a  fringe  at  the  bot- 
tom made  up  of  pomegranates  and  golden 
bells :  an  ephod  of  blue  and  purple  and 
scarlet  and  fine  linen,  with  golden  threads 
interwoven,  covering  the  body  from  the 
neck  to  the  thighs;  having  shoulder-pieces 
joiiied  on  the  shoulders  by  clasps  of  gold 
in  which  were  set  onyx-stones  graven  with 
the  names  of  the  12  tribes  of  Israel;  and 
also  a  girdle  of  fine  linen,  woven  with  blue, 
purple,  scarlet,  and  gold :  a  breastplate, 
attached  at  its  4  corners  to  the  ephod,  and 
likewise  bearing  the  names  of  the  12  tribes 
on  12  precious  stones:  and  the  mitre,  a 
high  and  ornamented  turban,  having  on 
the  front  a  gold  plate  with  the  inscription, 
"  HoLiNKSS  TO  THE  LoRD."  Neither  he 
nor  the  priests  wore  their  sacred  dresses 
out  of  the  temple,  as  we  infer  from  Ezek. 
42:^4;  44:17-19:  Acts  23:5. 

The  Lord  had  given  no  lands  of  inher- 
itance to  the  tribe  of  Levi  in  the  Land  of 
Promise.  He  intended  that  they  should 
be  supported  by  the  tithes,  Num.  18:26-28; 
Deut.  14:28;  26:12,  the  first-fruits,  the  offer- 
ings made  in  the  sanctuary,  and  by  their 
share  of  the  sin-offerings  and  thanksgiv- 


PRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


ing-offerings  sacrificed  in  the  sanctuary,  of 
which  certain  parts  were  appropriated  to 
them.  In  the  peace-offerings  they  had  the 
shoulder  and  the  breast,  Lev.  7:3s,  34,  in 
the  sin-offering  they  burned  on  the  altar 
the  fat  that  covers  the  bowels,  the  liver, 
and  the  kidneys;  the  rest  belonged  to 
themselves,  Lev.  7:6,  10.  The  skin  or 
fleece  of  every  sacrifice  also  belonged  to 
them.  When  an  Israelite  sacrificed  any 
animal  for  his  own  use,  he  was  to  give  the 
priest  the  shoulder,  the  stomach,  and  the 
jaws,  Deut.  18:3.  The  priest  had  also  a 
share  of  the  wool  when  sheep  were  shorn, 
Deut.  18:4.  Thus,  though  the  descendants 
of  Levi  had  no  lands  or  inheritances,  their 
temporal  wants  were  moderately  supplied. 
God  provided  them  houses  and  accommo- 
dations by  appointing  48  cities  for  their 
residence.  Num.  35:1-8.  In  the  precincts 
of  these  cities  they  possessed  1,000  cubits 
beyond  the  walls.  Of  these  48  cities,  6 
were  appointed  as  cities  of  refuge  for  those 
who  had  committed  casual  and  involuntary 
manslaughter.  The  priests  had  13  of  these 
cities;  the  others  belonged  to  the  Levites, 
Josh.  21:10-19. 

A  principal  employment  of  the  priests, 
next  to  attending  on  the  sacrifices  and  the 
temple  service,  was  the  instruction  of  the 
people  and  the  deciding  of  controversies, 
distinguishing  the  several  sorts  of  leprosy, 
divorce  causes,  the  waters  of  jealousy, 
vows,  causes  relating  to  the  law,  and  un- 
cleanness,  etc.  They  publicly  blessed  the 
people  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  In  time 
of  war  their  duty  was  to  carry  the  ark  of 
the  covenant,  to  consult  the  Lord,  to  sound 
the  holy  trumpets,  and  to  encourage  the 
army,  Num.  10:8,  9;  Deut.  20:2;  2  Chr. 
13:10-12,  14. 

After  the  division  of  the  kingdom  under 
Rehoboam,  B.  C.  975,  the  true  Aaronic 
priests,  and  the  Levites,  left  the  dominions 
of  Jeroboam— who  established  an  idola- 
trous priesthood— and  settled  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  I  Kin.  12:26-32;  13:33; 
2  Chr.  11:13-15;  13:9. 

The  "  chief  priests  "  of  the  Gospels  and 
Acts  were  heads  of  the  courses  and  ex- 
high-priests,  the  high-priesthood  at  that 
time  being  no  longer  held  for  life,  but  ob- 
tained by  appointment  and  subject  to  fre- 
quent changes. 

The  priesthood  of  Christ  is  the  substance 
and  truth,  of  which  that  of  the  Israelites 
was  but  a  shadow  and  figure.  Christ,  the 
everlasting  priest  according  to  the  order  of 
Melchizedek,  abides  for  ever,  as  Paul  ob- 


serves ;  whereas  the  priests  according  to 
the  order  of  Aaron  were  mortal,  and  there- 
fore could  not  continue  long,  Heb.  7.  The 
Lord,  to  e.\press  to  the  Hebrews  what 
great  favors  he  would  confer  on  them,  said 
he  would  make  them  kings  and  priests, 
Exod.  19:6;  and  Peter  repeats  this  prom- 
ise to  Christians,  or  rather,  he  tells  them 
that  they  are  in  truth  what  Moses  prom- 
ised to  Israel,  i  Pet.  2:5,  9.  See  also  Rev. 
1:6.  In  an  important  sense  every  Chris- 
tian offers  himself  a  spiritual  sacrifice,  "  ac- 
ceptable to  God  through  Jesus  Christ;"  but 
in  the  Christian  church  there  is  no  priest 
to  make  expiation  for  sin  bj'  a  sacrifice  but 
Christ  alone,  Heb.  9:11-26. 

PRINCE,  Prov.  19 : 6,  a  liberal  man. 
"  Prince  of  the  host,"  Dan.  8:11,  Jehovah; 
in  ver.  25  "the  Prince  of  princes"  seems 
to  denote  Christ,  Josh.  5:14;  Rev.  1:5.  In 
Dan.  11:8,  for  "princes,"  read  "molten 
images." 

PRINT'ED,  Job  19:23,  inscribed. 
PRIS'CA,  aficteii/,  Rom.  16:3,  R.V.;  2  Tim. 
4:19,  and  its  diminutive  PRISCIL'LA,  Acts 
18:2,  18;  1  Cor.  16:19,  the  name  of  Aquila's 
wife,  whose  hospitality  and  Biblical  teach- 
ing to  ApoUos  and  wise  counsels  to  the 
young  pastor  Timothy  show  how  useful  a 
mother  in  Israel  may  be. 

PRIS'ON.  The  Egyptians  had  prisons 
in  charge  of  military  officers.  Gen.  39:20; 
40:3.  Dry  wells  or  pits  were  sometimes 
used  as  places  of  confinement,  Gen.  37:24; 
Jer.  38:6-11.  Two  persons  were  put  "in 
ward  "  during  the  wilderness  journeys  of 
the  Israelites,  Lev.  24:12;  Num.  15:34.  But 
imprisonment  as  a  punishment  was  not 
prescribed  by  the  Mosaic  law.  In  the 
times  of  the  kings,  however,  a  prison  was 
connected  with  the  palace,  i  Kin.  22:27; 
Jer.  32:2;  37:21;  compare  Neh.  3:25.  This 
was  the  case  with  the  Herods  also,  Matt. 
14:3-11;  Acts  12:4.  By  the  Romans  the 
fortress  Antonia  was  so  used,  and  the  prae- 
torium  at  Caesarea,  Acts  23:10,  35.  The 
sacerdotal  authorities  also  had  a  prison  in 
Jerusalem,  Acts  5:18-23;  26:10. 
PROBA'TION.  See  Prove. 
PROCH'ORUS,  leader  of  the  choir,  one  of 
the  7  original  deacons,  Acts  6:5,  of  whom 
nothing  more  is  known. 

PROGNOS'TICATORS,  Isa.  47:13,  Chal- 
daeans  who  pretended  to  foretell  future 
events  by  the  varying  aspects  of  the  moon, 
or  month  by  month. 

PROM'ISE,  used  by  Paul  to  denote  the 
spiritual  gifts  of  God,  chiefly  the  Messiah, 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  fulness  of  gospel 

451 


PRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


blessings,  of  which  an  assurance  was  given 
to  Abraham  and  other  saints  in  behalf  of 
themselves  and  of  believers  who  should 
come  after  them,  Rom.  4:13,  14;  Gal.  3:14- 
29.  The  "children  of  the  promise"  are 
either  the  posterity  of  Isaac  and  Jacob,  as 
distinguished  from  Ishmael  and  Esau, 
Rom.  9:8-13,  Jews  converted  to  Christian- 
ity, or  all  true  believers  who  by  faith  lay 
hold  on  the  promise  of  salvation  in  Christ. 
In  Heb.  11:39,  "  promise  "  means  the  thing 
promised,  Acts  i  :4.  The  "  e.xceeding  great 
and  precious  promises  "  of  God  include 
all  good  things  for  this  life  and  the  future, 
whicli  are  infallibly  secured  to  his  people 
in  Christ,  2  Cor.  1:20;  i  Tim.  4:8;  2  Pet. 
1:4.  On  the  ground  of  the  infinite  merits 
of  their  Redeemer,  infinite  love,  unbounded 
wisdom,  and  almighty  power  are  pledged 
for  their  benefit;  and  having  given  them 
his  only  Son,  God  will  with  him  freelj^  give 
them  every  inferior  blessing  he  sees  to  be 
desirable  for  them,  Rom.  8:32. 

PROP'ER,  Heb.  11:23,  goodly  or  hand- 
some. In  I  Chr.  29:3;  Acts  1:19;  i  Cor. 
7:7,  it  means  one's  own. 

PROPH'ET.  The  Hebrew  term  thus  ren- 
dered seems  to  mean  a  poiirer  forth,  i.  e., 
of  communications  received  from  God. 
Two  other  Hebrew  terms  meaning  seer  a.re 
often  applied  to  men  thus  commissioned, 
I  Chr.  29:29.  The  general  meaning  of  the 
English  word  prophet,  which  is  transferred 
from  the  Greek,  is  a  speaker  for  another, 
especially  an  utterer  of  the  will  of  God. 
Thus  Abraham  is  called  a  prophet,  Gen. 
20:7,  and  Aaron  the  prophet  of  Moses, 
Exod.  7:1.  The  special  but  more  frequent 
meaning  of  the  word  is  a  foreteller  of  fu- 
ture events,  which  the  expounders  of  God's 
will  were  often  empowered  by  him  to  re- 
veal. Prophecy  in  this  sense,  the  fore- 
telling of  future  events  by  inspiration  from 
God,  is  verj'  different  from  a  sagacious  and 
happy  conjecture  as  to  futurity,  and  from 
a  vague  and  equivocal  oracle,  without  any 
certain  meaning.  A  true  prophecy  can 
come  only  from  God,  and  is  the  highest 
proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  message 
of  which  it  is  a  part,  Isa.  41 :2i-23;  45:21 ; 
46:9,  10.  A  true  prophecy  may  be  known 
by  these  marks :  being  announced  at  a 
suitable  time  before  the  event  it  foretells; 
having  a  particular  and  exact  agreement 
with  that  event ;  being  such  as  no  human 
sagacity  or  foresight  could  produce;  and 
being  delivered  by  one  claiming  to  be  un- 
der the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty.  Manv 
of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  foretold 
452 


events  ages  before  they  occurred— events 
of  which  there  was  then  no  apparent  jirob- 
ability,  and  the  occurrence  of  which  depend- 
ed on  innumerable  contingencies,  invol- 
ving the  history  of  things  and  the  volitions 
of  persons  not  then  in  existence ;  and  yet 
these  predictions  were  fulfilled  at  the  time 
and  place  and  in  tiie  manner  prophesied. 
Such  were  the  predictions  respecting  the 
coming  and  crucifixion  of  the  Messiah,  the 
dispersion  and  preservation  of  the  Jews, 
etc.  The  Scripture  proi)hecies  are  a  scheme 
of  vast  extent,  the  very  earliest  predictions 
reaching  down  to  the  end  of  the  world's 
history — a  scheme  gradually  and  harmoni- 
ously developed  from  age  to  age,  and  by 
many  diflferent  persons,  some  of  them  not 
fully  apprehending,  and  "searching  dili- 
gently what  the  Spirit  of  Christ  which  was 
in  them  did  signify,"  i  Pet.  i:n,  the  whole 
manifestly  the  work  of  Jehovah,  and  mar- 
vellous in  our  eyes.  A  degree  of  obscurity 
rests  on  the  prophetic  writings,  which  pa- 
tient and  prayerful  study  alone  can  dispel, 
while  those  which  are  yet  unfulfilled  must 
await  the  coming  of  the  events  which  will 
make  all  at  length  clear.  Many  predic- 
tions relating  primarily  to  events  and  de- 
liverances near  at  hand  were  also  designed 
of  God  as  sure  prophecies  of  yet  more  illus- 
trious events  in  the  future ;  and  events  re- 
mote from  each  other  in  time  are  by  the 
prophet  beheld  and  described  as  side  by 
side,  as  are  near  and  remote  objects  in  a 
landscape  painting.  Thus  in  Isaiah  10  and 
n  the  deliverance  of  Judah  from  the  As- 
syrians is  connected  with  the  deliverance 
wrought  by  the  Messiah;  in  Zechariah  9 
the  triumphs  of  Alexander  the  (ireat  are 
connected  with  the  Messiah's  coming;  in 
Joel  2:28-31  the  Pentecostal  effusion  of  the 
Spirit  is  connected  w^ith  the  last  day,  as 
also  by  Peter,  Acts  2;  and  in  Matthew  24 
events  connected  with  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  distinctive  features  of  the 
end  of  the  world  are  blended  in  the  gen- 
eral view  of  the  coming  of  Christ.  Re- 
specting the  New  Testament  phrase,  "  This 
was  done  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  see 
Fulfilled. 

The  Old  Testament  prophets,  of  whom 
Moses  was  a  noble  example,  Deut.  18:15, 
18,  were  special  agents  of  Jehovah,  raised 
up  and  sent  as  occasion  required,  to  incite 
to  duty,  convict  of  sin,  call  to  repentance 
and  reformation,  instruct  kings,  and  de- 
nounce against  nations  the  judgments  of 
God,  2  Kin.  17:1.^.  During  the  period  of 
the  Judges,  the  priests  and  Levites  had  ap- 


PRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


parently  become  degenerate  and  corrupt. 
A  reformation  was  needed.  To  effect  this 
Samuel  was  raised  up,  i  Sam.  3:20,  and 
from  his  time  the  prophets  appear  as  a  reg- 
ular and  important  order  in  the  Hebrew 
theocracy.  Saul,  David,  and  Solomon, 
though  partakers  of  the  prophetic  gift,  were 
admonished  by  them ;  compare  Acts  2 :  29- 
31.  After  the  division  of  the  kingdom  they 
were  active  in  Israel,  from  which  the  true 
priests  of  the  Lord  withdrew,  2  Chr.  11:13, 
and  where  the  prophets  preserved  to  some 
extent  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah,  i  Kin. 
18;  19:10,  14,  18;  2  Kin.  4:9,  23,  42;  2  Chr. 
28 : 8-15.  The  most  illustrious  of  the  proph- 
ets of  Israel  were  Elijah  and  Elisha,  Jonah, 
Amos,  and  Hosea.  In  Judah  a  series  of 
prophets  declared  the  will  of  God  to  suc- 
cessive kings,  and  to  the  priests  and  peo- 
ple. Some  prophets  were  also  historians, 
2  Chr.  9:29;  26:22;  32:32.  Most  of  the 
prophets  whose  writings  have  been  pre- 
served belonged  to  the  southern  kingdom. 
There  were  false  and  idolatrous  prophets, 
Jer.  23;  28,  and  some  who,  though  true  in- 
terpreters of  the  will  of  God,  were  disobe- 
dient in  life.  Num.  22-24 !  but  most  of  the 
genuine  prophets  of  God  were  humble, 
faithful,  self-denying,  fearless  men,  2  Kin. 
1:8;  5:15,  16,  often  persecuted  and  slain. 
Acts  7:52;  Heb.  11:32-38;  Jas.  5:10,  but 
exerting  a  powerful  influence  as  witnesses 
for  God,  and  forming  a  link  between  the 
Mosaic  and  Christian  dispensation. 

Fervid  and  vehement  utterance  some- 
times burst  from  persons  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Spirit  of  God;  speech  similar 
in  mode,  though  widely  different  in  matter, 
might  be  called  prophesying  when  it  came 
from  persons  filled  with  an  evil  spirit,  as 
Saul,  I  Sam.  18: 10. 

"  Schools  of  the  prophets  "  are  first  men- 
tioned in  Samuel's  time,  and  may  have 
been  founded  by  him.  One  was  then  es- 
tablished at  Ramah,  i  Sam.  19:19,  20;  later 
we  find  them  at  Gilgal,  Bethel,  Jericho,  and 
elsewhere,  2  Kin.  2:1,  3,  5;  4:38;  6:1,  2. 
Under  the  superintendence  of  an  elderly 
prophet,  styled  "father"  or  "master," 
I  Sam.  10:12;  2  Kin.  2:3,  young  men  were 
instructed  in  the  Law  and  its  interpreta- 
tion, and  in  music  and  sacred  poetry,  both 
of  which  were  always  associated  with 
prophecy,  Exod.  15:20,  21;  Judg.  4:4;  5:1; 
I  Sam.  10:5;  I  Chr.  25:1-6;  2  Kin.  3:14,  15. 
Though  this  training  might  fit  men  to  be- 
come the  instruments  of  God,  the  prophetic 
gift  of  inspiration  was  something  outside 
and  independent  of  it,  having  been  con- 


ferred, e.  g.,  on  Amos,  who  had  received 
no  prophetic  education,  Amos  7:14,  15. 

The  prophets  received  their  messages 
from  God,  sometimes  in  visions,  trances, 
and  dreams.  Compare  Num.  24:2-16;  Isa. 
6;  Joel  2:28;  Acts  10:11,  12;  Rev.  1:10-20. 
These  revelations  were  at  times  attended 
with  overpowering  manifestations  of  the 
Godhead,  and  at  other  times  were  simply 
breathed  into  the  mind  by  the  Spirit  of 
God.  Their  messages  were  delivered  to 
the  kings,  princes,  and  priests  whom  they 
most  concerned,  or  to  the  people  at  large, 
in  writing,  or  by  word  of  mouth  and  in 
public  places,  often  with  miracles,  or  with 
symbolic  actions  designed  to  explain  and 
enforce  them,  Isa.  20;  Jer.  7:2;  19;  Ezek. 
3:10. 

Besides  scattered  prophetic  utterances, 
the  Old  Testament  contains  the  inspired 
writings  of  16  of  t]ie  Hebrew  prophets,  4 
of  whom,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
Daniel,  are  called  the  greater  prophets, 
and  the  other  12  the  minor  prophets.  See 
each  name  in  its  place  for  further  particu- 
lars. 

The  canonical  prophets  cover  about  430 
years,  from  B.  C.  850  to  420.  See  Table 
IN  THE  Appendix. 

Some  time  after  the  close  of  the  Old 
Testament  canon  the  Jews  grouped  their 
Scriptures  into  3  grand  divisions,  the  2d 
being  styled  "the  Prophets,"  Luke  24:44. 

Prophets  are  represented  as  extinct  in 
I  Mace.  4:46;  9:27;  14:41,  and  Ecclus. 
36: 15.  Prophetic  inspiration  was  conferred 
on  Zacharias  and  Simeon,  Luke  1:67-79; 
2:25-32.  The  prophetic  order  was  again 
signally  represented  by  John  the  Baptist, 
Matt.  11:7-18;  Mark  1:2-8;  Luke  3:2. 
Christ,  of  whom  all  the  prophets  bore  wit- 
ness, Luke  24:27,  44;  Acts  10:43;  i  Pet. 
1:10,  II,  is  eminently  the  Prophet  of  his 
church  in  all  ages,  Deut.  18:15-19;  Acts 
3:22-24,  revealing  to  them,  by  his  inspired 
servants,  by  himself,  and  by  his  Spirit,  all 
we  know  of  God  and  immortality.  His 
apostles  exercised  a  prophetic  activity  as 
inspired  teachers  for  God,  bearing  "  the 
testimony  of  Jesus,"  Rev.  19:10,  and  fore- 
telling future  events.  They  were  peculiar- 
ly privileged  above  all  the  Old  Testament 
prophets  in  having  seen  the  Messiah,  Matt. 
13:16,  17.  The  writer  of  the  Revelation  is 
the  counterpart  of  the  Old  Testament 
prophets  to  whom  visions  of  the  future 
were  revealed.  In  the  apostolic  church  the 
"  prophets  "  were  a  class  of  men  supernat- 
urally  endowed,  and  standing  next  to  the 

453 


PRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


apostles,  I  Cor.  12:28;  Eph.  4:11.  They 
seem  to  have  spoken  from  immediate  inspi- 
ration, whether  in  reference  to  the  future, 
as  Agabus,  Acts  11:28;  21:10,  11,  or  to  cur- 
rent time,  as  in  the  mission  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  Acts  13:1-3,  or  in  publicly  ex- 
pounding the  mind  of  the  Spirit  or  the 
oracles  of  God  already  given  as  to  doctrine 
and  practice.  Acts  15:27,  28,  32;  compare 

1  Cor.  11:4,5;  12:10,  11;  14:1,3-6,  22-26, 
29-33;  Eph.  3:5. 

The  Greeks  gave  to  their  poets  the  name 
of  "prophets"  or  interpreters  "of  the  mu- 
ses;" and  in  this  sense  Paul  applies  the 
term  to  the  poet  Aratus,  Tit.  i :  12. 

PROPH'ETESS,  the  wife  of  a  prophet, 
Isa.  8:3,  or  a  woman  who  has  the  gift  of 
prophecy,  as  in  the  Old  Testament  Miriam, 
Exod.  15:20,  Deborah,  Judg.  4:4,  Huldah, 

2  Kin.  22 :  14,  and  apparently  Hannah, 
1  Sam.  2:1;  in  the  New  Testament  Anna, 
Luke  2:36-38,  Elisabeth  and  Marj'  for  a 
time,  Luke  1:41-55.  The  4  daughters  of 
Philip  the  evangelist  "  did  prophesy,"  Acts 
21:9;  compare  Acts  2:17,  18;  i  Cor.  11:5. 
Noadiah  was  a  false  prophetess,  Neh.  6: 14. 

PROPITIA'TION,  the  offering  which  ap- 
peases the  wrath  of  one  against  whom  an 
offence  has  been  committed.  Christ  is 
"the  propitiation  for  our  sins,"  Rom.  3:25, 
inasmuch  as  his  sacrifice  alone  removes 
the  obstacles  which  prevented  the  mercy 
of  God  from  saving  sinners,  and  appeases 
the  just  wrath  of  the  law,  i  John  2:2;  4:10. 
The  same  Greek  word  is  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  to  denote  an  "  atonement,"  Num. 
5:8;  a  "sin-offering,"  Ezek.  44:27;  and  the 
covering  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Lev. 
16:14;  Heb.  9:5.    See  Mercy-seat. 

PROS'ELYTE,  a  new  comer ;  among  the 
Jews  a  convert  from  heathenism  to  Juda- 
ism. The  Mosaic  law,  and  afterwards  the 
prophets,  enjoined  kind  treatment  of  the 
"stranger" — Septiiagint,  prosclutos — i.  e., 
one  not  born  an  Israelite  but  dwelling  in 
Israel,  Lev.  19:33,  34;  Deut.  10:18,  19; 
Jer.  22:3;  Zech.  7:10.  He  was  required  to 
keep  the  Sabbath,  E.xod.  20:10,  and  to  ab- 
stain from  idolatry  and  blasphemy,  Lev. 
20:2;  24:16;  was  entitled  to  protection  in 
the  cities  of  refuge.  Num.  35:15,  and  might 
celebrate  the  day  of  atonement.  Lev.  16:29, 
the  feast  of  weeks  and  of  tabernacles,  Deut. 
16:11,  14,  but  could  not  keep  the  passover 
without  submitting  to  circumcision,  Exod. 
12:48;  Num.  9:14 — thus  completely  joining 
himself  to  the  congregation  of  Israel  and 
engaging  to  observe  their  law  in  all  its 
particulars.  The  dispersion  of  the  Jews 
454 


through  many  lands  in  the  period  between 
the  Captivity  and  the  rise  of  Christianity 
made  their  faith  known  among  the  heathen, 
many  of  whom,  especially  women,  were 
won  to  a  more  or  less  complete  adoption  of 
it,  Acts  2:10;  16:13;  compare  Esth.  8:7. 
The  Jews  in  their  zeal  to  make  proselytes 
sometimes  employed  objectionable  means. 
Thus  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  John 
Hyrcanus  forcibly  proselyted  the  Idumae- 
ans,  B.  C.  130.  And  our  Saviour  rebukes 
the  Pharisees  for  their  blind  zeal  in  making 
proselytes  to  ceremonial  Judaism  without 
caring  for  the  circumcision  of  the  heart, 
Matt.  23 :  15 ;  Rom.  2 :  28,  29.  The  later  rab- 
bins, 2d  century  A.  D.  and  onward,  classify 
proselytes  as,  i.  "proselytes  of  the  gate," 
Exod.  20:10,  who,  without  being  circum- 
cised or  adopting  the  full  Jewish  ritual, 
embraced  the  monotheism  and  the  Mes- 
sianic hopes  of  the  Jews,  and  observed 
what  the  rabbins  called  "  the  7  precepts  of 
Noah  " — against  idolatry,  blasphemy,  hom- 
icide, incest,  robbery,  resistance  to  magis- 
trates, and  eating  blood — or  animals  with- 
out shedding  their  blood.  To  this  class 
probably  belonged  the  centurion  of  Luke 
7,  the  Greeks  of  John  12:20,  Cornelius, 
Acts  10,  and  possibU'  other  non-Jewish  per- 
sons mentioned  as  "devout"  and  "fearing 
God."  2.  "  Proselytes  of  righteousness," 
i.  e.,  complete  proselytes,  who  bound  them- 
selves to  a  full  observance  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  by  circumcision,  baptism,  and  an 
offering  obtained  all  the  rights  of  Jews  by 
birth,  whom  they  often  exceeded  in  fanat- 
icism. Matt.  23:15;  compare  Acts  13:50. 
Many  proselytes  became  converts  to  Chris- 
tianity, Acts  6:5;  13:43;  16:14;  17:4;  18:7. 
PROVE  has  2  meanings :  to  verify  or  de- 
monstrate, Acts  9:22;  25:7;  and  to  test  or 
make  trial  of,  Exod.  16:4;  20:20;  Luke 
14 :  19.  Our  word  probation  usually  has 
this  2d  meaning.  Adam  was  placed  on 
probation,  and  fell,  Gen.  2:15-17;  3:1-6; 
and  every  child  of  Adam  is  on  trial,  Psa. 
7:9;  11:4,  with  the  opportunity  of  turning 
to  God  and  being  saved.  Job  33:14-30; 
Prov.  28: 13 ;  1  John  1  .g.  Probation  implies 
a  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  of  the  obliga- 
tion to  obey  conscience,  and  of  the  desert 
of  punishment  for  disobedience ;  a  period 
of  temptation  and  of  divine  aids  to  holi- 
ness, and  the  final  acceptance  or  continued 
rejection  of  the  divine  warnings  against 
sin  and  the  divine  calls  to  turn  from  sin 
and  live.  Scripture  gives  no  sanction,  but 
decided  contradiction,  to  the  idea  that  pro- 
bation in  any  case  continues  beyond  this 


PRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRU 


life,  Prov.  1:24-31;  Matt.  25:10;  Rom.  2:12- 
16;  Rev.  22:11;  compare  Eccl.  11:3.  A 
distinct  knowledge  of  the  way  of  salvation 
is  not  necessary  before  one  can  exercise 
that  godly  sorrow  for  sin  and  that  cast- 
ing one's  self  on  the  mercy  of  God  which 
insure  salvation;  for  he  imparted  these 
saving  graces  to  multitudes  in  Old  Testa- 
ment times  who  had  no  clear  knowledge 
of  Christ,  and  to  many,  we  may  trust,  in 
heathen  lands.  Acts  10:35;  Rom.  2:12,  13. 

PROVERBS  OF  Solomon,  one  of  the 
poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament;  a 
collection  of  pointed  and  sententious  moral 
maxims,  the  fruit  of  human  sagacity  and 
experience,  but  above  all,  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  God.  Solomon,  who  uttered  3,000 
proverbs,  i  Kin.  4:32;  Eccl.  12:9,  is  the 
chief  author,  about  B.  C.  1000 ;  but  the  book, 
which  may  have  been  compiled  in  its  pres- 
ent form  in  Hezekiah's  reign,  Prov.  25:1, 
contains  proverbs  of  later  date  and  other 
authorship  than  Solomon.  There  is  no 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  whose  canoni- 
cal authority  is  better  attested,  and  the 
New  Testament  often  quotes  or  alludes  to 
it;  see  Rom.  12:20;  i  Thess.  5:15;  Heb. 
12:5,  6;  Jas.  4:6;  I  Pet.  4:8;  2  Pet.  2:22. 
Its  "  winged  words  "  are  a  rich  storehouse 
of  heavenly  wisdom,  and  few  questions 
can  arise  in  actual  life  on  which  they  do 
not  shed  light.  A  missionary  in  India  says 
that  no  book  in  the  Bible  is  so  popular 
among  the  natives  as  this,  being  wonder- 
fully adapted  to  the  customs  and  needs  of 
Oriental  people. 

Its  principal  parts  are  as  follows: 
I  Ch.  I  to  9.  A  connected  series  of  prov- 
erbs commending  and  describing  true  wis- 
dom, which  comes  from  above  and  begins 
in  the  fear  of  God;  with  warnings  against 
folly. 

2.  Ch.  10  to  22:17.  A.  collection  of  sep- 
arate ethical  and  practical  maxims,  with 
frequent  reference  to  the  Lord  as  the  wit- 
ness and  recompenser  of  human  conduct. 

3.  Ch.  22:18  to  24:22.  A  connected  se- 
ries commending  justice  and  prudence. 

4.  Ch.  24:23-34.  Unconnected  sayings  of 
several  sages. 

5.  Ch.  25  to  29.  Another  collection  of 
proverbs  by  Solomon,  copied  out  by  the 
men  of  Hezekiah. 

6.  Ch.  30.  "  The  words  of  Agur  the  son 
of  Jakeh,"  affording  examples  of  the  enig- 
matic proverbs  so  popular  in  the  East. 

7.  Ch.  31 : 1-9.  "  King  Lemuel's  "  exhor- 
tations to  temperance  and  justice. 

8.  Ch.  31:10-31.     An  alphabetic  acrostic 


poem,  setting  forth  the  qualities  and  praise 
of  a  virtuous  woman. 

PROVIDENCE,  Acts  24:2,  a  superintend- 
ing and  forecasting  care.  The  providence 
of  God  upholds  and  governs  every  created 
thing.  Its  operation  is  coextensive  with 
the  universe,  and  as  unceasing  as  the  flow 
of  time.  All  his  attributes  are  engaged  in 
it.  He  provideth  for  the  raven  his  food, 
and  satisfieth  the  desire  of  every  living 
thing.  The  Bible  shows  us  all  nature  look- 
ing up  to  him  and  depending  upon  him, 
Job  38:41;  Psa.  104;  145:15,  16;  147:8,  9; 
and  uniformly  declares  that  every  occur- 
rence, as  well  as  every  being,  is  perfectly 
controlled  by  him.  There  is  no  such  thing 
as  chance  in  the  universe;  "  the  lot  is  cast 
into  the  lap,  but  the  whole  disposing  there- 
of is  of  the  Lord,"  Prov.  16:33.  Not  a 
sparrow,  nor  a  hair  of  the  head,  falls  to  the 
ground  without  his  knowledge,  Isa.  14:26, 
27;  Matt.  10:29,  30;  Acts  17:24-29.  Noth- 
ing that  was  not  too  minute  for  God  to  cre- 
ate is  too  minute  for  him  to  preserve  and 
control.  The  history  of  each  man,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  nations,  and  the  progress  of  the 
church  of  Christ  reveal  at  every  step  the 
hand  of  Him  who  "  worketh  all  things  after 
the  counsel  of  his  own  will." 

PROVINCE,  I,  is  probably  used  in  the 
sense    of    "tribe"    in     i    Kin.    20:14-19. 

2.  Elsewhere  it  denotes  the  divisions  of 
the  Chaldaean  Empire,  Dan.  2:49,  and  of 
the  Persian  Empire,  Ezra  2:1;   Esth.  1:1, 

3,  22,  these  latter  being  smaller  sections  of 
the  satrapies,  each  having  its  own  govern- 
or. 3.  Acts  23:34;  25:1.  After  the  battle 
of  Actium,  B.  C.  27,  Augustus  divided  the 
Roman  provinces  into  senatorial  and  im- 
perial provinces,  assigning  to  the  Senate 
those  that  were  easily  governed,  and  re- 
taining the  turbulent  for  himself.  Over  a 
senatorial  province  a  proconsul,  A.  V. 
"deputy,"  with  purely  civil  powers,  was 
yearly  appointed  by  the  Senate.  An  im- 
perial province  was  ruled  by  a  legate  or 
president,  or  in  some  cases  by  a  procura- 
tor, A.  V.  "  governor,"  appointed  by  the 
emperor.  Among  the  imperial  provinces 
was  Syria,  of  which  Judaea  was  a  sub-prov- 
ince governed  by  a  procurator,  who  was 
assisted  in  his  judicial  functions  by  a 
"council,"  Acts  25:1,  12.  It  was  a  Roman 
citizen's  right  to  appeal  from  a  provincial 
governor  to  the  emperor,  ver.  11. 

PROVOKE',  in  2  Cor.  9:2;  Heb.  10:24, 
challenge  or  stimulate. 

PRU'DENT,  skilful,  Isa.  lo :  13 ;  Matt. 
II  :25;  Luke  10:21. 

455 


PSA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PSA 


PSALMS,  THE  BOOK  OF.  The  Hebrew 
name  for  this  book  is  tehil-lim,  praises, 
though  a  part  of  the  book  is  really  ele- 
giac. Many  of  the  psalms  have  the  su- 
perscription mizmbr,  a  poem,  song.  This 
word  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint  by 
psalmos,  that  is,  a  song  sung  to  music,  a 
lyric  poem.  The  Greek  psalterion  means 
a  stringed  instrument ;  hence  by  a  meta- 
phor the  book  of  Psalms  is  called  Psalter. 
For  the  poetical  characteristics  of  the 
Psalms  see  Poetry. 

Cl.\ssification.  —  Some  writers  have 
classified  the  psalms  according  to  their  po- 
etic character,  into  odes,  elegies,  etc.  A 
preferable  method  is  to  divide  them  ac- 
cording to  their  contents.  In  this  way  they 
have  been  arranged  in  7  classes. 

I.  Hymns  in  jjraise  of  Jehovah  ;  tehillim 
in  the  proper  sense.  These  are  directed 
to  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  all  nature  and 
the  Creator  of  the  universe,  Psa.  8,  104;  as 
the  protector  and  patron  of  Israel,  Psa.  20, 
29,  :h2»  or  of  individuals,  with  thanksgiving 
for  deliverance  from  evils,  Psa.  18,  30,  46, 
47;  or  they  refer  to  the  more  special  attri- 
butes of  Jehovah,  Psa.  90,  139.  These 
Psalms  express  thoughts  of  the  highest 
sublimity  in  respect  to  God,  providence, 
redemption,  etc. 

II.  Temple  hymns;  sung  at  the  conse- 
cration of  the  temple,  the  entrance  of  the 
ark,  etc.,  or  intended  for  the  temple  ser- 
vice, Psa.  24, 132.  So  also  "  pilgrim  songs," 
sung  by  those  who  came  up  to  worship  in 
the  temple,  etc ;  as,  for  e.vample,  the  "  songs 
of  degrees,"  Psa.  120-134.     See  Degrees. 

III.  Religious  and  moral  songs  of  a  gen- 
eral character,  containing  the  poetical  ex- 
pression of  emotions  and  feelings,  and 
therefore  subjective ;  as,  for  e.xample,  con- 
fidence in  God,  Psa.  23,  62,  125;  devoted- 
ness  to  God,  Psa.  16;  longing  for  the  wor- 
ship of  the  temple,  Psa.  42,  43;  prayers  for 
the  forgiveness  of  sin,  etc.  To  this  class 
belong  the  penitential  Psalms,  Psa.  6,  25, 
32,  38,  51,  130,  143.  Also  didactic  songs; 
the  poetical  e.xpression  of  some  truth,  ma.x- 
im,  etc.,  Psa.  i,  34,  128;  Psa.  1.5,  32,  50,  etc. 
This  is  a  numerous  class. 

IV.  Elegiac  Psalms,  that  is,  lamentations, 
psalms  of  complaint,  generally  united  with 
prayer  for  help. 

V.  Messianic  Psalms,  as  2,  8,  16,  22,  40, 
45.  69,  72,  97,  no,  118. 

VI.  Historical  Psalms,  in  which  the  an- 
cient history  of  the  Israelites  is  repeated 
in  a  hortatory  manner,  Psa.  78,  105,  106, 
114. 

456 


VII.  Imprecatory  Psalms,  exhibiting  the 
justice  of  God  as  pledged  to  punish  impen- 
itent opposers  of  his  kingdom,  Psa.  35,  52, 
58,  59,  69,  109,  137. 

But  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  perfect 
arrangement,  because  some  Psalms  belong 
in  part  to  2  or  more  difTerent  classes.  Be- 
sides the  proper  Messianic  Psalms,  predic- 
tions of  the  Messiah  are  widely  scattered 
through  this  book,  and  the  attention  of  the 
devout  reader  is  continually  attracted  by 
passages  foretelling  His  character  and  His 
works.  Not  a  few  of  these  are  alluded  to 
in  the  New  Testament;  and  it  is  unques- 
tionable that  the  language  and  structure  of 
manj'  others  not  quoted  were  intended  to 
bear  witness  to  the  Son  of  God.  David 
himself  was  an  eminent  type  of  the  Saviour, 
and  many  events  of  his  life  shadowed  forth 
his  Son  and  Lord.  The  mention  of  these 
in  the  inspired  writings  is  not  undesigned; 
the  recorded  trials  and  victories  of  David 
find  in  their  reference  to  the  Messiah  their 
highest  claim  to  a  place  in  the  sacred 
writings.  Lord  Bacon  has  remarked  that 
many  prophetic  passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  "of  the  nature  of  their  Author,  to 
whom  a  thousand  years  are  as  one  day ; 
and  therefore  they  are  not  fulfilled  punctu- 
ally at  once,  but  have  springing  and  germ- 
inant  accomplishment  through  many  ages, 
though  the  height  or  fulness  of  them  may 
refer  to  some  one  age." 

Inscriptions. — With  the  exception  of 
24  Psalms,  called  in  the  Talmud  orphan 
Psalms,  all  the  rest  have  inscriptions  of 
various  kinds.  They  refer  to  the  author, 
the  occasion,  different  kinds  of  song,  the 
melody  or  rhythm,  the  instrumental  accom- 
paniment, the  choir  who  shall  perform,  etc. 
These  are  mostly  very  obscure,  because 
the  music  and  musical  instruments  of  the 
Hebrews  are  almost  unknown  to  us.  They 
are  of  very  high  antiquity,  if  not  as  old  as 
the  Psalms  themselves,  and  in  the  Hebrew 
are  not  detached  from  the  Psalms,  as  in 
modern  translations.  They  appear  with 
numerous  variations  in  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Syriac  versions.  Many  words  in  these 
inscriptions  remain  untranslated,  and  can 
only  be  conjecturally  interpreted.  See 
H1GG.A.10N,  M.^SCHIL,  etc. 

Authors  and  age  of  the  Psalms.— 
To  David  are  assigned  73  Psalms  in  the 
Hebrew,  and  in  the  Septuagint  11  more. 
Psalm  90  is  ascribed  to  Moses.  As  to  the 
authorship  of  the  other  Psalms  much  di- 
versity of  opinion  has  prevailed  among 
Biblical  critics. 


PSA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PTO 


In  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  Psalms  were 
divided  into  5  books,  each  of  which  closes 
with  a  doxology. 

Book     I.  comprises  Psalms     1-41 

II.  "  "  42-72- 

"     III.  "  "  73-89- 

"     IV.  "  "        90-106. 

"      V.  "  "      107-150. 

One  Psalm  occurs  twice,  Psa.  14 ;  compare 
Psa.  53.  Some  occur  as  parts  of  other 
Psalms ;  as  for  example,  Psa.  70  forms  also 
a  part  of  Psa.  40.  So  also  some  Psalms  are 
repeated  from  other  books  of  Scripture; 
thus  Psa.  18  is  the  same  with  2  Sam.  22. 
Books  IV.  and  V.  contain  some  Psalms 
■which  evidently  were  composed  after  the 
Captivity.  The  final  compilation  of  the 
whole  collection  is  generally  referred  to 
Ezra,  about  450  B.  C. 

These  invaluable  sacred  songs  exhibit 
the  sublimest  conceptions  of  God  as  the 
Creator,  Preserver,  and  Governor  of  the 
universe,  to  say  nothing  of  the  prophetical 
■character  of  many  of  them,  and  their  rela- 
tion to  the  Messiah  and  the  great  plan  of 
man's  redemption.  They  present  us  with 
the  most  perfect  models  of  childlike  res- 
ignation and  devotedness,  of  unwavering 
faith  and  confidence  in  God.  They  are  an 
inspired  epitome  of  the  Bible  for  purposes 
of  devotion,  and  are  peculiarly  dear  to  the 
people  of  God  as  expressing  every  phase 
of  religious  experience.  Luther,  in  his 
preface  to  the  Psalter,  has  the  following 
beautiful  language :  "  Where  canst  thou 
find  nobler  words  of  joy  than  in  the  Psalms 
of  praise  and  thanksgiving?  There  thou 
mayest  look  into  the  hearts  of  all  good  men 
as  into  beautiful  and  pleasant  gardens, 
yea,  as  into  heaven  itself.  How  do  grate- 
ful and  fine  and  charming  blossoms  spring 
up  there  from  every  kind  of  pleasing  and 
rejoicing  thoughts  towards  God  and  his 
goodness  !  Again,  where  canst  thou  find 
more  deep  or  mournful  words  of  sorrow 
than  in  the  Psalms  of  lamentation  and 
woe?  There  thou  mayest  look  again  into 
the  hearts  all  good  men  as  upon  death, 
yea,  as  if  into  hell.  How  dark  and  gloomy 
is  it  there  from  anxious  and  troubled  views 
of  the  wrath  of  God!  I  hold,  however, 
that  no  better  or  finer  book  of  models,  or 
legends  of  saints  and  martyrs,  has  existed, 
or  can  exist  on  earth,  than  the  Psalter. 
For  we  find  here  not  alone  what  one  or  two 
saints  have  done,  but  what  the  Head  of  all 
saints  has  done,  and  what  all  holy  men 
still  do,  in  what  attitude  they  stand  to- 
wards God  and  towards  tlteir  friends  and 


enemies,  and  how  they  conduct  themselves 
in  all  dangers  and  sufferings.  And  besides 
this,  all  sorts  of  divine  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts are  contained  in  it.  Hence  it  is  that 
the  Psalter  is  the  book  of  all  good  men ; 
and  every  one,  whatever  his  circumstan- 
ces may  be,  finds  in  it  psalms  and  words 
suited  to  his  circumstances,  and  which  are 
to  him  just  as  if  they  had  been  put  there 
on  his  verj'  account,  and  in  such  a  way 
that  he  himself  could  not  have  made  or 
found  or  wished  for  better." 

In  Luke  24:44,  the  word  "psalms"  de- 
notes one  of  the  3  divisions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  the  Hagiographa  or  devotional  wri- 
tings. See  Bible.  Of  the  804  quotations 
or  allusions  to  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
New  Testament,  104  are  to  passages  in 
the  Psalms.  With  regard  to  alphabetical 
Psalms  and  Psalms  of  degrees,  see  De- 
grees and  Letter. 

PSAL'TERY.     See  Harp  and  Music. 

PTOLEMA'IS.     See  AccHO. 

PTOL'EMY,  or  PTOLEM.ffi'US,  the  dy- 
nastic name  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt. 

I.  Ptolemy,  I.,  So'ter,  B.  C.  323-285,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty,  probably  a  son  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  was  one  of  the  generals 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  con- 
queror's death  Ptolemy  seized  Egypt,  B.  C. 
323,  and  held  it  against  Perdiccas,  321,  De- 
metrius, 312,  and  Antigonus,  301  B.  C.  In 
an  expedition  against  Sj-ria,  probably  B.  C. 
320,  he  took  Jerusalem  on  a  Sabbath  day, 
and  carried  captive  many  Jews  into  Egypt, 
where,  however,  he  treated  them  kindly, 
founding  a  flourishing  Jewish  colony.  He 
is  supposed  to  be  referred  to  in  Dan.  11:5 
as  "  the  king  of  the  south." 

II.  Ptolemy  II.,  Philadel'phus,  B.  C.  285- 
247,  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  lover 
of  learning,  founded  the  library  and  muse- 
um at  Alexandria,  and  is  said  to  have  oc- 
casioned the  Septuagint  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.  He  sought  to  find  a  com- 
mon ground  on  which  the  Hebrew  religion 
and  Greek  philosophy  could  stand  togeth- 
er. In  a  war  with  Antiochus  II.  of  Syria  he 
secured  peace,  B.  C.  350,  by  marrying  his 
daughter  Berenice  to  the  king  of  Syria. 
See  Dan.  11:6. 

III.  Ptolemy  III.,  Euer'getes,  B.  C.  247- 
222,  son  of  the  former,  invaded  Syria  about 
B.  C.  246,  to  avenge  the  repudiation  and 
murder  of  his  sister  Berenice.  He  extend- 
ed his  conquests  to  Antioch  and  Babylon, 
offered  sacrifices  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
and  carried  back  to  Egypt  Egyptian  idols 
taken  toBabylon  by  Cambyses,  Dan.  11 17-9. 

457 


PUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PUL 


IV.  Ptolemy  IV.,  Philop'ator,  B.  C.  222- 
205,  son  of  the  preceding.  After  the  inva- 
sion of  Egypt  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  Ptol- 
emy gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Syrian 
king  at  Raphia,  near  Gaza,  B.  C.  215,  Dan. 
11:10-12;  and  having  offered  sacrifices  of 
thanksgiving  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
he  attempted  to  enter  the  sanctuary,  but 
was  suddenh'  paralyzed. 

V.  Ptolemy  V.,  Epiph'anes,  B.  C.  205- 
181,  was  only  5  years  old  at  the  death  of 
his.  father,  Ptolemy  IV.  During  his  mi- 
nority Antiochus  the  Great  captured  Coele- 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Judaea,  where  there 
was  a  strong  Syrian  faction  among  the 
Jews;  and  many  of  the  Jews  who  favored 
the  Ptolemaean  dynasty  took  refuge  in 
Eg\'pt.  By  the  mediation  of  Rome  and  the 
marriage  of  Antiochus'  daughter  Cleopa- 
tra to  Ptolemy,  B.  C.  193,  Egypt  and  Syria 
were  reconciled,  but  the  power  of  Egypt 
was  rapidly  declining,  Dan.  1 1 :  13-17.  Ptol- 
emy was  poisoned  while  preparing  an  ex- 
pedition against  Seleucus,  the  son  of  Anti- 
ochus the  Great. 

VI.  Ptolemy  VI.,  Philome'tor,  B.  C.  181- 
146,  was  6  years  old  when  his  father  died. 
Under  the  regency  of  his  mother  Egypt 
enjoyed  peace  with  Syria;  but  after  her 
death,  B.  C.  173,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in- 
vaded Egypt,  B.  C.  171,  and  took  Ptolemy 
prisoner.     His  throne  was  then  occupied 

•by  his  younger  brother,  Ptolemy  Physcon, 
with  whom,  after  his  release,  he  shared  the 
kingdom.  Another  invasion  of  Egypt  by 
Antiochus,  B.  C.  168,  was  checked  by  the 
Romans,  Dan.  11:25-30.  During  his  reign 
the  high -priest  Onias  sought  refuge  in 
Egypt  from  the  disorders  at  Jerusalem, 
and  the  Jewish  temple  at  Leonto^olis  was 
built,  afifording  a  religious  centre  to  the 
Jews  in  Egypt. 

PUB'LICAN,  an  officer  of  the  revenue 
employed  in  collecting  taxes.  Among  the 
Romans  there  were  2  sorts  of  tax-gather- 
ers :  some  were  general  receivers,  who  in 
each  province  had  deputies;  they  collected 
the  revenues  of  the  empire,  and  accounted 
to  the  emperor.  These  men  were  of  great 
consideration  in  the  government;  and  Cic- 
ero says  that  among  these  were  the  flower 
of  the  Roman  knights,  the  ornaments  of 
the  city,  and  the  strength  of  the  common- 
wealth. But  the  deputies,  the  under-col- 
lectors,  the  publicans  of  the  lower  order, 
were  looked  upon  as  so  many  thieves  and 
pickpockets.  Theocritus  being  asked 
which  was  the  most  cruel  of  all  beasts,  an- 
swered, "  Among  the  beasts  of  the  wilder- 
458 


ness,  the  bear  and  the  lion;  among  the 
beasts  of  the  city,  the  publican  and  the 
parasite."  Among  the  Jews  the  name  and 
profession  of  a  publican  were  especially 
odious.  They  could  not,  without  the  ut- 
most reluctance,  see  publicans  exacting 
tributes  and  impositions  laid  on  them  by 
foreigners,  the  Romans.  The  Galileans, 
or  Herodians,  especially,  submitted  to  this 
with  the  greatest  impatience,  and  thought 
it  even  unlawful,  Deut.  17:15.  Those  of 
their  own  nation  who  undertook  this  office 
they  looked  upon  as  heathen.  Matt.  18:17. 
It  is  even  said  that  they  would  not  allow 
them  to  enter  the  temple  or  the  synagogues, 
to  engage  in  the  public  prayers  or  offices 
of  judicature,  or  to  give  testimony  in  a 
court  of  justice. 

There  were  many  publicans  in  Judiea  in 
the  time  of  our  Saviour;  Zacchaeus,  proba- 
bly, was  one  of  the  principal  receivers, 
since  he  is  called  "  chief  among  the  publi- 
cans," Luke  19:2;  but  Matthew  was  only 
an  inferior  publican,  Luke  5:27.  The  Jews 
reproached  Jesus  with  being  a  "friend  of 
publicans  and  sinners,  and  eating  with 
them,"  Luke  7:34;  but  he,  knowing  the 
self-righteousness,  unbelief,  and  hypocrisy 
of  his  accusers,  replied,  "  The  publicans 
and  harlots  go  into  the  kingdom  of  God 
before  you."  Matt.  21:31.  Compare  also 
the  beautiful  demeanor  of  the  penitent 
publican  in  the  temple  and  the  self-justify- 
ing spirit  of  the  Pharisee,  Luke  18:10-14. 

PUB'LIUS,  the  governor  of  Melita  when 
Paul  was  shipwrecked  on  that  island  A.  D. 
60,  Acts  28:7-9. 

PUL,  I.,  an  Assyrian  king,  about  765 
B.  C,  when  Assyria  is  first  mentioned  in 
Scripture  after  the  time  of  Nimrod.  He 
invaded  Israel  during  the  reign  of  Mena- 
hem,  but  was  induced  to  retire  by  a  pres- 
ent of  1,000  talents  of  silver,  equivalent  to 
at  least  $1,500,000,  2  Kin.  15:19,  20;  i  Chr. 
5:26.  He  is  identified  with  Phul-lukh  of 
the  Nineveh  tablets,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  invaded  Syria  and  received  tribute 
from  Samaria.     See  Tu;i,ath-Pileser. 

II.  A  name  given  in  Isa.  66:19  to  a  re- 
gion associated  with  Tarshish  and  Lud. 
Bochart  and  others  suppose  it  to  be  the 
island  Philoe  in  the  Nile  near  Ethiopia, 
with  the  surrounding  country ;  others  place 
it  in  some  remote  region  of  Africa;  by  the 
Septuagint  it  is  identified  with  Phut,  named 
with  Lud  in  Egypt,  in  Ezek.  27:10;  30:5, 
margin.     See  Phi'T. 

PULSE,  a  general  name  for  peas,  beans, 
and  other   podded  seeds,  occurs  only  in 


PUN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PUR 


Dan.  i:i2,  i6,  as  the  translation  of  2  He- 
brew words  meaning  seeds ;  the  reference 
is  probably  to  vegetable  food  in  general. 
In  2  Sam.  17:28,  where  "pulse"  is  sup- 
plied, probably  parched  peas,  still  a  favor- 
ite food  in  the  East,  are  denoted. 

PUN'ISHMENTS.  The  penalties  inflict- 
ed in  ancient  times  for  various  crimes  and 
offences  varied  in  different  nations  and  at 
different  times.  Capital  punishment  for 
murder  was  permanently  instituted  at  the 
origin  of  the  human  race ;  and  Cain  was 
only  saved  from  it  by  a  special  interposi- 
tion of  God,  Gen.  4: 14,  15.  It  was  reenact- 
ed,  with  reasons,  after  the  deluge,  Gen. 
9:5,  6,  and  in  the  wilderness,  Num.  35:9- 
34,  and  was  early  and  widely  recognized 
among  mankind. 

Other  offences  for  which  the  Mosaic  law 
prescribed  the  death -penalty  were  blas- 
phemy. Lev.  24:14-16,  23;  idolatry.  Lev. 
20:2;  Deut.  13:5-15;  dishonoring  a  parent, 
Exod.  21:15,  17;  Deut.  21:18-21;  adultery, 
Lev.  20:10;  Deut.  22:22,  25;  man-stealing, 
Exod.  21:16;  false  witness  in  capital  cases, 
Deut.  19:16,  19.  Modes  of  capital  punish- 
ment prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  law  were 
stoning,  Exod.  19:13;  Deut.  13:10;  John 
8 : 5,  7,  59 ;  Acts  7  ■.  58,  59 ;  spearing  or  sword- 
thrust,  Exod.  19:13;  32:27;  Num.  25:7,  8; 
I  Kin.  2:25;  hanging,  Num.  25:4;  Deut. 
21 :22  ;  2  Sam.  21 :6-9;  burning,  Lev.  20: 14; 
21:9;  compare  Gen.  38:24.  Some  main- 
tain that  hanging  and  burning  were  sel- 
dom used  by  the  Jews  until  after  death 
had  been  otherwise  inflicted,  as  ir.  Achan's 
case.  Josh.  7:24,  25.  Accordmg  to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  accusation  must  be  substantiated 
by  more  than  one  witness,  and  in  capital 
cases  the  witnesses  must  themselves  begin 
to  execute  the  death-sentence,  Deut.  13:9; 
17:6,  7;  19:15;  John  8:7;  Acts  7:58.  Vari- 
ous other  modes  of  inflicting  death  were 
practised  by  the  Hebrews,  or  became 
known  to  them  by  intercourse  with  other 
nations:  as  decapitation,  2  Kin.  10:6-8; 
Matt.  14:8-12;  precipitation,  2  Chr.  25:12; 
Luke  4:29;  cutting  asunder,  Dan.  2:5; 
3:29;  Heb.  11:37;  beating  on  awheel-like 
frame,  Heb.  11 :35 ;  exposure  to  wild  beasts, 
Dan. 6;  i  Cor.  15:32;  drowning,  Matt.  18:6; 
and  crucifixion,  John  19:18.  The  Egyp- 
tians practised  hanging,  Gen.  40:19,  22, 
and  apparently  stoning,  Exod.  8 :  26.  Hang- 
ing was  in  use  among  the  Persians,  Esth. 
2:23;  7:10;  and  burning  among  the  Baby- 
lonians, Jer.  29:21,  22;  Dan.  3. 

Secondary  punishments  prescribed  in 
the  Law  were  retaliation  in  kind  for  in- 


jury, Exod.  21:23-25;  Deut.  19:19;  see  also 
Judg.  1:7;  Jer.  52:11;  Ezek.  23:25;  com- 
pensation for  loss  of  time,  power,  property, 
or  honor,  Exod.  21:18-36;  Lev.  24:18-21; 
Deut.  19:21,  double  to  5-fold  restitution 
being  required  for  theft,  Exod.  22;  scour- 
ging, Lev.  19:20;  Deut.  22:18,  the  limit 
being  40  stripes,  Deut.  25:3;  2  Cor.  11:24. 
Sentences  being  executed  immediately,  the 
Mosaic  law  did  not  prescribe  imprison- 
ment, but  it  was  in  use  under  the  kings, 
2  Chr.  18:26;  Jer.  37:15,  and  later,  Ezra 
7:26;  Matt.  4:12.  Stocks  were  in  use 
among  the  Hebrews,  Jer.  20:2,  and  the 
Romans,  Acts  16:24.  Banishment  among 
the  Hebrews  in  some  cases  consisted  of 
confinement  to  a  prescribed  locality,  or 
exclusion  from  the  king,  2  Sam.  14:24; 
I  Kin.  2:36.  It  was  practised  by  the  Ro- 
mans, Rev.  1:9. 

The  exact  meaning  of  the  punishment 
described  as  "  cutting  off"  from  the  congre- 
gation "  or  "  the  people,"  etc.,  is  disputed; 
it  seems,  however,  to  have  been  a  sentence 
of  death,  which  was  sometimes  executed, 
sometimes  remitted  or  commuted. 

On  FUTURE  PUNISHMENT,  see  RETRIBU- 
TION. 

PU'NON,  darkness,  a  station  near  the 
end  of  the  wilderness  wanderings,  between 
Zalmonah  and  Oboth,  Num.  33:42,  43.  Je- 
rome identified  it  with  the  Idum^ean  Phae- 
no,  between  Petra  and  Zoar,  where  were 
copper-mines  worked  by  convicts.  Palmer 
thinks  it  may  be  represented  by  the  station 
now  called  'Anezeh,  on  the  pilgrim  road 
from  Damascus  to  Mecca. 

PUR'CHASE,  I  Tim.  3:13,  A.  V.,  gain  or 
acquire,  not  buy. 

PURIFICA'TIONS,  in  the  legal  and  cere- 
monial sense,  were  prescribed  by  the  Mo- 
saic law  for  a  variety  of  occasions,  and 
were  effected  by  the  use  of  water  applied 
by  bathing  or  sprinkling,  combined,  in  the 
graver  cases  of  ceremonial  defilement,  with 
sacrifices  offered  at  the  Lord's  house,  Lev. 
12  to  15;  Num.  19;  Luke  2:22-24.  The  spir- 
itual truth  thus  emphasized  was  man's  need 
of  cleansing  from  sin,  and  the  requisite- 
ness  of  an  expiatory  sacrifice  to  effect  this, 
Isa.  1:16;  Ezek.  36:25;  Zech.  13:1;  Heb. 
9:10,  13,  14,  19-23;  10:22.  After  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Captivity  purifications 
were  multiplied  beyond  the  requirements 
of  the  Law,  especially  by  the  Pharisees,  and 
were  performed  as  constituting  in  them- 
selves a  saving  ritual,  their  spiritual  mean- 
ing being  disregarded,  Mark  7:1-8,  18-23. 

PU'RIM,  lots,  a  festival  instituted  about 
459 


PUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


PUR 


B.  C.  474  by  Esther  and  Mordecai,  in  the 
reign  of  Ahasuerus  or  Xerxes,  king  of  Per- 
sia, to  commemorate  the  Jews'  providen- 
tial deliverance  from  the  massacre  devised 
by  Haman,  Ksth.  9:20-32.  The  festival 
derived  its  name  from  the  casting  of  lots, 
in  Haman's  presence,  for  an  auspicious 
day  for  destroying  the  Jews,  Esth.  3:7. 
The  day  thus  indicated  being  distant  11 
months  from  that  of  promulgating  the  roy- 
al decrees,  ver.  8-15,  a  sufficient  interval 
was  providentially  afforded  to  Mordecai 
for  devising  and  executing  measures  for 
the  preservation  of  his  people,  Esth.  4:1-8, 
14;  9:1-19;  thus  Haman's  superstition  was 
instrumental  in  procuring  his  own  destruc- 
tion; compare  Prov.  16:33.  This  festival 
was  observed  on  the  14th  and  isthof  Adar, 
Esth.  9:16-19,  and  was  preceded  by  a  fast 
on  the  13th  in  memory  of  Esther's  fast, 
Esth.  4:16.  The  roll  of  Esther  was  read 
publicly  in  the  synagogue,  the  congrega- 
tion joining  in  cursing  Haman  and  Ze- 
resh  and  in  blessing  Mordecai  and  Esther. 
After  the  synagogue  services  on  the  even- 
ing and  morning  of  the  14th,  the  feast  was 
further  celebrated  on  that  day  and  the 
next  by  private  festivities,  mutual  pres- 
ents, alms,  play,  and  self-indulgence.  It 
is  still  observed  by  the  Jews  in  the  month 
of  March.  "  The  temple  may  fail,  but  Pu- 
rim  never,"  is  a  Jewish  proverb.  Some 
think  Purim  is  alluded  to  in  John  5:1,  but 
more  probably  it  was  the  Passover. 

PUR'PLE.  The  famous  and  costly  Tyr- 
ian  purple,  the  royal  color  of  the  ancients, 
is  fabled  to  have  been  discovered  by  the 
god  Melkat,  the  Tyrian  Hercules,  whose 
dog  having  by  chance  eaten  a  shell-fish 
called  Purpura,  and  returning  to  his  mas- 
ter with  his  lips  tinged  with  a  purple  color, 
occasioned  the  discovery  of  this  precious 
dye.  Two  kinds  of  purple  are  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament:  i.  Argaman,  ren- 
dered in  our  version  "  purple,"  denoting  a 


<^. 


TYRIAN  rock-shell:  mlrex  trunculus. 

reddish  purple  obtained  from  one  or  more 
species  of  muscle  or  shell-fish  found  on  the 
460 


coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  undoubtedly 
the    Murex    Trunculus   of  Linnaius,    and 


dog-whelk:  purpura  lapillus. 
probably  the  Purpura  Lapillus.  2.  Te- 
CHELETH,  rendered  in  the  English  Bible 
"blue."  This  was  a  bluish  or  cerulean 
purple,  likewise  obtained  from  another 
species  of  shell-fish. 

The  "scarlet"  or  "crimson,"  for  the  2 
words  denote  essentially  the  same  color, 
was  produced  from  the  coccus  insect,  coc- 
cus ilicis.  All  these  were  sacred  colors 
among  the  Hebrews,  and  were  used  in  col- 
oring the  priestly  garments  and  the  furni- 
ture of  the  tabernacle,  E.xod.  26:1,  14,  31, 
36;  28:31;  Num.  4:6-12;  15:38. 

The  "purple  "  of  the  ancients  seems  to 
have  included  many  different  tints  derived 
originally  from  shell-fish,  and  modified  by 
various  arts  in  which  the  Tyrians  excelled. 
As  each  fish  yielded  but  a  few  drops  of 
coloring  matter,  the  choicest  purple  bore  a 
very  high  price.  Purple  robes  were  worn 
by  the  kings  and  first  magistrates  of  an- 
cient Rome,  and  Nero  forbade  their  use 
by  his  subjects  under  pain  of  death.  Our 
Saviour  was  clothed  with  a  royal  robe  of 
purple  in  mockery  of  his  title,  "The  King 
of  the  Jews,"  John  19:2,  5.  Compare  also 
Judg.  8:26;  Esth.  8:15;  Prov.  31:22;  Dan. 
5:7;  Luke  16:19.  Moses  used  much  mate- 
rial, chiefly  woollen,  dyed  of  a  crimson  and 
purple  color,  in  the  work  of  the  taberna- 
cle and  in  the  ornaments  of  the  high-priest, 
E.xod.  25:4;  26:1,  31,  36;  39:1  ;  2Chr.  3:14. 
The  Babylonians  also  clothed  their  idols 
in  robes  of  a  purple  and  azure  color,  Jer. 
9:10;   Ezek.  23:15;  27:7,  16: 

PURSE.  Besides  the  bag  used  for  car- 
rving  money,  and  by  merchants  for  carry- 
ing weights,  Deut.  25:13;  Prov.  1:14;  Isa. 
46:6;  Mic.  6:11;  Luke  10:4;  12:33:  22:35, 
36,  the  girdle  anciently,  as  now  in  the 
East,  served  as  a  purse.  Matt.  10:9;  Mark 
6:8,  being  provided  with  a  double  fold  in 
which  there  was  an  opening,  closed  with  a 
cover  or  straj). 

PUR'TENANCE,  A.  V.,  Exod.  12:9.  the 
viscera,  or  "  inwards  "  as  rendered  in  Exod. 
29:13,  22;  Lev.  1:9,  13;  3:3,9,  14-  In  Psa. 
64:6  the  same  word  is  used,  the  word 
thought  being  supplied  by  the  translators. 


PUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


QUA 


PURVEY'ORS,  in  A.  V.  "officers,"  i  Kin. 
4:5,  7,  literally  men  appointed  by  Solomon, 
one  for  each  month  of  the  year,  to  collect 
from  their  several  portions  of  the  kingdom, 
12  in  number,  the  large  supplies  of  food 
required  for  the  royal  houshold — the  wives, 
guests,  and  attendants.  Whether  they  were 
purchasers  or  tax-gatherers,  or  stewards  of 
the  royal  domain,  is  not  known. 

PUT,  I  Chr.  1:8;  Nah.  3:9,  A.  V.  See 
Phut. 

PUTE'OLI,  sulphurous  wells,  was  on  the 
northern  shore  of  a  small  bay  running 
northward  on  the  west  of  the  somewhat 
larger  Bay  of  Naples.  Baiae  was  on  the 
west  shore.  The  city  anciently  gave  its 
name  to  the  whole  bay,  including  that  of 
Naples.  It  was  a  favorite  watering-place 
of  the  Romans,  who  resorted  to  its  hot 
springs  for  the  cure  of  various  diseases  ; 
but  especially  it  was  the  great  port  of 
Rome,  though  141  miles  southeast  from 
it.  The  Alexandrian  corn-ships  unloaded 
here,  and  enjoyed  "the  peculiar  privilege  of 
entering  the  harbor  under  full  sail.  Here 
Paul  was  landed,  and  found  Christians, 
with  whom  he  spent  a  week.  Acts  28: 13,  14. 
The  ancient  Greek  name  of  the  place  was 
Diceearchia.  Cicero  had  a  villa  near  Pute- 
oli ;  Nero  planned  his  mother's  murder 
here ;  Vespasian  gave  the  city  peculiar 
privileges ;  Hadrian  was  buried  here.  Poz- 
zuoli,  the  modern  Puteoli,  is  a  small  town 
7  miles  west  of  Naples.  Remains  of  the 
ancient  city  are  an  aqueduct,  reservoirs, 
an  amphitheatre,  baths,  a  building  called 
the  temple  of  Serapis,  and  13  of  the  25 
arches  which  supported  the  great  pier 
where  passengers  and  merchandise  were 
landed. 

PU'TIEL,  afflicted  of  God,  the  father-in- 
law  of  Eleazar  the  priest,  Exod.  6:25. 

PY'GARG,  zvhite-riimp,  Deut.  14:5,  the 
Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and  A.  V.  rendering 
of  a  Hebrew  term  believed  to  denote  some 
species  of  the  antelope,  perhaps  the  Oryx 
addax,  or  the  Addra  ruficoUis  of  Africa; 
the  latter  is  a  fine  beast,  about  3  feet  3 
inches  high,  and  5  feet  4  inches  long,  often 
seen  in  flocks  in  Nubia  and  Gondola. 

PYR' RHUS, yiery-haired,  the  name  of  the 
father  of  Sopater  of  Beroea,  Acts  20:4,  is 
restored  in  the  R.  V.,  after  the  best  Greek 
manuscripts. 

PY'THON,  Acts  16  :  16,  margin;  This 
name  of  Apollo,  the  Greek  god  of  divina- 
tion, was  applied  also  to  all  oracular  spir- 
its, or  to  persons  supposed  to  be  inspired 
by  them. 


Q. 

QUAILS  supplied  the  Israelites  with  flesh 
on  2  occasions,  in  the  ist  and  2d  years  of 
the  wilderness  journeyings,  Exod.  16:1,  8, 
12,13;  Num.  10:11,  33  ;  11:4,10,18-23,31- 
34;  Psa.  78:26-28;  105:40;  106:15.  The 
season  in  each  case  was  spring,  when 
quails,  which  abound  in  most  parts  of  the 


THE  quail:  coturnix  communis. 

Old  World,  migrate  in  immense  flocks  from 
Africa  northward.  The  miracle  seems  to 
have  consisted  in  a  special  adaptation  of 
the  natural  order  of  things  to  suit  the  emer- 
gency. It  is  the  custom  of  quails  to  fly  at 
night,  and  before  the  wind.  Borne  by  a 
providential  southwest  wind  across  the 
western  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  birds, 
being  weak  of  wing,  were  exhausted  on 
reaching  the  Israelites'  camp;  and  Jlj'ing- 
low — which  is  believed  to  be  the  meaning 
of  "two  cubits,"  etc..  Num.  11:31 — were 
readily  taken  by  hand,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  now.  "  Homers,"  ver.  32,  is  believed 
to  bear  here  its  indefinite  sense  of  "  heaps." 
Herodotus  reports  that  the  Egyptians  pre- 
served quails  by  drying  them,  and  this  is 
still  the  custom  of  the  Arabs.  Quails  are 
still  common  in  the  Arabian  deserts  and 
near  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  and  are 
brought  in  great  quantities  to  market  at 
Jerusalem.  They  abound  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coasts,  100,000  having  been  taken 
in  a  single  day  at  Nettuno,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Italy.  The  quail  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  Coturnix  communis,  is  about 
7  inches  long,  and  similar  to,  though  not 
identical  with,  the  Ortyx  Virginianus,  called 
"quail  "in  New  England  and  "partridge" 
in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

QUARANTA'NIA,  /br/i',  a  mountain  about 
7  miles  northwest  of  Jericho,  not  named  in 
the  Bible,  is  indicated  by  tradition  as  the 
scene  of  our  Lord's  temptation,  Matt.  4. 
It  is  exceedingly  steep,  from  1,200  to  1,500 
feet  high ;  its  rocky,  precipitous  sides  con- 

461 


QUA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


QUO 


tain  many  caves,  once  the  retreats  of  her- 
mits and  of  robbers.  Its  summit,  accessi- 
ble only  from  the  western  side,  affords  a 
fine  view.  There  was  a  monastery  on  the 
mountain  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 

QUAR'RIES,  Judg.  3:19,  26,  A.  V.  The 
same  Hebrew  word  is  elsewhere  rendered 
"carved"  or  "graven  images,"  as  in  the 
margin. 

QUAR'TXJS, /or/r/h,  a.  Christian  residing 
at  Corinth,  but  according  to  his  name  of 
Roman  origin,  whose  salutation  Paul  sends 
to  the  brethren  at  Rome,  Rom.  16:23. 

QUATER'NION  OF  SoLDiFiRS,  a  detach- 
ment consisting  of  4  men.  Acts  12:4.  The 
Romans  assigned  a  quaternion  of  4  men 
for  a  night  guard,  and  divided  the  night 
into  4  watches,  so  that  each  soldier  should 
in  his  turn  be  on  guard  3  hours.  See 
Hour.  When  therefore  Herod,  who  adopt- 
ed the  Roman  customs,  is  said  to  have  de- 
livered Peter  to  4  quaternions  of  soldiers, 
it  is  to  be  understood  that  he  was  guarded 
by  4  men  at  a  time,  namely,  2  in  the  jirison 
with  him,  and  2  before  the  doors  (comjiare 
ver.  6),  and  that  they  were  relieved  every 
3  hours  by  4  others,  making  in  all  16  men. 

QUEEN.  Under  the  kings  of  Israel,  ow- 
ing to  their  polygamy,  queenly  dignity  and 
power  were  enjoyed,  not  as  now  in  Chris- 
tian countries  by  a  royal  consort,  but  rath- 
er by  the  king's  mother.  Compare  the 
interviews  of  Adonijah  and  Solomon  with 
Bath-sheba,  i  Kin.  2:13-22.  The  title  of 
queen,  literally  migfily  one,  tnislress,  is 
given  to  the  mother  or  rather  grandmother 
of  Asa,  I  Kin.  15:13;  compare  ver.  i,  2; 
2  Chr.  11:20-22;  and  to  the  mother  of  Je- 
hoiachin,2  Kin.  24: 12, 15;  Jer.  13:18;  22:26; 
29 : 2.  Two  other  Hebrew  words  are  trans- 
lated "  queen  "  in  the  A.  V. :  one,  the  femi- 
nine of  king,  being  applied  to  the  queen- 
regnant  of  Sheba,  i  Kin.  10,  and  to  the 
superior  wives  of  a  king,  Esth.  1:9;  2:22; 
Song  6:8,  9,  etc.;  the  other,  literally  zi'i/e, 
being  also  applied  to  queen-consorts,  Neh. 
2:6;  compare  Dan.  5:2,  3,  "wives." 

QUEEN  OF  HEAVEN,  a  name  under 
•which  the  idolaters  in  Judah  worshipped 
the  moon,  Jer.  7:18;  44:17-27. 

QUICK,  in  the  old  English  sense,  means 
alive,  or  living.  Num.  16:30;  Psa.  124:3; 
Acts  10:42;  2  Tim.  4:1;  Heb.  4:12;  and 
quicken,  to  make  alive,  John  5:21.  God 
bestows  spiritual  life  on  men  dead  in  tres- 
passes and  sins,  Eph.  2:5,  through  Christ 
the  2d  Adam,  who  is  a  quickening  Spirit, 
I  Cor.  15:45. 

QUICK'SANDS,  Acts  27 :  17,  properly  "  the 
462 


Syrtis,"  as  in  the  R.  V.,  a  name  given  to  2 
sandy  gulfs  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
whose  dangerous  shallows  and  uncertain 
currents  made  them  dreaded  by  ancient 
navigators.  These  gulfs  were  called  the 
Greater  and  the  Lesser  Syrtis.  Paul's  ship 
being  off  the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  the 
northeast  wind  would  naturally  drive  it 
into  the  Greater  Syrtis,  southwest  from 
Crete,  now  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  north  of  Trip- 
oli. The  Lesser  Syrtis  is  now  the  Gulf  of 
Cabes,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Tunis,  south- 
west of  Malta. 

QUIRI'NUS,  or  in  R.  V.  QUIRIN'IUS, 
Luke  2:2.     See  Cyrenius. 

QUIT,  I  Sam.  4:9;  i  Cor.  16:13,  acquit, 
or  behave.  In  Exod.  21:19,  28;  Josh.  2:20, 
absolve,  or  set  free. 

QUIVER,  a  case  of  arrows.  Gen.  27:3; 
Isa.  49:2;  Lam.  3:13.  The  destruction 
wrought  by  the  Chaldaeans  invading  Judah 
is  figuratively  expressed  in  Jer.  5:16.  The 
Assyrians  had  their  quivers  suspended  be- 
tween their  shoulders,  or  at  the  side  of  the 
war-chariot.  The  Egyptian  archer  slung 
his  quiver  nearly  horizontally  at  his  side. 

QUOTA'TIONS  in  the  Bible  are  of  3  class- 
es: I.  Those  made  by  the  later  Old  Testa- 
ment writers  from  the  earlier,  as  are  many 
sections  of  the  Chronicles*  and  late  Psalms 
from  the  older.  Chief  among  parallel  pas- 
sages of  this  class  are  Num.  26  with  Gen. 
46;  Deut.  5  with  Exod.  20;  i  Chr.  17  with 
2  Sam.  7;  Ezra  2  with  Neh.  7;  Psa.  18  with 
2  Sam.  22;  Isa.  2:1-4  with  Mic.  4:1-3;  Isa. 
36-39  with  2  Kin.  18-20;  Jer.  52  with  2  Kin. 
24,  25;  Obad.  1:8  with  Jer.  4:9;  Jonah  2:3 
with  Psa.  42:7;  Jonah  2:5  with  Psa.  69:2; 
Hab.  2:14  with  Isa.  11  :<). 

2.  Quotations  from  heathen  writers:  Acts 
17:28  from  Aratus;  i  Cor.  15:33  from  Men- 
ander;  Tit.  1:12  from  Callimachus  or  Epi- 
menides;  Gal.  5:23  from  Aristotle.  Per- 
haps also  Acts  14:17  and  Jas.  1:17. 

3.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  New  Testament.  These  are  numer- 
ous, and  are  generally  taken  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  see.  In  the  time  of  Christ 
this  version  was  widely  spread  and  much 
used  by  the  Jews,  especially  by  those  out 
of  Palestine.  It  was  also  intelligible  to 
the  Greek -speaking  Gentile  world;  and 
hence  the  New  Testament  writers,  in  re- 
ferring to  the  Old  Testament,  naturally 
quoted  the  Septuagint  rather  than  their 
own  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  original.  In 
cases  where  the  Septuagint  translation  va- 
ries from  the  Hebrew  without  important 
difference,  the  New  Testament  writers  fre- 


RAA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAB 


quently  retain  its  variation,  as  in  Matt. 
15:9;  compare  Isa.  29:13.  In  other  cases, 
where  the  errors  of  the  Septuagint  cause 
discrepancy  in  the  sense,  they  are  correct- 
ed by  the  Hebrew,  as  in  Matt.  21:5;  i  Pet. 
4:8.  Often  the  Hebrew  is  quoted  directly, 
as  in  Matt.  4:15,  16;  John  19:37.  And  in 
some  instances  the  Hebrew  and  the  Septu- 
agint are  combined,  as  in  Mark  12:30.  Be- 
sides direct  quotations,  the  New  Testament 
writers  abound  in  references  and  allusions 
to  the  Old  Testament — often  pointing  out 
some  prophecy  or  type  relating  to  Christ 
or  to  the  spiritual  dispensation  introduced 
by  him  ;  the  familiar  phrase,  "  that  it  might 
be  fulfilled,"  and  the  like,  showing  how  full 
the  Old  Testament  is  of  germs  of  truth  un- 
folded in  the  New  Testament.  Compare 
Isa.  49:8  and  2  Cor.  6:2.  The  quotations 
and  references  to  the  contents  of  the  an- 
cient Scriptures  in  the  New  Testament  are 
said  to  be  804  in  number. 


R. 

RA'AMAH,  quivering,  Ezek.  27 :  22,  a 
commercial  people  trading  with  Tyre,  prob- 
ably named  from  Raamah,  a  son  of  Cush, 
Gen.  10:7;  I  Chr.  1:9,  whose  descendants 
are  supposed  to  have  settled  on  the  south- 
west shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  very  near 
the  town  Daden,  representing  the  ancient 
Dedan.  The  Septuagint  renders  Raamah 
in  Gen.  10:7  Rhegma,  a  name  mentioned 
b,y  Ptolemy,  the  Egyptian  geographer  in 
the  2d  Christian  centur^^,  as  that  of  a  place 
in  the  territory  of  thCjAnariti,  an  Arabic 
tribe  in  that  region. 

RAAM'SES,  Exod.  I: II,  a  treasure-city 
or  grain-magazine  built  by  the  Israelites 
during  their  servitude  in  Egypt.  The 
name  is  almost  identical  with  Rameses,  the 
province  in  Egypt— apparently  the  same 
as  Goshen,  Gen.  47:11 ;  compare  ver.  4,  6, 
and  ch.  45:10— in  which  the  Israelites  set- 
tled, and  which  was  their  starting-point  at 
the  Exodus,  Exod.  12:37;  Num.  j)!)'-^)^  5. 
At  the  west  end  0/  Wady  et-Tumeilat.  Ra- 
meses, son  of  the  sim,  was  the  name  of  sev- 
eral Pharaohs  before  and  after  the  Exodus, 
and  the  oppressor  of  the  Israelites  is  now 
generally  identified  with  Rameses  II.  of 
the  19th  dynasty.  See  Pharaoh  and  cut 
p.  150. 

RAB,  RAB'BI.  The  word  rab  in  He- 
brew and  Chaldee  signifies  great  or  chief; 
thus  Nebuzar-adan  is  the  chief  or  captain 
of  the^uard,  2  Kin.  25:8,  in  Hebrew  rab- 


tabbachim ;  so  Ashpenaz  is  the  rab,  chief 
or  master,  of  the  eunuchs,  and  Daniel  of 
the  magi,  Dan.  1:3;  5:11.  See  Rab-mag. 
At  a  later  period  it  was  introduced  as  a 
solemn  title  of  honor  in  the  Jewish  schools, 
meaning  master,  teacher,  doctor.  There 
were  various  distinctions  and  degrees;  the 
term  rab  was  accounted  the  least  honora- 
ble; that  of  rabbi,  signifying  my  master, 
being  of  higher  dignity.  Another  form  of 
the  word  was  rabban  or  rabbon,  from  which 
comes  also  rabboni,  Mark  10:51,  R.  V.; 
John  20: 16 ;  this  was  regarded  as  the  high- 
est title  of  honor,  and  was  never  formally 
bestowed  on  more  than  7  persons,  who  all 
belonged  to  the  celebrated  school  of  Hillel, 
and  were  preeminently  distinguished  by 
their  rank  and  learning.  See  Gamaliel. 
The  more  common  and  usual  appellation 
afterwards  was  rabbi ;  and  this  has  de- 
scended among  the  Jews  to  the  present 
day.  Matt.  23:7,  8.  It  was  a  title  often  giv- 
en to  the  Saviour  both  by  his  disciples  and 
the  people,  Mark 9:5;  11 :2i ;  John  1:38,  49; 
4:31;  6:25. 

RAB'BAH  or  RAB'BATH,  greatness,  I., 
Rabbath  of  the  Ammonites,  Deut.  3:11; 
Josh.  13:25,  the  chief  city  of  the  Ammon- 
ites, was  in  a  small  valley  about  22  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan,  14  miles  northeast  of 
Heshbon,  and  19  southeast  of  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  now  es-Salt.  A  small  stream,  now 
Nahr  Amman,  tributary  to  the  Jabbok, 
flowed  through  the  town.  The  Ammonites 
having  provoked  war  with  Israel,  Joab  be- 
sieged Rabbah,  and  here  Uriah  was  killed 
by  David's  arrangement,  2  Sam.  11:14-17; 
12:9.  After  a  long  siege  Joab  took  "the 
city  of  waters,"  i.  <?.,  probably  the  lower 
city  traversed  by  the  stream ;  he  then  sent 
for  David,  who  came  with  reinforcements 
and  captured  the  citadel  on  the  hill  to  the 
north,  2  Sam.  12:26-31 ;  i  Chr.  20:1-3.  Da- 
vid afterwards  received  timely  aid  from  a 
citizen  of  Rabbah,  2  Sam.  17:27-29.  The 
Ammonites  regained  their  independence, 
and  at  various  times  encroached  upon  the 
rightful  possessions  of  Israel,  gloried  over 
the  desolations  of  both  kingdoms,  and  mal- 
treated those  who  fell  under  their  power ; 
hence  severe  judgments  were  denounced 
against  Rabbah,  Amos  i :  13-15 ;  Jer.  49: 1-3 ; 
Ezek.  25:1-5;  compare  Jer.  40:14.  Proba- 
bly Nebuchadnezzar  subjugated  the  Am- 
monites after  his  conquest  of  Judah,  Ezek. 
21 :  19-21 ;  compare  Jer.  25:8,  9,  15,  21.  Rab- 
bah was  a  place  of  importance  under  the 
Ptolemies,  the  2d  of  whom,  Philadelphus, 
B.  C.  285-247,  rebuilt  and  renamed  it;  it  is 

463 


RAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAC 


spoken  of  as  Philadelphia  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  Here  caravans  supplied 
themselves  with  water  before  crossing  the 
desert  of  Arabia,  and  it  contained  a  garri- 
son for  repelling  the  incursions  of  the  des- 
ert tribes.  Antiochus  the  Great  took  it 
from  Ptolemy  Philopator,  B.  C.  218.  Her- 
od the  Great  took  it  from  the  Arabs  B.  C. 
30.  in  New  Testament  times  it  was  a  chief 
city  of  Decapolis,  and  held  its  importance 
till  the  4th  century,  when  it  was  the  seat  of 
a  Christian  church.  At  the  Moslem  con- 
quest of  Syria  it  was  already  in  ruins,  hav- 
ing suffered  from  earthquakes. 

The  site  of  Rabbah,  now  Amman,  is  occu- 
pied by  imposing  ruins  scattered  over  sev- 
eral acres  on  both  sides  of  the  stream ;  most 
of  them  belong  to  the  Graeco- Roman  pe- 
riod ;  they  include  the  remains  of  a  theatre 
which  would  accommodate  6,000  persons, 
baths,  temples,  churches,  and  other  public 
buildings,  also  dwelling  houses  and  an  an- 
cient citadel.  Coins  of  the  city  bear  the 
image  of  Astarte,  and  the  inscription  "  Hera- 
cleion,"  from  Hercules,  whose  worship  suc- 
ceeded that  of  Moloch,  formerly  "  the  king  " 
of  Rabbah.  Amman  is  the  resort  of  im- 
mense flocks  and  herds  of  the  Arabs,  which 
there  find  water  and  shelter  from  the  noon- 
day heat,  thus  strikingly  fulfilling  the  proph- 
ecy, "  I  will  make  Rabbah  a  stable  for  cam- 
els, and  the  Ammonites  a  couching-place 
for  flocks,"  Ezek.  25:5. 


n.  A  town  in  the  hill-country  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:60,  perhaps  Kh.  Rubba,  south  of 
Socoh,  12  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

RAB'BATH-MO'AB.     See  Ar. 

RABBI  and  RABBO'NI.     See  Rab. 

RAB'BITH,  a  mitlliliide,  Josh.  19:20,  un- 
identified. 

RAB'-MAG,  chief' magician  or  priest,  ap- 
parently an  official  title  of  Nergal-sharezer 
(seej,  one  of  the  princes  present  with  Neb- 
uchadnezzar at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem, 
Jer.  39:3,  13.     See  Magi. 

RAB'SARIS,  chief  0/  the  eunuchs,  I.,  title 
of  an  officer  whom  Sennacherib,  king  of 
Assyria,  sent  to  Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  18:17. 

n.  Title  of  an  officer  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king  of  Babylon,  Jer.  39:3,  13.  His 
personal  name  may  have  been  Sarsechim 
or  Nebushasban.  From  the  mural  tablets 
of  Nineveh  such  officers  appear  to  have 
enjoyed  high  honor  and  trust.  See  cut 
under  Shalmaneser. 

RAB'-SHAKEH,  chief  butler  or  cup-bear- 
er, title  of  an  officer  sent  from  Lachish  by 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  to  summon 
Hezekiah  to  surrender ;  which  message  he 
delivered  in  a  most  audacious  and  insolent 
manner,  2  Kin.  18:17,  etc ;  2  Chr.  32:9,  etc. ; 
Isa.  36.  See  Nineveh  and  Sennache- 
rib. 

RA'CA,  Matt.  5:22,  a  strongly  contempt- 
uous expression  derived  from  the  Chaldee 
reka,  signifying  empty,  worthless. 


RACE,  Psa.  19:5,  Eccl.  9:11.  Various 
games  were  instituted  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  in  honor  of  their  gods,  and 
with  the  design  of  training  young  men  to 
personal  vigor  and  activity,  and  to  intre- 
pidity and  skill  in  war.  These  games  were 
celebrated  at  stated  i)laces  and  times  with 
great  pomp ;  renowned  statesmen,  legisla- 
464 


tors,  and  kings  engaged  in  them;  and  it 
was  deemed  the  highest  of  all  honors  to  be 
crowned  with  a  simple  chaplet  of  laurel, 
olive,  pine,  or  parsley  in  the  presence  of 
the  vast  assemblage  of  witnesses  who  de- 
lighted to  honor  the  victor.  The  prepar- 
atory training  was  very  severe,  and  ev- 
ery weakening  indulgence  was  forbidden. 


RAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


RAI 


Among  the  most  famous  games  were  those 
celebrated  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  hence 
called  the  Isthmian  games ;  and  to  these 
Paul  alludes  in  his  letters  to  Corinth,  i  Cor. 
4:9;  9:24-27.  See  also  Acts  20:24;  Gal. 
5:7.  The  foot-race  was  a  game  of  the  first 
rank;  other  games  were  the  torch -race 
on  foot  or  on  horseback,  the  chariot-race, 
wrestling,  boxing,  leaping,  and  throwing 
the  quoit  or  the  javelin.  The  foot-race 
well  illustrates  the  Christian  warfare,  the 
sacrifices  to  be  made,  the  diligent  bring- 
ing of  the  body  under  subjection,  the  lay- 
ing aside  every  weight,  the  myriads  of 
spectators  lining  the  course,  and  among 
them  those  previously  crowned  victors,  the 
exhausting  efforts  required  (from  which 
the  word  agonize  is  derived),  and  the  glo- 
rious prize,  Phil.  3:13,  14;  2  Tim.  4:7,  8; 
Heb.  12:1. 

RA'CHEL,  ewe,  Ruth  4:11,  Leah's  young- 
er sister,  Laban's  daughter,  and  Jacob's 
chosen  and  best-beloved  wife,  though  Leah 
was  favored  with  more  children.  Rachel, 
though  attractive,  was  tinged  with  the  idol- 
atrous superstition  and  cunning  of  her  fam- 
ily. She  was  the  adoptive  mother  of  Dan 
and  Naphtali,  and  the  mother  of  Josep!: 
and  Benjamin,  and  died  soon  after  the  lat- 
ter's  birth.     See  her  history  in  Gen.  29  to 


RACHEL'S  TOMB,  NORTH  OF  BETHLEHEM. 


35.  •  Jacob  marked  her  burial-place  with  a 
pillar,  Gen.  35:16,  19,  20;  48:7,  and  it  was 
still  a  waymark  600  years  later,  in  the  days 
of  Samuel  and  Saul,  i  Sam.  10:2;  Jeremi- 
ah, 31:15-17,  poetically  represents  her  as 
mourning  over  the  calamities  of  her  pos- 
terity, the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh,  previously  led  captive  by  Assyria,  and 
of  Benjamin,  then  suffering  with  Judah 
under  the  sword  and  chains  of  Babylon; 
compare  Jer.  40:11;  and  as  receiving  a 
consoling  promise  of  their  restoration.  A 
further  fulfilment  of  the  prophet's  imagery 
occurred  at  Herod's  slaughter  of  the  in- 
fants of  Bethlehem  and  the  surrounding 
villages.  Matt.  2:17,  18.  It  is  supposed 
that  one  of  the  many  places  called  Ramah 
30 


was  near  Rachel's  grave  and  Bethlehem. 
The  traditional  site  of  her  burial-place  is 
still  shown,  as  it  has  been  for  ages,  about  % 
a  mile  north  of  Bethlehem,  and  is  revered 
by  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Christians, 
and  visited  by  pilgrims.  It  is  marked  by 
a  Mohammedan  wely's  sepulchre,  with  a 
dome  and  a  stone  inclosure.  The  build- 
ing has  been  often  repaired,  and  was  prob- 
ably first  erected  in  the  15th  century  on 
the  place  before  marked  by  a  pyramid  of 
stones. 

RAFT'ERS,  Song  1:17,  ceilings. 

RA'GAU,  Luke  3:35,  the  same  as  Reu, 
R.  V.     See  Gen.  11:20,  21. 

RAGU'EL,  Num.  10:29,  or  rather  RE- 
U'EL,  as  in  Exod.  2:18,  21,  friend  of  God. 
The  Hebrew  word  is  the  same  in  both 
places.  Compare  Exod.  3:1;  18:1;  Judg. 
4:11.  These  passages  represent  him  as 
the  father  of  Hobab  and  Zipporah,  and  he 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
Jethro,  Moses'  father-in-law.  Some,  how- 
ever, think  he  was  Jethro 's  father,  and  that 
he  is  called  the  father  of  the  others  as  be- 
ing the  head  of  the  family.  Compare  Gen. 
31:43;  2  Kin.  14:3;  16:2. 

RA'HAB.  The  English  word  Rahab  rep- 
resents 2  different  Hebrew  words;  I.  Ra- 
H.\B,  zvide,  a  Canaanite  woman  of  Jericho 
who  gave  shelter  to  the  2  spies  sent  in 
thither  by  Joshua,  and  in  return  was  spared, 
with  all  her  kindred,  when  the  city  was  ta- 
ken and  destroyed.  Josh.  2:1-21;  6:17-25. 
Her  faith  in  doing  this  is  commended  in 
Heb.  11:31 ;  Jas.  2:25.  The  Jews  and  many 
Christians  endeavor  to  show  that  Rahab 
was  only  an  honest  innkeeper;  but  more 
probably  the  designation  of  "harlot"  giv- 
en to  her  in  our  Bible  is  correct.  If  she 
had  at  some  time  led  a  dissolute  life,  she 
had  evidently  repented ;  and  she  after- 
wards became  a  worshipper  of  Jehovah, 
the  wife  of  Salmon,  a  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  Ruth  4:21,  and  so  an  ancestor  of 
our  Lord,  one  of  the  4  women,  Thamar, 
Rahab,  Ruth,  and  Bath-sheba,  all  foreign- 
ers, named  in  Matthew's  genealogy  of  Je- 
sus, Matt.  1 :5.  The  penitent  publican  and 
sinner  are  always  welcome  to  Christ;  and 
many  such,  through  the  renovating  power 
of  grace,  will  shine  gloriously  in  heaven, 
while  the  unbelieving  moralist  will  perish 
in  his  sins. 

II.  R.^HAB,  pride,  insolence,  a  symbolical 
name  for  Egypt,  Psa.  87 : 4 ;  89 :  10 ;  Isa.  30 : 7, 
"strength;"  Isa.  51:9. 

RAIN.  In  Scripture  the  "  early  "  and  the 
"latter"  rain  of  Palestine  are  spoken  of, 

465 


RAI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAM 


Deut.  11:14;  Hos.  6:3.  The  former  falls  in 
the  latter  part  of  October,  the  seed-time  of 
Palestine ;  and  the  weather  then  continues 
variable,  with  more  or  less  rain,  the  whole 
winter,  Ezra  10:9;  Song  2: 11,  until  after  the 
latter  or  spring  rain  in  April,  which  is  im- 
portant for  the  perfecting  of  the  crops,  Joel 
2:23;  Amos  4:7.  In  the  Jordan  valley  bar- 
ley is  harvested  in  the  beginning  of  May, 
wheat  a  few  weeks  later;  while  the  fig, 
olive,  and  grape  do  not  ripen  in  quantities 
till  August  and  September.  In  Lebanon 
the  harvests  are  later,  and  "the  former 
rain  "  earlier.  Rain  is  extremely  rare  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  grain-harvest,  i  Sam. 
12:16-19;  Prov.  26:1;  the  earth  soon  be- 
comes parched,  vegetation  is  destroyed, 
and  a  season  of  scorching  heat  and  unbro- 
ken drought  succeeds  from  July,  or  even 
May,  until  the  coming  of  the  longed-for 
October  rains,  which  again  prepare  the 
earth  for  cultivation.  Nothing  can  more 
expressively  represent  spiritual  blessings 
than  copious  showers  of  rain  after  this  try- 
ing season  is  past,  Deut.  32:2;  Job  29:23; 
Isa.  44:3;  Hos.  10:12.     See  Kishon. 

On  the  other  hand,  violent  tempests  of 
rain,  by  the  devastation  they  occasion, 
Prov.  28  : 3,  furnish  a  metaphor  for  the 
judgments  of  God,  Psa.  11:6;  Ezek.  38:22. 
Now,  as  formerly,  rain  in  Palestine  comes 
mostly  from  the  west  and  southwest,  i  Kin. 
18:43-45;  Luke  12:54. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Jerusa- 
lem is  now  61.6  inches,  more  than  the  aver- 
age fall  in  the  United  States,  which  is  45 
inches.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  if  a 
portion  of  this  copious  rainfall  were  pre- 
served in  reservoirs  and  used  in  irrigating 
the  ground  in  the  dry  season,  and  if  the 
hillsides,  which  in  Southern  Palestine  es- 
pecially are  stripped  of  soil,  were  terraced 
and  planted  with  trees,  to  hinder  the  rain 
from  coursing  down  the  rocks  in  torrents, 
often  ruinous  to  the  crops  in  the  valleys, 
and  to  cause  it  to  percolate  more  gently 
and  generally  through  the  soil,  the  old 
verdure  and  fertility  of  land  might  be  re- 
stored, and  be  again  the  rule  instead  of,  as 
at  present,  the  exception  which  surprises 
and  delights  the  traveller. 

RAIN'BOW,  Gen.  9:13-17;  Isa.  54:9,  10. 
This  beautiful  phenomenon  is  owing  to  the 
refraction  of  the  beams  of  the  sun  in  pass- 
ing the  drops  of  falling  rain;  the  rays  are 
separated  into  the  prismatic  colors,  and 
then  reflected  from  the  cloud  opposite  to 
the  sun  and  the  spectator.  We  need  not 
suppose  that  the  rainbow  was  unknown 
466 


before  the  flood;  but  God  then  appointed 
it  to  be  the  cheering  seal  of  his  covenant 
with  the  earth,  which  is  as  steadfast  as 
the  natural  laws  from  which  the  rainbow 
springs.  The  rainbow  symbolizes  God's 
mercy  and  faithfulness,  Rev.  4:3;  10:1. 

RAI'SINS,  grapes  dried ;  often  made  into 
cakes,  like  dates  ;  Num.  6:3;  i  Sam.  25:18; 
30:12:  2  Sam.  16:1;  I  Chr.  12:40. 

RAK'KATH,  shore,  a  fortified  city  of 
Naphtali,  Josh.  19:35,  probably  not  far  from 
Tiberias. 

RAK'KON,  thinness,  a  city  of  Dan,  Josh. 
19:46,  traced  at  Tel  er-Rekkut,  on  the 
coast  5H  miles  north  of  Joppa. 

RAM,  high,  I.,  a  Judahite,  son  of  Hezron, 

1  Chr.  2:9,  10;  called  Aram  in  the  A.  V., 
Matt.  1:3,  4;  Luke  3:33. 

II.  A  son  of  Jerahmeel,  i  Chr.  2:25,  27. 

III.  One  to  whose  kindred  Elihu  be- 
longed. Job  32:2;  by  some  identified  with 
Aram,  Gen.  22:21. 

See  Batteri.vg-ram. 

RA'MAH,  plural  Ra'moth,  a  high  place, 
and  hence  many  places  in  Palestine  are 
named  Ramah,  Ramath,  Ramoth,  and  Ra- 
mathaim,  etc.  Sometimes  the  same  place 
is  called  by  one  or  other  of  these  names 
indiscriminately,  all  signifying  the  same, 

2  Kin.  8:28,  29.  Sometimes  Rama,  or  Ra- 
moth, is  joined  to  another  name,  to  deter- 
mine the  place  of  such  city  or  eminence; 
and  it  is  sometimes  put  simply  for  "  a  high 
place,"  and  signifies  neither  city  nor  vil- 
lage, Ezek.  16:24,  25,  31,  39. 

I.  The  principal  Ramah  was  a  city  of 
Benjamin  near  Gibeah,  and  5  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem,  Josh.  18:25;  Judg.  19:13. 
After  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  Ramah, 
being  a  frontier  town  on  a  naturally  strong 
site,  was  fortified  by  Baasha  king  of  Israel, 
but  was  afterwards  retaken  by  Asa  king  of 
Judah,  I  Kin.  15:17,21,22.  Hosea,  5:^  re- 
fers to  it  as  a  point  from  which  tidings  of 
an  approaching  enemy  might  well  be  sent. 
It  is  noticed  in  Isaiah's  prediction  of  Sen- 
nacherib's march  towards  Jerusalem,  Isa. 
10:29.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar's  army,  Jeremiah  was 
liberated  at  Ramah,  Jer.  40:1-4.  It  was 
reoccupied  after  the  Captivity,  Ezra  2:26; 
Neh.  7:30.  Dr.  Robinson  identified  it  with 
the  village  er-Ram,  on  a  conical  hill  a  lit- 
tle east  of  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  She- 
chem.  Here  are  ruins  —  broken  columns, 
large  hewn  stones,  and  an  ancient  reser- 
voir. The  site  commands  an  extensive 
view,  but  the  village  is  mean  and  contains 
only  about  15  families. 


RAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAN 


II.  Ramatha'im-Zo'phini  (so  only  once), 
Samuel's  birthplace,  home,  and  burial- 
place,  I  Sam.  I.I,  19;  2:11;  7:17;  8:4; 
15:34;  16:13;  19:18,22,23;  25:1;  28:3.  It 
is  once  described  as  "  of  Mount  Ephraim," 
a  region  of  vague  limits,  apparently  reach- 
ing southward  to  the  neighborhood  of  Je- 
rusalem; compare  2  Chr.  13:4,  19;  15:8; 
Judg.  4:5.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  un- 
named place  where  Saul  was  anointed  by 
Samuel,  i  Sam.  9:4  to  10:2,  was  the  proph- 
et's home  or  some  other  city  visited  by  him 
at  intervals  in  his  annual  circuit  as  judge. 
The  position  of  this  Ramah  is  a  difficult 
and  much  disputed  question ;  the  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  sites  assigned:  I.  Neby 
Samwil,  the  prophet  Samuel,  a  high  hill, 
with  a  village,  mosque,  and  reputed  tomb 
of  Samuel  on  it,  4  miles  northwest  of  Jeru- 
salem. At  this  site,  favored  by  Grove,  Ra- 
mah is  placed  by  a  tradition  at  least  as 
early  as  A.  D.  700,  and  common  to  Mos- 
lems, Jews,  and  Christians. — 2.  Er-Ram, 
RaiM.\h  I. — 3.  Soba,  6  miles  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem, suggested  by  Dr.  Robinson. — 4.  Ram- 
Allah,  5  miles  north  of  Neby  Samwil. — 
5.  Ramleh,  2  miles  southwest  of  Lydda ; 
improbable. — 6.  Beit  Sahfir,  i  mile  east  of 
Bethlehem,  favored  by  the  British  Palestine 
Explorers. 

III.  A  border  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:29. 
Robinson  placed  it  at  the  village  now  called 
Ramia,  13  miles  southeast  of  Tyre. 

IV.  A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali,  Josh. 
19:36;  perhaps  represented  by  the  mod- 
ern site  Fer'am,  8  miles  north  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  and  5  miles  west  of  the  Jordan. 

V.  A  city  of  Gilead,  2  Kin.  8:28,  29.  See 
Ramoth-Gilead. 

VI.  A  place  reoccupied  by  Benjamites 
after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:33;  perhaps 
Ramah  I. 

RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM,  double  height 
of  the  zvatchejs,  or  Zuphites,  the  full  name 
of  Ramah,  II.,  i  Sam.  1:1. 

RA'MATHITE,  i  Chr.  27:27,  a  native  or 
resident  of  Ramah. 

RA'MATH-LE'HI,  Judg.  15:17.  See 
Lehi. 

RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH,  height  of  the  watch- 
/ozf'<?r,  Josh.  13:26,  a  town  of  Gad,  usually 
identified  with  Ramoth-Gilead,  which  see, 
and  MizPAH,  II.  It  seems  to  have  marked 
the  northern  border  of  Gad,  and  Dr.  Mer- 
rill would  place  it  at  Kulat  er-Rubad,  a 
prominent  point  15  miles  north  of  the  Jab- 
bok,  on  the  wady  Ajlun,  10  miles  east  of 
the  Jordan.  But  if  south  of  the  Jabbok,  it 
would  naturally  be  placed  at  Jebel  Osha, 


-mount  of  Hosea,  otherwise  Jebel  Gilad,  the 
loftiest  peak  of  Gilead,  3,650  feet  above  the 
sea  and  3  miles  northwest  of  Es-Salt;  it 
has  traces  of  a  solid  wall,  with  remains  of 
towers  and  angles. 

RA'MATH-NE'GEB,  A.  V.,  Ramath  OF 
THE  South,  a  city  in  the  south  of  Simeon, 
Josh.  19:8;  I  Sam.  30:27.  Its  site  has  been 
placed  at  Jebel  Barabir,  a  hill  45  miles 
southwest  of  Beer-sheba;  at  the  ruins  of 
Kurnub,  20  miles  southeast  of  Beer-sheba; 
and  at  Tell  el-Lekiyeh,  4  miles  north  of 
Beer-sheba. 

RAME'SES.     See  R.\amses. 

RA'MOTH.     See  Remeth. 

RA'MOTH  IN  GIL'EAD,  or  RA'MOTH- 
GIL'EAD,  an  important  city  east  of  the 
Jordan,  in  the  mountainous  district  of  Gil- 
ead. It  was  conquered  from  the  Amorites, 
assigned  to  Gad  and  to  the  Merarite  Le- 
vites,  and  appointed  a  city  of  refuge,  Deut. 
4:43  ;  Josh.  20:8;  21:38.  During  Solomon's 
reign  it  was  the  headquarters  of  one  of  his 
commissariat  officers,  i  Kin.  4:13.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  by  the  Syrians,  Ahab  king 
of  Israel  undertook  to  recover  it,  with  the 
helpof  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  but  was 
defeated  and  mortally  wounded  there,  B. 
C.  896,  I  Kin.  22:3-37;  2  Chr.  18.  About 
12  years  later,  Ahab's  son  Jehoram  made 
another  attempt  to  recover  it,  in  alliance 
with  his  nephew  and  Jehoshaphat's  grand- 
son, Ahaziah  king  of  Judah.  He  took  the 
city,  but  was  wounded  and  returned  to 
Jezreel.  Jehu,  a  chief  officer  in  his  army 
at  Ramoth,  was  there  anointed  by  Elisha's 
order  as  successor  of  Jehoram,  2  Kin.  8:28. 
109:15;  2  Chr.  22:5,6.  The  city  was  also 
called  Ramah.  It  has  usually  been  identi- 
fied with  Es-Salt,  but  without  certainty. 
Es-Salt  is  about  25  miles  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  13  miles  south  of  the  Zerka  or 
Jabbok.  It  is  the  capital  and  most  popu- 
lous place  of  the  Belka,  the  district  extend- 
ing from  the  Modjeb  or  Arnon  to  the  Zerka, 
and  is  the  residence  of  a  Turkish  governor. 
It  is  strongly  and  picturesquely  situated 
on  a  hill  whose  summit  is  crowned  by  a 
castle.  It  is  2,740  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
and  has  a  healthy  climate  and  a  popula- 
tion, mainly  agricultural,  of  about  400  fam- 
ilies of  Mohammedan  Arabs  and  80  fami- 
lies of  Greek  Christians.  There  are  ruins 
of  the  Roman  period,  and  the  hills  show 
many  traces  of  ancient  rock-tombs.  See 
Ramath-Mizpeh. 

RAN'GES,  2  Kin.  11:8,  15;  2  Chr.  23:14, 
ranks  of  soldiers. 

RAN'SOM,  the  price  paid  for  the   free- 
467 


RAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REC 


dom  of  a  captive  or  slave,  i  Cor.  6:19,  20. 
Under  the  Levitical  law  an  offering  was 
required  of  every  Israelite  of  20  years  and 
upwards  at  the  time  when  the  census  was 
taken.  This  offering  was  called  a  ransom 
or  atonement  -  money  (  Heb.  covering), 
E.xod.  30: 12-16.  It  was  to  be  made  under 
penalty  of  the  plague,  and  was  settled  for 
%  a  shekel,  25  cents  or  more,  for  rich  and 
poor  alike,  i  Pet.  1:18,  19.  Our  Saviour 
gave  himself  as  a  ransom  for  our  souls' 
life,  Matt.  20:28;  Mark  10:45;  i  Tim.  2:6. 
See  Rkdkmption. 

RA'PHA,  possibly  the  name  of  a  man,  but 
translated  "the  giant"  by  both  A.  V.  and 
R.V.  in  2  Sam.  21 :  16-22  ;  i  Chr.  20:4,  6,  8. 

RA'PHAEL,  ilie  divine  healer;  accord- 
ing to  Jewish  tradition,  one — with  Michael, 
Uriel,  and  Gabriel — of  four  angels  supposed 
to  stand  around  the  throne  of  God.  The 
name  is  not  in  the  Bible,  but  in  Tobit 
12:15. 


raven:  corvus  corax. 
RA'VEN,  Heb.  'Oreb,  black,  Song  5:11,  a 
bird  similar  to  the  crow,  but  larger  and  not 
gregarious.  It  was  unclean  by  the  Leviti- 
cal law,  Lev.  11:15,  where  no  doubt  are 
included  all  the  crow  family  found  in  Pal- 
estine, 8  or  more  species.  It  feeds  on  car- 
rion, and  devours  first  the  eyes  of  a  dead 
body,  Prov.  30:17,  where  the  disgraceful 
exposure  of  a  corpse  in  the  open  field, 
without  burial,  is  implied.  The  raven  in- 
habits desolate  places,  Isa.  34:11,  and 
needs  to  fly  over  a  large  area  to  satisfy  its 
voracious  appetite  or  that  of  its  young,  Job 
38:41;  Psa.  147:9;  Luke  12:24.  It  builds 
its  nest  on  cliffs  or  tall  trees,  and  rears 
from  4  to  7  nestlings  till  they  are  well  able 
to  provide  for  themselves.  Elijah  was  mi- 
raculously fed  by  ravens,  i  Kin.  17:4,  6. 
468 


It  is  debated  whether  Noah's  raven  re- 
turned to  the  ark  at  all.  Gen.  8:7;  but 
nearly  all  versions  and  interpreters  under- 
stand the  Hebrew  phrase  "  going  and  re- 
turning" as  equivalent  to  "to  and  fro" — 
wherever  it  found  a  resting-place. 

RAVEN,  to  prey  with  savage  rapacity. 
Gen.  49:27;  Psa.  17:12,  margin.  Hence 
"  ravenous." 

RA'ZOR,  Gen.  41:14;  Num.  6:5,  18,  a 
common  instrument  among  the  Hebrews, 
who  on  completing  a  vow  shaved  their 
heads,  Acts  21:24.  A  life-long  Nazarite 
was  not  permitted  to  shave  his  head,  Judg. 
13:5;  16:17;  I  Sam.  i:ii.  The  razor  was 
used  in  the  ceremonial  cleansing  of  a  lep- 
er, Lev.  14:8,  9,  and  to  produce  one  of  the 
tokens  of  mourning,  Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  41:5. 

REAP'ING  in  Palestine  was  usually  done 

with   the  sickle,    Deut.  16:9;    23:25;  Jer. 

50:16;  Joel  3:13;  Rev.  14.     In  some  cases, 

however,  to  increase  the  supply  of  fodder, 

the  grain  was    plucked  up   by  the 

roots;    which   explains   Psa.    129:6, 

where   the   premature   withering  of 

the  wheat  "  before  it  be  plucked  up," 

instead  of  "  groweth  up "  as  in  the 

_  A.  v.,  is  an  emblem  of  the  early  de- 

^^      cay  and  fruitlessness  of  the  wicked. 

REAR'WARD,  the  strong  battalion 

that  closed  and  guarded  the  rear  of 

an   armj^  Josh.   6:13;    Isa.   52:12; 

58:8. 

REA'SONABLE   SER'VICE,    Rom. 
12: 1,  rational  or  spiritual  worship. 

RE'BA,  four,    a    Midianite    king, 
Num.  31:8;  Josh.  13:21. 

REBEK'AH,  in  New  Testament 
REBECCA,  a  noosed  cord,  implying 
probably  her  ensnaring  beauty.  Gen. 
26:7,  a  daughter  of  Bethuel,  and  sis- 
ter of  Laban  in  Mesopotamia,  who  became 
the  wife  of  Isaac,  and  20  years  afterwards 
the  mother  of  Jacob  and  Esau,  Rom.  9: 10- 
12.  The  manner  in  which  she  was  sought 
and  obtained  as  the  wife  of  Isaac  exhibits 
a  striking  picture  of  Oriental  manners  and 
customs.  Through  her  partiality  for  Jacob 
she  was  tempted  into  the  use  of  unjustifia- 
ble means  to  secure  for  him  the  inherit- 
ance, not  having  faith  to  leave  to  God  the 
fulfilment  of  his  own  purposes.  Gen.  25:22, 
23.  Her  deceit  led  to  disastrous  results: 
Jacob  fled  from  home ;  and  when  he  re- 
turned from  Mesopotamia,  20  years  after- 
wards, his  mother,  it  is  supposed,  lay  bur- 
ied in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  Gen.  24-28; 

49:31- 

RECEIPT'    OF    CUS'TOM,    Mark    2:14; 


REC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RED 


Luke  5:27,  a  place  of  toll,  R.  V.  See  Pub- 
lican. 

RE'CHAB,  a  horsevian,  I.,  father  or  an- 
cestor  of  Jehonadab,    2    Kin.    10:15,    23; 

1  Chr.  2:55;  Jer.  35:6-19. 

II.  One  of  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth, 

2  Sam.  4:2,  5-12. 

III.  Father  of  Malchiah,  Neh.  3:14. 
RE'CHABITES,  a  tribe  of  Kenite  or  Mid- 

ianite  origin,  descendants  of  Jehonadab  or 
Jonadab,  and  named  from  his  father  or  an- 
cestor Rechab,  i  Chr.  2:55;  2  Kin.  10:15; 
compare  Judg.  1:16;  4:11,  17.  They  were 
worshippers  of  the  true  God,  though  not 
fully  identified  with  Israel.  Jonadab  aided 
Jehu  in  executing  the  divine  commission  to 
e.\terminate  the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab, 
and  in  destroying  the  worshippers  of  Baal, 
2  Kin.  10:15-23.  He  laid  an  injunction  on 
his  posterity  not  to  drink  wine,  or  build 
houses,  or  sow  seed,  or  plant  vineyards,  or 
hold  lands,  but  to  dwell  in  tents,  Jer.  35:6, 
7.  These  rules  were  obeyed  by  his  de- 
scendants, and  their  nomadic  life  and  sim- 
ple habits  may  have  facilitated  their  escape 
from  the  Assyrians,  who  carried  captive 
the  Israelites  of  the  northern  kingdom,  in 
which  Jonadab  had  dwelt.  Nearly  300 
years  after  Jonadab's  day  the  Rechabites 
took  refuge  in  Jerusalem  on  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's invasion  of  Judaea  in  the  reign  of  Je- 
hoiakim.  Jeremiah  was  commanded  b}^ 
God  to  invite  them  into  the  temple  and 
offer  them  wine  to  drink,  that  their  refusal 
and  filial  obedience  might  rebuke  the  Jews 
for  their  disobedience  to  God's  commands. 
A  divine  promise  of  continued  existence  as 
a  family  was  conveyed  to  the  Rechabites  by 
Jeremiah,  Jer.  35:1-19;  and  was  undoubt- 
edly fulfilled,  though  it  may  not  now  be 
possible  to  distinguish  them,  as  some  claim 
to  do,  among  the  tribes  of  Central  Arabia. 
It  is  interesting,  however,  to  note  that  trav- 
ellers mention  a  tribe  to  the  northeast  of 
Medina  who  identify  themselves  with  the 
Rechabites,  and  have  the  Old  Testament 
in  Arabic.  They  call  themselves  the  Beni 
Khaibr,  sons  of  Heber,  and  their  land 
Khaibr. 

RECONCILE,  Eph.  2:16,  RECONCILIA'- 
TION,  Rom.  5:11,  R.  V.  These  passages 
refer  to  the  change  of  relation  between 
God  and  man,  from  hostility  to  friendship, 
effected  through  the  mediation  of  the  Son 
of  God,  Heb.  2:17  with  1:1-3.  To  make 
human  salvation  possible,  a  just  God  must 
be  reconciled  to  the  sinner,  and  the  rebel- 
lious sinner  be  reconciled  to  God.  This 
reconciliation  is  effected  by  the  sacrifice  of 


Christ,  which  satisfies  the  justice  of  God, 
and  through  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  discloses  to  the  sinner  the  love  of 
God,  and  draws  from  him  a  response  of 
gratitude,  trust,  and  love,  Rom.  5:10,  11; 
2  Cor.  5:18-20.  When  the  words  appear 
in  the  Old  Testament  they — with  2  excep- 
tions, I  Sam.  29:4;  2  Chr.  29:24 — represent 
the  Hebrew  word  more  frequently  transla- 
ted "atone"  and  "  make  atonement,"  Lev. 
6:30;  8:15;  Ezek.  45:15,  a7;  Dan.  9:24. 
Christ  bids  the  man  who  has  wronged  his 
brother  to  make  peace  with  him  by  con- 
fession and  reparation  before  presenting 
his  gift  at  God's  altar.  Matt.  5:23,  24. 

RECORD  often  means  in  the  A.  V.  wit- 
ness or  testimony,  John  1:32,  34;  i  John 
5:7;  Rev.  1:2.  "Take  you  to  record,"  A. 
v.,  in  Acts  20:26,  is  rendered  in  the  R.  V. 
"testify  unto  you." 

RECORD'ER,  remembrancer,  an  officer 
of  high  rank  at  the  court  of  David  and  Sol- 
omon, 2  Sam.  8:16;  I  Kin.  4:3,  and  later  of 
the  kings  of  Judah,  2  Kin.  18:  i8,  26,  2,-j] 
2  Chr.  34:8,  9.  Besides  holding  the  office 
of  annalist,  the  recorder  seems  to  have 
been  a  counsellor  or  chancellor  of  the  king, 
Isa.  36:3,  22,  was  a  commissioner  in  time 
of  war,  and  superintended  temple  repairs. 

REDEEM'ER,  a  name  given  to  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  because 
he  redeems  mankind  from  the  bondage 
and  guilt  of  their  sins  by  dying  in  their 
place,  and  thus  paying  their  ransom.  Matt. 
20:28;  Gal.  3:13;  Eph.  1:7;  I  Tim.  2:6; 
Tit.  2:14;  I  Pet.  1:18,  19;  Rev.  5:9. 

The  work  of  redemption  is  illustrated 
by  the  Old  Testament  uses  of  the  word. 
A  participle  from  gaal,  to  redeem,  viz., 
GOEL,  redeemer,  denotes  one's  nearest  male 
blood  relative,  to  whom  certain  fights  and 
duties  appertained:  i.  To  redeem,  without 
waiting  for  the  Jubilee  year,  the  property 
or  person  of  one  who,  having  become  in- 
volved, was  unable  to  free  himself.  Lev. 
25:25-28,47-53;  Ruth  3:12  ;  4:1, 10, 14.  God 
is  represented  as  the  nearest  kinsman, 
the  goel  or  redeemer  of  his  people,  Exod. 
6:6;  Job  19:25;  33:27,  28;  Psa.  103:4;  Isa. 
41:14;  43:1,  14;  44:6,  22;  48:17,  20;  49:7- 
Among  the  Hebrews  this  sometimes  in- 
volved the  marrying  of  the  widow  of  the 
deceased  kinsman.  2.  To  receive  the  rep- 
aration due  from  a  3d  person  to  a  deceased 
relative  who  had  been  wronged.  Num.  5:6- 
8.  3.  To  avenge  the  death  of  a  murdered 
kinsman.  Num.  35: 12,  19,  21,  27  ;  Deut.  19:6, 
12,  13.  See  Refuge.  So  Christ,  having 
taken  our  nature  upon  him,  as  our  nearest 

469 


RED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REF 


of  kin  destroys  Satan,  our  murderer,  John 
8:44;  Heb.  2:14,  15. 

Another  Mosaic  institution  provided  that 
a  man  might  redeem  by  a  fixed  price  the 
life  of  man  or  beast  which  were  claimed 
as  (iod's,  e.  g\,  the  firstling  of  a  domestic 
animal,  by  i)aying  the  priest's  estimate  of 
its  value  and  i-jth  more.  Lev.  27:27,  or  a 
slave,  Exod.  21:8;  Lev.  19:20,  or  the  first- 
born of  an  Israelite,  E.xod.  13:13,  15;  Num. 
18:15,  16,  e.g.,  of  those  not  exchanged  for 
Levites,  Num.  3:46,  51.  In  these  cases  the 
idea  of  purchase  illustrates  Christ's  re- 
demption of  his  people,  i  Cor.  6:20;  7:23; 
Rev.  14:3,  4.     See  Ransom. 

Another  great  type  of  Christ's  work  was 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  bondage 
in  Egypt,  the  whole  narrative  abounding 
in  parallels  to  the  redemption  and  salva- 
tion of  sinners,  Exod.  15:13;  Deut.  7:8; 
9:26;  Psa.74:2;  77:15;  130:7,8;  153.48:20; 
59:20;  63:9;  Jer.  31:11;  Rom.  3:24,  25; 
<ial.  3: 13. 

RED  SEA.    See  Sea. 

REED,  sometimes  a  stalk  or  rod  of  any 
plant,  as  of  the  hyssop,  Matt.  27:48;  John 
19:29.  Usually,  however,  the  word  ?-eed 
denotes  a  reed  or  cane  growing  in  marshy 
grounds,  Job  40:21;  Isa.  19:6,  slender  and 
fragile,  and  hence  taken  as  an  emblem  of 
weakness,  i  Kin.  14:15;  2  Kin.  18:21;  Isa. 
36:6;  Ezek.  29:6,  and  of  instability.  Matt. 
11:7.  "A  bruised  reed,"  Isa.  42:3;  Matt. 
12:20,  is  an  emblem  of  a  soul  crushed  and 
ready  to  sink  in  despair  under  a  sense  of 
its  guilty  and  lost  condition.  Such  a  soul 
the  Saviour  will  graciously  sustain  and 
strengthen.  The  reed  of  spice,  or  good 
leed  (A.  V.  "sweet  calamus,"  Exod.  30:23, 
"sweet  cane,"  Jer.  6:20),  also  called  simply 
"reed"  ("calamus"  or  "sweet  cane"), 
Song  4:14;  Isa.  43 :  24 ;  Ezek.  27 :  19,  may  be 
the  sweet  flag  of  India,  Calamus  odoratus,  or 
the  lemon-grass,  Andropogon  scha'nanlhus, 
of  Arabia  and  India.  The  Anindo  donax, 
common  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  has  a  slen- 
der jointed  stalk  about  12  feet  high,  with 
a  large  tuft  of  bloom  at  the  top,  and  long 
leaves  shaped  like  those  of  maize.  Wild 
beasts  make  their  lairs  in  the  dense  growth 
of  this  reed  about  the  perennial  streams  of 
Palestine.  Musical  instruments  are  still 
formed  of  hollow  reed  tubes.  Reeds  were 
anciently  used  as  pens  and  as  measuring- 
rods,  Ezek.  40:5;  42:16;  3  John  13.  The 
Hebrew  "  reed  "  is  supposed  to  have  been 
about  II  feet  long.  See  Mkasurks,  Bui,- 
RusH,  Ft.ac,  Rush. 

REFI'NER,  Job  23:10;  Psa.  66:10;  Prov. 
470 


17:3;  Isa.  48:10.  In  working  the  precious 
metals  the  refiner  separated  the  dross  from 
the  pure  ore,  first  reducing  the  mass  to  a 
fluid  state  by  the  application  of  heat,  and 
by  the  aid  of  solvents,  sucii  as  alkali  or 
lead,  which,  amalgamating  with  the  dross, 
permitted  the  extraction  of  the  pure  metal. 
The  instruments  required  were  a  crucible 
or  furnace,  and  a  bellows  or  blow-i)ipe. 
The  refiner  of  silver  sits  at  his  work,  stead- 
ily watching  the  process,  which  is  comple- 
ted only  when  he  sees  his  own  image  re- 
flected in  the  molten  mass,  Mai.  i:^\  com- 
pare Isa.  1:25;  Jer.  6:29;  Zech.  13:9.  So 
Christ  sanctifies  his  people,  Rom.  8:29; 
Heb.  12: 10. 

REFRAIN',  Prov.  10:19,  hold  in  check. 

REF'UGE,  Cities  of.  To  provide  secu- 
rity for  those  who  should  undesignedly 
kill  a  man  in  such  ways  as  are  specified  in 
Exod.  21:22,  23;  22:2,  3;  Num.  35:22,  23; 
Deut.  19:5;  22:8,  the  Lord  commanded 
Moses  to  appoint  6  cities  of  refuge,  or  asy- 
lums, that  any  one  who  should  thus  shed 
blood  might  retire  thither  and  have  time 
to  prepare  his  defence  before  the  judges  of 
the  place  where  the  slaying  occurred.  Josh. 
20:4-6,  and  that  the  goel,  or  nearest  of  kin 
of  the  deceased,  might  not  pursue  or  kill 
him,  Exod.  21:13;  Num.  35: 11-34.  Of  such 
cities  there  were  3  on  each  side  of  the  Jor- 
dan. On  the  west  were  Kedesh  of  Naphtali, 
Shechem,  and  Hebron;  on  the  east,  Golan, 
Ramoth-Gilead,  and  Bezer,  Josh.  20:7,  8. 
These  cities  served  not  only  for  Hebrews, 
but  for  all  strangers  who  resided  in  the 
country,  Deut.  19:1-10.  The  Lord  also 
commanded  that  when  the  Hebrews  should 
multiply  and  enlarge  their  land,  they  should 
add  other  cities  of  refuge;  but  this  com- 
mand was  never  fulfilled,  unless,  as  Jewish 
writers  affirm,  the  Levitical  cities  were  also 
cities  of  refuge,  Num.  35:6. 

The  custom  of  blood-revenge  appears  to 
have  been  very  early  introduced  among 
the  nomadic  Oriental  tribes.  So  firmly 
was  this  practice  established  among  the 
Israelites  before  their  entrance  into  the 
promised  land,  and  i)robably  also  even  be- 
fore their  sojourning  in  Egypt,  that  Moses 
was  directed  by  Jehovah  not  to  attempt  to 
eradicate  it  entirely,  but  only  to  counteract 
and  modify  it  by  the  institution  of  cities  of 
refuge.  Later  Jewish  writers  say  that  va- 
rious provisions  were  made  to  facilitate 
escape  to  these  cities ;  the  roads  were  good, 
and  sign-posts  were  erected  to  point  the 
way.  The  custom  of  avenging  the  blood 
of  a  member  of  a  family  or  tribe  upon  some 


REF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REG 


member  of  the  tribe  or  family  of  the  slayer 
still  exists  in  full  force  among  the  modern 
Bedouins.     Niebuhr  informs  us  that  "  the 


Arabs  rather  avenge  themselves,  as  the 
law  allows,  upon  the  family  of  the  mur- 
derer, and  seek  an  opportunity  of  slaying 


its  head,  or  most  considerable  person, 
whom  they  regard  as  being  properly  the 
person  guilty  of  the  crime,  as  it  must  have 
been  committed  through  his  negligence  in 
watching  over  the  conduct  of  those  under 
his  inspection.  From  this  time  the  2  fami- 
lies are  in  continual  fears,  till  some  one  or 
other  of  the  murderer's  family  be  slain. 
No  reconciliation  can  take  place  between 
them,  and  the  quarrel  is  still  occasionally 
renewed.  There  have  been  instances  of 
such  family  feuds  lasting  40  years.  If  in 
the  contest  a  man  of  the  murdered  per- 
son's family  happens  to  fall,  there  can  be 
no  peace  until  2  others  of  the  murderer's 
family  have  been  slain."  How  far  supe- 
rior to  this  was  the  Mosaic  institution  of 
cities  of  refuge,  where  the  involuntary  hom- 
icide might  remain  in  peace  till  the  death 
of  the  high-priest,  and  then  go  forth  in 
safety,  while  a  really  guilty  person  did  not 
escape  punishment,  Deut.  19:12.  Certain 
skeptical  writers  claim  to  have  found  rea- 
son to  believe  that  the  cities  of  refuge  were 
not  instituted  till  late  in  Jewish  history. 
But  it  is  inconceivable  that  the  different 
sacred  writers  who  at  various  intervals  of 
time  describe  them  should  have  interwo- 
ven in  their  narratives  of  contemporane- 
ous events  accounts  of  an  institution  that 
did  not  then  exist,  or  that  the  Jews  of  the 
later  age  supposed  should  permit  such  an 
interpolation  in  their  own  national  and 
sacred  annals. 


Among  most  of  the  nations  of  antiquity, 
temples,  and  particularly  the  altars  within 
them,  were  regarded  as  proffering  an  asy- 
lum for  fugitives  from  violence.  Among 
the  Hebrews  we  find  indications  of  the  cus- 
tom on  the  part  of  the  culprit  of  fleeing  to 
the  Lord's  altar.  But  this  was  not  allowed 
to  screen  the  guilty  from  deserved  punish- 
ment, Exod.  21:14;  I  K.in.  2:28-34. 

There  is  an  appointed  city  of  refuge  for 
sinners  exposed  to  the  second  death,  and 
an  altar  of  refuge  sprinkled  with  atoning 
blood,  Heb.  6:18.  Happy  the  soul  that 
flees  and  is  safe  in  Christ  ere  it  is  overta- 
ken by  the  avenging  law  of  God. 

RE'GEM, /;-?>««',  i  Chr.  2:47. 

RE'GEM-ME'LECH,  the  king's  friend, 
apparently  the  title  of  a  commissioner  sent 
with  Sharezer  by  the  Jews  of  the  Captivity 
to  inquire  at  the  temple  concerning  fast- 
ing, Zech.  7:2,  B.  C.  517. 

REGENERA'TION,  the  new  birth;  that 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which  the  soul, 
previously  dead  in  sins,  is  created  anew  in 
Christ  unto  righteousness.  It  is  expressed 
in  Scripture  by  being  born  again,  anew,  or 
from  above,  John  3:3-7;  becoming  a  new 
creature,  2  Cor.  5:17;  being  quickened  to 
a  new  life  of  holiness,  Eph.  2:1 ;  being  re- 
newed in  mind,  Rom.  12:2;  having  Christ 
formed  in  the  heart,  Gal.  4:19;  and  being 
made  partaker  of  the  divine  nature,  2  Pet. 
1 :4.  The  sole  author  of  this  change  is  the 
Holy  Spirit,  John  1:12,  13;  3:5;  Eph.  2:8- 

471 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REH 


lo;  and  he  effects  it  ordinarily  by  the  in- 
strumentality of  gospel  truth,  i  Cor.  4:15; 
Jas.  i:iS;  i  Pet.  1:23.  In  this  change  the 
moral  image  of  God  is  brought  back  into 
the  soul,  and  the  principle  of  supreme  love 
to  him  and  unselfish  love  to  our  neighbor 
is  implanted.  Regeneration,  producing 
faith,  is  accompanied  by  justification,  and 
by  actual  holiness  of  life,  or  sanctification 
begun,  and  completed  when  the  "babe  in 
Christ"  reaches  in  heaven  "the  fulness  of 
the  stature  of  the  perfect  man  "  in  Him. 
In  Tit.  3:5  "  the  washing  of  regeneration  " 
denotes  the  purifying  work  of  the  Spirit  in 
the  new  birth.  In  Matt.  19:28  the  refer- 
ence is  to  the  renovation  or  restoration  of 
all  things  at  the  glorious  external  manifes- 
tation of  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  Com- 
pare Acts  3:21. 

REHABI'AH,  whom  Jehovah  enlarges,  a 
grandson  of  Moses,  i  Chr.  23:17;  24:21; 
26:25. 

RE'HOB,  breadth,  or  a  street,  I.,  father 
of  Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah,  2  Sam.  8:3, 
12. 

II.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah,  Neh.  10:11. 

III.  The  northernmost  point  reached  by 
the  spies  sent  out  by  Moses  to  explore  Ca- 
naan, Num.  13:21.  It  is  also  called  Beth- 
rehob,  Judg.  18:28;  2  Sam.  10:6,  8,  and  was 
near  Dan.  Robinson  places  it  west  of  the 
sources  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  ruined  castle 
of  Hunin;  but  Thomson  suggests  Banias, 
east  of  Dan  or  Tell  el-Kady,  as  the  site. 

IV.  A  town  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:30,  appa- 
rently towards  Zidon. 

V.  Another  town  of  Asher,  allotted  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites,  Josh.  21 :3i ;  i  Chr. 

6:75- 

One  of  these  is  traced  at  Kulat  er-Rahib, 
16  miles  east  of  the  waters  of  Merom.  Of 
one  the  Canaanites  long  retained  posses- 
sion, Judg.  1 :3i. 

REHOBO'AM,  enlarger  of  the  people,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Solomon,  by  Naamah, 
an  Ammonitess,  I  Kin.  12;  14:21-31;  2  Chr. 
10  to  12.  He  was  41  years  old  when  he  be- 
gan to  reign,  and  reigned  17  years  at  Jeru- 
salem, B.  C.  975-95S.  At  his  succession  the 
10  tribes,  excluding  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
revolted  and  formed  the  "  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael "  under  Jeroboam,  i  Kin.  11:26-40. 
Aside  from  Ephraim's  long-standing  jeal- 
ousy of  Judah,  the  immediate  cause  of  this 
secession  was  Rehoboam's  headstrong  folly 
in  rejecting  experienced  counsellors  and 
claiming  tyrannical  power,  in  refusing  at 
Shechem  the  request  of  the  people  for  re- 
472 


lief  from  an  oppressive  taxation.  Reho- 
boam  fled  to  Jerusalem  on  the  stoning  of 
his  chief  tax-gatherer,  and  at  once  sought 
to  recover  the  revolted  tribes  by  force ;  but 
his  preparations  were  checked  by  a  mes- 
sage from  God  through  the  prophet  She- 
maiah.  Yet  it  is  probable  that  he  did  not 
long  delay  hostilities  of  some  sort,  which 
continued  through  his  whole  reign.  In 
spite  of  the  settlement  in  Judah  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  driven  from  Israel  by 
Jeroboam's  course,  Judah,  after  a  brief  pe- 
riod of  comparative  faithfulness  to  God, 
lapsed  into  idolatry  and  heathen  immoral- 
ities such  as  Solomon  introduced.  Their 
sin  was  punished,  in  Rehoboam's  5th  year, 


PORTRAIT    OF     REHOBOAM:     FROM    THE    TEMPLE 
AT   KARNAK,  EGYPT. 

by  the  invasion  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt. 
See  Shishak.  He  took  the  fortified  cities 
on  his  line  of  march,  and  despoiled  Jeru- 
salem of  the  treasures  accumulated  by 
Solomon.  On  Rehoboam's  humbling  him- 
self before  God  he  was  spared  severer 
punishment.  He  "did  evil  because  he 
prepared  (or  fixed)  not  his  heart  to  seek 
the  Lord,"  a  lack  of  sincere  devotion  to 
God  attributable  in  part  to  the  influence  of 
his  heathen  mother,  and  to  the  example  of 
his  father's  idol-service  at  one  period  of 
his  life,  I  Kin.  11:4-10;  14:21,  31;  2  Chr. 
12:13,  14.  It  is  probable  that  Solomon 
wrote  Eccl.  2  :  18-21  with  Rehoboam  in 
mind. 

REHO'BOTH,  u-'ide  places,  I.,  a  city  of 
Assyria,  Gen.  10:11,  founded  by  Nimrod 
in  Asshur  (A.  V.,  margin),  or  by  Asshur. 
Rawlinson  would  locate  it  at  Selamiyeh,  a 
village  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  inclosure 


REH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REN 


on  the  west  bank  df  the  Tigris,  3  miles 
north  of  Nimrud.  Some,  however,  trans- 
late "  the  city  Rehoboth  "  "  the  streets  of 
the  city,"  i.  e.,  of  Nineveh,  as  in  the  A.  V. 
margin. 

II.  "Rehoboth  by  the  river,"  the  cityof 
Shaul,  an  early  king  of  the  Edomites,  Gen. 
36:37;  I  Chr.  1:48.  The  "river"  is  sup- 
posed to  mean  the  Euphrates.  The  name 
Rahabah  is  still  borne  by  2  places  on  this 
river,  said  to  contain  ancient  remains :  one 
is  a  few  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Kha- 
bour,  and  3  miles  west  of  the  Euphrates ; 
the  other  is  a  little  farther  down  on  the 
east  bank. 

III.  The  well  dug  by  Isaac  after  leaving 
Gerar,  Gen.  26:22.  At  the  head  of  a  wady 
20  miles  southwest  of  Beer-sheba  is  a  place 
now  known  as  er-Ruhaibeh,  where,  near 
some  stone  ruins,  is  a  well  12  feet  in  cir- 
cumference, whose  massive  stone  mason- 
ry, with  2  troughs  made  in  huge  blocks  of 
stone,  has  an  appearance  of  great  anti- 
quity. This  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of 
Rehoboth. 

RE'HUM,  compassionate,  I.,  the  "  chan- 
cellor" or  governor  of  Samaria  under  the 
king  of  Persia.  By  an  insidious  letter  to 
Artaxerxes  (Pseudo-Smerdis),  B.  C.  522, 
he  procured  an  edict  for  the  discontinu- 
ance of  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  Ezra 
4:8-24. 

II.  Four  others  are  mentioned,  Ezra  2:2, 
called  Nehum  in  Neh.  7:7;  Neh.  3:17; 
10:25;  12:3,  called  Harim  in  ver.  15. 

RE'I,  friendly,  an  officer  of  David  who 
refused  to  join  Adonijah  in  rebellion,  i  Kin. 
1:8. 

REINS,  Jer.  12:2.  The  Hebrews  consid- 
ered the  reins  or  kidneys,  as  well  as  the 
heart,  to  be  the  seat  of  various  emotions 
and  affections  which  we  popularly  attrib- 
ute to  the  heart  alone.  They  ascribed  to 
them  knowledge,  Psa.  16:7;  joy,  Prov. 
23:16;  sorrow,  Psa.  73:21 ;  desire,  as  some 
interpret  Job  19:27;  see  margin.  Hence 
God  is  called  the  searcher  of  the  reins, 
Psa.  7:9;  26:2;  Jer.  17:10;  Rev.  2:23. 

Agreeable  to  this  ascription  of  moral 
attributes  to  the  kidneys  seems  the  require- 
ment of  the  Mosaic  law  selecting  them  for 
presentation  to  God  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  in  cases  where  only  a  part  of  the 
victim  was  to  be  consumed  on  the  altar— 
as  in  the  sin,  trespass,  and  peace  offer- 
ings, Exod.  29:13,  22;  Lev.  3:4,  10,  15;  4:9; 
7:4.  Thus  the  Israelite  seems  to  have 
been  admonished  to  cause  his  desires  and 
affections  to  ascend  to  God,  while  the  out- 


poured blood  of  the  sacrifice  made  atone- 
ment for  his  sins.  Lev.  17:11. 

RE'KEM,  variegation,  I.,  A  descendant 
of  Machir,  i  Chr.  7:16. 

II.  A  king  of  Midian,  slain  with  Balaam, 
Num.  31:8;  Josh.  13:21. 

III.  Son  of  Hebron  and  father  of  Sham- 
mai,  I  Chr.  2:43,  44. 

IV.  A  city  in  Benjamin,  Josh.  18 :  27, 
traced  in  Kh.  el-Meraghib,  2H  miles  north 
by  west  from  Jerusalem. 

REMALI'AH,  protected  by  Jehovah,  the 
father  of  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  i  Kin. 
15:25,  27,  30,  32,  i-j;  16:1,  5;  2  Chr.  28:6. 
The  frequent  mention  of  his  name  seems 
to  imply  that  it  was  a  reproach  to  his  son, 
Isa.  7:4,  5;  8:6. 

RE'METH,  height,  a  city  of  Issachar, 
Josh.  19:21,  perhaps  the  same  with  the  Le- 
vitical  Ramoth,  i  Chr.  6:73,  and  Jarmuth, 
named  as  a  Levitical  city,  Josh.  21 :29;  now 
perhaps  Jelameh,  3^^  miles  north  of  En- 
gannim. 

REMIS'SION,  or  forgiveness,  of  sins  is 
granted  on  the  ground  of  the  atoning  sac- 
rifice of  Christ,  Matt.  26:28.  The  apostles 
were  commissioned  to  proclaim  this  doc- 
trine, John  20:23;  compare  Acts  5:31,  32; 
10:43;  I  John  2:1,  2,  and  were  endowed  by 
the  Holy  Spirit  with  a  supernatural  in- 
sight, enabling  them  to  discern  and  declare 
whether  one  exercised  the  true  repentance 
and  faith  to  which  remission  of  sins  was 
granted,  Acts  5:  i-i I ;  8:21. 

REM'MON,  a  city  of  Simeon,  Josh.  19:7. 
See  RiMMON. 

REM'MON-METH'OAR,  a  place  in  Zebu- 
lun,  Josh.  19: 13.  "  Methoar  "  should  prob- 
ably read,  "  reaching,"  i.  <?.,  to  Neah.  See 
RiMMON,  IV. 

REM'PHAN,  or  RE'PHAN,  R.  V.,  Acts 
7:43.  This  quotation  by  Stephen,  from 
Amos  5:26,  is  in  almost  the  exact  words  of 
the  Septuagint  version,  both  substituting 
Rephan  for  the  "  Chiun  "  of  the  Hebrew. 
These  may  have  been  interchangeable 
names  for  some  god  secretly  worshipped 
by  Israelites  in  Eg\'pt  and  the  wilderness. 
Josh.  24:14;  Ezek.  20:7,  8,  10-18.  See 
Chiun.  On  a  tablet  from  Egypt  in  the 
British  Museum  is  a  representation  of  a 
group  of  gods,  2  of  which  are  named  Ren- 
pu  and  Ken;  possibly  one  or  both  of  these 
may  have  been  worshipped  by  the  Israel- 
ites. 

REND'ING  one's  garments  was  a  sign  of 
great  sorrow,  fear,  or  contrition,  Gen.  37:29, 
34;  Ezra 9: 3;  Matt.  26:65;  Acts  14:14.  Joel, 
2:13,  bids  the  people  rend  their  hearts,  no{ 

473 


REP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REP 


their  garments  only.  See  Mourning.  On 
Jer.  4:30,  see  Eyk. 

REPENT' ANCE,  a  change  of  mind,  ac- 
companied with  regret  and  sorrow  for 
something  done,  and  an  earnest  wish  that 
it  was  undone,  2  Cor.  7:8,  10.  Such  was 
the  repentance  of  Judas,  Matt.  27:3;  and  so 
it  is  said  that  Esau  found  "  no  place  of  re- 
pentance" in  his  father  Isaac,  although  he 
sought  it  with  tears,  Heb.  12:17;  that  is, 
Isaac  would  not  change  what  he  had  done, 
and  revoke  the  blessing  given  to  Jacob, 
Gen.  27.  God  is  sometimes  said  to  "  re- 
pent" of  something  he  had  done.  Gen.  6:6; 
Jonah  3:9,  10;  not  that  he  could  wish  it 
undone,  but  that  in  his  providence  such  a 
change  of  course  took  place  as  among  men 
would  be  ascribed  to  a  change  of  mind. 
But  the  true  gospel  repentance,  or  "  re- 
pentance unto  life,"  is  sorrow  for  sin,  grief 
for  having  committed  it,  and  a  turning 
away  from  it  with  abhorrence,  accompan- 
ied with  sincere  endeavors,  in  reliance  on 
God's  grace  and  the  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  to  live  in  humble  and  holy  obedi- 
ence to  the  commands  and  will  of  God. 
This  is  that  repentance  which  always  ac- 
companies true  faith,  and  to  which  is  prom- 
ised the  free  forgiveness  of  sin  through  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  Matt.  4:17;  Acts 
3:19;  11:18;  20:21;  26:20.  It  is  not  an  ar- 
bitrary demand  of  God,  but  is  in  the  nature 
of  things  essential.  The  way  of  holiness 
is  the  only  way  of  peace  and  safety,  and  it 
cannot  be  well  with  one  who  has  strayed 
from  this  till  he  returns  to  it.  The  appro- 
val of  God  and  of  conscience  is  a  first  re- 
quisite of  happiness,  and  nothing  but  true 
contrition  can  restore  it  to  the  transgressor. 

REPETI'TIONS  in  prayers,  which  our 
Saviour  censures.  Matt.  6:7,  were  short 
forms  or  particular  expressions  in  prayer, 
which  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  repeat 
a  certain  number  of  times.  So  Roman- 
catholics  still  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
Ave  Marias,  etc.,  a  great  number  of  times, 
and  think  that  the  oftener  a  prayer  is  re- 
peated the  more  meritorious  and  efficacious 
it  is.  The  repeated  cry  of  a  soul  in  ear- 
nest is  indeed  welcome  to  God,  Gen.  18; 
Matt.  26:44;  Luke  18:1;  but  he  regards 
the  heart  and  not  the  lips;  and  the  greater 
the  number  of  prayers  one  repeats  as  a 
task  by  which  to  acquire  merit  the  greater 
his  sin. 

REPH'AIM,  sometimes  transferred  from 

the  Hebrew  in  the  A.  V.,  2  Sam.  5:18,  22; 

23:13,  sometimes  translated  "giants,"  Deut. 

3:11 ;  Josh.  15:8;  18:  i6,  is  used  in  2  senses. 

474 


L  In  the  time  of  Abraham  Rephaim 
seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  distinct 
tribe,  probably  of  uncommon  stature  and 
power,  settled  east  of  the  Jordan,  at  Ashte- 
roth-Karnaim,  where  they  were  defeated 
by  Chedorlaomer,  Gen.  14:5.  Their  pos- 
sessions were  promised  to  Abraham's  seed, 
Gen.  15:20.  Branches  of  this  race  were 
driven  from  their  lands  east  of  the  Jordan 
by  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  Deut. 
2:9-11,  19-21.  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  was  a 
survivor  of  the  race,  Deut.  3:11;  Josh.  12:4, 
and  the  occupation  of  Bashan  by  Israel, 
Deut.  3:13,  was  a  partial  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  to  Abraham.  They  had  posses- 
sions also  west  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  terri- 
tory assigned  to  Ephraim,  Josh.  17:15,  and 
tojudah.josh.  15:8.  Survivors  of  the  race, 
e.  ff.,  the  family  of  Rapha,  may  have  been 
among  the  Philistines  in  David's  time, 
I  Sam.  17:4;  I  Chr.  20:4-8.  It  is  possible 
that  the  name  of  this  early  tribe  may  later 
have  been  applied  to  other  tribes  resem- 
bling them  in  size. 

The  vallkv  of  the  Rephaim,  or  gi- 
ants, was  on  the  northern  border  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:8;  18:16.  David  twice  defeated 
the  Philistines  here,  2  Sam.  5:17-25;  23:13; 
I  Chr.  11:15,  16;  14:9-16.  It  was  noted  for 
its  fertility,  Isa.  17:5.  Josephus  describes 
it  as  "  the  valley  which  extends  (from  Jeru- 
salem) to  Bethlehem."  Since  the  i6th  cen- 
tury it  has  been  identified  with  the  broad 
cultivated  upland  plain  running  southwest 
from  Jerusalem  into  the  deep  wady  el- 
VVerd,  valley  0/ roses ;  it  is  crossed  by  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem,  is  4  or 
5  miles  long,  and  is  called  by  the  Arabs  el- 
Buka'a. 

II.  Rephaim,  the  spirits  of  the  departed, 
dwelling  in  Sheol  or  Hades,  generally  ren- 
dered in  our  version  "the  dead"  ("dead 
things,"  ]o\i  26:5),  Psa.  88:10;  Prov.  2:18; 
5:5;  7-27;  9:18;  21:16;  Isa.  14:9;  26:14, 
19.  See  Dead.  This  application  of  the 
word  may  have  originated  in  the  idea  that 
Sheol  was  the  residence  of  the  fallen  spir- 
its or  buried  giants. 

REPHI'DIM,  lesiing-places,  an  encamp- 
ment of  the  Israelites  between  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sin  and  Mount  Sinai,  where  the 
]ieople  murmured,  and  whence  Moses  went 
to  strike  the  rock  in  Horeb  from  which 
God  gave  them  water.  Here  also  the  Ama- 
lekites  attacked  them,  and  were  defeated, 
Exod.  17.  Rephidim  is  placed  by  Robin- 
son, Keil,  Delitzsch,  Porter,  and  others  on 
the  northern  edge  of  the  "wilderness  of 
Sinai,"  Exod.  19:2,  in  the  broad  part  of  the 


REP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RES 


■valley  now  called  wad)'  es-Sheikh,  running 
northeast  from  Sinai,  and  at  12  miles'  dis- 
tance, an  easy  day's  journey,  Num.  33:14, 
15.  Moses  seems  to  have  gone  up  from 
the  camp  at  Rephidim  with  the  elders  only 
to  smite  the  rock  ;  and  the  water  would 
flow  down  through  es-Sheikh  into  and 
through  its  outlet  to  the  west  and  the  sea, 
wady  Feiran.  Alush,  the  preceding  sta- 
tion, may  have  been  a  point  now  bearing 
nearly  the  same  name,  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  es-Sheikh  ;  and  the  Amalekites, 
occupying  wady  Feiran,  after  harassing  the 
rear  of  the  Israelite  host,  Deut.  25: 18,  came 
to  battle  with  them  at  Rephidim.  In  this 
valley  is  a  rock  at  the  foot  of  a  conspicuous 
hill  which  the  Arabs  now  call  "  the  seat  of 
the  prophet  Moses." 

The  majority  of  the  "  British  Ordnance  " 
party,  however,  with  Stanley,  Ritter,  Lep- 
sius,  and  others,  prefer  for  Rephidim  a 
location  in  wady  Feiran,  where  Arab  tra- 
dition points  out  a  rock  as  the  one  smitten 
ty  Moses,  and  where  Jebel  Tahunah  may 
Avell  have  been  the  station  of  Moses,  Aaron, 
and  Hur  during  the  battle.  It  is  a  broad 
cultivated  valley,  and  was  once  a  resort  of 
hermits;  but  its  distance  from  Sinai,  Jebel 
Musa,  25  miles,  and  its  copious  supply  of 
water,  seem  adverse  to  its  claim  to  be  re- 
:garded  as  Rephidim.     See  Sinai. 

REPORT',  reputation  or  fame.  Gen.  37:2; 
Acts  6:3;  10:22;  Phil.  4:8;   I  Tim.  3:7. 

REP'ROBATE,  rejected  as  not  enduring 
the  test  of  worthiness,  Jer.  6 :  30.  Some  men 
are  spoken  of  as  reprobate  even  in  this  life, 
Leing  hardened  in  sin  and  unbelief,  Rom. 
1:28;  2  Tim.  3:8;  Tit.  1:16. 

REPROVE',  Job  6:25,  confute. 

REQUIRE',  Ezra  8:22,  request. 

RE'SEN,  a  bridle,  as  in  Isa.  30:28,  a  very 
ancient  Assyrian  city  between  Nineveh  and 
Calah,  Gen.  10:12.  G.  Rawlinson,  identi- 
fying Asshur  with  Kileh  Shergat,  and  Ca- 
lah with  Nimrfid,  the  Larissa  of  Xenophon, 
about  20  miles  south  of  Mosul,  locates  Re- 
sen  near  the  village  Selamiyeh,^  about  3 
miles  north  of  Nimrud,  where  are  Assyr- 
ian remains.  Fergusson,  identifying  Ca- 
lah with  Kaleh  Shergat,  places  Resen  at 
Nimrud. 

RESPECT'  OF  PER'SONS.  The  judges 
of  the  Hebrews  were  directed  to  give  sen- 
tence strictly  according  to  truth  and  jus- 
tice, without  regard  to  the  comparative 
wealth,  influence,  or  other  advantage  of 
one  party  over  the  other,  Lev.  19: 15  ;  Deut. 
16:17,  19;  Prov.  24:23.  Thus  God  judges, 
not  according  to  outward  appearance  or 


station,  but  according  to  the  heart,  Acts 
10:34;  Rom.  2:6-11.  Thus  ought  men  to 
estimate  and  treat  their  fellow-men;  and 
to  court  the  favor  of  the  rich  and  influen- 
tial is  sharpl)'  censured  in  Scripture,  Prov. 
28 :  21 ;  Jas.  2:1-9;  Jude  16. 

REST,  in  Acts  9:31,  in  the  R.  V.  "peace," 
refers  to  the  respite  from  persecution  en- 
joyed by  the  Christians  in  Palestine,  after 
the  conversion  of  Saul  of  Tarsus,  during 
the  last  2  years  of  Caligula's  short  reign, 
A.  D.  39  and  40,  when  the  Jews  were  so 
harassed  by  the  attempts  of  the  emperor  to 
force  them  to  worship  him  as  a  god  that 
they  forebore  to  afflict  the  followers  of 
Christ. 

RESTITU'TION,  Job  20:10,  18.  The  re- 
pairing of  wrongs  done,  and  the  restoring 
of  what  one  has  wrongfully  taken  from  an- 
other, are  strictly  enjoined  in  Scripture,  and 
are  a  necessary  evidence  of  true  repent- 
ance, Exod.  22:1-15;  Neh.  5:1-13;  Luke 
19:8.  Restoration  should  be  perfect  and 
just,  replacing,  so  far  as  possible,  all  that 
has  been  taken,  with  interest,  Lev.  6:1-6; 
24  :  21.  In  Acts  3:21,  the  "  restitution  of  all 
things,"  is  the  time  when  Christ  shall  ap- 
pear in  his  glory  and  establish  his  king- 
dom, as  foretold  in  the  Scriptures. 

RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST.  This  is 
of  fundamental  importance  in  Christianity, 
both  historically  and  doctrinally.  As  a  fact 
indisputably  proved,  it  was  the  crowning 
demonstration  of  the  truth  of  all  Christ's 
claims,  i  Cor.  15:14-18.  He  had  repeat- 
edly foretold  it.  Matt.  16:21;  20:19;  and 
his  enemies  were  careful  to  ascertain  that 
he  was  actually  dead,  and  to  guard  his 
tomb  for  additional  security.  Yet  he  rose 
from  the  dead  on  the  3d  day,  and  ap- 
peared to  numerous  witnesses  on  at  least 
12  recorded  occasions,  as  follows:  a.  Mark 
16:1-8;  b.  Mark  16:9-1;  John  20:11-18; 
c.  Luke  24 134;  I  Cor.  15:5;  d.  Mark  16:12, 
13;  Luke  24: 13-25;  ^.  Mark  16:14-18;  Luke 
24:36,  49;  John  20:19-23;  I  Cor.  15:5; 
/.  John  20  :  24-28 ;  g.  John  21 : 1-23  ;  h.  Matt. 
28:16-20;  I  Cor.  15:6;  /.  I  Cor.  15:7; 
j.  Mark  16:19;  Luke  24 :  50-52  ;  Acts  i :  3-9 ; 
k.  Acts  9:3-9,  17;  /.I  Cor.  9:1 ;  15:8,  convin- 
cing even  those  who  were  the  most  doubt- 
ful, and  after  40  days  ascended  to  heaven 
from  the  Mount  of  Olives.  This  all-im- 
portant fact  the  apostles  attested  by  their 
altered  conduct  and  in  their  preaching, 
Acts  1 :22;  2:24-32;  4:33  ;  10:40,  41 ;  i  Cor. 
15:4-8.  It  is  further  demonstrated  by  the 
establishment  and  continuance  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  and  additional  testimony  is 

475 


RES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RET 


borne  to  it  by  the  change  in  the  day  cele- 
brated as  the  Sabbath.  In  its  relation  to 
Christian  doctrine  it  stands  as  a  rock  of 
strength,  assuring  us  of  God's  acceptance 
of  the  expiatory  Sacrifice,  of  Christ's  divine 
character  and  mission,  of  his  triumphant 
accomplishment  of  the  work  of  redemption, 
and  of  his  raising  to  immortal  life  the  souls 
and  bodies  of  his  jjeople.  He  was  buried 
under  the  load  of  our  offences ;  but  he  rose 
again,  almighty  to  justify  and  save  us.  His 
dj'ing  proved  the  greatness  of  his  love ;  his 
rising  again  shows  that  his  love  had  se- 
cured its  object. 

Resurrection  of  the  dead.  It  is  the 
peculiar  glory  of  the  New  Testament  that 
it  makes  a  full  revelation  of  this  great  doc- 
trine, which  was  questioned  or  derided  by 
the  wisest  of  the  heathen.  Acts  17:32.  In 
the  Old  Testament  also  we  find,  though 
less  frequently,  the  doctrine  asserted :  as, 
for  example,  Isa.  26: 19;  Dan.  12  :  2.  When 
our  Saviour  appeared  in  Palestine,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  was 
received  as  a  principal  article  of  religion 
by  the  whole  Jewish  nation  except  the  Sad- 
ducees.  Their  denial  of  it  rested  on  the 
assumption  that  at  death  the  whole  man, 
soul  and  body,  perishes.  "  The  Sadducees 
say  that  there  is  no  resurrection,  neither 
angel  nor  spirit,"  Acts  23:8.  Hence  the 
refutation  of  this  unscriptural  assumption 
was  a  complete  overthrow  of  the  ground  on 
which  their  denial  of  a  future  resurrection 
rested ;  for  if  the  soul  can  survive  the  body, 
it  is  plain  that  God  can  give  it  another 
body.  In  this  way  o\ir  Lord  met  and  effec- 
tually refuted  them.  Matt.  22:31,  32;  Mark 
12:26,  27. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ  is  everywhere 
represented  in  the  New  Testament  as  a 
pledge  and  an  earnest  of  the  resurrection 
of  all  the  just,  who  are  united  to  him  by 
faith,  I  Cor.  15:49;  i  Thess.  4:14,  in  virtue 
of  their  union  with  him  as  their  Head.  He 
is  "the  resurrection  and  the  life,"  John 
11:25;  they  "sleep  in  Jesus,"  and  shall  be 
brought  to  glory  "with  him,"  i  Thess. 
4:  ^3-'^7  ;  5:10;  their  "life  is  hid  with  Christ 
in  God,"  Col.  3:3;  and  because  he  lives, 
they  shall  live  also,  John  14: 19.  The  "first- 
fruits  "  of  his  great  harvest  appeared  at  the 
time  of  his  own  resurrection,  when  the  bod- 
ies of  many  saints  arose.  Matt.  27:52,  53. 
The  Scriptures  also  teach  that  there  will 
be  a  resurrection  of  the  unjust.  But  they 
shall  be  raised,  not  to  be  glorified  with 
Christ,  but  to  be  judged  by  him,  and  sen- 
tenced to  eternal  punishment,  Dan.  12:2; 
476 


John  5:28,  29,  compared  with  Matt.  25:31- 
46;  Acts  24: 15. 

To  cavillers  against  this  doctrine  in  his 
own  day  Christ  replied,  "  Ye  do  err,  not 
knowing  the  Scriptures,  nor  the  power  of 
God."  The  work  is  miraculous;  and  He 
who  is  omniscient  and  omnipotent  will 
permit  nothing  to  frustrate  his  designs. 
He  has  not  revealed  to  us  the  precise  na- 
ture of  the  spiritual  body,  nor  in  what  its 
identity  with  the  earthly  body  consists; 
but  it  will  be  incorruptible,  fashioned  like 
Christ's  glorious  body,  Phil.  3:21,  and  a 
meet  companion  of  the  soul  made  perfect 
in  his  likeness. 

RETRIBU'TION.  This  life  being  one  of 
probation,  the  future  life  is  one  of  retri- 
bution— when  all  men  shall  be  for  ever 
rewarded  or  punished  "according  to  the 
deeds  done  in  the  bod}'."  The  eternal 
blessedness  of  the  redeemed,  however,  is 
"  the  ^i//  of  God  ;■'  not  earned  by  any  good 
deeds,  but  freely  bestowed  through  Christ 
on  penitent  believers  ;  while  the  unending 
woe  of  the  lost  is  "  the  wages  of  sin."  The 
Christian  church  in  all  ages  has  substan- 
tially agreed  in  the  belief  that  "all  sinners 
who  do  not  repent  and  take  refuge  in  the 
divine  mercy  in  the  present  life  shall  in  the 
future  state  suffer  eternal  punishment  as 
the  necessary  and  just  retribution  of  their 
sins."  Several  large  classes  of  Scripture 
passages  combine  to  teach  this  truth.  They 
are  thus  enumerated  by  McClintock  and 
Strong. 

1.  Passages  which  declare  that  certain 
sinners  shall  not  enter  the  kingdom  of 
heaven;  such  as  Matt.  5:20;  7:13,  21-23; 
18:3;  Mark  10:23-25;  Luke  13:24-28;  John 
3-3~5;  I  Cor.  6:9,  10;  Gal.  5:19-21;  Eph. 
5:5;  Heb.  3:19;  4:1-3. 

2.  Passages  which  describe  the  final  state 
of  good  men  and  bad  in  contrast:  as  Prov. 
10:28;  Dan.  12:2;  Matt.  3:12;  7:13,14,21; 
8:11,  12;  13:30-43,47-50;  24:46-51;  25:23- 
46;  Mark  16:16;  Luke  6:23,  24,47-49;  John 
5:29;  Roni.  6:21-23;  Gal.  6:7,  8;  Phil.  3:17- 
21;  2  Thess.  1:5-12;  Heb.  6:8,  9;  i  Pet. 
4:18. 

3.  Passages  which  apply  to  this  future 
state  the  terms  "  everlasting,"  "  eternal," 
"  for  ever,"  and  "  for  ever  and  ever  :"  Dan. 
12:2;  Matt.  18:8;  25:41-46;  Mark  3:29; 
2  Cor.  4:18;  2  Thess.  1:9;  2  Pet.  2:17;  Jude 
6,  7,  13:  Rev.  14:10,  II ;  19:3;  20:10. 

4.  Passages  which  express  future  punish- 
ment by  phrases  which  imply  its  everlast- 
ing duration:  Matt.  10:28;  12:31,32;  Mark 
3:29;    9:43-48;    Luke  9:25;    14:25;  John 


REU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REV 


3:36;  8:21 ;  17:12;  Heb. 6:2;  10:26,  27;  Jas. 
2:13;  I  John  5:16. 

5.  Passages  which  teach  that  a  change  of 
heart  and  preparation  for  heaven  are  con- 
fined to  this  life:  Prov.  1:24-28;  Isa.  55:6, 
7;  Matt.  25:5-13;  Luke  13:24-29;  John 
12:35,36;  2Cor.6:i,2;  Heb. 3:1-10;  12:15- 
25;  Rev.  22:  II. 

6.  Passages  which  foretell  the  conse- 
quences of  rejecting  the  gospel :  Psa.  2:12; 
Prov.  29:1;  Acts  13:40-46;  20:26;  28:26, 
27;  I  Cor.  1:18;  2  Cor.  2:15,  16;  4:3; 
I  Thess.  5:3;  2  Thess.  1:8;  2:10-12;  Heb. 
2:1-3;  4:1-11;  10:26-31,  38,  39;  12:25-29; 
I  Pet.  4:17,  18;  2  Pet.  2:1-21;  3:7.  Com- 
pare Acts  4:12.      See  Prove,  Sadducees. 

KK'U,  friend,  Gen.  ii:iS,  21 ;  i  Chr.  1:25, 
called  Ragau  in  Luke  3:35,  a  patriarch,  an- 
cestor of  Abraham. 

REU'BEN,  Heb.  RE-U'BEN,  behold/  a 
son,  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah, 
Gen.  29:32.  In  consequence  of  a  great 
sin,  Gen.  35:22,  he  was  deprived  of  the 
privileges  of  primogeniture,  which  were 
divided  between  Judah  and  Joseph,  Gen. 
48:3;  49:3,  4,  8-10,  22-26;  I  Chr.  5:1,  2. 
Though  impulsive  and  ungoverned,  he  gave 
evidence  of  kind-heartedness  in  his  effort 
to  save  Joseph's  life  at  Dothan,  Gen.  37: 18- 
30;  42:22,  and  in  his  well-meant  proposal 
in  regard  to  Benjamin,  Gen.  42:37,  2^.  He 
had  4  sons.  He  was  "  unstable  as  water," 
i.  e.,  quickly  boiling  upon  the  application 
of  heat,  and  subsiding  when  it  is  with- 
drawn. 

REU'BEN,  TRIBE  OF.  This  was  the  7th 
tribe  in  numbers  at  the  e.xodus  from  Egypt, 
but  at  the  census  in  the  plains  of  Moab  its 
men  of  war  had  diminished  from  46,500  to 
43,730,  Num.  1:1,  1S-21 ;  26:2,  7.  Its  sta- 
tion in  the  camp  was  on  the  south  side  of 
the  tabernacle,  with  Simeon  and  Gad, 
Num.  2:10-16.  Members  of  the  tribe  were 
prominent  in  a  rebellion  against  Moses 
and  Aaron,  Num.  16.  The  tribes  of  Reu- 
ben and  Gad  being  rich  in  cattle,  obtained 
an  apportionment  in  the  conquered  region 
east  of  the  Salt  Sea  and  the  Jordan  on  con- 
dition that  they  were  to  aid  in  conquering 
Canaan  west  of  the  Jordan,  Num.  32 ;  Deut. 
3 :  16-20.  After  fulfilling  this  promise,  Josh. 
1:12-18,  the  eastern  tribes  joined  in  erect- 
ing by  the  Jordan  a  memorial  of  their  unity 
with  western  Israel  as  the  people  of  the 
Lord,  Josh.  22.  As  Jacob  and  Moses  pre- 
dicted, Gen.  49:3,  4;  Deut.  33:6,  the  tribe 
never  became  especially  powerful  or  no- 
ted. They  were  reproved  by  Deborah  for 
discussing  the  war  by  their  brooks— A.  V. 


"divisions" — amid  their  flocks,  instead  of 
aiding  it,  Judg.  5: 15,  16.  Yet  they  are  hon- 
orably mentioned  for  their  valor  and  faith 
shown    in    conflict    with    Hagarite    hosts, 

1  Chr.  5:1-10,  18-22.  After  the  division 
they  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Isra- 
el, and  shared  in  the  prevalent  idolatry. 
Their  frontier  position  exposed  them  to 
many  assaults  from  the  east ;  they  sufTered 
from  the  power  of  Syria  about  884  B.  C, 

2  Kin.  10:32,  ;^;i,  and  with  Gad  and  half 
Manasseh  were  the  first  captives  to  Assyria, 
B.  C.  740,  I  Chr.  5:25,  26.  Previous  to  this 
cities  of  their  territory  seem  to  have  been 
occupied  by  the  Moabites,  Isa.  15;  16;  Jer. 
48. 

REU'BEN,  TERRITORY  OF.  This  lay 
between  the  Arnon  on  the  south  and  Gad 
on  the  north,  and  stretched  from  the  Salt 
Sea  and  the  Jordan  to  the  eastern  desert, 
Num.  32:37,  38;  Josh.  13:15-23.  The  Isra- 
elites took  it  from  Sihon  king  of  the  Amo- 
rites,  who  had  taken  it  from  the  Moabites, 
Num.  21:24-26;  Deut.  3:8,  16,  17.  It  inclu- 
ded a  part  of  the  low  Jordan  valley,  the 
mountains  on  its  eastern  verge,  and  the 
high  rolling  tract  bej-ond,  well  watered, 
abounding  with  herbage  and  forest,  and 
gradually  sloping  into  the  desert  wastes. 
This  district  was  named  the  Mishor,  or 
"p/aii/,"  Deut.  3:10;  4:43,  now  the  Belka, 
and  esteemed  b\'  the  Arabs  their  best  pas- 
ture-ground. 

RE-U'EL,  or  RAGU'EL  in  A.  V.  Num. 
io:2g,  /riend  0/  God.  I.  Son  of  Esau  by 
Bashemath,  Gen.  36:4,  10,  13,  17;  i  Chr. 
I  -351  37-      His  4  sons  were  Edomite  chiefs. 

II.  See  R.\GUEL. 

III.  Leader  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  at  Sinai, 
also  called  Deuel,  Num.  1:14;  2:14;  7:42, 
47;  10:20. 

IV.  A  Benjamite,  i  Chr.  9:8. 
RE-U'MAH,  elei<ated,  secondary  wife  of 

Nahor,  Abraham's  brother,  Gen.  22:24. 

REVELA'TION,  an  extraordinary  and 
supernatural  disclosure  made  by  God  of 
truths  beyond  man's  unaided  power  to  dis- 
cover, Rom.  16:25;  Gal.  1:12;  Eph.  y.^,; 
Rev.  1:1.  Its  modes  have  been  various,  as 
by  dreams,  Gen.  37:5  ;  40:5;  41 ;  i  Kin.  3:5; 
Dan.  7:1;  Matt.  1:20;  vision,  Gen.  15:1; 
46:2;  Ezek.  1:1 ;  Dan.  8:2;  Acts  9:10;  10:3; 
direct  communication.  Gen.  6:13;  Exod.  3; 
Luke  1:11-20,  2S-38;  9:35;  John  12:28; 
ecstasy  or  otherwise,  2  Cor.  12:1-7;  com- 
pare Num.  12:5-8.  Upon  the  direct  and 
full  revelation  of  God  in  his  Word,  Psa. 
119:105;  2  Tim.  3:15-17;  Heb.  4:12,  13,  and 
in  the  person  and  work  of  his  Son,  John 

477 


REV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RHO 


i:i8;  Heb.  1:1,2;  2  Pet.  1 :  19,  the  Christian 
religion  is  founded.  A  less  direct  revela- 
tion of  God  is  made  in  the  works  of  creation, 
Psa.  19:1-4;  compare  Rom.  1:19,  20;  Acts 
14:17;  17:26-28;  in  the  human  conscience, 
Rom.  2:14,  15;  compare  John  1:9;  and  in 
history,  Deut.  29:22-28;  Acts  14:17;  2  Pet. 
2:14-19;  compare  John  1:5,  10.  But  this 
triple  revelation,  however  valuable  as  a 
constant  witness  to  the  divine  nature  and 
rule,  and  as  a  guide  intellectuallj-  and 
morally,  is  only  partial,  and  is  besides  lia- 
ble to  misinterpretation  by  the  human  rea- 
son, I  Cor.  1:21.  "The  revelation  of  our 
Lord,"  I  Cor.  1:7,  R.  V.,  is  his  glorious  2d 
coming,  Luke  17:24-30;  2  Thess.  1:7-10; 
I  Pet.  4:13. 

For  the  Book  of  Revelation  see  Apoc- 
alypse. 

REVEN'GER,  or  AvENGER  OF  BlOOD, 
the  man  who  had  the  right  and  dut}-,  under 
the  Mosaic  law,  of  killing  him  who  had 
killed  one  of  his  relatives.  Personal  retal- 
iation or  revenge  is  the  mode  of  punishing 
crime  most  popular  in  a  primitive  state  of 
society,  and  was  anciently,  as  now,  preva- 
lent in  the  East;  compare  Gen.  34.  The 
Mosaic  law,  by  just  and  humane  provis- 
ions, regulated  and  restrained  this  deep- 
rooted  and  ancient  institution,  Deut.  24:16. 
Compare  2  Sam.  14:6-11.  See  Refuge.  At 
the  same  time  the  spirit  and  tendency  of 
the  law,  as  well  as  the  direct  command  of 
the  gospel,  are  against  all  revengeful  feel- 
ing or  action,  Exod.  23:5;  Lev.  19:17,  18; 
Prov.  20:22:  24:29;  Matt.  5:39;  Rom.  12:19, 
20;  I  Pet.  3:9. 

REVIVE',  live  again,  i  Kin.  17:22;  2  Kin. 
13:21 ;  Rom.  14:9. 

RE'ZEPH,  a  hot  stone,  as  for  baking,  a 
city  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  2  Kin. 
19:12;  Isa.  37:12.  Its  site  may  be  at  Ras- 
appa,  about  25  miles  west  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, on  the  road  from  Rakkah  to  Hums. 

REZI'A,  delight,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
I  Chr.  7:39. 

RE'ZIN,  yf/'w,  L,  a  king  of  Damascene 
Syria,  who  with  his  ally,  Pekah  king  of  Is- 
rael, invaded  Judah  in  the  last  days  of 
Jotham,  B.  C.  742,  2  Kin.  15:37,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz,  2  Kin.  16:5-9;  2  Chr.  28:5; 
Isa.  7:1-8.  Unsuccessful  in  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem,  Rezin  deprived  Ahaz  of  Elath, 
but  was  soon  conquered  and  slain  by  Tig- 
lath-pileser  II.,  king  of  Assyria,  whose  aid 
Ahaz  had  procured.  Rezin's  people  also 
were  carried  captive  to  Kir,  Isa.  7:16;  8:4; 
9:11;  17:1.  The  Assyrian  monuments  re- 
cord this  conquest  of  Rezin  and  Damascus. 
478 


II.  The  head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 

Ezra  2 :  48  ;   Neh .  7 :  50. 

RK'ZOli,  prince,  the  founder  of  a  dynasty 
in  Syria-Damascus  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  a  great  annoyance  to  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
11:23-25.  He  had  been  an  officer  under 
Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah. 

KViE,'Gl\3lA,  fracture,  a  city  on  the  coast 
near  the  southwestern  extremity  of  Italy, 
southeast  of  Messina  in  Sicily,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  strait  6  miles  wide. 
Paul  stopped  here  one  day  on  his  voyage 
to  Rome,  Acts  28:13.  A  favorable  south 
wind,  for  which  the  ship  waited,  would 
take  it  through  the  strait  and  to  Puteoli 
within  24  hours.  It  was  a  city  of  consid- 
erable note  under  the  Roman  Empire. 
Caligula  proposed  making  it  a  port  for  the 
Alexandria  grain-ships,  but  died  without 
accomplishing  his  project.  Under  its  mod- 
ern name,  Reggio,  it  is  a  flourishing  com- 
mercial town  of  about  10,000  inhabitants. 

RHE'SA.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
this  is  not  a  proper  name,  but  the  title  of 
Zerubbabel,  answering  to  the  Hebrew  rosh, 
head  or  prince,  Luke  3 :  27. 

RHO'DA,  rose,  a  maid  in  the  household 
of  Mary,  mother  of  John  Mark,  when  Peter 
was  miraculously  released  from  prison, 
Acts  12: 13-15. 

RHODES,  7-osy,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 13  miles  from  the  southwestern 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  of  a  triangular 
form,  46  miles  long  and  18  miles  wide,  with 
an  area  of  420  square  miles.  The  soil  is 
extremely  fertile,  the  air  proverbially  pure, 
and  the  climate  delightful.  The  city  of 
Rhodes,  at  the  northeast  end  of  the  island, 
was  founded  by  the  Dorians  about  400  B. 
C,  and  became  noted  for  commerce,  liter- 
ature, and  the  arts.  It  was  famed  for  its 
Colossus,  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
world :  a  brazen  statue  of  Apollo  105  feet 
high,  standing  on  60  marble  columns  at  the 
right  of  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  not 
striding  across  it  as  often  represented.  It 
was  erected  B.  C.  290,  but  was  overthrown 
by  an  earthquake  B.  C.  224.  There  were 
Jews  at  Rhodes  during  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees.  Herod  the  Great  built  there  a 
beautiful  temple  to  Apollo.  Paul  touched 
at  Rhodes  on  returning  from  his  3d  mis- 
sionary tour,  A.  D.  58,  Acts  21:1.  It  was 
then  enjoying  considerable  independence 
under  the  Romans,  not  being  made  a  Ro- 
man province  until  the  time  of  Vespasian. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  Rhodes  was  for  over 
200  years,  from  1309,  the  residence  of  the 
Knights    Hospitallers   or    Knights    of   St. 


RIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RIG 


John.  It  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in 
1522,  and  is  still  oppressed  by  them.  The 
present  population  of  the  island  is  about 
30,000,  two-thirds  being  Turks,  the  remain- 
der Greeks  and  Jews.  The  modern  city 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade. 

RIB,  literally  side,  as  often  translated, 
the  part  taken  from  Adam  to  form  Eve, 
Gen.  2:21,  22;  Dan.  7:5.  In  the  e.xpres- 
sion,  "the  fifth  rib,"  2  Sam.  2:23;  3:27; 
4:6;  20:10,  the  word  rib  is  supplied.  The 
R.  V.  reads,  "m  the  belly." 

RIB'LAH,  fertility,  a  city  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  Israel,  Num.  34:10,  11. 
It  has  generally  been  identified  with  "  Rib- 
lah  in  the  land  of  Hamath,"  el-Buka'a,  on 
the  great  road  between  Palestine  and  Bab- 
ylonia naturally  traversed  by  invaders  of 
Palestine  from  the  north  and  east.  Here 
Pharaoh-necho,  on  his  way  to  or  from  As- 
syria, deposed  king  Jehoahaz,  B.  C.  5io, 
2  Kin.  23:29-33;  and  here  Nebuchadnezzar 
caused  the  eyes  of  Zedekiah  to  be  put  out 
and  his  sons  killed,  B.  C.  588,  and  many 
of  the  chief  men  of  Judah  to  be  slain,  2  Kin. 
25:6,  7,  18-21;  Jer.  39:5-7;  52:9-11-  Rib- 
lah  is  identified  with  the  poor  modern  vil- 
lage called  Ribleh,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Orontes,  the  el-Asy,  about  35  miles  north- 
east of  Baalbek,  and  20  southwest  of  Hums. 
About  10  miles  south  of  Ribleh  is  the  great 
fountain-source  of  the  Orontes,  still  called 
el-Ain,  "the  fountain,"  supposed  to  be  in- 
dicated in  Num.  34:11.  Ribleh  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  large  and  fertile  plain,  level  as 
the  surface  of  a  lake,  and  was  evidently  a 
place  of  much  strategic  importance.  Some 
regard  Riblah  as  the  same  with  Diblath, 
Ezek.  6:14;  but  Conder  finds  the  latter  at 
the  modern  village  Dibl. 

Grove  and  others  think  Riblah  in  Ha- 
math too  far  north  to  be  the  place  denoted 
in  Num.  34:10,  11,  and  look  for  the  latter 
near  Banias,  on  the  side  of  Hermon,  where 
however  no  such  place  has  yet  been  found. 

RID'DLE.  The  Orientals  have  always 
been  fond  of  such  e.xercises  of  ingenuity 
as  the  "  riddle  "  calls  for.  The  diversion 
was  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  and  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  at  banquets.  The 
Heb.  word  thus  rendered  in  Judg.  14:12- 
19  means  something  entangled  and  intri- 
cate, a  "dark  saying,"  Prov.  1:6;  "prov- 
erb," Hab.  2:6;  or  allegory,  Ezek.  17:2.  It 
is  the  "  dark  speech,"  or  riddle,  of  Num. 
12:8,  a  passage  which  Paul  may  have  had 
in  mind  when  writing  i  Cor.  13:12,  where 
the  margin  has  "  in  a  riddle  "  for  "  darkly," 
/.  e.,  in  an  obscure  allegory. 


RIGHT'EOUSNESS,  rectitude,  justice, 
holiness ;  an  essential  perfection  of  God's 
character,Job36:3;  Isa.51 :5-8;  John  17:25, 
and  of  his  administration.  Gen.  18:25;  Rom. 
3:21,  22;  10:3.  It  is  the  wonder  of  grace 
that,  as  the  righteous  guardian  of  the  law, 
he  can  acquit  the  unrighteous.  "  The  right- 
eousness of  Christ  "  includes  his  spotless 
holiness,  his  perfect  obedience  to  the  law 
while  on  earth,  and  his  suffering  its  pen- 
alty in  our  stead.  It  is  called  "  the  right- 
eousness of  God,"  because  accepted  by 
him,  Rom.  3:25.  "The  righteousness  of 
the  law"  is  that  perfect  obedience  the  law 
demands;  and  the  righteousness  "without 
the  law,"  or  "  of  faith,"  is  that  imputed  to 
the  sinner  who  believes  in  Christ.  Justifi- 
cation before  the  law  having  become  im- 
possible to  fallen  man,  Psa.  143:2,  a  new 
ground  of  justification  was  provided  by 
God,  Psa.  24:5,  "witnessed  by  the  law  and 
the  prophets,"  Luke  24:25-27;  Rom.  3:21, 
the  trust  of  the  pious  Jew  as  well  as  of  the 
Christian  of  our  own  day,  Hab.  2:4;  so 
that  all  condemnation  is  removed  from  the 
believer,  and  he  is  "accepted  in  the  Be- 
loved," Rom.  8:1;  Eph.  1:6.  With  refer- 
ence to  personal  character,  righteousness 
is  used  both  for  uprightness  between  man 
and  man,  and  for  true  religion.  Gen.  18:23; 
Lev.  19:15;   Isa.  60:17;  Rom.  14:17;  Eph. 

5:9- 

RIGHT-HAND,  the  most  efficient  mem- 
ber of  the  body.  Matt.  5:30,  and  the  ready 
executor  of  the  behests  of  the  will.  Hence 
its  use  as  a  symbol  of  power,  especially  the 
almighty  power  of  God,  E.xod.  15:6;  Psa. 
21:8;  77:10;  of  honor,  Psa.  45:9;  Matt. 
25:33,  34;  Acts  7:55;  of  special  benedic- 
tion. Gen.  48:14;  of  friendship,  Gal.  2:9; 
and   of  allegiance,  i   Chr.  29:24,  margin. 


See  Benjamin.  It  was  raised  in  the  act  of 
prayer,  and  also  in  taking  an  oath.  Gen. 
14:22;  Isa.  62:8;  the  right-hand  of  a  per- 
jured man,  or  of  a  pretended  friend,  was 

479 


RIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RIN 


"a  right  hand  of  falsehood,"  Psa.  144:8. 
At  the  right  hand  of  a  man  was  a  conven- 
ient station  for  one  bent'on  opposing  and 
hindering  him,  Psa.  109:6;  Zech.  3:1.  In 
regard  to  the  points  of  the  compass,  the 
right-hand  in  Hebrew  denotes  the  south, 
I  Sam.  23:19,  margin,  24,  as  the  left-hand 
means  the  north,  Gen.  14: 15.     See  East. 

RIM'MON,  pomegranate,  I.,  an  idol  of 
the  Assyrians  in  Damascus,  2  Kin.  5:18. 
See  Naaman.  Some  maintain  that  Rim- 
mon  represented  the  fertilizing  principle 
in  nature,  often  symbolized  by  the  pome- 
granate in  ancient  religions ;  others,  that 
Rimmon  is  abridged  from  Hadad-rimrnon 
(see),  Hadad  being  the  sun-god  of  the  Syr- 
ians, and  in  combination  with  Rimmon  per- 
haps the  sun-god  of  the  late  summer,  the 
fruit-ripener  —  the  pomegranate  ripening 
in  August  and  September.  Gesenius  and 
others  derive  the  name  of  the  Syrian  idol 
from  a  Hebrew  root  meaning  "  to  be  high," 
and  translate  it  "the  most  high." 

II.  A  Benjamite  of  Beeroth,  father  of  the 
murderers  of  Ishbosheth,  2  Sam.  4:2,  5,  9. 

III.  A  city  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:21,  32, 
afterwards  of  Simeon,  Josh.  19:7;  i  Chr. 
4:32;  Neh.  11:29;  Zech.  14:10;  traced  at 
Umm  er-Rumanin,  18  miles  southwest  of 
Hebron,  and  10  northeast  of  Beer-sheba, 
where  on  a  hill-top  are  rock-cisterns  and 
foundations  of  important  buildings. 

IV.  A  city  of  Zebulun,  assigned  to  the 
Merarite  Levites,  Josh.  19:13;  i  Chr.  6:77. 
See  Remmon-methoar.  It  was  probably 
the  same  as  Dimnah,  Josh.  21:35,  and  is 
found  in  the  modern  village  Rummaneh,  6 
miles  north  of  Nazareth,  and  8  or  9  north- 
west of  Mount  Tabor. 

V.  A  rocky  height  to  which  600  Benja- 
mites  fled,  Judg.  20:45-47;  21:13.  It  lay 
towards  "the  wilderness,"  /.  e.,  the  uncul- 
tivated region  between  the  central  high- 
lands of  Benjamin,  where  Gibeah  stood, 
and  the  Jordan  valley;  found  in  the  pres- 
ent village  Rummon,  3'/2  miles  east  of  Beth- 
el, now  Beitin,  on  a  high  limestone  hill, 
rugged  and  difficult  of  access,  surrounded 
by  deep  valleys  and  commanding  a  wide 
view. 

RIM'MON-PA'REZ,  pomegranate  of  the 
breach,  an  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness  between  Rithmah  and  Lib- 
nah.  Num.  33:19,  20.  Jebel  Ikhrimm,  80 
miles  southwest  of  Beer-sheba,  has  been 
suggested  as  a  probable  site. 

RINGS,  ornaments  for  the  ears,  nose, 
legs,  arms,  or  fingers.  The  antiquity  of 
rings  appears  from  Scripture  and  from 
480 


profane  authors.    Judah  left  his  ring  with 
Tamar,  Gen.  38:18.     When  Pharaoh  com- 


mitted the  government  of  Egypt  to  Joseph, 
he  gave  him  his  ring  from  his  finger,  Gen. 
41:42.    After  the  victory  of  the  Israelites 


over  the  Midianites,  they  offered  to  the 
Lord  the  rings,  the  bracelets,  and  the  gold- 


en necklaces  taken  from  the  enemy,  Num. 
31:50;   and   as  these  ornaments   were  of 


RIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RIV 


gold  and  much  larger  than  ours,  they  were 
highly  valued,  Job  42:11.  The  Israelitish 
women  wore  rings,  not  only  on  their  fin- 
gers, but  also  in  their  nostrils  and  their 
ears,  and  on  their  ankles.  See  Bracelet, 
Amulets.  James  distinguishes  a  man  of 
wealth  and  dignity  by  the  ring  of  gold  on 
his  finger,  Jas.  2:2.  At  the  return  of  the 
prodigal  son  his  father  ordered  that  a  ring 
should  be  put  on  his  finger,  Luke  15:22. 

The  ring  was  used  chiefly  as  a  signet  to 
seal  with,  and  Scripture  generally  assigns 
it  to  princes  and  great  persons ;  as  the  king 
of  Egypt,  Joseph,  Ahab,  Jezebel,  king  Ahas- 
uerus,  his  favorite  Haman,  Mordecai,  king 
Darius,  etc.,  i  Kin.  21:8;  Esth.  3:10;  Jer. 
22:24;  Dan.  6:17.  The  patents  and  orders 
of  these  princes  were  sealed  with  their 
rings  or  signets,  an  impression  from  which 
was  their  confirmation.  Hence  the  ring 
was  a  token  and  symbol  of  authority.  See 
Seal. 

RING-STREAKED,  marked  with  circular 
streaks  of  various  colors.  Gen.  30:35. 

RI'OTOUS,  in  A.  v.,  means  dissolute, 
revelling,  rather  than  turbulent,  Prov. 
23  :  20 ;  28  :  7  ;  Luke  15:13;  Rom.  13  :  13  ; 
2  Pet.  2:13. 

RI'PHATH,  a  son  of  Gomer,  Gen.  10:3; 
I  Chr.  1:6.  His  descendants  have  been 
identified  by  some  with  the  Ripheans,  the 
ancient  Paphlagonians ;  others  trace  the 
name  in  the  Rhipaean  mountains — either 
the  Carpathian  range  or  heights  north  of 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

RIS'SAH,  7-idn,  20th  station  of  Israel  in 
the  wilderness,  Num.  33:21,  22.  It  is  found 
by  some  in  the  Roman  Rasa,  20  miles  north- 
west of  Ezion-geber  ;  by  others  at  Ain  el- 
Jughamileh,  125  miles  south-southwest  of 
Beer-sheba,  or  at  el-Kusaby,  55  miles  south- 
west of  Beer-sheba. 

RITH'MAH,  broom  (the  plant  retem,  a 
large  bush  growing  in  the  wilderness),  the 
17th  station  of  Israel,  Num.  33 :  18,  19. 
There  is  much  reason  for  identifying  Rith- 
mah  with  Kadesh,  Num.  13:26,  or  its  im- 
mediate vicinity.  The  latest  authorities 
find  Kadesh  or  Kadesh-barnea  at  Ain  Ka- 
dis, 50  miles  south  of  Beer-sheba.  A  few 
miles  west  is  a  wady  called  Aboo  Rete- 
mat. 

RIVER.  The  true  perennial  streams  of 
considerable  size  in  Palestine  are  limited 
to  the  Jordan  and  the  Leontes,  the  other 
streams  being  either  winter  torrents  dried 
up  in  the  summer,  or  reduced  to  very  small 
streamlets  sunk  in  narrow  beds  and  con- 
cealed by  a  dense  growth  of  shrubs.  Un- 
31 


der  this  general   head  belong  3   Hebrew 
terms: 

1.  Yeor,  from  an  Egyptian  word.  It 
always  designates  or  alludes  to  the  Nile 
and  its  various  branches  and  distributing 
canals,  as  in  Gen.  41:1-3,  17,  18,  and  often 
in  Exodus.  It  is  also  translated  "brooks," 
Isa.  19:6-8;  "flood,"  Jer.  46:7,  8;  and 
"streams,"  Isa.  33:21.  In  Job  28:10  the 
word  is  used  in  a  general  sense,  and  in 
Dan.  12:5-7  it  denotes  the  Hiddekel,  Dan. 
10:4. 

2.  Nahar  is  applied  to  constantly  flow- 
ing streams,  Gen.  2:10-14;  Exod.  7:19, 
"streams;"  Deut.  1:7;  2  Kin.  5:12;  Isa. 
18:1.  When  used  with  the  article  it  usu- 
ally denotes  the  Euphrates,  Exod.  23:31; 
Josh.  24:2,  3,  in  A.  V.  "  flood ;"  i  Kin.  4:21 ; 
14:15,  but  apparently  the  Nile  in  Isa.  19:5; 
and  the  Jordan  in  Psa.  66:6,  "the  flood." 

3.  Nahal,  a  torrent-bed  or  valley,  through 
which  the  water  flows  only  or  chiefly  in  the 
rainy  season ;  also  the  stream  thus  flow- 
ing. Lev.  11:9,  10 ;  Deut.  2 :  24,  36,  t,-j;  10:7; 
Josh.  16:8;  Judg.  4:7,  13.  We  have  no  ex- 
act equivalent  for  this  word  in  English,  and 
to  express  the  idea  the  Arabic  word  wadv 
of  the  same  meaning  has  been  adopted. 
Nahal  is  often  translated  in  the  A.  V.  "  val- 
ley," Gen.  26:19;  Psa.  104: 10,  and  "brook," 
Gen.  32:23;  Num.  13:23,24;  i  Kin.  17:3-7; 
18:5.  Such  streams,  often  sadly  disap- 
pointing the  thirsty  and  perishing  travel- 
ler, are  to  the  Orientals  striking  emblems 
of  inconstancy  and  faithlessness.  Job  6:15- 
20;  Jer.  15:18. 

In  Ezek.  31:4  "little  rivers"  represents 
a  Hebrew  word  elsewhere  rendered  "  con- 
duit," as  in  2  Kin.  18:17.  In  Ezekiel  the 
reference  seems  to  be  to  small  streams 
artificially  directed  for  irrigation.  Such 
conduits  were  easily  turned  by  moulding 
the  soil  with  the  foot,  and  are  probably  re- 
ferred to  in  Deut.  11:10;  Prov.  21:1. 

RIVER  OF  EGYPT,  Gen.  15:18,  Hebrew 
Nahar  Mizraim,  probably  the  Pelusiac  or 
easternmost  branch  of  the  Nile,  as  the  west- 
ern limit  of  the  land  promised  to  Abraham's 
seed — who,  however,  never  extended  their 
swa}-  so  far. 

In  the  other  7  passages  where  "river" 
or  "  stream  of  Egypt "  occurs,  the  Hebrew 
term  is  Nahal  Mizraim,  and  denotes  the 
ancient  boundary  between  Egypt  and  Is- 
rael, now  wady  el-Arish,  a  broad  valley 
through  which  in  the  rainy  season  the  va- 
rious wadies  of  the  central  desert  et-Tih 
flow  into  the  Mediterranean  about  40  miles 
southwest  of  Gaza,  Num.  34:5;  Josh.  15:4, 

481 


RIZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROE 


47;  2  Kin.  24:7;  2  Chr.  7:8;  Isa.  27:12. 
This  natural  boundary  was  sometimes 
called  "  Sihor  "  or  "  Shihor,"  Josh.  13:3; 
I  Chr.  13:5,  a  name  elsewhere  applied  to 
the  Nile,  Isa.  23:3;  Jer.  2:18. 

RIZ'PAH,  a  live  coal,  as  in  Isa.  6:6,  a 
concubine  of  king  Saul,  taken  after  his 
death  by  the  ambitious  Abner,  who  bitterly 
resented  Ishbosheth's  censure  of  his  de- 
sign in  this  act.  Her  2  sons,  Armoni  and 
Mephibosheth,  were  afterwards  hanged 
with  5  grandsons  of  Saul,  to  avenge  the 
wrongs  he  had  inflicted  on  the  Gibeonites. 
With  the  most  devoted  maternal  affection 
Rizpah  watched  over  their  remains  day 
and  night,  apparently  from  April  to  Octo- 
ber; and  David,  being  informed  of  her 
painful  watchings,  gathered  the  bones  of 
all  the  family  of  Saul  and  gave  them  an 
honorable  burial,  2  Sam.  3:7-11;  21 : 1-14. 

ROAD,  I  Sam.  27 :  10,  a  raid  or  incursion 
on  an  enem\''s  country. 

ROB'BERS  OF  CHURCHES,  Acts  19:37, 
rather  "  robbers  of  temples,"  as  in  the  R.  V. 

ROB'BERY  has  ever  been  one  of  the 
chief  employments  of  the  nomad  tribes  of 
the  East,  from  the  time  of  Ishmael,  Gen. 
16:12,  to  the  present  day,  when  many  of 
the  Bedouin  tribes  are  robbers  by  trade. 
Many  predatory  inroads,  large  and  small, 
are  recorded  in  the  Bible :  as  the  incursions 
of  the  Sabeans  and  Chaldieans,  Job  i :  14- 
17;  the  plundering  of  Shechem  by  Jacob's 
sons.  Gen.  34:27-29;  the  frequent  despoil- 
ing of  the  Israelites  by  their  enemies,  and 
their  reprisals  in  the  period  of  the  Judges, 
and  the  invasion  by  Micah,  Judg.  18: 11-26. 
Highway  robbery  was  practised  in  the  time 
of  the  Judges,  Judg.  5:6;  9:25.  Similar 
disorders  in  later  times  were  reproved  by 
the  prophets,  Hos.  4:2;  6:9;  7:1;  Mic. 
2:2,  8,  and  continued,  more  or  less,  down 
to  the  Roman  period,  during  which  also 
the  insecurity  of  life  and  property  appears 
from  incidental  mention  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Luke  10:30;  John  18:40;  Acts  5:36, 
37;  21:38;  compare  2  Cor.  11:26.  The 
"thieves"  crucified  with  Christ  were  prop- 
erly "robbers,"  Matt.  27:38,  R.  V. 

A  customary  camping-place,  a  day's  jour- 
ney north  of  Jerusalem,  is  called  "  the  rob- 
bers' fountain,"  Ain  el-Haramiyt-. 

For  "  robbery,"  in  Phil.  2:6,  some  read, 
"a  prize,"  as  in  the  R.  V. 

ROBES.    See  Garments. 

ROCK,   Exod.   17:6;    Num.   20:8;  Judg. 

6:21.     Cliffs  and  caverns  abounded  in  the 

limestone  hills  of  Palestine,  and  were  much 

resorted  to  for  shelter  and  protection,  Judg. 

482 


15:8,  II  ;  20:47;  I  Sam.  13:6.  Hence  God 
is  styled  the  Rock  of  his  people,  Deut.  32:4, 
15.  18,  31 ;  2  Sam.  23:3;  Psa.  i.S:2,  31.  The 
term  is  applied  to  Christ  as  the  source, 
smitten  by  God,  of  the  water  of  life,  i  Cor. 
10:4.  From  the  intense  heat  and  glare  of 
a  tropical  sun  a  rock  affords  far  more 
complete  protection  than  a  tree,  Isa.  32.2. 
The  names  Sela  and  Tyre  both  mean  rock, 
and  of  the  5  Hebrew  words  thus  translated 
in  the  A.  V.  these  are  the  two  of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence.     See  Sela. 

ROD,  a  shoot  or  branch  of  a  tree,  Gen. 
30:37;  Isa.  ii:i;  used  as  a  stafT  in  walk- 
ing, Gen.  32:10;  38:18,  25,  and  so  symboli- 
zing support.  Lev.  26:26;  Ezek.  4:16;  used 
by  a  shepherd  in  guiding,  controlling,  and 
defending  his  flock,  E.xod.  4:2;  compare 
3:1;  Lev.  27:32;  Mic.  7:14;  and  by  a  su- 
perior in  correcting  a  subordinate,  E.xod. 
21:20,  thus  symbolizing  the  guiding,  de- 
fending, and  chastening  providence  of  (iod, 
2  Sam.  7:14;  Job  9:34;  21:9;  Psa.  23:4; 
Mic.  6 : 9.  Borne  by  a  ruler  as  a  badge  of 
authority,  Gen.  49:10;  Num.  17:2,  3,  6;  Psa. 
2:9;  125:3;  Ezek.  19:11,  12,  14;  Rev.  19:15. 
Used  by  the  husbandman  in  threshing 
small  seeds,  Isa.  28:27;  t>y  the  diviner. 
Hos.  4:12;  by  the  surveyor  in  measuring 
land.  Rev.  ii:i.  The  "  rod  "  of  God's  in- 
heritance, Psa.  74:2;  Jer.  10:16,  might  bj 
rendered  the  "  tribe  "  or  people  ;  compare 
Deut.  4:20,  the  2  Hebrew  words  there  useti. 
meaning  scions  or  rulers'  sceptres,  being 
also  often  used  for  "tribes,"  as  in  Gen. 
49:16,28;  E.\od.  31:2;  compare  Matt.  24:30. 
Or  the  reference  may  be  to  Israel  as  under 
the  special  rod  or  rule  of  God ;  or  to  the 
measuring  and  apportionment  of  the  land 
by  a  rod  or  reed,  Ezek.  40:3,  the  "rod" 
meaning  the  land  thus  measured;  compare 
Deut.  32:9,  where  the  "  lot  "  in  the  A.  V.  is 
really  the  surveyor's  "  cord  "  or  "  line,"  an 
early  and  usual  measuring  instrument ; 
compare  Psa.  78:55;  Amos  7:17;  Zech.  2:1. 
Sheep  passed  under  the  rod  to  be  countetl 
as  they  entered  or  left  the  fold,  and  in  tith- 
ing the  lambs  every  loth  one  was  marked 
by  the  end  of  the  rod  dipped  in  red  ochre. 
Lev.  27:32;  Jer.  33:13.  There  may  be  an 
allusion  to  this  custom  in  Ezek.  20:37,  sig- 
nifying Israel's  reappropriation  to  tht- 
Lord.  In  Isa.  10:26  the  reference  is  to  the 
e.xhibitions  of  God's  power  through  tho 
rod  of  Moses. 

ROE'BUCK  and  ROE,  masc.  and  feni.. 
the  A.  V.  translation  of  a  Hebrew  word 
meaning  beauty,  an  animal  clean  by  the 
Mosaic  law,  Deut.  12:15,22;  14:4,5:  highly 


ROE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROM 


esteemed  as  food,  i  Kin.  4:23;  a  favorite 
■object  of  the  chase,  Prov.  6:5;  Isa.  13:14; 
and  noted  for  its  agility  and  swiftness, 
2  Sam.  2:18;  I  Chr.  12:8;  Song  2:8,  9,  17. 
It  is  believed  that  the  animal  denoted  is 
the  gazelle,  Antilope  Dorcas,  or  Gazella 
Arabica,  a  species  of  antelope  abundant  in 
Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Barbary, 
-and  long  celebrated  in  Oriental  poetry  for 


its  beauty  and  grace.  It  is  about  2  feet 
high,  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  with  mark- 
ings of  dark  brown  or  black  and  of  white, 
with  black  horns,  which  viewed  from  the 
front  outline  together  the  form  of  a  lyre, 
and  large,  lustrous  eyes.  It  is  gregarious 
and  easily  tamed,  though  very  timid  and 
apt  to  die  in  captivity;  its  flesh  is  excel- 
lent. It  frequents  both  the  plains  and  the 
mountains  of  Syria,  and  is  sometimes  hunt- 
ed with  falcon  and  grayhound  cooperating, 
also  by  driving  the  herds  into  large  inclo- 
sures,  with  pitfalls.  Tabitha  and  Dorcas, 
.\cts  9:36,  are  the  Aramaic  and  Greek 
words  for  gazelle. 

In  Prov.  5:19,  "roe"  in  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lates a  different  Hebrew  word,  denoting 
the  female  of  the  wild  or  mountain  goat. 

The  "  fallow-deer,"  only  mentioned  as  a 
clean  animal,  Deut.  14:5,  and  as  food  for 
Solomon's  table,  r  Kin.  4:23,  was  an  ani- 
mal of  the  deer  tribe,  either  the  Cervus 
-dania,   found   in   Western   and    Southern 


Asia,  or  the  Bubale,  resembling  the  harte- 
beest  of  Southern  Africa. 
ROLL.     See  Book. 

ROLL'ER,  Ezek.  30:21,  a  bandage,  to 
wrap  a  broken  limb, 

ROLL'ING-THING,  Isa.  17:13,  or  "wheel," 
Psa.  83:13,  A.  v.,  conjectured  to  mean  the 
wild  artichoke,  the  twigs  of  which,  uniform 
in  length,  form  a  globe  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter,  and  when  dry  break  off  at  the 
ground  and  by  thousands  roll  and  bound 
over  the  ground  before  the  wind. 

RO'MAN,  a  native  or  resident  of  Rome, 
John  11:48;  Acts  25:16;  also  one  who  has 
acquired  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship, 
Acts  16:21,  y],  2,^;  22:25-29.  See  Citizen- 
ship. 

RO'MAN  EM'PIRE.     This  succeeded  the 
Macedonian  Empire  in  extending  its  rule 
over  the  greater  portion  of  the  then  known 
world.      It  is  alluded  to  in  the  prophecy  of 
Daniel,  2:33,   40;   7:7,   19,  23,   as   the   4th 
world-power.     At  the  closing  of  the  Old 
Testament  canon  the  Romans  had  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  Jews.     But  about  B.  C. 
162  Judas    Maccabeus   made   an    alliance 
with  them,  i  Mace.  8,  which  his  brothers 
Jonathan  and  Simon  renewed,  B.  C.  161- 
135,   I   Mace.    12:1;    15:17-     The   taking  of 
Jerusalem  by  Pompey,   B.  C.  63,  and  by 
Sosius,  B.  C.  36,  brought  the  Jews  under 
the  dominion  of  Rome ;  and  Judaea  becam*; 
a  dependency  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Syria  at  the  banishment  of  Archelaus,  A.  D. 
6.     The  Roman  Empire,  strictly  so  called, 
arose  from  the  commonwealth  or  republic 
of  Rome,  and  extended  from  B.  C.  31 — 
when,  by  the  battle  of  Actium,  Octavius, 
afterwards  Augustus,  became  the  ist  Ro- 
man emperor — to  the  abdication  of  Augus- 
tulus,  A.  D.  476.     The  New  Testament  ref- 
erences concern  chiefly  the  early  days  of 
the  empire  under  the  emperors  Augustus, 
Tiberius,    Caligula,    Claudius,    and    Nero. 
See  C^SAR.     Its  extent  and  power  were 
then  at  their  height.     Its  bounds  were  the 
Atlantic  on  the  west,  the  Euphrates  on  the 
east,  the  African  deserts,  Nile   cataracts, 
and   Arabian    deserts    on   the    south,   the 
Rhine,    Danube,    and    Black    Sea   on   the 
north.      Britain  was  also  conquered;   Par- 
thia  on   the   east,  and   Germania   on    the 
north,     were     semi-independent     powers. 
The  population  of  the  empire  in  Claudius' 
reign  is  estimated  by  Gibbon  at  120,000,- 
000.      Countries  conquered  by  Rome   be- 
came subject  provinces,  and  were  governed 
by  rulers  usually  sent  from  Rome,  though 
sometimes  allowed  a  degree  of  independ- 

483 


ROM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROM 


ence  under  native  rulers.  See  Province. 
Some  of  the  conquered  cities  were  called 
"  free  cities,"  being  ruled  by  their  own 
magistrates  and  exempt  from  occupation 
by  a  Roman  garrison ;  and  others  were 
called  "colonies,"  being  primarily  and 
chiefly  communities  of  transplanted  Roman 
citizens.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and 
the  temple,  foretold  by  Christ,  Matt.  24:1, 
2,  14-22,  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Vespa- 
sian, A.  D.  70.  The  exile  and  prophetic 
vision  of  the  apostle  John,  Rev.  1 19,  10,  are 
supposed  to  have  occurred  in  Domitians 
reign,  which  ended  A.  D.  96.  The  condi- 
tion of  external  unity  into  which  the  Ro- 
man dominion  had  brought  the  nations, 
the  construction  of  military  roads,  the  sup- 
pression of  robbery  and  piracy,  the  exten- 
sion of  traffic,  and  the  spread  of  Latin  in 
the  West  as  Greek  had  already  spread  in 
the  East,  were  favorable  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  Christianity;  while  the  skepticism 
and  atheism  of  the  learned,  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  ignorant,  and  the  universal  cor- 
ruptness of  morals,  called  loudly  for  a  di- 
vine remedy.  The  gospel  appears  to  have 
been  carried  throughout  the  empire  in  the 
days  of  the  apostles.  With  rare  exceptions 
the  Roman  emperors  were  noted  for  their 
vices  and  cruelty;  under  them  the  Chris- 
tians from  time  to  time  suffered  severe 
persecutions,  until  Constantine  embraced 
Christianity,  A.  D.  323,  and  made  it  the 
religion  of  his  empire. 

ROME,  long  the  mistress  of  the  known 
heathen  world,  and  for  many  centuries  the 
chief  ecclesiastical  capital  of  the  nominally 
Christian  world,  is  on  the  river  Tiber  in 
Italy,  about  15  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Romulus  on 
the  Palatine  Hill  about  B.  C.  753,  at  which 
time  Jotham  was  king  of  Judah  and  Pekah 
of  Israel.  The  "seven  hills"  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  ancient  city,  were  inclosed  by  the  Ser- 
vian wall,  built  by  tlie  6th  king,  Servius 
Tullius,  B.  C.  57S-534,  Rev.  17:9.  Rome 
was  at  first  governed  by  kings.  After  the 
expulsion  of  Tarquin  II.,  the  7th  king, 
B.  C.  509,  the  government  was  committed 
to  2  consuls,  elected  annually,  with  whom 
were  afterwards,  B.  C.  493,  associated  2 
tribunes.  The  republic  thus  established 
lasted  nearly  500  years,  until  the  battle  of 
Actium.  See  Roman  Empire.  From  B.  C. 
31,  when  Octavius  became  possessed  of  the 
supreme  power  as  the  first  emperor,  Rome 
was  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  until 
A.  D.  328,  when  Constantine  transferred 


the  seat  of  government  to  Constantinople. 
The  city  was  enriched  with  the  spoils  of 
conquered  nations,  including  art  treasures 
of  sculpture  and  painting,  and  was  noted, 
especially  after  Nero's  time,  for  the  mag- 
nificence of  its  public  buildings  and  of 
many  private  residences.  The  idols  of  the 
conquered  were  admitted  as  objects  of  wor- 
ship, and  the  people  were  full  of  supersti- 
tion, and  in  morals  exceedingly  corrupt. 
Paul's  painful  representation  of  the  sins  of 
heathenism,  Rom.  1:21-32,  is  fully  con- 
firmed by  Roman  writers.  The  New  Tes- 
tament reader's  interest  in  Rome  centres 
in  its  condition  at  the  time  of  Paul's  cap- 
tivity there,  between  the  restoration  of  the 
city  by  Augustus — who  boasted  that  he 
found  the  city  of  brick  and  left  it  of  mar- 
ble— and  Nero's  restoration  after  the  great 
fire  in  A.  D.  64.  It  had  outgrown  the 
Servian  wall,  and  was  a  vast  irregular 
mass  of  buildings  over  12  miles  in  circuit, 
and  unprotected  bj-  any  outer  wall.  The 
streets  were  in  general  narrow  and  crook- 
ed, flanked  by  crowded  lodging-houses, 
whose  height  Augustus  had  limited  to  70- 
feet.  Most  of  the  structures  which  now 
attract  attention  as  relics  of  antiquity  were 
still  unbuilt;  but  some  parts  of  the  city,  as 
the  Forum,  the  Campus  Martins,  and  the 
Palatine  Hill — where  were  the  emperor's 
palace,  the  camp  of  his  body-guard,  and 
connected  buildings — must  have  presented 
a  magnificent  appearance.  Gibbon  esti- 
mates the  population  of  Rome  at  that  time 
at  1,200,000;  probably  half  were  slaves,  in 
whose  hands  were  the  useful  trades  and 
professions ;  a  large  part  of  the  remainder 
were  pauper  citizens  supported  by  the  pub- 
lic; the  smaller  remaining  class  were  the 
wealthy  nobility,  whose  luxury  and  profli- 
gacy are  described  by  the  writers  of  that 
time.  Paul  approached  Rome  by  the  Ap- 
pian  Way,  which  entered  the  city  on  the 
southeast.  He  was  kept  at  Rome  2  years, 
A.  D.  61-63,  being  allowed  to  live  in  his 
own  hired  dwelling  with  the  soldiers  who 
guarded  him,-  to  whom  he  was  probably 
fastened  by  a  chain.  Acts  28:16,  20,  30; 
Eph.  6:20;  Phil.  1:16;  and  was  permitted 
to  preach  the  gospel  to  all  who  visited  him. 
Acts  28:30,  31.  His  epistles  to  the  Colos- 
sians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Philemon, 
and  the  2d  to  Timothy,  are  believed  to- 
have  been  written  here,  the  last  shortly 
before  his  death,  2  Tim.  4:6.  Many  think 
he  was  acquitted  on  his  appeal  to  the  em- 
peror, but  after  a  period  of  freedom  was 
again  brought  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  where 


ROM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROM 


tradition  affirms  that  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Nero,  A.  D.  68.  See  Paul,  Pe- 
ter, Pr^torium.  Many  Jews  were  taken 
•to  Rome  as  captives  by  Pompey ;  a  special 
district  was  assigned  to  Jewish  freedmen 
and  emigrants  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  and  they  were  allowed  liberty  of 
worship  and  other  privileges  by  Julius 
Caesar  and  Augustus.  Their  banishment 
under  Claudius,  Acts  18:2,  must  have  been 
brief,  for  numbers  of  Jews  were  residing  at 
Rome  at  Paul's  visit,  Acts  28: 17.  The  gos- 
pel was  early  introduced  there,  perhaps  by 
some  who  were  in  Jerusalem  at  Pentecost, 
Acts  2: 10.  Paul  had  written  to  the  Roman 
Christians  as  early  as  A.  D.  58,  and  was 
cheered  by  their  greetings  on  his  way  to 
the  city.  Acts  28: 15.  There  were  believers 
in  the  household  of  Nero,  Phil.  4:22,  prob- 
ably among  his  slaves.     Nero  instituted  a 


fierce  persecution  against  the  Christians 
on  the  charge  of  setting  fire  to  the  city, 
A.  D.  64.  The  scene  was  in  "  the  gardens 
of  Nero,"  now  within  the  Vatican.  See 
Nero.  Rome  as  a  persecuting  power  is 
alluded  to  in  the  Revelation  under  the 
name  of  Babylon,  Rev.  14:8;  16:19;  17:5, 
6;  18:2,  21. 

The  catacombs,  subterranean  galleries 
commonly  from  8  to  10  feet  high  and  from 
4  to  6  feet  wide,  with  occasional  enlarge- 
ments, extending  for  miles  under  Rome, 
especially  in  the  region  of  the  old  Appian 
and  Nomentane  Ways,  were  used  as  places 
of  refuge,  worship,  and  burial  by  the  early 
Christians.  More  than  4,000  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  them,  which  are  re- 
ferred to  the  period  between  Tiberius  and 
Constantine,  one  of  the  oldest  being  dated 
A.  D.  71. 


RUINS  OF  THE  COLOSSEUM,  AT  ROME. 


The  Colosseum,  whose  majestic  ruins 
still  impress  the  beholder  with  a  sense  of 
the  power  and  cruelty  of  heathen  Rome, 
was  the  scene  of  many  a  conflict  of  Chris- 
tian martyrs  with  wild  beasts.  It  was 
erected  by  Vespasian  and  Titus  for  gladia- 
torial shows,  and  is  said  to  have  contained 
seats  for  80,000  spectators.  It  was  620  feet 
long  and  513  broad,  with  an  arena  290  feet 
by  180 ;  the  uppermost  and  outer  circle  of 
tiers  of  seats  was  160  feet  from  the  ground. 

From  the  time  of  Constantine's  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  as  the  State  religion. 


A.  D.  323,  the  corruption  of  doctrine  and 
practice,  which  had  already  begun  to  ap- 
pear in  the  church,  began  to  spread  more 
rapidly.  Soon  the  bishop  of  Rome  claimed 
supreme  authority,  chiefly  on  the  assump- 
tion that  he  was  the  successor  of  Peter ;  and 
the  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and 
Constantinople  finally  acknowledged  him 
first  in  honor,  though  not  supreme  in  juris- 
diction, A.  D.  451-604.  After  the  schism  of 
the  9th  century,  which  led  to  the  division 
of  Christendom  into  the  Roman-catholic 
Church  and  the  Greek  Church,  the  popes 

485 


ROM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RUD 


of  Rome  exercised  an  immense  power  over 
Europe  until  the  Reformation  in  the  i6th 
century.  Since  then  their  power  has  grad- 
ually declined,  though  it  is  still  considera- 
ble in  Roman-catholic  countries  and  over 
the  Romanists  in  all  Protestant  countries. 
Rome  was  made  the  political  capital  of  the 
united  kingdom  of  Italy  under  Victor  Em- 
manuel in  1871,  when  tlie  power  of  the  pope 
as  a  temporal  or  political  sovereign  was 
abolished.  His  dignity  and  influence  as 
head  of  the  Roman-catholic  Church  still 
continue,  and  his  residence  is  at  the  Vati- 
can palace  adjoining  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 

Modern  Rome  lies  on  the  north  side  of 
the  ancient  city,  its  principal  portion  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  covering  the 
plain  formerly  called  the  Campus  Martius ; 
(.11  the  right  bank  it  embraces  the  Vatican 
quarter  and  the  low  ground  beneath  it. 
The  "seven  hills"  are  largely  occupied  by 
villas  and  farms.  Rome  is  rendered  espe- 
cially interesting  by  the  magnificent  ruins 
of  its  former  greatness,  temples,  pillars, 
aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  and  amphi- 
theatres. The  Arch  of  Titus  commemo- 
rates his  victory  over  the  Jews  and  spoil- 
ing of  the  temple.  Rome  retains  its  pre- 
eminence as  a  treasure-house  of  the  fine 
arts.  It  contains  large  libraries,  including 
that  of  the  Vatican,  numerous  galleries  and 
museums  full  of  the  choicest  paintings  and 
sculptures,  besides  palaces,  villas,  schools, 
and  hospitals,  and  over  360  churches,  among 
them  St.  Peter's,  the  largest  in  the  world. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  /.  e.,  the 
Christians  of  Rome,  was  written  by  Paul 
during  the  3  months  he  remained  at  Cor- 
inth, early  in  A.  D.  50,  before  going  to  Je- 
rusalem to  attend  Pentecost,  Rom.  15:25. 
Compare  Acts  20:2,  3,  16;  Rom.  16:23; 
I  Cor.  1:14;  2  Tim.  4:20.  It  is  the  most 
important,  systematic,  and  argumentative 
of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  a  profound  discus- 
sion of  man's  state  as  a  sinner  and  of  the 
plan  of  salvation.  Its  immediate  occasion 
seems  to  have  been  the  misunderstanding 
which  existed  between  Jewish  and  Gentile 
converts,  not  only  at  Rome,  but  everywhere. 
The  Jew  felt  himself  in  privilege  superior 
to  the  Gentile;  who, on  the  other  hand, did 
not  allow  this  superiority,  and  was  vexed 
by  the  assertion  of  it.  In  reference  to  this, 
in  the  first  5  chapters  the  apostle  proves 
that  the  entire  human  race  is  depraved 
and  under  condemnation  —  that  neither 
Gentile  nor  Jew  has  any  privilege  of  birth 
or  personal  merit,  but  that  each  receives 
all  benefits  through  the  mere  sovereign 
486 


grace  of  God,  Christ  alone  being  onr  jusli- 
ficalion.  He  then  proceeds  to  exhibit 
Christ  as  our  saticlijication ;  and  answers- 
the  objections  made  to  the  doctrine  of  gra- 
tuitous justification,  that  it  tends  to  encour- 
age sin,  and  that  God  has  no  right  to  treat 
mankind  in  this  way.  In  ch.  10,  11  he  ap- 
plies all  this  to  the  Jews.  In  the  remainder 
of  the  epistle,  which  is  hortatory,  the  apos- 
tle lays  down  many  practical  rules  of  con- 
duct, which  are  of  the  highest  moment  to- 
all  Christians.  There  is  no  allusion  to  Pe- 
ter as  present  at  Rome;  and  Paul's  rule 
was  not  to  build  on  another  man's  founda- 
tion, Rom.  15:20;  the  Gentiles  were  his 
field  as  the  Hebrews  were  Peter's,  Gal. 
2:7-9;   Rom.  I :  II,  13. 

ROOF.     See  HorsE. 

ROOM  is  sometimes  synonymous  witb 
seat  or  ])lace,  as  in  Psa.  31:8;  Luke  14:8- 
10;  20:46. 

ROPES  were  used  for  binding  prisoners 
Judg.  15:13;  Psa.  2:3;  Ezek.  3:25;  volun- 
tarily assumed  they  were  a  token  of  hum 
ble  submission,  i  Kin.  20:31,  32. 

ROSE,  Song  2:1;  Isa.  35:  i.  The  Hebrew 
word  means  acrid  bulb,  and  cannot  denote 
the  true  rose,  but  probably  the  Polyanthus, 
narcissus.  This  beautiful  and  fragrant 
flower  grows  in  the  plain  of  Sharon,  and  is 
a  great  favorite,  its  blossoms  being  sold  in 
the  bazaars.  True  wild  roses  are  seldom 
met  with  except  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Palestine.  Cultivated  varieties  of  the  queen 
of  flowers  are  abundant  in  Syria  and  high- 
ly prized,  especially  for  the  rose-water  and 
attar  made  from  them. 

ROSH,  head  or  chief,  should  probably 
have  been  left  untranslated  in  Ezek.  38:2,. 
3;  39:1,  as  a  proper  name  of  one  of  the  3 
great  Scythian  tribes:  "the  prince  of  Rosh, 
Meschech,  and  Tubal " — the  first  mentiot» 
of  the  Russian  race  in  Scripture. 

RU'BY.  The  Oriental  ruby  is  next  in 
value,  as  a  gem,  to  the  diamond.  Indeed, 
a  ruby  of  this  kind,  above  a  certain  size,  is- 
more  valuable  than  a  diamond  of  the  same 
weight.  The  Oriental  ruby  is  a  red  vari- 
ety of  the  sapphire  ;  its  color  is  usually  be- 
tween a  vivid  cochineal  and  crimson.  The 
word  "  rubies  "  occurs  several  times  in  the 
English  Bible,  as  Job  28:18;  Prov.  3:15; 
8:11;  but  the  corresponding  word  in  He- 
brew is  thought  to  denote  red  coral,  or  per- 
haps pearls ;  while  the  true  ruby  is  more 
naturally  designated  by  the  "  agate "  or 
"carbuncle  "  of  Isa.  54: 12;   Ezek.  27:16. 

RUD'DER  BANDS,  Acts  27:40,  ropes  by 
which   the   2  large  steering-paddles   near 


RUD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


the  stern  of  ancient  ships  were  lashed  up 
out  of  the  way  of  the  ground-tackle  when 
the  vessel  was  at  anchor.     See  Ship. 

RUDE,  2  Cor.  II  :6,  artless  and  unpol- 
ished. 

RU'DIMENTS,  or  elements,  the  first  and 
simplest  principles  of  a  science  or  litera- 
ture, Gal.  4:3,  9;  Col.  2:20. 

RUE,  the  Ruta  graveolens,  a  well-known 
herb,  about  2  feet  high,  having  a  strong 
odor  and  a  bitter  taste.  It  grows  wild  in 
Palestine,  and  was  also  cultivated  as  a 
medicine  and  condiment.  The  Pharisees 
were  punctilious  in  paying  tithes  of  this 
plant,  Lev.  27  :  30,  but  inconsistently  ne- 
glected some  of  the  more  important  of  the 
divine  requirements,  Luke  11:42;  compare 
Matt.  23:23. 

RU'FUS,  red,  a  son  of  Simon,  the  Cyre- 
nian  who  was  constrained  to  carry  the 
cross  on  which  the  Saviour  was  to  be  cru- 
cified, Mark  15:21.  If  Rufus  is  the  same 
person  whom  Paul  salutes  in  Rom.  16: 13,  as 
is  possible,  we  may  see  in  this  instance  the 
divine  blessing  abiding  on  the  household 
of  one  who  befriended  Christ  and  bore  his 
cross. 

RUHA'MAH,  obtaining  mercy,  a  symbol- 
ical name  used  by  Hosea,  2:1;  compare 
1 :6,  7. 

RU'LER,  Luke  24:20;  Acts  14:5,  in  the 
New  Testament  a  person  of  high  position 
and  influence  among  the  Jews,  sometimes 
of  official  authority,  either  as  "  ruler  of  the 
synagogue,"  Matt.  9:18  with  Mark  5:22, 
35-3S;  Luke  8:49;  13:14;  Acts  13:15;  18:8, 
17;  see  Synagogue;  or  as  a  member  of 
the  Sanhedrin,  Luke  23 :  13,  35 ;  Acts  4:5,  8  ; 
13:27;  16:19.  In  many  cases  it  is  im- 
possible to  saj'  which  class  is  meant.  The 
young  ruler  of  Matt.  19: 16-22  ;  Mark  10;  17- 
22  ;  Luke  18  :  18-23,  brought  credentials  on 
which  many  of  our  churches  would  admit 
him  without  hesitation ;  but  Christ  enfor- 
ces the  necessity  of  a  change  of  heart. 

RU'MAH,  exalted,  2  Kin.  23:36.  Some 
suppose  it  identical  with  Arumah,  6  miles 
southeast  of  Shechem,  Judg.  9:41;  others 
with  Dumah,  10  miles  southwest  of  He- 
bron, Josh.  15:52.  Conder  would  identify 
it  with  the  ruined  village  Rumeh,  on  the 
west  of  Rimmon,  9  miles  northwest  of 
Mount  Tabor. 

RUMP.    See  Sheep. 

RUSH.  Two  Hebrew  words  are  thus 
translated,  one  denoting  the  bulrush  or  pa- 
pyrus reed,  an  aquatic  plant  of  the  sedge 
family.  Job  8:11;  Isa.  35 : 7 ;  Exod.  2:3;  Isa. 
18:2;   see  Bulrush;    the  other,  also  ren- 


dered "bulrush"  in.  Isa.  58:5,  A.  V.,  and 
"  hook  "  in  Job  41 :2,  representing  a  differ- 
ent reed-like  plant,  of  the  sedge  or  the 
grass  family,  Isa.  9:14.  The  proverbial 
expression  in  Isa.  19:15  denotes  the  high- 
est and  the  lowest  of  the  people,  /.  e.,  the 
entire  people.     See  Reed. 

RUTH,  a  Moabitess,  who,  having  re- 
turned with  her  mother-in-law  Naomi  to 
Judah,  probably  about  the  time  of  Gideon, 
soon  after  married  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of 
Naomi's  husband.  From  this  marriage 
descended  David,  and  through  him  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  Matt,  i  :5.  See  Adop- 
tion. 

The  Book  of  Ruth  contains  this  his- 
tory, told  in  a  most  simple  and  affecting 
manner.  The  object  of  the  writer,  no 
doubt,  was  to  trace  the  genealogy  of  king 
David.  At  the  outset  he  says  that  these 
events  took  place  when  the  Judges  ruled 
in  Israel — an  intimation  that  in  the  time  of 
the  writer  they  had  ceased  to  rule.  At  the 
close  of  the  book  the  name  of  David  is 
introduced ;  which  shows  that  it  was  not 
written  before  his  day,  B.  C.  1060.  This 
book  is  inserted  in  our  Bibles  after  the 
book  of  Judges,  as  a  sort  of  sequel  to  it. 
Many  of  the  ancient  fathers  made  but  one 
book  of  Judges  and  Ruth.  The  story  of 
Ruth  exhibits  the  frank  and  simple  man- 
ners of  the  times,  and  the  courtesy  and 
charity  of  the  Hebrew  laws,  gives  an  inti- 
mation of  the  future  extension  of  the  gos- 
pel to  the  Gentiles,  and  illustrates  God's 
providential  care  of  families,  and  the  bless- 
ings which  flow  from  filial  piety  and  faith 
in  God. 

RYE,  Exod.  9:32;  Isa.  28:25,  A.  V.,  called 
"fitches"  in  Ezek.  4:9.  It  is  probable  that 
the  true  rendering  is  "  spelt."  Rye  is  a 
Northern  grain,  rarely  cultivated  in  the 
Levant  even  now,  and  probably  unknown 
there  in  ancient  times ;  but  spelt,  Triticum 
spelta,  has  been  cultivated  and  prized  in 
the  East  for  ages.  It  differs  but  little  from 
wheat,  though  inferior,  and  its  flour  is  often 
mixed  with  wheat  flour  in  making  bread. 


SABACHTHA'NI,  hast  thou  forsaken  me? 
a  Syro-Chaldaic  word,  a  part  of  our  Sa- 
viour's exclamation  on  the  cross.  Matt. 
27:46;  the  whole  is  taken  from  Psa.  22:1, 
where  it  is  used  prophetically. 

SABA'OTH  or  SAB'AOTH  represents  the 
Hebrew  tsebaoth,  hosts  or  armies,  and 

487 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


appears  in  Rom.  9:29;  Jas.  5:4,  as  the 
representative  in  part  of  the  divine  title  so 
often  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in 
the  A.  V.  translated  "Lord  of  hosts," 
I  Sam.  17:45;  Psa.  24:10;  Isa.  1:9;  Jer. 
32 :  18.  We  are  to  understand  the  word 
hosts  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense,  as 
including  the  host  of  heaven,  the  angels 
and  ministers  of  the  Lord;  the  stars  and 
planets,  which,  as  an  army  ranged  in  bat- 
tle array,  perform  the  will  of  God;  the 
armies  of  earth,  whose  conflicts  his  provi- 
dence overrules  to  the  accomplishment  of 
his  own  wise  designs ;  the  hordes  of  infe- 
rior creatures,  as  the  locusts  that  plagued 
Egypt,  the  quails  that  fed  Israel,  and  "  the 
canker-worm  and  the  palmer-worm,  his 
great  army,"  Joel  2:25;  and  lastly,  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Lord,  both  of  the  old  and  new 
covenants,  a  truly  great  army,  of  which 
God  is  the  general  and  commander,  Exod. 
7:4;  2  Kin.  23:5;  2  Chr.  18:18;  Neh.  9:6; 
Psa.  148:2;  Dan.  8:10,  11. 

SAB'BATH,  rest,  cessation.  God  having 
created  the  world  in  6  days,  "  rested  "  on 
the  7th,  Gen.  2:2,  3;  that  is,  he  ceased  from 
producing  new  beings  in  this  creation ;  and 
because  he  had  rested  on  it,  he  "  blessed  " 
or  sanctified  it,  and  appointed  it  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner  for  his  worship. 

We  here  have  an  account  of  the  origi- 
nal INSTITUTION  of  the  day  of  rest.  Like 
the  institution  of  marriage,  it  was  given  to 
man  for  the  whole  race.  Those  who  wor- 
shipped God  seem  to  have  kept  the  Sab- 
bath from  the  first,  and  there  are  tokens  of 
tills  in  the  brief  sketch  the  Bible  •ontains 
of  the  ages  before  giving  the  law  at  Mount 
Sinai.  Noah  sent  forth  the  raven  from  the 
ark,  and  the  dove  thrice,  at  intervals  of  7 
days,  Gen.  8.  The  account  of  the  sending 
of  manna  in  the  desert  implies  that  the 
Sabbath  was  already  known  and  observed, 
though  it  may  have  been  largely  neglected 
during  the  Egyptian  bondage,  E.xod.  16:5, 
22-30.  The  week  was  an  established  divis- 
ion of  time  in  Mesopotamia  and  Arabia. 
Gen.  29:27;  and  traces  of  it  have  been 
found  in  many  nations  of  antiquity  so  re- 
mote from  each  other  and  of  such  diverse 
origin  as  to  forbid  the  idea  of  their  having 
received  it  from  Sinai  and  the  Hebrews. 
.'Assyrian  and  Chaldaean  inscriptions  of  an 
earlier  date  than  the  time  of  Moses  refer  to 
a  week  of  7  days,  and  to  the  7th  day  as  a 
day  of  rest,  on  which  it  was  unlawful  to 
work,  or  for  the  king  to  drive  out  or  to 
perform  sovereign  acts. 

The  REENACTMENT  of  the  Sabbath  on 
488 


Mount  Sinai,  among  the  Commandments 
of  the  moral  law,  was  also  designed  not 
for  the  Israelites  alone,  but  for  all  who 
should  receive  the  Word  of  God,  and  ulti- 
mately for  all  mankind.  Christ  and  his 
apostles  never  speak  of  the  Decalogue  but 
as  of  permanent  and  universal  obligation. 
"  The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man."  The 
4th  commandment  is  as  binding  as  the  3d 
and  the  5th.  Certain  additions  to  it,  with 
specifications  and  penalties,  were  a  part  of 
the  Mosaic  civil  law,  and  are  not  now  in 
force,  E.xod.3i:i4;  Num.  15:32-36.  On  the 
Sabbath  day  the  priests  and  Levites,  min- 
isters of  the  temple,  entered  on  their  week, 
and  those  who  had  attended  the  foregoing 
week  went  out,  2  Kin.  11 :5-7.  They  placed 
on  the  golden  table  new  loaves  of  show- 
bread,  and  took  away  the  old  ones.  Lev. 
24:8.  Also  on  this  day  were  offered  partic- 
ular sacrifices  of  2  lambs  for  a  burnt-offer- 
ing, with  wine  and  meal.  Num.  28:9,  10. 
The  weekly  Sabbath  was  celebrated  like 
the  other  festivals,  from  evening  to  evening. 
The  Sabbath  was  kept  as  a  day  of  rest,  di- 
vine worship  and  religious  instruction,  and 
of  sacred  and  social  rejoicings,  2  Kin.  4:23; 
Neh.  8:9-12;  Psa.  92;  118:24;  Hos.  2:11. 
It  was  one  of  the  signs  of  God's  covenant 
with  Israel,  E.xod.  31:13-17.  The  prophets 
denounced  its  profanation  and  blessed  its 
faithful  observance,  Isa.  56:1-7;  58:13,  14; 
Jer.  17:21-27;  Ezek.  20:12-24.  After  the 
return  from  captivity  the  Jews  entered  into 
a  fresh  covenant  to  keep  it,  Neh.  10:31. 
Under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  profanation 
of  the  Sabbath  was  one  of  the  distinctive 
marks  of  apostasy  to  heathenism,  i  Mace. 
1:11-15,  39-45.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
Pharisaic  legalism  had  made  the  Sabbath 
burdensome  by  the  minute  and  often  ab- 
surd regulations  concerning  its  observance : 
e.  g.,  forbidding  walking  on  the  grass,  as 
that  would  be  a  kind  of  threshing.  Against 
these  oppressive  human  enactments  our 
Saviour  protested,  maintaining  the  lawful- 
ness of  works  of  necessity  and  mercy  on 
the  Sabbath,  while  he  kept  the  day  in  the 
true  spirit  of  the  law. 

The  chief  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  ex- 
pressed in  the  law  is  to  sanctify  it,  Exod. 
20:8;  Deut.  5:12:  "Remember  the  Sab- 
bath day  to  sanctify  it."  It  is  sanctified 
by  necessary  works  of  charity,  by  prayers, 
praises,  and  thanksgivings,  by  the  public 
and  private  worship  of  God,  by  the  study 
of  his  Word,  by  tranquillity  of^  mind,  and 
by  meditation  on  moral  and  religious  truth 
in  its  bearing  on  the  duties  of  life  and  the 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


hope  of  immortality.  The  other  require- 
ment of  the  law  is  rest:  "Thou  shalt  not 
do  any  work,"  Exod.  23:12;  Lev.  23:3. 
The  ordinary  business  of  life  is  to  be  whol- 
ly laid  aside,  both  for  the  sake  of  bodily 
and  mental  health,  and  chiefly  to  secure 
the  quiet  and  uninterrupted  employment 
of  the  sacred  hours  for  religious  purposes. 
The  spirit  of  the  law  clearly  forbids  all 
uses  of  the  day  which  are  worldly,  such  as 
amusements,  journeys,  etc.,  whereby  one 
fails  to  keep  the  day  holy  himself,  or  hin- 
ders others  in  doing  so. 

The  Christian  Sabb.\th  represents  the 
original  day  of  rest  established  in  the  gar- 
den of  Eden  and  reenacted  on  Sinai,  with- 
out those  requirements  which  were  pecu- 
liar to  the  old  dispensation,  but  with  all  its 
original  moral  force  and  with  the  new  sanc- 
tions of  Christianity.  It  commemorates 
not  only  the  creation  of  the  world,  but  a 
still  greater  event — the  completion  of  the 
work  of  atonement  by  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  a  still  greater  deliverance  than  that 
of  Israel  from  Egypt,  Deut.  5:15;  and  as 
Christ  rose  from  the  dead  on  the  day  after 
the  Jewish  Sabbath,  that  day  of  his  resur- 
rection has  been  observed  by  Christians 
ever  since.  The  change  appears  to  have 
been  made  at  once,  and  as  is  generally  be- 
lieved under  the  direction  of  the  "  Lord  of 
the  Sabbath."  On  the  same  day,  the  ist 
day  of  the  week,  he  appeared  among  his 
assembled  disciples ;  and  on  the  ne.xt  re- 
currence of  the  day  he  was  again  with 
them,  and  revealed  himself  to  Thomas, 
John  20:19-29.  The  Pentecostal  descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  traditionally  reported, 
and  with  probability  believed,  to  have  oc- 
curred on  the  I  St  day  of  the  week.  Acts  2. 
From  I  Cor.  11:20;  14:23,  40,  it  appears 
that  the  disciples  in  all  places  were  accus- 
tomed to  meet  statedly  to  worship  and  to 
celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper;  in  i  Cor.  16:2 
the  apostle  connects  an  act  which  is  a  part 
of  religious  worship,  vt~.,  the  regular  set- 
ting apart  for  charitable  purposes  of  a  due 
proportion  of  the  Christian's  income,  with 
the  ist  day  of  the  week;  and  in  Acts  20:6- 
II  we  find  the  Christians  at  Troas  actually 
assembled  on  the  ist  day  to  partake  of  the 
supper  and  to  receive  religious  instruction. 
John  observed  the  day  with  peculiar  solem- 
nity. Rev.  1:10;  and  it  had  then  received 
the  name  of  "  The  Lord's  day,"  which  it 
has  ever  since  retained.  For  a  time  such 
of  the  disciples  as  were  Jews  observed  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  also ;  but  they  did  not  re- 
quire this  nor  the  observance  of  any  festi- 


val of  the  Mosaic  dispensation  of  Gentile 
converts,  nor  even  of  Jews,  Col.  2:16.  The 
early  Christian  fathers  refer  to  the  ist  day 
of  the  week  as  the  time  set  apart  for  wor- 
ship, and  to  the  transfer  of  the  day  on  ac- 
count of  the  resurrection  of  the  Saviour. 
Pliny  the  younger,  proconsul  of  Pontus 
near  the  close  of  the  ist  century,  in  a  letter 
to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  remarks  that  the 
Christians  were  "  accustomed  on  a  stated 
day  to  meet  together  before  daylight,  and 
to  repeat  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  God,  and  to 
bind  themselves  by  a  solemn  bond  not  to 
commit  any  wickedness,"  etc.  Ignatius,  a 
disciple  of  John,  who  wrote  about  A.  D.  100, 
contrasts  Judaism  with  Christianity,  and 
in  exemplification  of  the  contrast  speaks  of 
the  Jewish  Sabbath  as  abolished,  and  indi- 
cates the  ist  day  of  the  week  as  its  succes- 
sor. Justin  Martyr,  in  the  2d  century,  ob- 
serves that  "  on  the  Lord's  day  all  Chris- 
tians in  the  city  or  country  meet  together, 
because  that  is  the  day  of  our  Lord's  res- 
urrection, and  then  we  read  the  writings 
of  the  apostles  and  prophets ;  this  being 
done,  the  person  presiding  makes  an  ora- 
tion to  the  assembly,  to  exhort  them  to  im- 
itate and  to  practise  the  things  the\^  have 
heard ;  then  we  all  join  in  prayer,  and  after 
that  we  celebrate  the  sacrament.  Then 
they  who  are  able  and  willing  give  what 
they  think  proper,  and  what  is  collected  is 
laid  up  in  the  hands  of  the  chief  officer, 
who  distributes  it  to  orphans  and  widows 
and  other  necessitous  Christians  as  their 
wants  require."  See  i  Cor.  16:2.  Under 
Constantine,  the  ist  Christian  emperor  of 
Rome,  the  Lord's  day,  or  "Sunday,"  as  it 
was  also  called,  was  first  civilly  recognized 
by  an  edict,  A.  D.  321,  requiring  a  certain 
degree  of  abstinence  from  labor  on  that 
day. 

The  commandment  to  observe  the  Sab- 
bath is  worthy  of  its  place  in  the  Deca- 
logue ;  it  is  suited  to  the  needs  of  man's 
physical,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  nature  ; 
and  its  observance  is  of  fundamental  im- 
portance to  society,  which  without  it  would 
fast  relapse  into  ignorance,  vice,  and  un- 
godliness. Its  very  existence  on  earth,  by 
the  ordinance  of  God,  proves  that  there  re- 
mains an  eternal  Sabbath  in  heaven,  of 
which  the  "blest  repose"  of  the  day  of 
God  is  an  earnest  to  those  who  rightly  ob- 
serve it,  Heb.  4:9. 

"  The  2d  Sabbath  after  the  ist" — Greek, 
"second-first  Sabbath" — Luke  6:1,  is  ex- 
plained by  some  as  "the  ist  Sabbath  after 
the  2d  dav  of  the   Passover."     See   Pass- 

489 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


ovf:r.  Others  interpret  it  as  the  ist  Sab- 
bath in  the  2d  year  of  the  Sabbatical  cycle 
of  7  years.  By  some  Greek  MSS.,  followed 
in  the  R.  V.,  the  puzzling  expression  is 
omitted  altogether. 

The  "  preparation  of  the  Sabbath  "  was 
the  Friday  before ;  for  as  it  was  forbidden 
to  make  a  fire,  to  bake  bread,  or  to  dress 
victuals  on  the  Sabbath  day,  they  provided 
on  the  6th  day  everything  needful  for  their 
sustenance  on  the  Sabbath,  Matt.  27:62; 
Mark   15:42;  John  19:14,  31,  42. 

The  term  "  sabbath "  was  applied  to 
other  days  and  times  similarly  sanctified, 
Lev.  19:3,  30;  23:24,  38,  39;  25:4.  In  the 
original  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  the 
word  sometimes  designates  a  week,  as 
counted  from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath,  Matt. 
28:1;  Mark  16:2.  In  Lam.  1:7  for  "sab- 
baths" we  should  read  "calamities"  or 
"  ruin." 

For  a  Sabb.\th  day's  journey  see  Jour- 
ney, Me.\sures. 

SABBAT'ICAL  YEAR,  or  "  Year  of  Re- 
lea.se,"  Deut.  15:9;  31:10-13,  was  to  be  cel- 
ebrated among  the  Israelites  once  every  7 
years;  the  land  was  to  rest  and  be  left 
without  culture ;  debts  were  to  be  remitted 
to  Hebrew  borrowers;  and  the  Law  was 
to  be  read  to  the  assembled  people  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  E.\od.  23:10,  11; 
Lev. 25:1-7;  Deut.  15:1-11 ;  31:10-15.  Pro- 
vision for  the  7th  year  might  be  stored  up 
from  the  abundance  of  preceding  harvests, 
Lev.  25:20-22.  The  fertility  of  the  soil 
would  be  increased  by  its  lying  fallow. 
God  appointed  the  observance  of  the  Sab- 
batical year  to  preserve  the  remembrance 
of  the  creation  of  the  world,  to  enforce  the 
acknowledgment  of  his  sovereign  author- 
ity over  all  things,  particularly  over  the 
land  of  Canaan,  which  he  had  given  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  to  inculcate  humanity  on  his 
people  by  commanding  that  they  should 
resign  to  servants,  to  the  poor,  to  stran- 
gers, and  to  brutes  the  produce  of  their 
fields,  of  their  vineyards,  and  of  their  gar- 
dens. A  long  disuse  of  the  Sabbatical  year 
has  been  inferred  from  2  Chr.  36:20,  21; 
compare  Lev.  26:33-35.  But  it  seems  to 
have  been  observed  after  the  return  from 
captivity,  in  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabeus, 
I  Mace.  6:49,  53;  Josephus  mentions  the 
same  Sabbatical  year  and  2  others,  and 
implies  the  customary  observance  of  the 
law  down  to  his  own  time.  Ale.xander  the 
Great  and  Julius  Caesar  are  said  to  have 
excused  the  Jews  from  tribute  in  the  Sab- 
batic year.  See  Jubilee. 
490 


SABE'ANS.  This  word  represents  2  dis- 
tinct peoples,  who,  in  accordance  with  the 
original  Hebrew,  might  have  been  more 
properly  called  Sebaeans  and  Shebaeans. 

I.  The  first  denotes  the  inhabitants  of 
the  country  called  Seba.  This  appears  to 
have  been  the  great  island,  or  rather  pen- 
insula of  Meroe,  in  Northern  Ethiopia,  or 
Nubia,  formed  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Astaboras,  now  Atbara.  Upon  this  penin- 
sula lay  a  city  of  the  same  name,  whose 
site  may  be  indicated  by  ruins  still  visible 
20  miles  northeast  of  the  modern  Shendy. 
Meroe  was  a  city  of  priests,  whose  origin 
is  lost  in  the  highest  antiquity.  The  mon- 
arch was  chosen  by  the  priests  from  among 
tiiemselves,  and  the  government  was  en- 
tirely theocratic,  being  managed  by  the 
priests  according  to  the  oracle  of  Jupiter 
Ammon.  This  was  the  Seba  of  the  He- 
brews, according  to  Josephus,  who  men- 
tions at  the  same  time  that  it  was  conquered 
by  Cambyses,  and  received  from  him  the 
name  Meroe,  after  his  sister.  With  this 
representation  accord  the  notices  of  Seba 
and  its  inhabitants  in  Scripture.  In  Gen. 
10:7  their  ancestor  is  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Cush,  the  progenitor  of  the  Ethiopians.  In 
Isa.  43:3  and  Psa.  72: 10  Seba  is  mentioned 
as  a  distant  and  wealthy  country ;  in  the 
former  passage  it  is  connected  with  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia ;  and  Meroe  was  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  cities  of  inte- 
rior Africa.  These  Sabeans  are  described 
by  Herodotus  as  men  of  uncommon  size. 
Compare  Isa.  45: 14.  A  branch  of  this  fam- 
ily, it  is  thought,  located  themselves  near 
the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf:  and  the  Sa- 
beans mentioned  in  Job  1:15  were  proba- 
bly Cushites.     See  Clsh  and  Raamah. 

II.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country  called 
Sheba.  The  Sheba  of  Scripture  appears 
to  be  the  Saba  of  Strabo,  situated  towards 
the  southern  part  of  Arabia,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
capital  of  which  was  Mariaba,  or  Mareb. 
This  region,  called  also  Yemen,  was  prob- 
ably settled  by  Sheba  the  son  of  Joktan,  of 
the  race  of  Shem,  Gen.  10:28;  i  Chr.  1:22. 
The  queen  of  Sheba,  who  visited  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  10;  2  Chr.  9;  Matt.  12:42,  and 
made  him  presents  of  gold,  ivory,  and 
costly  spices,  was  probably  the  mistress 
of  this  region ;  indeed,  the  Sabeans  were 
celebrated,  on  account  of  their  important 
commerce  in  these  very  products,  among 
the  Greeks  also.  Job  6:19;  Isa.  60:6;  Jer. 
6:20;  Ezek.  27:22;  38:13;  Psa.  72:10,  15; 
Joel  3:8.     The  tradition  of  this  visit  of  the 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon  has  maintained 
itself  among  the  Arabs,  who  call  her  Bal- 
kis,  and  affirm  that  she  became  the  wife  of 
Solomon. 

Besides  the  Joktanite  Sheba,  2  others  of 
the  same  name  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
I.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  and  grandson  of  Abra- 
ham and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:3.  2.  A  grand- 
son of  Cush,  Gen.  10:7.  It  is  possible  that 
the  descendants  of  the  Cushite  Sheba  may 
have  had  their  residence  in  Africa,  but  the 
question  of  these  2  Shebas  is  obscure  and 
difficult  to  determine.  The  Sebaeans  and 
Shebseans  are  both  mentioned  in  the  same 
prophecy,  Psa.  72: 10,  as  coming  to  lay  their 
offerings  at  the  feet  of  Christ.  In  Ezek. 
23:42  the  marginal  rendering  in  A.  V., 
"  drunkards,"  is  preferable  to  "  Sabeans." 

SAB'TAH  and  SAB'TECHA,  sons  of  Cush, 
Gen.  10:7.  It  cannot  be  decided  whether 
they  settled  in  Africa,  Arabia,  or  southeast- 
ern Asia. 


SACK,  SACK'CLOTH.  S.\CK  is  a  pure 
Hebrew  word,  and  has  spread  into  many 
modern  languages.  Sackcloth  is  a  coarse 
dark  stuff  made  of  goats'  or  camels'  hair. 
Rev.  6:12.  It  was  used  for  sacks  or  bags. 
Gen.  42:25;  and  rough  garments  made  of 
it  were  worn  as  a  sign  of  mourning  or  pen- 
itence, sometimes  next  the  skin,  and  some- 
times instead  of  the  outer  garment,  Gen. 
37:34;  2  Sam.  3:31;  I  Kin.  21:27;  2  Kin. 
6:30;  Jonah  3:6;  Matt.  11:21.  The  proph- 
ets were  often  clothed  in  sackcloth,  Isa. 
20:2;  Zech.  13:4;  Matt.  3:4;  Rev.  11:3. 

In  times  of  joy,  or  on  hearing  good  news, 
those  who  were  clad  in  sackcloth  cast  it 
from  them,  and  resumed  their  usual  cloth- 
ing, Psa.  30:  II. 

SACK'BUT.     See  Music. 


SACRIFICE,  an  offering  made  to  God  of 
some  gift,  especially  an  animal  slain,  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  guilt  and  an  atonement 
for  sin,  a  grateful  recognition  of  God's  au- 
thority and  goodness,  a  means  of  securing 
his  favor,  or  a  token  of  the  giver's  self- 
dedication  to  his  service.  Whatever  was 
thus  offered  to  the  Lord  had  first  been  fur- 
nished to  the  giver  by  Him,  i  Chr.  29:14. 
The  universal  prevalence  of  sacrifice  wit- 
nesses to  man's  universal  sense  of  guilt 
and  estrangement  from  God.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  after  the  fall  Jehovah  himself 
appointed  sacrifices  of  beasts,  of  the  first 
killing  of  which  we  find  indications  in  the 
clothing  of  Adam  and  Eve,  Gen.  3:21 ;  com- 
pare 2:17.  At  first  sacrifices  were  offered 
bv  individual  worshippers,  as  Cain  and 
Abel;  after  the  flood,  by  heads  of  families 
or  tribes,  as  Noah,  Melchizedek,  Isaac,  Ja- 
cob, Job.  From  being  the  prerogative  of 
the  firstborn,  the  offering  of  sacrifices  was 
by  the  Mosaic  law  devolved  upon  Aaron 
and  his  descendants.  The  offering  of  sac- 
rifice was  connected  with  God's  covenant 
with  Noah,  Gen.  8:20  to  9:17,  with  Abra- 
ham, Gen.  15:9-21,  and  with  Israel  at  Sinai, 
E.xod.  24:4-8,  the  ratification  of  his  cove- 
nant of  eternal  salvation  through  the  sac- 
rifice of  Christ  being  thus  foreshadowed, 
Heb.  9:13-20;  13:20.  The  idea  of  the  sal- 
vation of  one  condemned  to  death  by  means 
of  a  vicarious  death,  taught  in  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  ram  for  Isaac,  Gen.  22:13,  and 
the  idea  of  the  necessity  of  the  expiation 
of  sin  by  blood  in  order  to  entering  into 
covenant  with  God,  were  enforced  by  the 
inaugurative  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  pe- 
riod, the  killing  of  the  passovers,  Exod. 
12:3-13,  and  the  sacrifices  of  Exod.  24:4-8. 
The  law  given  on  Sinai  prescribed  the  offer- 
ers of  sacrifice,  Exod.  28:  i ;  Lev.  21 :  16-23  ; 
22:25,  the  place  of  sacrifice,  the  one  altar 
appointed  by  God— at  first  in  the  taberna- 
cle, afterwards  in  the  temple.  Lev.  17:1-9; 
Deut.  12:5-18,  and  the  time,  methods,  and 
kinds  of  sacrifice.  On  some  special  occa- 
sions sacrifices  were  offered  with  the  di- 
vine sanction  otherwise  than  the  law  pre- 
scribed, Judg.  2:5;  6:25,  26;  13:19,  20: 
I  Sam.  7:17.  The  divine  limitations  of 
sacrifice  emphasized  the  truth  that  it  was 
God  himself  who  provided  the  way  of  ap- 
proach to  him ;  and  the  occasional  excep- 
tions illustrated  his  sovereignty  over  his 
own  law  and  grace,  and  taught  that  there 
was  no  intrinsic  virtue  in  the  prescribed 
persons  or  place.  Human  sacrifices  were 
strictly  forbidden,  Lev.  20:2;  Deut.  12:31. 

491 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


The  law  prescribed  certain  regularl}'- 
recurring  national  sacrifices:  daily,  Num. 
28:2-8;  weekly,  ver.  9,  10;  monthly,  ver. 
11-15;  and  yearly,  ver.  16  to  29:39 — the  lat- 
ter connected  with  the  3  great  feasts  and 
the  great  Day  of  Atonement ;  and  also  made 
provision  for  occasional  voluntary  individ- 
ual expressions  of  penitence,  devotion,  and 
praise.  The  general  term  for  sacrifice  was 
"an  offering  made  by  fire  unto  the  Lord," 
Num.  15:3.  13- 

The  sacrifices  prescribed  in  the  law  were 
both  bloody  and  bloodless,  from  the  ani- 
mal and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  repre- 
senting the  most  valuable  possessions  of 
the  people,  the  sustenance  of  their  life,  and 
thus  their  life  itself.  The  animals  offered 
were  to  be  without  blemish,  signifying  the 
perfect  righteousness  and  holiness  required 
by  God;  and  were  of  the  o.\-kind,  sheep, 
goats,  turtle-doves,  pigeons,  and  other  small 
clean  birds.  The  bloody  sacrifices  were 
the  whole  burnt-offering,  the  peace-offer- 
ing, the  sin-offering,  and  the  trespass-offer- 
ing. Of  bloodless  offerings  there  were  the 
meat-offering,  the  drink-offering,  incense, 
and  first-fruits. 

I.  The  whole  burnt-offering — Heb.  olah, 
that  which  ffoes  up,  i.  e.,  in  flame  and 
smoke:  Greek  holocaust,  ivhoUy  burnt, 
Heb.  10:8.  This  was  an  ancient  form  of 
sacrifice,  Gen.  8:20.  Under  the  law  it  was 
offered  twice  daily,  was  doubled  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  was  prescribed  for  other  sta- 
ted sacred  seasons  and  for  numerous  occa- 
sional emergencies.  The  daily  national 
sacrifices  were  2  lambs,  one  offered  about 
492 


sunrise,  after  the  morning  incense-offer- 
ing, Exod.  30:7,  8;  the  other  at  the  decline 
of  day,  before  the  evening  incense-offering, 
Exod.  29:38-42;  Num.  28:3-8.  They  were 
burned  by  a  small  fire,  that  they  might 
continue  burning  the  longer.  Lev.  6:8-13. 
With  each  was  offered  a  meat-oftering  of 
flour  and  oil,  and  a  drink-oftering  of  wine. 
The  voluntary  whole  burnt-offering  might 
be  a  young  male  from  the  herd,  or  of  the 
sheep  or  goats,  or  a  turtle-dove  or  young 
pigeon.  Lev.  i.  If  of  the  herd  or  flock,  the 
offerer,  having  brought  it  to  the  altar-court, 
laid  his  hand  upon  its  head  to  signify  its 
substitution  for  himself;  it  was  then  killed, 
its  blood  was  sprinkled  bj-  the  priest  upon 
the  altar;  it  was  flayed,  the  skin  being 
given  to  the  officiating  priest.  Lev.  7:8;  it 
was  cut  in  pieces,  which  the  priest  laid 
upon  the  altar,  the  entrails  and  legs  being 
first  washed ;  and  the  whole  was  burned. 
Every  burnt-oftering  contained  a  general 
acknowledgment  of  sin,  national  or  indi- 
vidual, which  was  typically  expiated  by  its 
blood.  Lev.  17:11;  it  was  a  type  of  the  com- 
plete self-devotion  of  Christ  for  the  sinner, 
and  of  the  completeness  of  his  expiation, 
John  1:29;  Eph.  5:2;  Heb.  10:4-10.  It  also 
symbolized  the  offerer's  entire  self-surren- 
der to  the  Lord. 

II.  The  peace-offering,  Exod.  24:5;  Lev. 
3;  7:11-34,  was  eucharistic,  votive,  or  vol- 
untary. It  was  a  male  or  female  of  the 
herd  or  flock.  Its  blood  was  sprinkled  on 
the  altar  in  expiation  of  sin.  The  interior 
fat,  the  kidneys,  the  caul,  and  the  tail  if  the 
victim  was  a  sheep,  were  burned  on  the 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


altar.  The  breast  and  the  right  shoulder 
were  reserved  for  the  priests,  and  these 
parts,  together  with  those  to  be  burned, 
were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  offerer, 
and  by  him,  supported  and  directed  by  the 
priest,  waved  from  side  to  side,  or  heaved 
upward,  before  the  Lord.  The  rest  of  the 
flesh  was  to  be  eaten  by  the  offerer  and  his 
family  or  friends,  they  being  ceremonially 
clean,  on  the  same  day  if  the  offering  was 
for  thanksgiving ;  on  the  ist  and  2d  days  if 
it  was  a  votive  or  free-will  offering;  what 
remained  on  the  3d  day  must  be  burned. 
A  slight  exception  to  the  requirement  of 
perfection  was  made  in  the  free-will  offer- 
ing. Lev.  22 :  23.  The  special  signification  of 
the  peace-offering  was  friendship  with  God, 
and  holy  communion  with  him,  his  minis- 
ters, and  people.  Peace-offerings  were  pre- 
scribed for  certain  occasions,  Exod.  29 :  28 ; 
Num.  6:14;  7:17,  one  of  which  was  the  na- 
tional yearly  feast  of  first-fruits,  Lev.  23:19; 
Deut.  16:9-11.  Otherwise  they  were  op- 
tional. 

in.  The  sin-offering  and  the  trespass- 
offering  were  sacrifices  introduced  by  the 
Mosaic  law.  They  were  closely  connected, 
and  yet  clearly  distinguished,  the  sin-offer- 
ing being  the  more  general  and  compre- 
hensive, and  the  more  solemn  in  its  ritual. 
I.  Regular  occasions  when  a  national  sin- 
offering  was  prescribed  were  the  ist  day 
of  each  month.  Num.  28:11-15;  each  day 
of  the  Passover  feast,  ver.  22,  24 ;  the  feast 


of  first-fruits,  ver.  26,  30 ;  of  trumpets,  Num. 
29:1,  5;  each  day  of  the  feast  of  taberna- 
cles, ver.  12-38  ;  and  the  day  of  atonement, 
when  a  special  sin-offering  for  the  high- 
priest  was  also  appointed,  ver.  7,  n;  Lev. 
16:3-28.  The  sin-offering,  like  the  tres- 
pass-offering, was  enjoined  in  the  case  of 
particular  offences  against  law,  either  moral 
or  ceremonial,  committed  through  "igno- 
rance "  (rather  negligence  or  frailty),  or  at 
least  not  in  a  presumptuous  spirit;  com- 
pare Num.  15:30,  31;  Heb.  10:26-29.  As 
an  occasional  offering  it  was  of  several 
grades:  for  the  high-priest,  the  whole  con- 
gregation, a  ruler,  a  private  person,  Lev. 
4:1  to  5: 13;  Num.  15:22-28.  It  formed  part 
of  the  ritual  of  various  purifications,  both 
sin  and  trespass  offerings  being  required 
in  the  case  of  a  leper.  The  kind  and  sex 
of  the  victim  differed  on  different  occa- 
sins — a  bullock,  a  he-goat  or  kid,  a  she-kid 
or  lamb,  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons, 
and  even  for  the  very  poor  about  5  pints  of 
flour,  without  oil  or  incense,  compare  Psa. 
40:17,  being  variously  required.  The  cer- 
emonial was  especially  significant  and  sol- 
emn in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  the  blood. 
On  the  day  of  atonement  some  was  sprin- 
kled on  the  mercy-seat  in  the  holy  of  ho- 
lies ;  at  other  times  some  was  sprinkled  7 
times  before  the  veil  of  the  holy  of  holies, 
and  put  on  the  horns  of  the  altar  of  in- 
cense; and  sometimes  the  horns  of  the 
burnt-offering  altar  were  touched.     When 

493 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


the  victim  was  a  quadruped,  the  parts 
burned  on  the  altar  were  the  same  as  in  the 
peace-offering.  When  some  of  the  blood 
was  brought  into  the  sanctuary  none  of  the 
victim  was  eaten,  but  that  which  remained 
from  the  altar  was  burned  in  a  clean  place 
outside  the  camp,  Lev.  4:11,  12,  21;  6:30; 
compare  Heb.  13:11,  12.  Of  other  sin- 
offerings  the  priests  were  to  eat,  Lev.  6:26, 
29;  10:17.  2.  The  trespass -offering  was 
always  an  individual's  sacrifice,  and  a  ram, 
Lev.  5:14  to  6:7;  its  blood  was  simply 
sprinkled  around  the  altar  of  burnt-offer- 
ing; the  parts  consumed  on  the  altar  were 
the  same  as  in  the  sin-offering,  and  other 
portions  were  eaten  by  the  priests.  Lev. 
7:1-7.  Restitution  for  wrong  against  the 
service  of  God,  or  against  human  rights, 
was  required  in  connection  with  the  tres- 
pass-offering; compare  Num.  5:6-8.  Isa- 
iah, 53: 10,  says  that  Christ  "  made  his  soul 
a  trespass-offering,"  perhaps  indicating  a 
specific  as  well  as  a  general  need  and  effi- 
cacy of  his  blood.  Both  the  sin  and  the 
trespass  offering  specially  set  forth  the 
need  of  atonement  for  sin,  and  the  fact  that 
ignorance  and  infirmity  do  not  do  away 
with  its  guilt.  The  provisions  respecting 
the  former  indicate  that  sins  are  of  differ- 
ent degrees  of  heinousness.  The  require- 
ment of  restitution  with  the  latter  teaches 
that  reparation  should  if  possible  accom- 
pany repentance,  confession,  and  faith. 
The  special  sacredness  of  the  shed  blood 
of  the  sin-offering.  Lev.  6:27,  points  to  the 
infinite  preciousness  of  the  blood  of  Jesus, 
I  Pet.  1:19,  20,  of  whom  the  sin-offering 
was  an  eminent  tj'pe,  John  i :  29 ;  2  Cor. 
5:21 ;  I  John  2:2. 

In  the  offering  of  all  the  animal  sacrifices 
the  laying  of  hands  upon  the  victim  was  an 
essential  part,  always  accompanied,  ac- 
cording to  Jewish  authorities,  by  confes- 
sion of  sin,  and  signifying  in  every  sacrifice 
the  transfer  of  guilt  to  the  innocent  victim, 
and  the  substitution  of  its  life,  represented 
by  its  blood,  in  payment  of  the  death-pen- 
alty for  sin,  instead  of  the  offerer's  life. 
The  penalty  being  typically  jiaid.  and  ac- 
cepted by  God  on  the  altar,  sin  was  typi- 
cally expiated;  and  the  worshipjier,  re[)re- 
sented  or  assisted  by  the  mediating  jiriest, 
might  engage  in  other  acts  of  devotion. 
The  fire  of  the  altar,  kept  continually  burn- 
ing, Lev.  6:12,  13,  was  expressive  of  the 
nature  of  God,  Exod.  24: 17,  and  his  accept- 
ance of  the  offerings;  compare  Lev.  9:24. 

IV.  Meat-offering,  Heb.  minchah,  gifl. 
The  A.  V.  translation  is  misleading,  now 
494 


that  "meat  "  has  the  sense  o{  flesh,  rather 
than  oi  food,  as  formerly.  This  offering 
was  an  accompaniment  of  the  stated,  and 
the  occasional  and  voluntary,  whole  burnt- 
offerings  and  peace-offerings.  Exod.  29:40, 
41 ;  Lev.  23:37;  Num.  28 ;  29;  Lev.  2;  6:14- 
18;  7:9-14;  Num.  15:1-13.  It  consisted  of 
fine  flour,  usually  of  wheat;  unbaked,  or 
made  into  cakes.  It  was  salted  and  min- 
gled with  oil,  and  frankincense  was  placed 
upon  it.  When  offered  for  the  high-priest  it 
was  wholly  burned  on  the  altar,  Lev.  6:22, 
23.  Otherwise,  a  portion  of  it  was  burned 
as  a  memorial,  and  the  rest  was  eaten  by 
the  priests,  ver.  14-18.  All  the  incense  was 
burned.  A  drink-offering  of  wine  accom- 
panied the  meat-offering,  Exod.  29:40;  Lev. 
23:13;  Num.  15:5,  7,  10.  Honey  and  leaven 
were  not  to  be  burned  on  the  altar,  though 
leavened  bread  entered  into  the  Passover- 
offerings  of  first-fruits  and  the  eucharistic 
peace-offerings,  Lev.  7:12-14;  23:17.  The 
meat-offering  si^ecially  signified  the  offer- 
er's grateful  and  faithful  service,  which 
was  to  be  incorrupt  and  pure  (salted  and 
unleavened),  sanctified  by  divine  influen- 
ces (oil),  and  acceptable  through  the  ato- 
ning blood  of  Christ  (frankincense). 

With  some  of  the  sacrifices,  as  on  the 
day  of  atonement.  Lev.  16:20-22,  and  the 
cleansing  of  a  leper,  Lev.  14:4-7,  49-53, 
the  liberation  of  a  living  goat  or  bird  was 
connected,  signifying  in  the  former  case 
Christ's  vicarious  bearing  and  removal  of 
sin,  and  in  the  latter  probably  emancipa- 
tion from  the  restraints  of  leprosy. 

Sacrifices  formed  an  important  part  of" 
the  ritual  of  purification  from  canonical 
uncleannesses — as  childbirth,  Lev.  12;  is- 
sues. Lev.  15;  leprosy,  Lev.  14;  contact 
with  dead  bodies.  Num.  19— teaching  the 
all-defiling  presence  and  guilt  of  sin,  and 
its  need  of  expiation. 

Such  were  the  sacrifices  of  the  Hebrews: 
of  divine  appointment,  and  accepted  and 
used  bv  God  for  the  salvation  of  the  sin- 
cerely penitent  and  trusting  worshipper; 
yet  in  themselves  incapable  of  atoning  for 
sin,  clearing  the  offender  from  its  guilt,  or 
of  making  him  personally  holy,  Heb.  10: 1-4. 
Paul  lias  described  these  and  other  cere- 
monies of  the  law  as  "  weak  and  beggarly 
elements,"  (ial.  4:9;  and  as  "a  tutor,  to 
lead  to  Christ,"  Gal.  3 :  24.  They  were  pro- 
visional and  temporary,  projihecies  and 
figures  of  the  true  Sacrifice,  the  Lamb  of 
Cod,  and  of  the  regenerating  and  sanctify- 
ing work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Accordingly, 
Jesus  Christ,  by  his  one  offering  of  himself 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAD 


once  for  all,  superseded  and  abolished  all 
other  sacrifices,  and  saves  for  ever  all  who 
believe  on  him ;  while  without  his  expia- 
tory sacrifice  divine  justice  could  never 
have  relaxed  its  hold  on  a  single  human 
soul,  Isa.  53;  Luke  24:44-47;  Rom.  3:21- 
26;  4:24  to  5:11 ;  I  Cor.  5:7;  Eph.  5:2,  26; 
Tit.  3:5,  6;  Heb.  1:2,  3;  2:9,  17;  9;  10; 
Rev.  1:5;  5:6. 

The  Israelites  were  carefully  directed 
not  to  rely  on  sacrifices  as  works  of  merit. 
They  were  taught  that  without  repentance, 
faith,  and  reformation  all  sacrifices  were 
an  abomination  to  God,  Psa.  51:17;  Prov. 
21:3;  Isa.  1:11-17;  Js""-  6:20;  Joel  2:12-18; 
Amos  5:21,  22;  that  he  desires  willing  obe- 
dience and  supreme  love  to  himself,  and 
justice  and  mercy  to  fellow-men,  i  Sam. 
15:22;  Prov.  21:3;  Mic.  6:6-8;  Matt.  5:23, 
24;  9:13;  Mark  12:33.  So,  in  order  to  sal- 
vation by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  true  re- 
pentance and  faith  are  required,  and  from 
these  will  spring  fruits  of  love  to  God  and 
man. 

With  allusion  to  the  whole  burnt-offer- 
ing, the  peace-offering,  and  the  meat-offer- 
ing of  the  Mosaic  ritual,  the  services  of 
Christians  are  sometimes  called  sacrifices, 
acceptable  thrt)ugh  Christ's  one  sin-offer- 
ing and  his  continual  high-priestly  inter- 
cession, and  themselves  fruits  of  the  grace 
■of  God,  Rom.  12: 1  ;  Phil.  4:18;  Heb.  7:25; 
10:10,  12,  14,  18;  12:28;  13:15,  16;  I  Pet. 
2:4,  5;  Rev.  S:3,  4. 

SACRILEGE,  any  profanation  or  abuse 
of  things  peculiarly  sacred  to  God;  such 
as  robbing  the  house  of  God,  or  making  it 
a  den  of  thieves.  Matt.  21:12,  13.  In  Acts 
19:37,  for  "churches"  read  "temples," 
heathen.  In  Rom.  2:22,  "commit  sacri- 
lege," A.  v.,  has  the  same  meaning. 

SAD'DUCEES,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  who 
were  usually  at  variance  with  the  other 
leading  sect,  namely  the  Pharisees,  but 
united  with  them  in  opposing  Jesus  and 
accomplishing  his  death.  Matt.  16:1-12; 
Luke  20:27.  The  term  may  be  translated 
from  the  Hebrew,  //le  just,  but  is  more 
probably  derived  from  the  proper  name 
Zadok,  either  one  who  was  prominent  in 
the  3d  century  before  Christ,  and  whom 
the  Jews  commonly  regarded  as  the  found- 
er of  the  school,  or  from  Zadok  the  high- 
priest  under  David  and  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
1:32-45— whose  descendants  are  referred 
to  as  "the  sons  of  Zadok,"  Ezek.  40:46, 
and  may  finally  have  become  a  sort  of 
sacerdotal  aristocracy,  with  many  adhe- 
rents, rationalistic  in  opinion,  and  in  many 


cases  high  in  position  and  wealth ;  com- 
pare Acts  5: 17.  The  Sadducees  disregard- 
ed all  the  traditions  and  unwritten  laws 
which  the  Pharisees  prized  so  highly,  and 
professed  to  consider  the  Scriptures,  espe- 
cially the  Pentateuch,  as  the  only  source 
and  rule  of  the  Jewish  religion.  They  re- 
jected the  demonology  of  the  Pharisees, 
denied  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits, 
considered  the  soul  as  dying  with  the  body, 
and  of  course  admitted  no  future  state  of 
rewards  and  punishments.  Matt.  22 :  23. 
While,  moreover,  the  Pharisees  believed 
that  all  events  and  actions  were  directed 
by  an  overruling  providence  or  fate,  the 
Sadducees  considered  them  all  as  depend- 
ing on  the  will  and  agency  of  man.  The 
tenets  of  these  free-thinking  philosophers 
weVe  not  in  general  so  acceptable  to  the 
people  as  those  of  the  Pharisees ;  yet  many 
of  the  highest  rank  adopted  them.  Annas 
and  Caiaphas  and  many  other  members  of 
the  Sanhedrin  were  Sadducees,  Acts  23 : 6-9. 
The  resurrection  of  Christ  naturally  added 
bitterness  to  their  hatred  of  his  doctrines 
and  followers,  Acts  4:1-7;  5:17.  The  Sad- 
ducees disappear  from  history  after  the  ist 
Christian  century. 

Modern  Annihilationists  adopt  one  phase 
of  Sadduceeism,  believing  that  the  wicked 
who  die  out  of  Christ  are  annihilated,  body 
and  soul.  They  place  this  event  immedi- 
ately after  the  final  judgment.  In  support 
of  their  opinion  they  allege  that  the  soul  is 
not  essentially  immortal,  but  having  come 
from  nothing  may  return  to  nothing,  and 
will  do  so  unless  immortality  is  brought  to 
it  by  Jesus  Christ;  that  endless  conscious 
suffering  is  never  expressly  declared  to  be 
the  penalty  of  sin  ;  that  privation  of  happi- 
ness, continued  for  ever  by  annihilation,  is 
the  only  eternal  punishment;  and  that  this 
total  destruction  is  the  true  and  sole  mean- 
ing of  the  word  death. 

This  error  is  sufficiently  refuted,  prima 
facie,  by  the  fact  that,  although  it  appeals 
so  powerfully  to  our  sympathies,  and  might 
almost  seem  a  logical  necessity,  arguing 
from  the  goodness  of  God,  it  has  still  found 
so  few  followers :  the  great  mass  of  Chris- 
tians and  Bible  students  of  every  age  and 
sect  finding  the  Word  of  God  clearly  teach- 
ing the  eternal  conscious  suffering  of  the 
impenitent.  Some  of  the  Bible  arguments 
against  annihilation  are  these:  (i)  There 
are  various  degrees  of  future  punishment ; 
yet  annihilation  admits  of  no  degrees. 
(2)  To  the  condemned  soul,  full  of  shame 
and  fear  under  the  divine  anger,  annihila- 

495 


SAF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAL 


tion  would  be  a  relief  rather  than  a  pun- 
ishment—Jude  7,  R.  v.,  "in  eternal  fire." 

(3)  The  punishment  of  men  is  the  same 
as  that  of  wicked  angels,  who,  "  reserved 
to  the  judgment  of  the  great  day,"  "be- 
lieve and  tremble,"  instead   of  rejoicing. 

(4)  The  other  Scripture  phrases  which 
describe  this  destruction  show  that  in  the 
final  "  lake  of  fire  "  "  there  is  weeping  and 
wailing  and  gnashing  of  teeth."  (5)  The 
eternal  life  of  the  righteous,  always  con- 
nected with  the  death  of  the  wicked,  is  not 
mere  e.xistence,  but  endless  holiness  and 
happiness;  so  the  death  set  over  against  it 
is  endless  sin  and  sorrow.  See  Retribu- 
tion. 

SAF'FRON,  Song  4:14,  the  Crocus  sati- 
vus,  or  saffron  Crocus,  a  plant  abundant  in 
Palestine  and  adjacent  countries,  and  much 
cultivated  in  Europe.  The  flower  has  3 
stigmas,  which,  when  gathered  and  dried, 
form  a  valued  article  of  commerce.  They 
are  thread-like,  orange-colored,  aromatic 
in  odor,  and  slightly  bitter  in  taste.  Saf- 
fron was  early  prized  as  a  perfume,  and 
was  formerly  much  used  as  a  seasoning 
and  as  a  stimulating  medicine,  for  all  which 
purposes  it  is  still  highly  esteemed  in  the 
East.  The  stigmas  also  yield  an  orange 
dye. 

SAINT,  one  set  apart  from  the  world  to 
the  service  of  God,  Deut.  33:2,  3  ;  Psa.  50:5; 
106:16;  Dan.  7:21-27;  Matt.  27:52;  Acts 
9:13,  32,  41.  The  original  Heb.  and  Gr. 
terms  are  often  translated  "  hol\',"  Exod. 
19:6;  22:31;  Deut.  33:8;  Mark  6:20;  8:38; 
John  17:11,  and  applied  to  inanimate  ob- 
jects devoted  to  God,  E.xod.  16:23;  29:31  ; 
Matt.  4:5.  As  applied  to  men  they  do  not 
imply  perfect  holiness  in  this  life,  but  the 
obligation  to  strive  after  it ;  compare  Rom. 
1:7;  Eph.  1:4;  Col.  1:22;  I  Pet.  1:15,  16. 
Nothing  is  more  common  in  the  writings  of 
Paul  than  the  name  "  saints  "  given  to  all 
Christians,  Rom.  8:27;  i  Cor.  14:33;  Eph. 
1:1;  Phil.  1:1;  Rev.  8:3,  4.  The  special 
application  of  the  word  to  apostles,  evan- 
gelists, and  other  eminent  Christians,  and 
the  rendering  of  peculiar  honors  to  them, 
crept  into  the  church,  with  other  corrup- 
tions, about  the  4th  century.  The  Church 
of  Rome  assumes  the  power  of  making 
saints;  that  is,  of  announcing  certain  de- 
parted spirits  as  objects  of  adoration,  from 
whom  the  faithful  may  solicit  favors — a  no- 
tion contrary  to  Scripture  and  dishonoring 
to  Christ,  I  Tim.  2:5;  Heb.  7:25. 

SAL' AMIS,  a  maritime  city  with  a  good 
harbor  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of 
496 


Cyprus.  It  stood  in  a  plain  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river  Pediaeus,  was  anciently 
the  capital  of  the  island,  and  under  the  Ro- 
mans its  most  important  commercial  town. 
Paul  and  Barnabas  visited  it  on  their  first 
missionary  journey,  A.  D.  45,  when  the 
Jewish  residents  were  evidently  numerous, 
sustaining  more  than  one  synagogue.  Acts 
13:5.  Jews  would  naturally  be  attracted 
to  this  city  by  its  flourishing  trade  in  the 
products  of  this  fertile  island,  among  which 
were  fruit,  wine,  flax,  and  honey.  The  city 
was  partially  destroyed  in  Jewish  insur- 
rections under  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and 
ruined  by  an  earthquake  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Great.  When  rebuilt  it 
was  called  Constantia.  Its  ruins,  broken 
cisterns,  columns,  and  foundations,  are 
called  Old  Famagusta,  and  are  near  the 
modern  town  of  Famagusta.     See  Cyprus. 

SALA'THIEL,  I  Chr.  3:17,  or  Sheal'- 
TiEL,  asked  of  God,  father  of  Zerubbabel, 
Ezra  3:2;  Neh.  12:1;  Hag.  i :  i ;  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  Christ,  named  in  both  the  gos- 
pel genealogies.  Matt.  1:12;  Luke  3:27. 
See  GisNKALOGV. 

SAL'CHAH,  a  city  in  the  east  of  Bashan, 
conquered  by  the  Israelites  and  assigned 
to  Manasseh,  Deut.  3:10;  Josh.  12:5;  13:11. 
It  was  near  the  border  of  Gad,  i  Chr.  5:11. 
It  is  identical  with  the  modern  Salchat  or 
Sulkhad,  at  the  southern  end  of  Jebel  Hau- 
ran  and  56  miles  east  of  the  Jordan.  Near 
it  begins  the  great  Syrian  desert  extending 
to  the  Euphrates.  The  city  occupies  a  com- 
manding position  on  a  hill.  On  the  sum- 
mit is  a  castle  of  the  Roman  period,  on 
which  are  Roman  eagles,  and  also  Greek 
and  Arabic  inscriptions.  There  are  about 
400  stone  houses,  many  in  good  preserva- 
tion ;  but  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  water 
there  are  few  inhabitants.  An  extensive 
view  is  had  from  the  hill,  embracing  many 
ruined  towns. 

SA'LEM,  peace,  Gen.  14:18;  Heb.  7:1,  3, 
generally  understood  to  mean  the  city  of 
which  Melchizedek  was  king,  and  referred 
to  Jerusalem.  So  Josephus  understood  it. 
Some  interpret  the  word  as  a  part  of  the 
title  of  Melchizedek.  It  is  used  as  a  poet- 
ical abbreviation  of  Jerusalem  in  Psa.  76:2. 
Jerome  regarded  it  as  identical  with  the 
Shalem  of  Gen.  33: 18,  and  located  the  town 
6  miles  from  Beth-shean. 

SA'LIM,  peaceful,  John  3:23,  by  some 
identified  with  Salem.  By  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  it  is  mentioned  as  near  the  Jordan, 
8  Roman  miles  south  of  Beth-shean.  Rob- 
inson proposed  to  identify  it  with  the  vil- 


SAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAL 


lage  of  Salim,  yA  miles  east  of  Shechem. 
Condor  apparently  adopts  this  suggestion. 

SAL'MA,  or  SAL'MON,  a  garment,  i  Chr. 
■2:\\,a,  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  hus- 
band of  Rahab,  and  father  of  Boaz,  Ruth 
4:20;  Matt.  1:4,5;  Luke  3:32.  This  is 
conjectured  to  be  identical  with  Salnia  the 
son  of  Caleb,  on  the  supposition  that  he 
adopted  him. 

SAL'MON,  shady,  Psa.  68:14,  supposed 
to  be  the  same  as  "Mount  Zalmon,"  near 
Shechem,  Judg.  9:48.  The  Hebrew  word 
in  the  2  passages  is  the  same.  See  Zal- 
mon. 

SALMO'NE,  Acts  27:7,  a  cape  on  the  east 
coast  of  Crete.  It  is  usually  identified  with 
Cape  Sidero,  a  bold  promontory  at  the 
northeast  e.xtremity  of  the  island;  but  by 
some  with  a  promontory  15  miles  farther 
south,  called  by  the  natives  Plaka,  but  by 
sailors  Cape  Salmone.     See  Crete. 

SP>X,0'MK,  peace/id,  I.,  wife  of  Zebedee, 
mother  of  James  the  elder  and  John  the 
evangelist,  one  of  those  women  of  Galilee 
who  attended  our  Saviour  in  his  journeys 
and  ministered  to  him,  Matt.  27:56.  She 
requested  of  Jesus  that  her  2  sons  James 
and  John  might  sit  one  on  his  right  hand 
and  the  other  on  his  left  hand  in  his  king- 
dom, Matt.  20:20-23.  Her  conceptions  as 
to  the  true  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom 
were  no  doubt  changed  by  his  crucifixion, 
which  she  witnessed  "  afar  off,"  and  by  his 
resurrection,  of  which  she  was  early  ap- 
prised by  the  angels  at  the  tomb,  Mark 
15:40;  16:1.  Some  infer,  by  comparing 
Matt.  27:56  and  John  19:25,  that  she  was  a 
sister  of  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus. 

II.  Salome  was  also  the  name  of  the 
daughter  of  Herodias.  Her  name  is  given 
by  Josephus.  She  married  her  paternal 
uncle  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  and 
after  his  death  Aristobulus,  king  of  Chal- 
cis,  a  great-grandson  of  Herod  the  Great. 

SALT  was  important  to  the  Israelites  not 
only  as  an  antiseptic  and  condiment,  but 
also  as  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  the 
sacrifices  and  the  sacred  incense.  It  is 
abundant  in  Palestine,  being  procured  from 
the  immense  ridge  of  rock-salt  at  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  by  evapora- 
tion from  the  water  of  the  Dead  and  Medi- 
terranean Seas.  The  ridge  referred  to  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  Jebel  Usdum,  Mount 
Sodom.  It  is  7  miles  long,  i^  to  3  miles 
wide,  and  several  hundred  feet  high,  and 
is  mainly  composed  of  pure  rock-salt. 
Blocks  of  salt  a  foot  thick  are  sometimes 
found  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead 
32 


Sea,  the  product  of  evaporation  after  the 
annual  freshets.  The  Arabs  also  dig  pits 
on  the  shore,  to  be  filled  by  the  sea  at  its 
spring  rising;  the  evaporation  leaves  a 
crust  of  salt  an  inch  thick  on  the  sides  of 
the  pits,  which  the  Arabs  remove  and  sell, 
Zepli.  2:9.  The  stones  on  the  shore  are 
incrusted  with  lime  or  gypsum,  and  twigs 
or  branches  that  fall  into  the  water  are 
coated  with  salt.  Lot's  wife,  Gen.  19:26,  is 
by  some  supposed  to  have  been  thus  in- 
crusted  ;  while  others  suppose  she  was 
miraculously  transformed  into  a  solid  col- 
umn of  salt. 

As  an  essential  article  of  diet,  Job  6:6, 
salt  is  a  symbol  of  subsistence  and  of  hos- 
pitality ;  and  being,  as  a  preservative,  also 
a  symbol  of  incorruption  and  perpetuity,  it 
symbolizes  the  mutual  obligations  to  fidel- 
ity which,  especially  according  to  Oriental 
ideas,  rest  upon  host  and  guest,  and  the 
fidelity  due  from  servants  to  their  employ- 
ers, Ezra  4:14 — margin,  "are  salted  with 
the  salt  of  the  palace."  For  the  same  rea- 
sons salt  was  required  with  all  the  sacrifi- 
ces consumed  on  God's  altar,  Lev.  2:13; 
Ezra  6:9;  Ezek.  43:24;  Mark  9:49;  and 
also  as  an  ingredient  of  the  sacred  incense, 
Exod.  30:35,  margin.  It  symbolized  the 
truth  and  durability  of  a  covenant,  Num. 
18:19;  2  Chr.  13:5.  Good  men  are  "the  salt 
of  the  earth,"  Matt.  5:13,  and  divine  grace, 
or  true  wisdom,  is  the  salt  of  human  charac- 
ter and  language,  Mark  9:50;  Col.  4:6;  see 
also  Ezek.  16:4.  Among  the  Arabs  salt  is 
still  a  symbol  of  fidelity ;  and  among  the 
Persians  and  East  Indians  being  in  the  ser- 
vice of  another  is  termed  "  eating  his  salt." 

Ground  impregnated  with  salt  is  barren, 
Deut.  29:23;  Job  39:6,  margin;  Psa.  107:34, 
margin ;  Jer.  17:6;  Ezek.  47:11;  Zeph.  2:9; 
hence  the  devotion  of  a  place  to  desolation 
was  signified  by  "  sowing  it  with  salt," 
Judg.  9:45.  Frederic  Barbarossa,  in  1162, 
levelled  the  walls  of  Milan,  and  ploughed 
and  salted  the  ground. 

Oriental  salt  often  retains  mineral  im- 
purities, and  on  exposure  is  liable  to  lose 
its  saltness  and  become  utterly  worthless 
Matt.  5:13;  Mark  9:50;   Luke  14:34,  35. 

SALT,  CITY  OF,  the  5th  of  the  6  cities  of 
Judah  situate  in  "the  wilderness,"  Josh. 
15:62;  perhaps  Nahr  Maleh,  ravine  0/ salt ; 
or  Um-baghek,  a  ruin  4  miles  north  of  Jebel 
Usdum. 

SALT,  VALLEY  OF.  The  site  of  2  vic- 
tories over  the  Edomites :  that  of  David, 
2  Sam.  8:13;  I  Chr.  18:12;  Psa.  60;  com- 
pare I  Kin.  11:15, 16;  and  that  of  Amaziah, 

497 


SAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAL 


2  Kin.  14:7;  2  Chr.  25:11.  It  has  usually 
been  located  in  the  broad  and  desolate  val- 
le\'  El-Ghor,  extending  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea  nearly  8  miles  to  the  chalky  clifls  for- 
merly called  Akrabbim.  This  plain  is  in 
parts  whitened  with  salt,  contains  brackish 
pools  and  streams,  and  is  bordered  on  the 
northwest  by  the  mountain  of  salt,  Jebel 
Usdum.  The  Hebrew  word,  however,  de- 
notes a  ravine  rather  than  a  valley,  and 
the  circumstances  following  Amaziah's  vic- 
tory' seem  to  indicate  a  locality  nearer  to 
Sela,  50  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea;  and 
it  is  suggested  that  the  Hebrew  name  for 
the  site  may  represent  some  ancient  Edom- 
ite  name  not  referring  to  salt. 


SALUTA'TION.  The  usual  formula  of 
salutation  among  the  Hebrews  was  Sha- 
lom lekha.  Peace  be  with  thee.  The  same 
expression  is  the  common  one  among  the 
Arabs  to  the  present  day :  they  say,  Salam 
lekha,  to  which  the  person  saluted  replies, 
"With  thee  be  peace,"  Gen.  29:6:  Judg. 
18: 15,  tnargin.  Hence  we  hear  of  the  Arab 
and  Turkish  "salams,"  that  is,  salutations. 
Other  phrases  of  salutation  are  found  in 
Scripture,  most  of  them  invoking  a  bless- 
ing: as,  "The  Lord  be  with  thee;"  "All 
hail,"  or,  Joy  to  thee;  "  Blessed  be  thou  of 
the  Lord."  These  and  similar  phrases  the 
Orientals  still  use  on  all  occasions  with  the 
most  profuse  and  punctilious  politeness. 
The  letter  of  an  Arab  will  be  nearly  filled 
with  salutations ;  and  should  he  come  in  to 
tell  you  your  house  was  on  fire,  he  would 
first  give  and  receive  the  compliments  of 
the  day,  and  then  say  perhaps,  "  If  God 
will,  all  is  well ;  but  your  house  is  on  fire." 
Their  more  formal  salutations  they  accom- 
pany with  various  ceremonies  or  gestures; 
sometimes  they  embrace  and  kiss  each 
498 


other ;  sometimes  an  inferior  kisses  the 
hand  or  the  beard  of  a  superior,  or  bows 
low,  with  the  hand  upon  the  breast,  and 
afterwards  raises  it  to  his  lips  or  forehead, 
or  even  prostrates  himself  and  touches  his 
forehead  to  the  ground  in  rendering  obei- 
sance to  a  prince,  Gen.  37:7.  See  Jacob's 
salutation  of  Esau,  Gen.  33 ;  and  compare 
Gen.  19: 1 ;  23:7;  42:6;  i  Sam.  25:23;  2  Sam. 
1:2;  John  20:26.  The  due  and  dignified 
performance  of  some  of  these  ceremonious 
courtesies,  especially  when  frequently  re- 
curring, requires  much  time;  and  hence, 
when  the  prophet  sent  his  servant  in  great 
haste  to  lay  his  staff  upon  the  dead  child, 
he  forbade  liim  to  salute  any  one  or  an- 
swer any  salutation  by  the  way,  2  Kin. 
4:29.  For  a  similar  reason  our  Saviour 
forbade  the  70  disciples  to  salute  any  one 
by  the  way,  Luke  10:4,  that  is,  in  this  for- 
mal and  tedious  manner,  wasting  precious 
time.  Much  of  the  Oriental  courtesy  was 
superficial  and  heartless  ;  but  the  benedic- 
tion of  Christ  was  from  the  heart,  and  car- 
ried with  it  what  was  "better  than  life." 
"  My  peace  I  give  unto  you ;  not  as  the 
world  giveth,  give  I  unto  you,"  John  14:27. 
The  Jews  restricted  their  salutations  to 
those  whom  they  regarded  as  "  brethren," 
i.  e.,  members  of  the  same  religious  com- 
munity, Matt.  5:47  ;  so  a  Mohammedan  will 
not  address  his  salutation  of  "  peace  "  to 
one  whom  he  knows  not  to  be  a  Moham- 
medan.    See  Worship. 

SALVA'TION  means  strictly  deliverance, 
and  so  it  is  used  of  temporal  deliverance, 
victory,  in  Exod.  14:13;  i  Sam.  14:45.  But 
as  the  spiritual  deliverance  from  sin  and 
death  through  the  Redeemer,  Matt.  1:21,  is 
a  far  greater  salvation,  so  this  word  has 
come  to  be  used  mostly  only  in  this  moral 
and  siiiritual  sense,  and  implies  not  only 
this  deliverance,  but  also  the  consequences 
of  it,  namely,  eternal  life  and  happiness  in 
the  kingdom  of  our  Lord,  2  Cor.  7:  lo;  Eph. 
1:13.  It  is  most  justly  described  as  a 
"great  salvation,"  Heb.  2:3. 

The  Hebrews  rarely  use  concrete  terms, 
as  they  are  called,  but  often  abstract  terms. 
Thus,  instead  of  saying  (iod  saves  them 
and  protects  them,  they  say  God  is  their 
salvation.  So  a  voice  of  salvation,  joy  of 
salvation,  the  rock  of  salvation,  the  shield 
of  salvation,  a  horn  of  salvation,  a  word  of 
salvation,  etc.,  are  equivalent  to  a  voice 
declaring  deliverance,  the  joy  that  attends 
escape  from  a  great  danger,  a  rock  where 
any  one  takes  refuge  and  is  in  safety,  a 
buckler  that  secures  from  the  attack  of  an 


SAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


enemy,   the  power  that  effects  salvation. 
Thus,  to  work  great  salvation   in  Israel, 
signifies  to  deliver  the  nation  from  an  im- 
minent danger,  or  give  it  a  great  victory. 
The  "garments  of  salvation,"  Isa.  6i:io, 


refers  to  the  splendid  robes  worn  on  festi- 
val days.  The  expression  is  used  figura- 
tively to  denote  the  reception  of  a  signal 
favor  from  God,  such  as  deliverance  from 
great  danger. 


SAMA'RIA,  I.,  a  city  about  6  miles  north- 
west of  Shechem  and  30  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem, built  upon  an  oblong  hill  rising  1,542 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  near  the  centre  of 
a  broad  and  deep  valley  encircled  by  hills. 
It  was  built  by  Omri  king  of  Israel  about 
■920  B.  C,  and  named  after  Shemer  the 
previous  owner  of  the  hill,  i  Kin.  16:23,  24. 
It  succeeded  Shechem  and  Tirzah  as  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  ver.  28,  29, 
continuing  thus  200  years.  It  was  a  seat 
of  idolatry,  and  often  denounced  as  such 
by  the  prophets,  Hos.  10:5-7;  Amos  6:1; 
Mic.  1:1-7;  Isa.  9:9;  Jer.  23:13;  Ezek. 
16:46-55.  Ahab  built  there  a  temple  of 
Baal,  I  Kin.  16:32,  ss,  and  a  portion  of  the 
city  was  called  "  the  city  of  the  house  of 
Baal;"  this  temple  was  destroyed  by  Jehu, 
2  Kin.  10:18-28.  Samaria  was  a  place  of 
great  strength.  It  was  twice  besieged  by 
the  Syrians  and  rescued  from  them :  in 
Ahab's  reign,  B.  C.  901,  i  Kin.  20: 1-21,  and 
in  Joram's  reign,  B.  C.  892,  2  Kin.  6:24  to 
7:20.  During  the  latter  siege  the  people 
suffered  terribly  from  famine,  and  their 
remarkable  deliverance  was  predicted  by 
Elisha.     An  act  of  brotherly  generosity  to- 


wards captives  from  Judah  was  performed, 
in  obedience  to  a  prophetic  order,  by  chief 
citizens  of  Samaria  during  Pekah's  reign, 

2  Chr.  28:6-15.     Samaria  was  besieged  for 

3  years  by  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  was 
finally  taken  by  Sargon,  B.  C.  720,  2  Kin. 
17:5,  6;  18:9,  10,  when  the  people  of  the 
land  were  carried  captive  to  Assyria.  The 
city  seems  to  have  been  partially  restored 
by  the  Cuthite  colonists.  It  was  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  B.  C.  333,  and  colo- 
nized with  Syro-Macedonians.  John  Hyr- 
canus  took  it  B.  C.  129,  and  nearly  demol- 
ished it.  Pompey  replaced  these  Samari- 
tans, who  had  been  supplanted  by  the 
Syro-Macedonians  and  the  Jews.  The  pro- 
consul Gabinius  rebuilt  it,  and  called  it 
Gabinia;  and  it  was  afterwards  given  by 
Augustus  to  Herod  the  Great,  who  enlarged 
and  adorned  it  and  named  it  Sebaste,  the 
Greek  equivalent  of  Augusta,  in  honor  of 
the  emperor.  He  placed  in  it  a  colony  of 
6,000,  chiefly  veterans,  surrounded  it  with 
a  strong  wall  and  colonnade,  and  built  in 
it  a  magnificent  temple  dedicated  to  Au- 
gustus. 

The  gospel   was  successfully  preached 
499 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


here  by  Philip  and  others,  Acts  8:5-25,  and 
the  church  there  formed  was  represented 
at  the  Council  of  Nictea,  A.  U.  325.  The 
city  fell  under  Moslem  power  in  A.  D.  614. 
A  Latin  bishopric  was  established  here  by 
the  Crusaders,  and  mention  is  made  of 
the  place  by  subsequent  travellers.  It  is 
now  an  inconsiderable  village  called  Se- 
bustiyeh,  with  a  few  houses  built  of  stones 
from  the  ancient  ruins. 

Modern  travellers  describe  the  situation 
as  one  of  exceeding  beauty,  strength,  and 
fertility.  The  hill  on  whose  slope  the  vil- 
lage stands,  and  the  somewhat  higher  hills 
surrounding  the  encircling  valley,  are  ter- 
raced, and  cultivated  to  the  summits,  sown 
with  grain,  and  planted  with  figs,  olives, 
and  vines.  The  ascent  of  the  hill  of  Sama- 
ria is  steep,  the  narrow  footpath  winding 
among  the  cottages  and  the  ruins  of  former 
buildings ;  and  the  summit  commands  a 
delightful  view,  extending  westward  to  the 
Mediterranean,  whose  waters,  20  miles  dis- 
tant, are  plainly  visible.  On  the  top  is  the 
ruined  church  of  John  the  Baptist,  built  by 
the  Crusaderp  of  the  12th  century  on  the 
traditional  but  improbable  site  of  his  grave, 
and  now  used  as  a  mosque.  Near  the  sum- 
mit and  on  2  sides  of  the  hill  are  remains  of 
colonnades,  probably  Herod's.  The  whole 
scene  vividly  illustrates  the  prophecy  in 
Mic.  1 :6. 

II.  SAMA'RIA  IN  THE  Old  Testament 
is  sometimes  synonymous  with  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  i  Kin.  13:32;  2  Kin.  17:24, 
26,  28;  Ezek.  16:53;  Hos.  8:5,  6;  Amos  3: 9. 
Its  size  varied  greatly  at  different  periods, 
being  at  first  coextensive  with  the  territory 
of  the  10  tribes  both  east  and  west  of  the 
Jordan,  but  afterwards  much  reduced  by 
the  conquests  of  the  Assyrian  kings  Pul 
and  Tiglath-pileser,  B.  C.  771  and  740,  who 
carried  captive  the  people  of  the  northern 
portion  and  those  east  of  the  Jordan,  i  Chr. 
5:26;  2  Kin.  15:29.  A  few  years  later  the 
remaining  region  was  deprived  of  most  of 
its  Israelite  inhabitants,  and  colonized  by 
heathen  imported  from  various  parts  of 
the  Assyrian  Empire,  2  Kin.  17:23-29; 
Ezra  4:2,  9,  10.  Its  boundaries  then  prob- 
ably corresponded  nearly  with  No.  III. 

III.  SAMA'RIA  IN  THE  New  Testament 
is  the  region  lying  between  Judaea  on  the 
south  and  Galilee  on  the  north,  west  of  the 
Jordan.  Its  limits,  as  described  by  Jose- 
phus,  have  been  traced  by  the  British  Ord- 
nance Survey.  On  the  northern  boundary 
was  En-gannim,  now  Jenin  :  on  the  south- 
western Antipatris,  now  Ras  el-Ain ;  near 

500 


the  southern  limit,  but  in  Judaea,  was  Shi- 
loh,  now  Seilun.  Josephus  says  that  Sa- 
maria had  no  seacoast,  the  whole  plain  of 
Sharon  belonging  to  Judaea.  A  Roman 
road  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem  ran  through 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  (Peraea),  with 
a  ford  near  Jericho;  this  route  enabled 
Galilean  pilgrims  to  avoid  passing  through 
Samaria,  though  the  direct  route,  a  Roman 
road  through  Samaria,  was  frequently  pur- 
sued, Luke  17:11;  John  4:4,  5. 

SAMAR'ITANS,  inhabitants  of  the  city 
or  the  region  of  Samaria.  In  2  Kin.  17:29 
the  idolatrous  Israelites ;  compare  ver.  9-12. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  word  denotes 
the  mixed  race  which  sprang  from  the 
remnant  of  Israel  and  the  more  numerous 
heathen  brought  in  from  various  parts  of 
Assyria  at  the  Captivity,  ver.  23,  24.  This 
colonization  may  have  been  effected  at  dif- 
ferent times,  and  is  ascribed  to  Esar-had- 
don  by  the  descendants  of  the  colonists, 
about  B.  C.  6^7,  Ezra  4:2,  9,  10.  The  colo- 
nists lived  at  first  in  unmixed  heathenism ; 
but  terrified  by  the  ravages  of  lions,  they 
afterwards  sought  to  propitiate  "  the  God 
of  the  land  "  by  bringing  back  an  Israel- 
itish  priest  to  Bethel,  and  mingling  with 
their  own  idolatries  a  corrupt  worship  of 
Jehovah,  2  Kin.  17:25-33,  41.  Such  a  mon- 
grel race  and  religion  would  of  course  be 
odious  to  the  Jews  when  purged  from  their 
own  idolatries ;  and  on  their  return  from 
captivity,  B.  C.  536,  they  declined  the  Sa- 
maritans' request  to  be  permitted  to  help 
build  the  temple,  Ezra  4.  In  consequence 
of  this  refusal  the  Samaritans  molested  and 
calumniated  the  Jews,  hindering  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temple  until  B.  C.  520,  and  after- 
wards the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem, B.  C.  445,  Neh.  4;  6.  The  mutual 
enmity  was  augmented  by  the  Samaritans' 
erection  of  a  rival  temple  on  Mount  Geri- 
zim,  where  they  offered  sacrifices  accord- 
ing to  the  Mosaic  law,  claiming  that  Deut. 
27:11-13  marked  this,  the  mount  of  bless- 
ing, as  the  proper  site  for  the  temple ; 
though,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text,  the 
original  altar  was  set  up  on  Mount  Ebal, 
ver.  4;  Josh.  8:30-35.  It  is  uncertain  wheth- 
er the  Samaritan  temple  was  built  in  Nehe- 
miah's  time,  when  the  high-priest's  son  was 
expelled  for  marrying  a  daughter  of  San- 
ballat,  Neh.  13:28,  or,  as  Josephus  states, 
about  B.  C.  330,  by  permission  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great.  The  Samaritans  rejected 
all  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  except  the  Pen- 
tateuch. Josephus  says  they  claimed  or 
disowned  kinship  with  the  Jews  as  it  suit- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


ed  their  circumstances.  Shechem  became 
their  chief  city.  Their  temple  was  de- 
stroyed by  John  Hyrcanus  about  B.  B.  129, 
but  they  still  esteemed  the  mountain  sacred 
and  worshipped  towards  it.  From  time  to 
time  malcontent  Jews  joined  them,  but  the 
national  and  religious  hatred  between  the 
2  peoples  increased,  Ecclus.  50:25,  26.  In 
our  Saviour's  time  "  Samaritan  "  was  a 
term  of  bitter  contempt,  John  8:48,  and 
Jews  sought  to  avoid  all  intercourse  with 
them,  John  4:9.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Samaritans  annoyed  the  Jews,  refusing  hos- 
pitality to  pilgrims  traversing  their  country, 
Luke  9:52,  53,  and  sometimes  assaulting 
them;  still  they  claimed,  through  Joseph, 
descent  from  a  common  ancestor,  Jacob, 
John  4:12,  while  the  Jews  taunted  them 
with  their  heathen  ancestry.  Jesus,  while 
denying  the  Samaritan  claim  of  orthodoxy, 
ver.  20,  22,  and  deferring  the  ministry  of 
his  disciples  among  them,  as  among  the 
Gentiles,  till  after  his  resurrection.  Matt. 
10:5;  Acts  i:S,  showed  his  superiority  to 
the  race  and  sect  prejudices  of  the  Jews  in 
his  interview  with  the  Samaritan  woman 
and  his  personal  ministry  among  her  towns- 
folk, John  4,  his  praise  of  the  grateful  leper 
whom  he  healed,  Luke  17:15-19,  and  his 
parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  Luke  10:33- 
^■].  The  unspirituality  of  their  formal  wor- 
ship, and  their  superstitiousness,  appear 
from  John  4:22-24  and  Acts  8:9-11.  A 
complaint  of  the  Samaritans  against  Pi- 
late's severity  in  subduing  a  tumult  among 
them  led  to  his  deposition  ;  11,600  of  them 
were  slain  on  Mount  Gerizim  for  resisting 
Vespasian  in  his  subjugation  of  Palestine. 
Considerable  success  attended  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel  among  them,  Acts  8:4-17; 
9:31,  but  the  greater  number  adhered  to 
their  ultra-Mosaicism.  They  joined  the 
Jews  in  a  revolt  against  Septimius  Severus, 
A.  D.  193-21 1,  who  consequently  deprived 
Neapolis  (Shechem)  of  its  privileges.  In 
the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  centuries  they  bitterly 
opposed  the  Christians,  and  slew  many  of 
them.  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  Spanish  rab- 
bi, writes  of  them  in  the  12th  century  as 
residents  of  NablQs,  Ascalon,  Cresarea,  and 
Damascus.  A  community  of  them,  num- 
bering about  150,  still  exists  at  Nablfls,  and 
has  often  been  visited  by  modern  travellers. 
They  are  strict  observers  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  so  far  as  is  possible  without  sacrifices, 
which  they  account  unlawful  since  the  de- 
struction of  their  temple.  They  rigidly 
observe  the  Sabbath,  from  Friday  evening 
until   Saturday  evening,  meeting  3  times 


in  their  synagogue  and  worshipping  to- 
wards Gerizim.  Their  religious  officers 
are  2,  a  priest  and  a  ministrant.  Their  lit- 
urgy, in  Hebrew,  is  in  a  great  measure 
unintelligible  to  most  of  them,  for  their 
common  language  has  long  been  the  Ara- 
bic. They  observe  the  new  moon,  the  pass- 
over  and  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  pente- 
cost  and  feast  of  tabernacles,  and  keep  an 
absolute  fast  of  25  hours  at  the  Day  of 
Atonement.  During  their  great  festivals 
they  resort  to  their  sacred  place  on  the 
summit  of  Mount  Gerizim,  where  at  the 
passover  5  or  6  lambs  are  solemnly  slain, 
roasted,  and  hastily  eaten  with  bitter  herbs ; 
their  blood  is  applied  to  the  children's 
faces,  and  their  right  fore-legs  are  burned, 
the  observance  thus  partaking  of  the  char- 
acter of  a  sacrifice.  The}'  believe  in  Jeho- 
vah as  the  only  God,  in  Moses  as  the  only 
lawgiver,  in  the  Torah  or  Law  as  the  only 
divine  book,  and  in  Mount  Gerizim  as  the 
only  house  of  God.  They  also  believe  in  a 
future  Messiah — ^"  the  Restorer,"  who  is  to 
be  a  great  teacher  and  converter  of  the 
world  to  their  faith,  in  a  general  resurrec- 
tion, and  in  future  rewards  and  punish^ 
ments. 

In  the  5th  century  a  Christian  church 
was  built  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Gerizim, 
and  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall  in  the  6th 
century  by  Justinian,  for  the  protection  of 
Christian  worshippers  against  the  Samari- 
tans. The  massive  ruins  of  both  church 
and  fortress  are  still  to  be  seen. 

S.\M.\RiT.\N  Pentateuch.  The  first  copy 
of  this  was  acquired  by  Christian  scholars 
in  1616  from  Samaritans  in  Damascus.  Its 
variations  from  the  Hebrew  text  are  for 
the  most  part  unimportant,  most  of  them 
being  due  to  an  imperfect  knowledge  of 
Hebrew ;  some  to  the  design  of  conforming 
the  text  to  Samaritan  ideas,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  sanctity  of  Mount  Gerizim,  as 
in  Deut.  27:4,  where  "Gerizim"  is  read  for 
"  Ebal;"  others  to  a  desire  to  remove  ob- 
scurities. The  language  is  Hebrew ;  the 
characters  are  those  called  Samaritan — 
rounded  in  form  and  such  as  were  used  by 
the  Jews  themselves  until  some  period  after 
the  Captivity,  when  they  adopted  the  pres- 
ent square  form.  Many  MSS.  of  the  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch,  more  or  less  complete, 
are  now  in  European  libraries ;  they  are 
written  on  vellum  or  cotton-paper,  and  are 
all  in  book  form,  not  rolls  ;  none  are  thought 
to  antedate  the  loth  century.  In  the  Sa- 
maritan synagogue  at  Nablus  is  a  very  an- 
cient parchment  roll,  illegible  and  patched 

501 


SAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


VI  many  places,  which  the  Samaritans 
aifirm  was  written  by  Abishua  the  great- 
grandson  of  Aaron.  It  is  exhibited  to  the 
congregation  once  a  year,  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  when  it  is  devoutly  kissed. 
Another  roll  is  ordinarily  used.  The  Pen- 
tateuch was  earh'  translated  into  the  Sa- 
maritan language — a  compound  of  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  etc.,  supplanted  bj'  the 
Arabic  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest — 
and  in  the  nth  century  into  Arabic. 

SAM'GAR-NE'BO,  Jer.  39:3,  one  of  the 
Babylonish  generals  who  took  Jerusalem. 

SAM'LAH,  a  garment,  Gen.  36:36,  t,~  \ 
I  Chr.  1 147,  48,  an  Edomite  king. 

SA'MOS,  a  height,  a  lofty  island  in  the 
^gean  Sea,  a  few  miles  from  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  celebrated  as 
the  birthplace  of  Pythagoras,  and  was  de- 
voted to  the  worship  of  Juno,  fragments  of 
whose  magnificent  temple,  2  miles  west  of 
the  city  Samos,  still  exist.  Its  chief  manu- 
facture was  a  fine  kind  of  potterj^  called 
"  Samian  ware,"  a  term  afterwards  of  gen- 
eral application,  like  our  "china."  In  the 
time  of  Simon  Maccabeus  Jews  were  set- 
tled here,  and  an  application  was  made  to 
the  Samian  governor  in  their  favor  by  the 
Romans,  i  Mace.  15:23.  Paul  touched  here 
returning  from  his  3d  missionary  tour,  A.  D. 
58,  Acts  20:15.  Opposite  the  harbor,  now 
called  Port  Tigani,  were  the  cape  and  town 
of  Trogyllium.  Samos,  the  capital  in  Paul's 
time,  was  "a  free  city."  The  island  is  still 
called  Samo.  It  is  27  miles  long  and  10 
wide,  has  an  area  of  165  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  60,000.  The  Turk- 
ish governor's  residence  is  at  Colonna, 
named  from  a  solitary  column  remaining 
of  the  temple  of  Juno.  The  island,  though 
ill-cultivated,  is  fruitful  in  oranges,  grapes, 
and  olives,  and  exports  corn,  wine,  raisins, 
oil,  and  silk. 

SAMOTHRA'CIA,  in  the  R.  V.  SAM'O- 
THRACE,  a  mountainous  island  8  miles 
long  and  6  broad,  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  ^gean  Sea,  about  20  miles  south  of 
the  coast  of  Thrace.  To  its  ancient  name 
S.-VMos,  height,  the  epithet  thracia  was 
added  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
Samos.  It  was  a  conspicuous  landmark 
for  sailors,  being  visible  from  Troas.  Its 
peak  is  5,248  feet  high.  The  island  was 
noted  for  its  celebration  of  the  mysteries 
of  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  and  of  tiie  deities 
called  the  Cabiri;  and  hence  was  held  sa- 
cred and  was  a  resort  of  pilgrims  and  an 
asylum  for  fugitives.  According  to  Pliny 
it  enjoyed  under  the  Romans  the  privileges 
502 


of  a  small  free  state,  though  a  dependency 
of  the  province  of  Macedonia.  The  city 
Samothracia  was  on  the  north  side  of  the 
island,  and  afforded  shelter  over  night  from 
the  southeast  wind  which  gave  Paul  a  quick 
passage  from  Troas  to  Neapolis  on  his  ist 
missionary  tour  to  Europe,  Acts  16:11. 
The  island,  now  called  Samothraki  or  Sa- 
mandrichi,  belongs  to  Turkey,  and  has  from 
1 ,000  to  2,000  inhabitants,  chiefly  fishermen. 
It  is  largely  covered  with  forests,  and  has 
but  one  village. 

SAM'SON,  sunltke,  the  son  of  Manoah,  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan,  a  deliverer  and  judge  of 
the  southwestern  tribes  of  the  Hebrews  for 
20  years,  during  the  latter  part  of  "  the  40 
years"  period,  and  partly  contemporary 
with  Eli  and  Samuel,  Judg.  13-16.  His 
birth  was  miraculously  foretold;  he  was  a 
Nazarite  from  infancy,  and  the  strongest  of 
men;  and  was  equally  celebrated  for  his 
fearless  and  wonderful  exploits,  for  his 
moral  infirmities,  and  for  his  tragical  end. 
He  was  not  a  giant  in  size,  though  of  such 
undaunted  courage,  and  his  exploits  were 
wrought  by  special  divine  aid;  "the  Spirit 
of  God  came  mightily  upon  him,"  Judg. 
13:25;  14:6,  19;  15:14;  16:20,  28.  The 
providence  of  God  was  signally  displayed 
in  overruling  for  good  the  hasty  passions 
of  Samson,  the  cowardice  of  his  friends, 
and  the  malice  of  his  enemies.  The  sins 
of  Samson  brought  him  into  great  disgrace 
and  misery;  but  grace  and  faith  triumphed 
in  the  end,  Heb.  11:32.  His  story  forcibly 
illustrates  how  treacherous  and  merciless 
are  sin  and  sinners,  and  the  watchful  care 
of  Christ  over  his  people  in  every  age. 
Compare  Judg.  13:22  and  Matt.  23:37. 

SAM'UEL,  heard  of  God,  I  Sam.  i  :20,  a 
child  of  prayer,  the  celebrated  Hebrew 
prophet  and  judge.  Acts  3:24;  13:20.  He 
was  a  Levite  by  birth,  i  Chr.  6:22-28,  33-38, 
and  the  son  of  Elkanah  and  Hannah,  at 
Ramah  in  Mount  Ephraim,  northwest  of 
Jerusalem.  At  a  very  tender  age  he  was 
carried  to  Shiloh,  and  brought  up  beside 
the  tabernacle  under  the  care  of  Eli  the 
high-priest.  Having  been  consecrated  to 
God  from  his  birth,  and  devoted  to  Naza- 
riteship,  he  began  to  receive  divine  com- 
munications even  in  his  childhood,  i  Sam. 
3;  and  after  the  death  of  Eli  he  became 
established  as  the  judge  of  Israel.  He  was 
the  last  and  best  of  the  Hebrew  judges. 
We  contemplate  his  character  and  admin- 
istration with  peculiar  pleasure  and  rever- 
ence. The  12  tribes,  when  he  assumed 
their  charge,  were  in  a  low  condition  both 


SAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAN 


morally  and  politically.  He  induced  them 
to  abandon  their  idolatry,  freed  them  from 
the  Philistine  yoke,  administered  justice 
with  vigor  and  impartiality,  promoted  edu- 
cation and  true  religion,  2  Chr.  35:18,  uni- 
ted the  tribes,  and  raised  them  higher  in 
the  scale  of  civilization.  Their  demand  of 
a  king,  in  view  of  the  advanced  age  of 
Samuel  and  the  vile  character  of  his  sons, 
showed  a  great  want  of  faith  in  God  and  of 
submission  to  his  will.  Yet  He  granted 
them  a  "king  in  his  wrath,"  Hos.  13:11. 
Samuel  anointed  Saul  as  their  first  king; 
and  afterwards  David,  who  in  due  time 
was  to  take  the  place  of  Saul,  already  re- 
jected by  God.  As  long  as  he  lived  Sam- 
uel e.xerted  a  paramount  and  most  benefi 
cial  influence  in  Israel,  even  over  Saul 
himself.  He  instituted  the  "schools  of  the 
prophets,"  which  were  long  continued  and 
very  useful.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
about  B.  C.  1058,  honored  and  lamented  by 
all.  Even  after  his  death  the  unhappy 
Saul,  forsaken  by  the  God  whom  he  had 
abandoned,  sought  the  prophet's  counsel 
through  the  agency  of  a  pretended  dealer 
with  spirits.  God  was  pleased  to  cause 
Samuel  to  appear  with  a  prophetic  message 
to  the  king.  In  Psa.  99:6  he  is  ranked 
with  Moses  and  Aaron.  See  also  Jer.  15:1 ; 
Heb.  11:32.  His  grandson  Heman  was  a 
chief  singer  in  David's  time,  i  Chr.  6:33; 
15:17,  19.  Jewish  tradition,  recorded  in 
the  Talmud  about  A.  D.  500,  attributes  the 
books  of  Judges  and  Ruth  to  Samuel,  as 
well  as  the  books  that  bear  his  name;  see 
below.  A  tradition,  traced  to  the  7th  Chris- 
tian century,  places  his  tomb  on  a  com- 
manding height  overlooking  the  lovvn  of 
Gibeon,  now  el-Jib,  and  called  NeDy  Sam- 
■wW,  prophet  Samuel.  See  Ram.\h,  II.,  and 
Ramathaim-Zophim. 

The  2  BOOKS  OF  Samuel  could  not  all 
have  been  written  by  him,  because  his 
death  is  mentioned  in  i  Sam.  25,  about 
B.  C.  1060.  Thus  far  it  is  not  improbable 
that  he  was  the  author,  while  the  remain- 
ing chapters  are  commonly  attributed  to 
Gad  and  Nathan,  prophets  under  David 
and  Solomon:  see  i  Chr.  29:29.  The  his- 
tory may,  however,  possibly  be  an  inspired 
compilation  of  somewhat  later  date  from 
earlier  records.  In  Hebrew  MSS.  the  work 
is  one,  and  bears  the  name  of  Samuel. 
The  division  into  2  books  was  made  in  the 
Septuagint  and  followed  in  the  Vulgate, 
and  they  were  called  the  First  and  Second 
Books  of  Kings  ;  hence  the  secondary  title 
in  some  Bibles.     See  Kings.     The  2  books 


comprise  the  history  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and 
David,  and  cover  a  period  estimated  at 
about  150  years,  forming  a  connecting  link 
between  the  theocratic  and  the  regal  eras. 
The  events  there  recorded  synchronize 
with  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  founding  of 
Tyre,  and  the  ascendency  of  Nineveh  as 
the  capital.  The  Hebrew  is  very  pure,  in- 
dicating an  early  date  of  authorship.  Por- 
tions of  Samuel  are  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament  (compare  Acts  13:22;  Heb.  1:5, 
with  I  Sam.  13:14;  2  Sam.  7:14),  and  allu- 
ded to  in  the  Old  Testament,  especially  in 
the  Psalms. 

SANBAL'LAT,  probably  a  native  of  the 
Moabite  Horonaim,  but  a  resident  in  Sama- 
ria (ID,  where  he  seems  to  have  held  some 
office  under  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes. 
Allying  himself  with  Tobiah  the  Ammo- 
nite, Geshem  the  Arabian,  and  others,  he 
bitterly  and  cunningly  opposed  Nehemiah 
and  the  Jews,  striving  in  various  ways  to 
hinder  the  rebuilding  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, B.  C.  445,  Neh.  2:10,  19;  4:6.  Proba- 
bly during  Nehemiah's  absence  at  the  Per- 
sian court  after  his  12  years'  governorship 
of  Jerusalem,  Sanballat,  with  the  conni- 
vance of  the  Samaritan  faction  in  Judah, 
Neh.  6:17-19;  13:4-7,  married  his  daughter 
to  a  grandson  of  the  high-priest  Eliashib; 
see  also  Tobias;  for  which  unlawful  alli- 
ance Nehemiah  expelled  the  son  of  Joiada 
from  the  priesthood,  ver.  28. 

SANCTIFY,  to  make  holy,  or  to  set  apart 
for  God,  Gen.  2:3;  Exod.  19:23.  In  the 
Old  Testament  sanctification  frequently 
denotes  the  ceremonial  or  ritual  consecra- 
tion of  any  person  or  thing  to  God:  thus 
the  Hebrews  as  a  people  were  holy  unto 
the  Lord,  through  the  covenant  with  its 
ordinances  and  atoning  sacrifices,  Exod. 
31:13;  Num.  3:12,  13;  Deut.  7:6,  9-12; 
compare  Gen.  17:7-14;  and  the  tabernacle, 
altar,  priests,  etc.,  were  solemnly  set  apart 
for  the  divine  service,  Lev.  8:10-12.  In  a 
similar  sense  men  "sanctified  themselves" 
who  made  special  preparation  for  the  pres- 
ence and  worship  of  God,  Exod.  19:10,  11, 
22;  Num.  11:18;  a  day  was  sanctified  when 
set  apart  for  fasting  and  prayer,  Joel  i :  14; 
and  the  Sabbath  was  sanctified  when  re- 
garded and  treated  as  holy  unto  the  Lord, 
Deut.  5:12.  All  such  sanctifications  were 
testimonials  to  the  holiness  of  God,  and 
signified  men's  need  of  moral  sanctifica- 
tion, or  the  devotion  of  purified  and  obe- 
dient souls  to  his  love  and  service.  Lev. 
11:44:  20:7,8;  2  Cor.  6:16-18.  In  Christ's 
declaration  that  he  sanctified  himself,  John 

503 


SAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


SAN 


17:19,  there  is  an  allusion  to  his  high- 
priestly  self-dedication  as  a  sacrifice  to 
God;  compare  Heb.  7:27;  9:14. 

The  people  of  God  are  exhorted  to  "  sanc- 
tify him,"  Lev.  10:3;  Num. 20:12;  Isa.S:i3; 
i.  €.,  really  and  manifestly  to  set  him  apart 
from  and  above  all  other  beings  and  con- 
siderations, as  the  supreme  object  of  their 
reverence  and  obedience,  thus  showing 
forth  his  glory.  In  i  Pet.  3:15  the  R.  V. 
reads,  "  sanctify  in  your  hearts  Christ  as 
Lord." 

In  a  doctrinal  sense  sanctification  is  the 
making  truly  and  perfectly  holy  what  was 
before  defiled  and  sinful.  It  is  a  progres- 
sive work  of  divine  grace  upon  the  soul 
justified  by  the  love  of  Christ.  The  be- 
liever is  gradually  cleansed  from  the  cor- 
ruption of  his  nature,  and  is  at  length  pre- 
sented "  faultless  before  the  presence  of 
his  glory  with  exceeding  joy,"  Jude  24. 
The  Holy  Spirit  performs  this  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  providence  and  Word  of 
God,  John  14:26;  17:17;  2  Thess.  2:13; 
I  Pet.  1:2;  and  the  highest  motives  urge 
every  Christian  not  to  resist  the  Spirit  of 
God,  but  to  cooperate  with  him,  and  seek 
to  be  holy  even  as  God  is  holy.  The  ulti- 
mate sanctification  of  every  believer  in 
Christ  is  a  covenant  mercy  purchased  on 
the  cross.  He  who  saves  us  from  the  pen- 
alty of  sin  also  saves  us  from  its  power, 
and  in  promising  to  bring  a  believer  into 
heaven  engages  also  to  prepare  him  for 
heaven. 

SANCTUARY,  a  holy  place  devoted  to 
God.  It  appears  to  be  the  name  some- 
times of  the  entire  tabernacle  or  temple, 
Josh.  24:26;  Psa.  73:17;  Heb.  9:1;  some- 
times of  the  "holy  place,"  where  the  altar 
of  incense,  the  golden  candlestick,  and  the 
show-bread  stood,  Num.  4:12;  2Chr.  26:  iS; 
and  sometimes  of  the  "  Holy  of  holies,"  the 
most  secret  and  retired  part,  in  wliich  was 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  where  none 
but  the  high-priest  might  enter,  and  he 
only  once  a  year  on  the  day  of  solemn  ex- 
piation, Lev.  4:6.  It  also  denotes  the  fur- 
niture of  the  tabernacle.  Num.  10:21 ;  com- 
pare Num.  4:4-15.  See  Tap.krnacle  and 
Temple.  The  temple  or  earthly  sanctu- 
ary is  an  emblem  of  heaven,  Psa.  102:19; 
Heb.  9:1,  24;  and  God  himself  is  called  a 
sanctuary,  Isa.  8:14;  Ezek.  11:16,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  temples  as  a  place  of 
refuge  for  fugitives,  because  he  is  the  only 
safe  and  sacred  asylum  for  sinners  pur- 
sued by  the  sword  of  divine  justice. 

SAND.  The  Hebrew  term  is  derived 
504 


from  a  root  denoting  a  sliding  or  rolling 
motion.  In  Palestine  sand  is  rarely  found 
except  along  the  seashore,  Jer.  5:22,  and 
the  desert  lands  on  the  east  and  south  con- 
sist for  the  most  part  of  gravel.  In  Egypt 
sand  abounds ;  the  Nile  valley  is  constantly 
threatened  by  the  shifting  sands  of  the 
great  desert  on  the  west,  and  many  mon- 
uments of  antiquity  have  been  thereby 
wholly  or  partially  covered.  Sand  affords 
a  ready  hiding-place  and  shows  no  trace 
of  disturbance,  F^xod.  2:12.  It  symbolizes 
multitude.  Gen.  32:12;  weight,  Job  6:3; 
Prov.  27:3;  and  insecurity,  Matt.  7:26. 

SAN'DAL,  Mark  6:9,  a  sole  fastened  to 
the  wearer  by  thongs  passing  between  the 


toes,  around  the  heel,  and  over  the  lop  of 
the  foot.  Probably  this  is  the  article  usu- 
ally meant  by  "  shoes  "  in  the  A.  V.    Laced 


shoes  rescmhiing  those  of  modern  times 
were  sometimes  worn  bv  the  Greeks  and 


SAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAN 


Romans,  but  the  Egyptians  appear  to  have 
used  sandals  only,  and  it  is  generally 
thought  that  this  was  the  ordinary  custom 
of  the  Hebrews.  Egyptian  sandals  were 
made  of  plaited  palm-leaves,  or  papyrus 
stalks,  or  of  leather,  and  were  sometimes 
pointed  and  turned  up  at  the  toes.  The 
Assyrians  often  wore  a  sort  of  half-slipper, 
encasing  the  heel  and  sides  of  the  foot,  but 
leaving  the  toes  bare  ;  it  was  made  of  wood 
or  leather.  The  Talmudists  describe  the 
Hebrew  sandal  as  having  a  sole  of  leather, 
cloth,  felt,  or  wood,  and  sometimes  pro- 


tected with  iron.  The  "  shoe-latchet "  or 
thong,  and  indeed  the  whole  sandal,  was 
often  proverbially  worthless,  Gen.  14:23; 
Amos  2:6;  8:6.  The  sandals  of  ladies 
were  made  of  the  skin  of  some  animal, 
Ezek.  16 :  10,  and  were  frequently  much 
ornamented,  Song  7:1,  probably  with  em- 
broidered thongs  ;  though  something  may 
have  been  worn  resembling  the  modern 
Oriental  slipper — which  is  often  of  moroc- 
co, or  embroidered  with  silk,  silver,  or 
gold.  See  Badger.  Sandals  were  not 
usually  worn  in  the  house,  Luke  7:38; 
see  Foot;  but  were  put  on  for  out-door 
business  or  a  journey,  E.xod.  12:11;  Acts 
12:8;  or  for  a  military  expedition,  Isa.  5:27; 


Eph.6:i5;  and  an  extra  pair  was  often  car- 
ried, Luke  10:4;  comp.  Matt.  10:10;  Mark 
6:9;  Josh.  9:5, 13.  To  bind  on  the  sandals, 
to  loose  them,  to  carry  them  till  needed, 
was  the  business  of  a  servant  or  slave, 
Matt.  3:11;  Mark  i :  7.  The  poor  often 
went  barefoot,  but  among  the  middle  and 
upper  classes  this  was  a  sign  of  mourning, 
2  Sam.  15:30;  Isa.  20:2-4;  Ezek.  24:17,  23. 
Sandals  were  put  off  in  token  of  reverence 
and  of  moral  defilement,  Exod.  3:5;  Josh. 
5:15.  Hence  the  priests  ministered  bare- 
foot in  the  temple.  Mohammedans  now 
remove  their  shoes  on  entering  a 
mosque,  and  Samaritans  on  ap- 
proaching the  site  of  their  temple. 
In  early  times  in  Israel  transfers 
of  property  or  privilege  were  con- 
ferred by  the  grantor's  delivery 
of  his  sandal  to  the  grantee,  Ruth 
4:7-11,  as  in  mediaeval  Europe  by 
the  transfer  of  a  glove.  So  owner- 
ship is  symbolized  by  the  casting 
of  one's  sandal  on  the  soil,  Psa. 
60):  8 ;  108  : 9 ;  or  these  passages 
may  refer  to  a  slave's  caring  for 
the  master's  sandals.  The  public 
and  legal  loosing  of  a  man's  san- 
dal on  his  refusal  of  obedience  to 
one  of  the  Mosaic  marriage  laws, 
Deut.  25:7-10,  may  refer  to  the 
usual  barefootedness  of  slaves. 
So  in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal 
son,  "  putting  shoes  on  his  feet  " 
denotes  the  father's  reception  of 
the  penitent  as  a  free  man  and  a 
son,  Luke  15:22. 

Modern  Turks,  Syrians,  and 
Egyptians  wear  a  light  shoe  re- 
sembling our  slipper,  and  some- 
times a  wooden  shoe  with  a  high 
heel.  The  Bedouins  wear  only 
sandals. 

SAN'HEDRIM,  or  more  accurately  SAN'- 
HEDRIN,  an  Aramaic  form  of  the  Greek 
SUNEDRiON,  council.  I.  The  chief  insti- 
tution thus  termed  is  called  in  the  Mish- 
na  "Beth-din,"  house  of  judgment,  also 
"  The  Great  Sanhedrin."  This,  the  su- 
preme council  and  tribunal  of  the  Jews  at 
Christ's  time  and  before,  held  its  sessions 
at  Jerusalem,  and  was  composed  of  71 
members,  chief-priests,  elders  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  scribes.  Its  officers  were  a  Nasi, 
chief,  or  president,  who  was  often  the  high- 
priest  ;  a  vice-president,  called  Ab-Beth- 
din  ;  and  according  to  some  a  2d  vice-pres- 
ident, called  Hakam,  sage.  There  were 
also  secretaries  and  servants  or  "  officers," 

505 


SAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAN 


Mark  14:65,  R.  V.;  John  7:32.  The  time 
when  this  council  originated  is  in  dispute: 
Jewish  tradition  and  some  Christian  schol- 
ars trace  it  to  Moses'  appointment  of  70 
elders ;  others  to  Jehoshaphat's  establish- 
ment of  a  court  of  appeal  at  Jerusalem, 
about  B.  C.  900,  2  Chr.  19:8-11;  but  more 
probably  it  came  into  being  during  the 
Macedonian  supremacy  in  Palestine,  in  the 
2d  or  3d  century  B.  C.  Josephus'  mention 
of  It  as  citing  Herod  for  trial  about  B.  C. 
47,  indicates  that  it  was  then  an  old  and 
powerful  institution.  Its  meeting -place 
adjoined  the  temple  on  the  east  side,  and 
earlier  on  the  south  side.  It  met  daily  ex- 
cept on  Sabbath  and  festival  days.  The 
members  sat  in  a  semicircle,  the  Nasi  oc- 
cupying a  raised  central  seat,  the  Ab-Beth- 
din  on  his  right,  the  Hakam  on  his  left. 
Back  of  these  were  3  graded  rows  of  disci- 
ples, from  whose  ranks  vacancies  were 
filled.  The  Sanhedrin  had  atithority  to 
interpret  the  divine  law,  to  decide  on  the 
qualification  of  priests  for  service,  to  watch 
over  the  religious  life  of  the  nation,  and  try 
those  accused  of  idolatry,  and  false  proph- 
ets and  heretics;  even  the  king  and  the 
high-priest  were  amenable  to  it ;  and  gen- 
eral affairs,  such  as  the  waging  of  war,  the 
appointment  of  provincial  courts,  and  the 
regulation  of  the  calendar,  were  also  sub- 
ject to  it.  It  decided  on  appeals  from  infe- 
rior courts,  and  Jews  in  foreign  lands  rec- 
ognized its  authority,  Acts  9:2.  It  inflicted 
corporal  punishment.  Acts  5:40,  and  also 
death  by  stoning,  burning,  beheading,  or 
strangling,  until  this  right  was  taken  from 
them  by  the  Romans,  about  3  years  before 
the  crucifi.xion  of  Christ,  John  18:31,  32. 
The  presence  of  the  accused  was  his  right, 
John  7:50,  51,  and  just  and  humane  regu- 
lations guarded  all  judicial  investigations, 
which  however  were  set  aside  when  Jesus 
was  accused  of  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah 
and  of  misleading  the  people.  Both  Phar- 
isees and  Sadducees  were  admitted  as 
members,  Acts  23:6.  It  was  doubtless  from 
the  Sanhedrin  that  the  deputation  of  in- 
quiry was  sent  to  John  the  Baptist,  John 
1:19-28.  Christ  predicted  its  action  in  his 
own  case.  Matt.  16:21;  20:18,  19.  The  3 
classes  constituting  this  court  exercised  a 
hostile  supervision  over  the  ministry  of  Je- 
sus, Luke  19:47,  48;  20:1-26;  John  7:32; 
l;;s  arrest  was  planned  by  them  and  accom- 
])lished  by  their  emissaries,  Mark  14:43-46; 
Luke  22:3-6;  John  11 : 47-53,  57;  and  it  was 
by  an  informal  session  of  the  Sanhedrin 
that  he  was  illegally  tried,  condemned  to 
506 


death  for  blasphemy,  and  delivered  to  the 
Roman  governor  on  the  charge  of  treason, 
Malt.  26:57  to  27:2;  Luke  23:1-5,  13,  14. 
Yet  even  in  the  Sanhedrin  Joseph  of  Ari- 
mathaja  and  Nicodemus  believed  on  him, 
Luke  23:50-53;  John  7:51;  19:38-42.  Be- 
fore this  court  Peter  and  John  were  twice 
examined.  Acts  4:5-22;  5:21-41;  Stephen 
was  tried,  and  either  illegally  condemned 
by  it  or  executed  in  a  popular  tumult.  Acts 
6: 12  to  7:60.  Paul  appeared  before  it,  Acts 
22:301023:10;  comp.  23:15;  24:20,  21;  and 
as  Josephus  relates,  James  "  the  Lord's  bro- 
ther "  was  by  it  condemned  to  be  stoned, 
A.  D.  62.  Paul's  teacher  Gamaliel  was  an 
influential  member  of  the  Sanhedrin,  Acts 
5:34-40,  and  the  apostle  before  his  conver- 
sion occupied  some  position  under  the  71, 
Acts  7:58;  8:1.  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  the  Sanhedrin  was  transferred 
to  Jamnia  till  A.  D.  80,  and  finally,  after 
other  changes,  to  Tiberias,  about  A.  D.  200. 
Its  constitution  underwent  considerable 
alteration  ;  near  the  close  of  the  3d  century 
it  dropped  the  title  Sanhedrin  for  Beth 
ham-Midrash,  house  of  inlcrprelation  ;  and 
at  last  it  became  extinct,  A.  D.  425. 

II.  There  was  an  inferior  tribunal  in 
every  town  to  judge  less  important  mat- 
ters, Deut.  16: 18.  The  number  of  the  mem- 
bers is  variously  given  as  7  or  23,  the  for- 
mer according  with  Josephus'  account  of 
Mosaic  constitutions,  the  latter  with  the 
rabbinical  statements  in  the  Mishna.  Ac- 
cording to  the  rabbins  the  sessions  were 
held  on  the  2d  and  5th  days  of  each  week, 
in  a  room  by  the  local  synagogue,  for  the 
trial  of  both  civil  and  capital  offences  ;  and 
stripes,  when  ordered,  were  delivered  in 
the  synagogue  by  the  proper  oflficers.  Je- 
rusalem *ad  2  such  minor  sanhedrins. 
Probably  such  a  tribunal  is  called  "  the 
judgment  "  in  Matt.  5:21 ;  and  reference  to 
them  is  made  in  Matt.  10:17;  Mark  13:9. 

III.  A  still  smaller  tribunal  of  3  judges 
was  established  in  smaller  districts,  and 
took  cognizance  of  debts,  robbery,  and  in- 
juries to  person  and  rejiutation.  Jerusa- 
lem is  said  to  have  had  390  of  these  courts. 

In  Matt.  5:22  different  grades  of  severity 
in  the  one  divine  punishment  of  spiritual 
death  seem  to  be  symbolized  under  the 
terms  "the  judgment,"  see  No.  II.,  "the 
council,"  No.  I.,  and  "the  Gehenna  of 
fire."     See  Hinnom. 

SANSAN'NAH,  f.alm-brauch.  Josh.  15:31, 
a  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  apparently 
the  same  as  H.\z.\K-sus.Mt,  afterwards  as- 
signed to  Simeon,  Josh.  19:5;  i  Chr.  4:31; 


SAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAR 


perhaps  wady  es-Suny,  lo  miles  south  of 
Gaza. 

SAPH,  a  dish,  2  Sam.  21:18,  a  Philistine 
giant;  called  Sippai  in  i  Chr.  20:4. 

SA'PHIR,  fair,  a  town  mentioned  only 
in  Micah  i:ii  ;  according  to  Eusebius  and 
Jerome,  "  in  the  mountain  district  between 
Eleutheropolis  and  Askelon."  It  may  be 
represented  by  Suwafir  el-Ghabiyeh,  9  miles 
northeast  of  Askelon,  though  Suwafir  lies 
in  the  plain. 

SAPPHI'RA,  beautiful.     See  Ananias,  I. 

SAP'PHIRE,  apparently  a  blue  stone, 
Exod.  24:10,  very  precious,  Job  28:6,  16; 
Song  5:14;  set  in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate and  engraved  with  the  name  of  a 
tribe,  Issachar,  E.xod.  28:18,  21  ;  39:11,  14; 
among  the  ornaments  of  the  king  of  Tyre, 
Ezek.  28:13;  likened  in  color  to  the  plat- 
form of  the  throne  of  God  and  the  throne 
itself,  as  'seen  in  vision  by  Moses  and  the 
elders  of  Israel,  and  by  Ezekiel,  Exod. 
24:10;  Ezek.  1:26;  10:1;  and  one  of  the 
foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem  in  John's 
vision,  Rev.  21:19,  compare  Isa.  54:11.  It 
has  generally  been  identified  with  the  mod- 
ern lapis-lazuli,  an  opaque  stone  of  a  gen- 
eral deep  blue  color,  with  several  lighter 
shades,  and  often  mottled  with  gold-col- 
ored crystals  (of  iron-pyrites) ;  it  occurs 
in  masses  of  some  size,  and  takes  a  fine 
polish,  Lam.  4:7.  With  the  appearance  of 
our  lapis-lazuli  Pliny's  description  of  the 
"sapphire"  exactly  agrees.  The  best,  he 
says,  was  found  in  Media,  and  Persia  is 
still  one  of  the  few  localities  of  lapis-lazuli. 
This  stone,  however,  is  not  well  suited  for 
engraving;  and  some  scholars,  maintain- 
ing that  the  Bible  notices  of  the  sapphire 
indicate  a  pellucid  gem,  well  adapted  for 
engraving,  still  hold  that  it  was  the  same 
as  our  modern  sapphire,  the  blue  corun- 
dum— which  belongs  to  a  class  of  gems 
ranking  next  in  hardness  and  value  to  the 
diamond,  and  including  also  the  Oriental 
ruby,  topaz,  and  emerald.  Its  color  varies 
from  a  deep  indigo  blue  through  the  lighter 
shades  to  colorless.  The  best  are  found  in 
Pegu  and  Ceylon,  and  they  are  seldom  of 
large  size. 

SA'RAH,  or  Sara,  I.,  the  wife  of  Abra- 
ham, the  daughter  of  his  father  by  another 
mother,  Gen.  20:12.  Most  Jewish  writers, 
however,  and  many  interpreters,  identify 
her  with  Iscah,  the  sister  of  Lot  and  Abra- 
ham's niece,  Gen.  1 1 :  29 ;  the  word  "  daugh- 
ter," according  to  Hebrew  usage,  compri- 
sing any  female  descendant,  and  "sister" 
any  female  relation  by  blood.     When  God 


made  a  covenant  with  Abraham  he  changed 
the  name  of  Sarai,  my  princess,  into  that  of 
Sarah,  or  princess,  and  promised  Abraham 
a  son  by  her,  which  was  fulfilled  i'n  due 
time.  The  most  prominent  points  of  her 
history  as  recorded  in  the  Bible  are,  her 
consenting  to  Abraham's  unbelieving  dis- 
simulation while  near  Pharaoh  and  Abime- 
lech,  her  long-continued  barrenness,  her 
giving  to  Abraham  her  maid  Hagar  as  a 
secondary  wife,  their  mutual  jealousy,  and 
her  bearing  Isaac  in  her  old  age,  "  the 
child  of  promise,"  her  faith  prevailing  over 
her  previous  unbelief.  Gen.  12-23.  She  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  woman  of  uncommon 
beauty,  a  most  exemplary  and  devoted 
wife,  and  a  sympathizing  mother.  Gen. 
24:67.  Her  docility  is  eulogized  in  i  Pet. 
3:6,  and  her  faith  in  Heb.  11: 11.  See  also 
Isa.  51:2;  Gal.  4:22-31.  Sarah  died  at  He- 
bron, aged  127,  about  37  years  after  Isaac's 
birth  and  28  years  before  Abraham's  death. 
She  was  buried  near  Hebron  in  a  cave  in 
the  field  of  Machpelah,  which  Abraham 
bought  of  Ephron  the  Hittite,  Gen.  23.  See 
Machpelah. 

II.  Num.  26:46.     See  Serah. 

SA'RAPH,  burning,  i  Chr.  4:22,  a  de- 
scendant of  Shelah  the  son  of  Judah,  prob- 
ably about  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Ca- 
naan. 


SAR'DIS,  a  town  about  50  miles  northeast 
of  Smyrna  and  30  northwest  of  Philadel- 
phia, was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  7  churches 
in  Asia  Minor  addressed  by  John,  Rev. 
3:1-6.  It  lay  at  the  southern  foot  of  Mount 
Tmolus.  on  a  spur  of  which  its  citadel  was 
built;  the  spacious  and  fertile  plain  before 
it  was  watered  by  several  streams,  and  the 
river  Pactolus  with  its  "golden  sands" 
passed    through   the  city.     It  was   a  very 

507 


SAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAT 


ancient  place,  and  was  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Lydia,  whose  last  monarch, 
Crtcsus,  famed  for  liis  immense  wealth, 
was  conquered  by  Cyrus  king  of  Persia, 
about  H.  C.  550.  On  account  of  the  strength 
of  the  citadel  it  was  garrisoned  by  the  Per- 
sians ;  it  became  the  winter -quarters  of 
Xerxes  on  his  way  to  Greece,  B.  C.  480, 
and  was  surrendered  to  Alexander  the 
Great  after  his  victory  over  the  Persian 
troops  at  the  Granicus,  B.  C.  334.  It  was 
taken  and  sacked  by  Antiochus  the  Great, 
B.  C.  214,  and  soon  afterwards  fell  under 
the  Rcjman  i)ower.  From  eaily  times  it 
was  famous  for  its  dyed  woollen  manufac- 
tures, and  had  an  extensive  commerce  ;  the 
surrounding  region  was  fertile,  and  the 
Pactolus  sands  yielded  much  gold.  Money 
is  said  to  have  been  first  coined  at  Sardis. 
After  the  Persian  conquest  the  Lydians  be- 
came noted  for  luxury  and  jirolligacy. 
Their  manufactures  and  connnerce  de- 
clined after  Alexander.  The  cluirch  in  cor- 
rupt Sardis  was  reproached  for  its  declen- 
sion from  vital  religion.  Rev.  3:1-3. 

The  ruins  of  Sardis  are  now  called  Sert- 
Kalessi.  The  height  on  which  the  citadel 
stood  is  shattered  as  if  by  an  earthquake, 
and  only  a  few  fragments  of  the  wall-  re- 
main, korth  of  the  citadel  are  remains  of 
a  theatre  and  a  stadium,  and  to  the  west 
the  ruins  of  the  senate-house.  More  an- 
cient than  these  are  2  remarkable  Ionic 
columns,  over  6  feet  in  diameter,  believed 
to  be  remnants  of  a  temple  of  Cybele 
built  only  300  j^ears  after  Solomon's  tem- 
ple. Portions  of  2  churches,  apparently 
built  from  the  remains  of  this  temple,  may 
be  seen.  There  are  countless  se])ulchral 
mounds  in  tlie  vicinity,  and  the  site  is  vni- 
healtlu'  and  desolate. 

SAR'DIUS,  Exod.  28:17;  Ezek.  28:13,  or 
SAR'DINE,  A.  V.  Rev.  4:3;  21:20,  one  of  the 
engraved  gems  in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate, and  in  John's  vision  of  the  New  Je- 
rusalem one  of  its  foundation  stones.  The 
Hebrew  odkm  was  called  Sard  or  Sardius 
from  Sardis  in  Lydia,  and  is  now  better 
known  as  the  carnelian.  It  is  a  superior 
variety  of  agate,  of  a  blood-red  or  flesh 
color,  and  translucent.  It  is  well  suited  for 
engraving  and  a  favorite  with  artists  for 
this  purpose.  A  very  fine  dark-red  carne- 
lian is  found  in  Yemen  in  Arabia. 

SAR'DONYX,  as  if  a  sardius  and  onyx 
combined,  Rev.  21:20,  a  kind  of  onyx,  hav- 
ing a  transparent  red  layer  like  the  sard 
resting  on  an  o])aque  white  layer,  or  in  the 
reversed  order. 
50S 


SAREP'TA,  Luke4:26.   See  Zarephath. 

SAR'GON,y/rw/  kin,<^,  Isa.  20:1-4,  an  As- 
syrian king,  formerly  supposed  to  be  Shal- 
maneser  I\'.,  Sennacherib,  or  Esar-haddon, 
but  now  ascertained  from  the  Assyrian 
records  to  have  reigned  about  17  years, 
B.  C.  722-705,  between  Shalmaneser,  whose 
throne  he  is  thought  to  have  usurped  dur- 
ing the  long  siege  of  Samaria,  and  Sen- 
nacherib, whose  father  he  was.  On  his 
monunients  he  claims  to  have  taken  Sama- 
ria in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  with  which 
agrees  the  indefiniteness  of  the  Scripture 
record  of  the  capture,  2  Kin. 17:6;  18:9-11, 
and  to  have  carried  captive  27,280  of  the 
inhabitants.  He  probably  completed  the 
deportation  of  the  Israelites  later  in  his 
reign,  settling  them  within  his  own  domin- 
ions, and  commencing  the  colonization  of 
Samaria  with  foreigners  from  conquered 
regions,  2  Kin.  17:24.  His  annals,  extend- 
ing over  15  years,  testify  that  he  was  a 
great  warrior,  and  changed  the  abode  of 
those  whom  he  conquered  ;  he  successful- 
ly warred  against  Babylonia  and  Susiana, 
Media,  Armenia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia, 
and  Egypt.  In  his  3d  campaign  in  this  last 
direction,  in  his  9th  year,  B.  C.  711,  his  gen- 
eral, or  "tartan,"  took  Ashdod,  Isa.  20:1. 
At  this  time  he  represents  Judah  as  subject 
to  him,  and  in  the  following  year  he  reduced 
Merodach-baladan,  king  of  Babylon,  to  vas- 
salage. A  statue  of  Sargon,  now  at  Berlin, 
was  discovered  at  Idalium  in  Cyprus,  which 
island  also  paid  him  tribute. 

Sargon  was  eminent  as  a  builder  also: 
his  monuments  relate  that  he  repaired  the 
walls  of  Nineveh  (Koyiinjik),  and  the  royal 
palace  at  Calah  (Nimrud),  where  he  seems 
to  have  chiefly  resided.  His  greatest  work, 
however,  was  the  building  near  Nineveh  of 
a  magnificent  i)alace,  and  a  city  which  he 
named  after  himself  Diir-.Sargina ;  audits 
site,  near  the  village  of  Khorsabad,  retained 
the  name  Sarghun  till  after  the  Mohamme- 
dan conquest.  His  reign  was  marked  by 
an  advance  in  various  useful  and  orna- 
mental industries,  and  by  the  perfecting  of 
the  art  of  enamelling  bricks. 

SA'RON,  Acts,  9:35,  A.  V.    See  Sharon. 

SAR'SECHIM,/>;7';/<^7'  0/ the  eunuchs,  Jer. 
39:3,  conjectured  by  (Jesenius  to  be  a  title 
equivalent  to  Rabsaris  ;  which  see. 

SA'RUCH.  Luke  3:35,  A.  V.    See  Serug. 

SATAN  signifies  rtrf?'<';-5ffn',<'«<'wj',  i  Kin. 
11:14;  Psa.  109:6.  Hence  it  is  used  partic- 
ularly of  the  grand  adversary  of  souls,  the 
devil,  the  prince  of  the  fallen  angels,  the 
accuser   and    calumniator  of  men   before 


SAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAU 


God,  Job  1:6-12;  Zech.  3:1,  2;  Rev.  12:9, 
10.  He  seduces  them  to  sin,  i  Chr.  21:1; 
Luke  22:31 ;  and  is  thus  the  author  of  that 
evil,  both  physical  and  moral,  by  which  the 
human  race  is  afflicted,  especially  of  those 
vicious  propensities  and  wicked  actions 
which  are  productive  of  so  much  misery, 
and  also  of  death  itself,  Luke  13:16;  Heb. 
2:14.  Hence  Satan  is  represented  both  as 
soliciting  men  to  commit  sin  and  as  the 
source,  the  efficient  cause,  of  impediments 
which  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  or  which  are  designed  to 
diminish  its  efficacy  in  reforming  the  hearts 
and  lives  of  men  and  inspiring  them  with 
the  hope  of  future  bliss.  Matt.  4:10;  John 
13:27;  Rom.  16:20;  Eph.  2:2. 

The  Bible  however  plainly  teaches  his 
subordination  to  God  and  his  final  punish- 
ment and  deprivation  of  all  power  to  harm. 
Rev.  20:10.  In  the  meantime  Christ  en- 
courages believers  to  meet  the  wiles  of  the 
adversary  with  incessant  vigilance  and 
prayer,  assuring  them  that  his  grace  will 
then  give  them  the  victory,  Eph.  6:10-18; 
Eph.  5:8,9.     See  Devil. 

The  "synagogue  of  Satan,"  Rev.  2:9; 
3:9, probably  denotes  the  unbelieving  Jews, 
the  false  zealots  for  the  law  of  Moses,  who 
at  the  beginning  were  the  most  eager  per- 
secutors of  the  Christians. 

In  the  phrase  "the  depths  of  Satan," 
Rev.  2:24,  there  is  probably  an  allusion  to 
the  mysteries  of  early  (inostic  sects,  which 
professed  a  deep  knowledge  of  spiritual 
matters,  often  combined  with  a  lawless  im- 
morality ;  compare  Rev.  2:14,  15,  20. 

Christ  on  one  occasion  addressed  Peter 
as  Satan,  Matt.  16:22,  23,  because  the  dic- 
tatorial and  ease-loving  spirit  of  his  words 
was  opposed  to  Christ,  and  in  accord  with 
the  temptations  which  Satan  had  already 
presented  to  the  Lord;  comp.  Matt.  4:1-10. 

SAT'YRS,  Isa.  13:21;  34:14.  The  He- 
brew word  means  hairy,  shaggy,  and  is 
often  properly  rendered  "goat,"  as  in  Lev. 
4:24.  See  Go.^TS.  In  Lev.  17:7;  2  Chr. 
II :  15  it  is  translated  in  the  A.  V.  "  devils," 
and  refers  to  some  objects  of  idolatrous 
worship,  perhaps  goats  or  images  of  goats, 
in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  worship  of  this 
animal  at  Mendes.  The  monuments  repre- 
sent a  cynocephalous  or  dog-faced  ape  as 
an  object  of  veneration.  The  Septuagint 
has  "  demons  "  in  the  2  passages  in  Isaiah, 
and  many  interpreters,  ancient  and  mod- 
ern, hold  that  the  reference  is  to  evil  spir- 
its believed  by  the  Orientals  to  haunt  des- 
olate  places;    compare    Rev.    18:2.      The 


more  probable  opinion  seems  to  be  that 
shaggy  animals  like  wild  goats,  or  perhaps 
some  species  of  ape,  are  denoted.  In  any 
case,  the  desolate  condition  of  the  site  of 
Babylon,  Isa.  13:19-22,  and  of  Bozrah  in 
Edom,  Isa.  34:5-15,  is  predicted. 

In  classical  mythology  satyrs  were  imag- 
inary beings,  half  men  and  half  goats, 
clothed  in  skins  of  beasts,  and  revelling 
with  Bacchus  the  wine-god  in  forests  and 
groves. 

SAUL,  more  properly  SHAUL,  desired, 
I.,  an  early  king  of  the  Edomites,  Gen. 
Z^-yi<  3^;  I  Chr.  1:4s,  49. 

II.  The  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, the  1st  king  of  the  Israelites,  anoint- 
ed by  Samuel,  B.  C.  1096,  and  after  a  reign 
of  40  years,  filled  with  various  events,  slain 
with  his  sons  on  Mount  Gilboa.  He  was 
succeeded  by  David,  who  was  his  son-in- 
law,  and  whom  he  had  endeavored  to  put 
to  death.  His  history  is  contained  in  i  Sam. 
9-31.  It  is  a  sad  and  admonitory  narra- 
tive. The  morning  of  his  reign  was  bright 
with  special  divine  favors,  both  providen- 
tial and  spiritual,  i  Sam. 9:20;  10:1-11,24, 
25.  Beautiful  and  commanding  in  person, 
and  rich  in  the  talents  that  win  popular 
admiration,  he  was  the  very  ideal  sove- 
reign the  Jews  longed  for.  But  he  soon 
began  to  disobey  God,  and  was  rejected  as 
unworthy  to  found  a  line  of  kings  ;  his  sins 
and  misfortunes  multiplied,  and  his  sun 
went  down  in  gloom.  In  his  1st  war  with 
the  Ammonites  God  was  with  him  ;  but  then 
follow  his  disobedient  and  presumptuous 
sacrifice  in  the  absence  of  Samuel,  his  rash 
vow  in  battle  with  the  Philistines,  his  spa- 
ring Agag  and  the  spoil  of  the  Amalek- 
ites,  his  spirit  of  distracted  and  foreboding 
melancholy,  his  jealousy  and  persecution 
of  David,  against  whom  his  mind  was  poi- 
soned by  a  secret  slanderer,  his  barbarous 
massacre  of  the  priests  and  people  at  Nob 
and  of  the  Gibeonites,  his  consulting  the 
witch  of  Endor,  the  battle  with  the  Philis- 
tines in  which  his  army  was  defeated  and 
his  sons  were  slain,  and,  lastly,  his  despair- 
ing self-slaughter,  his  insignia  of  royalty 
being  conveyed  to  David  by  an  Amalekite. 

He  had  been  engaged  in  7  distinct  mili- 
tary operations.  The  men  of  Jabesh-Gile- 
ad,  grateful  for  his  deliverance  of  their  city 
many  years  before,  1  Sam.  11,  rescued  his 
headless  body  and  the  bodies  of  his  sons 
from  the  wall  of  Beth-shan  and  buried 
their  bones  at  Jabesh-Gilead,  whence  they 
were  afterwards  removed  by  David  to 
Saul's  ancestral  sepulchre  at  Zelah,  i  Sam, 

509 


SAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCA 


II ;  31 ;  2  Sara,  i ;  2:4-6;   21 :  12-14;  i  Chr. 
10. 

The  guilty  course  and  the  awful  end  of 
this  1st  king  of  the  Hebrews  were  a  signifi- 
cant reproof  of  their  sin  in  desiring  any 
king  but  Jehovah,  and  also  show  to  what 
extremes  of  guilt  and  ruin  one  may  go  who 
rebels  against  God  and  is  ruled  by  his  own 
ambitious  and  envious  passions. 

III.  Saul  was  also  the  Hebrew  name  of 
the  apostle  Paul. 

SAVE,  except,  as  in  John  6:22,  46;  13:10. 
For  "God  save  the  king,"  i  Sam.  10:24; 
2  Sam.  16:16;  I  Kin.  1:25,  34,  39,  the  more 
literal  rendering  is  "  Long  live  the  king." 
There  is  no  mention  of  God  in  the  Hebrew. 

SAVING  HEALTH,  in  Psa.  67:2;  in  the 
R.  \ .  "  salvation." 

SA'VIOUR,  a  term  applied  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  men  especially  raised  up  and 
qualified  by  God  to  give  temporal  deliv- 
erance and  prosperity  to  his  people:  as 
Joshua,  whose  name  is  the  Hebrew  original 
of  Jesus;  the  judges,  Neh.  9:27;  Jeroboam 
n.,  2  Kin.  13:5;  and  often  appropriated  to 
Jehovah  himself,  Isa.  43:3,  II ;  45:21;  60:16, 
17,  from  whom  a  spiritual  salvation  from 
sin  was  also  looked  for,  Psa.  39:8;  79:9. 
The  term  is  applied  preeminently  to  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  because,  as  the  angel 
expressed  it,  he  came  to  "  save  his  people 
from  their  sins,"  Matt,  i  :2i.  He  was  there- 
fore called  Jesus,  which  signifies  Saviour, 
John  4:42;  Acts  4:12;  5:31. 

SA'VOR,  that  quality  of  objects  which  ap- 
peals to  the  sense  of  smell  or  of  taste.  Matt. 
5:13.  It  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  repu- 
tation, E.xod.  5:21;  compare  Gen.  34:30. 
The  sacrifice  of  Noah  and  that  of  Christ 
were  acceptable  to  God,  like  the  odor  of  a 
sweet  incense  to  a  man,  Gen.  8:21;  Eph. 
5 : 2.  The  chief  savor  of  the  apostles'  teach- 
ing was  Christ  crucified  ;  and  this  teaching 
was  welcomed  by  some  to  their  eternal  life, 
and  rejected  by  others  to  their  aggravated 
condemnation,  2  Cor.  2:15,  16.  In  Matt. 
16:23;  Mark  8:33,  A.  V.,  to  savor  means  to 
mind,  to  think  highly  of. 

SA'VORY  MEAT,  Gen.  27:4,  etc.  In  Prov. 
23:3,  6,  "dainties."  Modern  Orientals  de- 
light in  a  dish  consisting  of  some  kind  of 
flesh  cut  into  small  pieces  and  cooked  with 
as  many  varieties  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and 
condiments  as  are  procurable. 

SAW,  Isa.  10:15.  This  tool  was  early 
known  to  the  Egyptians,  as  their  monu- 
ments testify.  The  teeth  of  ancient  saws, 
as  of  modern  Oriental  ones,  were  usually 
inclined  towards  the  handle  instead  of 
510 


away  from  it  as  with  us.  Egyptian  saws 
appear  to  have  been  single-handled  only, 
but  a  double-handled  iron  one  has  been 
found  at  Nimrud.  The  Hebrews  had  saws 
for  cutting  stones,  i  Kin.  7:9.  Torture  and 
death  were  sometimes  inflicted  with  the 
saw,  2  Sam.  12:31;  i  Chr.  20:3;  a  mode  of 
punishment  also  used  by  the  Egyptians, 
Persians,  and  Romans.  According  to  an 
ancient  Jewish  tradition,  Isaiah  was  thus 
put  to  death  ;  compare  Heb.  11:37. 

SCALL,  Lev.  13:30,  an  eruption  or  tetter. 

SCAPE-GOAT.     See  below. 

SCAR'LET,  a  blood-red  color,  Song  4:3, 
obtained  from  a  small  grub,  often  called 
by  the  Hebrews  tola  (rendered  "worm" 
in  Deut.  28:39),  though  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  regarded  it  as  a  vegetable  excres- 
cence (coccus,  a  grain).  The  insect,  the 
female  only  being  used,  is  found  abundant- 
ly in  Western  Asia  and  Southern  Europe, 
living  on  various  plants,  especially  the  ev- 
ergreen oak,  Quercus  Coccifera,  to  whose 
branches  and  twigs  it  adheres.  It  grows  to 
the  size  and  form  of  a  split  pea,  but  is  of  a 
violet-black  color,  and  covered  with  a  whi- 
tish powder.  It  is  picked  from  the  tree 
and  dried,  and  the  color  is  obtained  by  in- 
fusion in  water,  and  made  jiermanent  by 
adding  a  mordant,  anciently  alum.  The 
Coccus  ilicis  is  still  used  in  India  and  Per- 
sia, but  is  superseded  in  Western  coun- 
tries by  the  Coccus  cacti,  or  cochineal,  an 
insect  found  in  Mexico  on  the  cactus;  this 
yields  a  larger  proportion  of  coloring  mat- 
ter, and  usually  a  more  brilliant  though 
perhaps  less  permanent  dye.  Scarlet  was 
early  known  in  Canaan,  Gen.  38:28-30; 
Josh.  2:18-21.  Wool  thus  dyed  was  con- 
tributed for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle, 
in  making  curtains,  cloths,  and  priestly 
garments,  Exod.  25:4;  26:1,  31,  36;  28:6,  8, 
15;  35-6,  23,  25;  Num.  4:8;  and  in  the  rit- 
ual for  purification  from  leprosy.  Lev.  14:4, 
49-52.  Scarlet  was  worn  by  women,  2  Sam. 
1:24;  by  the  wealthy  and  luxurious.  Lam. 
4:5;  by  Median  warriors,  Nah.  2:3;  and  by 
Roman  ofl^cers.  Matt.  27:28.  The  depth 
and  strength  of  the  color,  "  double-dyed," 
are  alluded  to  in  Isa.  i :  18,  and  it  is  made 
a  symbol  of  profligacy  and  cruelty  in  Rev. 
17:3,  4;  compare  Jer.  4:30,  where  "crim- 
son "  should  be  scarlet.  In  Prov.  31:21  the 
Hebrew  word  may  etymologically  be  ren- 
dered "double  garments,"  as  in  the  mar- 
gin.    In  Dan.  5:7,  16,  29  purple  is  meant. 

SCAPE-GOAT,  Heb.  AZ.^^ZEL,  found  only 
in  Lev.  16:8,  10,  26,  A.  V. ;  "one  lot  for  the 
Lord  and  the  other  lot  for  azazel,-^'  "the 


SCA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCH 


goat  on  whom  the  lot  fell  for  azazel;"  "  he 
that  let  go  the  goat  for  aza~e/."  On  the 
annual  Day  of  Atonement  2  spotless  goats 
were  presented  before  the  Lord  as  one  sin- 
oflfering,  ver.  5;  the  ist  by  lot  to  be  sacri- 
ficed as  a  sin-offering  to  purge  the  Holy 
Place,  and  the  2d  "to  make  atonement" 
for  the  sins  of  the  people,  having  them  sol- 


emnly  laid  upon  his  head  by  the  hig'.i- 
priest,  and  then  being  seiit  forth  into  the 
uninhabited  wilderness  bearing  the  curse, 
ver.  18-2S.  The  illustration  of  the  way  of 
salvation  furnished  by  this  symbolic  rite  is 
very  clear:  the  Lamb  of  God  "  beareth 
away"  the  guilt  of  his  people,  John  1:29. 
But  the  exact  meaning  of  the  word  azazet 


is  much  disputed.  It  appears  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  root  azal,  to  remove  or  sep- 
arate, and  is  now  believed  by  some  schol- 
ars to  denote  Satan  or  an  avenging  spirit, 
popularly  believed  to  haunt  desolate  pla- 
ces, and  to  whom  the  sin-burdened  goat 
was  surrendered  as  a  victim  ;  comp.  i  Cor. 
5:5.  But  Satan  would  be  called  by  his 
own  name ;  he  frequents  the  busy  haunts 
of  men  and  not  the  desert ;  compare  Matt. 
12:43-45;  and  should  not  be  brought  in, 
unless  the  passage  requires  it,  as  the  agent 
of  God  in  the  exercise  of  justice.  Hence 
most  interpreters  prefer  to  understand  the 
word  as  simply  meaning  complete  separa- 
tion;  the  act  symbolizing  the  entire  remo- 
val of  the  sins  of  the  penitent  and  believing 
people  as  borne  away  by  the  victim ;  com- 
pare Psa.  103:12;  Jer.  50:20.  See  Expia- 
tion. 

SCAT'TERED  AND  PEELED,  etc.,  Isa. 
iS:2,  rather  "  tall  and  shaven,  whose  land 
the  rivers  divide." 

SCEP'TRE,  a  "  rod  "  or  decorated  staff, 
sometimes  6  feet  long,  borne  by  kings,  lead- 
ers, and  magistrates  as  a  symbol  of  author- 


ity, Gen.  49:10;  Num.  24:17;  Esth.  4:11; 
5:2;  Isa. 14:5;  Ezek. 19:11,  14;  Zech. 10: 11. 
See  Rod.  This  usage  may  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  shepherd's  use  of  his  rod ; 
compare  Num.  27:15-17.  Christ's  sceptre 
is  a  "right  sceptre,"  Psa.  45:6,  but  fatal  to 
his  foes,  Psa.  2:9;  Dan.  2:44.  The  sceptre 
of  the  wicked  shall  not  always  rule  the 
land  of  the  righteous,  Psa.  125:3.  In  Judg. 
5 :  14,  for  "  pen  of  the  writer,"  read  "  sceptre 
of  the  ruler." 

SCE'VA,  prepared,  a  Jew  at  Ephesus,  a 
leader  among  the  priests,  perhaps  the  head 
of  one  of  the  24  courses.  His  7  sons  pre- 
tended to  practise  exorcism,  and  presumed 
to  call  on  evil  spirits  to  come  out  from  per- 
sons possessed,  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  The 
ignominious  discomfiture  of  2  of  them  (R. 
V.  ver.  16)  by  a  man  possessed  by  an  evil 
spirit  promoted  the  cause  of  the  gospel  at 
Ephesus,  Acts  19:14-16. 

SCHISM,  a  rent  or  fissure,  Matt.  9:16; 
generally  used  in  the  New  Testament  to 
denote  a  division  within  the  Christian 
church  by  contentions  and  alienated  affec- 
tions, without  an  outward  separation  into 

511 


SCH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCO 


distinct  bodies,  i  Cor.  i:io,  margin;  12:25, 
26.  The  sin  may  lie  on  tiie  side  of  the  ma- 
jority, or  of  the  minority,  or  both.  It  is  a 
sin  against  Christian  love,  and  strikes  at 
the  heart  of  Christianity,  John  17:21;  Rom. 
12:4-21. 

SCHOOL.  The  Gr.  word  scholk  means 
leisure,  /.  e.,  from  manual  labor;  thence 
the  learned  occupation  of  leisure,  a  lecture 
or  discussion  ;  compare  Ecclus.  3cS:  24-34; 
and  then,  as  in  Acts  19:9,  a  room  where  a 
teacher  met  his  disciples  for  instruction 
and  debate. 

SCHOOL'MASTER,  iCor.4:i5;  Gal. 3:24, 
25,  Paidagogos,  cliild-conduclor ;  among  the 
Greeks  an  attendant  who  took  the  charge 
of  young  children,  taught  them  the  rudi- 
ments of  knowledge,  and  at  a  suitable  age 
conducted  them  to  and  from  school.  Thus 
the  law  was  the  pedagogue  of  Israel,  watch- 
ing over  the  childhood  of  the  nation,  and 
at  length  conducting  them  through  its  types 
and  prophecies  to  Christ.  When  a  Jew  came 
to  a  believing  knowledge  of  Christ  this 
office  of  the  law  ceased. 

SCHOOLS,  HEBREW.  Nothing  is  known 
of  national  or  elementary  schools  in  Israel 
before  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captiv- 
ity. The  Mosaic  law  strictly  enjoined  upon 
parents  the  personal  instruction  of  their 
children,  Deut.  6:7;  11:19.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  Levites  were  charged  to  teach  the 
people,  Deut.  33:10.  A  general  knowledge 
of  reading  and  writing  seems  impliedly  re- 
quired by  the  directions  in  regard  to  the 
inscription  of  certain  portions  of  the  law, 
Deut.  6:9;  27:2,  3,  8.  The  king  must  be 
able  to  read  and  write,  Deut.  17:18,  19. 
With  the  lapses  of  the  nation  into  idolatry 
and  servitude  to  idolaters,  education  doubt- 
less declined.  In  Samuel's  time  we  first 
read  of  associations  for  training  young  men 
for  the  prophetic  office,  i  Sam.  10:5,  10; 
19:20;  and  they  continued  under  the  kings 
of  Israel,  i  Kin.  20:35;  2  Kin.  2:3,  5;  4:38; 
6:1;  Amos  7: 14.  Yet  parental  instruction 
was  most  relied  upon,  Prov.  1:8.  In  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  the  Levites  became  neg- 
ligent, 2  Chr.  15:3,  and  were  recommis- 
sioned  by  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chr.  17:7-9;  they 
attended  to  their  charge  under  Hezekiah 
and  Josiah,  2  Chr.  30:22;  35:3  ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  again  appear  as  teachers  and 
interi)reters  of  the  people,  who  had  become 
unfamiliar  with  Hebrew,  Neh.  8:7-9,  13,  by 
long  residence  in  Babylonia  and  use  of  the 
"  Syriac "  or  Aramaic  dialect,  Dan.  2:4. 
According  to  Jewish  tradition,  Ezra  gath- 
ered around  him  men  skilled  in  the  law, 
512. 


and  with  their  aid  trained  public  teachers, 
who  established  synagogues  with  provis- 
ion for  instruction  in  Jerusalem  and  the 
towns  of  Judiea.  These  schools  in  Christ's 
time  were  under  the  management  of  the 
officers  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  the  "  scribes  " 
and  "  doctors."  The  instruction  in  the 
higher  schools  was  catechetical,  the  master 
propounding  some  doctrine  and  the  pupils 
questioning,  Luke  2  :  46,  or  the  teacher 
questioning  and  the  pupils  answering.  The 
method  often  pursued  by  Jesus  resembled 
this.  Matt.  22:17-22;  Mark  8:27-30;  Luke 
20:2-4.  Flagging  attention  was  quickened 
by  stories,  allegories,  etc.  Besides  instruc- 
tion in  the  Scriptures  and  traditions  in  the 
sacred  Hebrew,  in  Greek,  and  the  sciences 
as  then  known,  etiquette  as  to  salutations, 
etc.,  was  carefully  taught.  Each  lad  was 
compelled  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge 
of  some  trade,  Acts  18:3.  Our  Lord's  in- 
dependence of  these  higher  schools  e.vcited 
the  surprise  of  his  learned  antagonists,  John 
7:15,  to  whom  he  often  unfolded  the  true 
meaning  of  passages  which  they  had  stud- 
ied without  comprehending,  Matt.  12:2-5; 
19:4;  21:15,  16,  42;  Mark  12:18-26.  His 
early  apostles  had  no  high  education.  Acts 
4:13,  but  Paul  had  been  a  pupil  of  Gama- 
liel, Acts  22:3.  Josephus  and  Philo  repre- 
sent Jewish  parents  as  e.vlremely  careful 
for  their  children's  instruction  in  the  sa- 
cred law,  and  that  they  should  be  taught  to 
read  it ;  carefully  copied  portions  of  it  were 
given  them  to  study.  According  to  the 
Talmud  a  boy  began  the  study  of  the  Mo- 
saic Scriptures  at  home  at  5  years  of  age; 
compare  2  Tim.  3:15;  was  sent  to  school  at 
6,  and  at  10  commenced  the  study  of  the 
traditional  lore,  which  however  was  not 
committed  to  writing  till  after  the  time  of 
Christ.  Persons  who  had  not  received 
Rabbinical  teaching  were  despised  as  igno- 
rant, J(jhn  7:49.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
Jewish  elementary  and  higher  schools  con- 
tinued to  flourish,  and  wherever  the  Jews 
resided  were  regarded  as  of  great  import- 
ance. The  education  of  girls  was  usually 
inferior  to  that  of  boys. 

SCI'ENCE,  I  Tim.  6:20,  in  the  R.  V. 
"knowledge," which  is  the  A.  V.  rendering 
of  the  Greek  word  in  its  other  and  frequent 
occurrings.  The  apostle  refers  to  the  false 
claims  to  superior  knowledge,  Gr.  gnosis, 
by  the  Gnostic  sects,  who  exalted  their 
mystical  conceits  above  the  pure  gospel  of 
Christ  and  the  true  way  of  salvation,  i  Cor. 
8:1;  Col.  2: 18-23. 

SCOR'PION,  Luke  10:19,  a  small  venom- 


SCO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCO 


ous  animal  of  warm  climates,  belonging, 
like  the  spider,  to  the  class  Arachnida,  but 
so  like  the  lobster  in  form  that  the  Arabs 
call  the  latter  the  sea-scorpion.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  the  scorpion.  Those  of 
Southern  Europe  and  Palestine  are  from 
1  to  3  inches  long,  but  in  tropical  Africa 
and  South  America  they  reach  the  length 


of  10  inches.  The  jointed  tail  terminates 
in  a  poison-bulb  ending  in  a  sharp  curved 
sting,  which  inflicts  a  wound  into  which 
venom  is  injected  from  2  openings  near  the 
point  of  the  sting.  Rev.  9:3-10.  The  wound 
is  very  painful  and  sometimes  fatal,  the 
effect  varying  with  the  species,  age,  etc.,  of 
the  scorpion  and  the  susceptibility  of  the 
victim.  Scorpions  are  hibernating  and 
nocturnal  in  their  habits.  They  lie  dor- 
mant through  the  cool  and  wet  months  of 
the  year,  and  during  their  active  period 
pass  the  day  under  stones  or  the  loose  bark 
of  trees  or  in  crevices  in  walls,  and  issue 
forth  at  night  for  food  and  pleasure.  They 
are  useful  in  destroying^  other  arachnida 
and  insects,  and  have  been  known  to  feed 
upon  their  own  species.  Maupertius  saw 
100  scorpions  reduced  in  a  few  days  to  14 
by  mutual  extermination,  and  also  wit- 
nessed an  imprisoned  female  scorpion  de- 
vour all  her  young  but  one,  which  took 
refuge  on  her  back  and  at  last  killed  her. 
A  scorpion  runs  with  its  tail  erect,  which, 
with  the  formidable-looking  claws  termi- 
nating the  palpi  and  used  for  grasping  its 
prey,  gives  it  a  very  threatening  aspect.  It 
has  been  said  that  one  surrounded  with  fire 
will  sting  itself  to  death ;  but  this  story  may 
be  founded  simply  on  the  convulsive  mo- 
tions of  the  scorched  animal  and  its  habit  of 
curving  its  tail  over  its  back.  At  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  scorpions  abounded  in  the 
Sinaitic  desert,  Deut.  8:15,  where  they  are 
still  found.  Several  species  abound  in  Pal- 
estine, in  the  Lebanon  range,  the  mountains 
of  Judah,  and  the  Jordan  valley.  Banias, 
where  there  are  many  ruins,  is  infested 
with  them,  and  they  still  inhabit  the  low 
33 


range  of  cliffs  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  where  was  the  point  formerly  called 
from  them  "the  ascent  of  Akrabbim  "  or 
scorpions.  Num.  34:4;  Josh.  15:3.  The 
"scorpions"  of  Rehoboam's  threat,  i  Kin. 
12:  II,  14,  may  have  been  thongs  armed 
with  knots,  or  bits  of  stone  or  metal,  unless 
the  expression  is  wholly  figurative.  The 
earlier  captives  of  Judah  in  Babylonia, 
2  Kin.  24 :  10-16,  among  whom  Ezekiel 
dwelt,  are  called  scorpions,  Ezek.  1:1,  2; 
2:6;  a  metaphor  justified  by  the  nation's 
malignant  treatment  of  many  of  its  true 
prophets;  compare  Jer.  26:7-11,  21-23.  "A. 
scorpion  for  an  egg,"  i.  e.,  a  mischievous 
instead  of  a  beneficial  gift,  was  probably  a 
proverb  among  the  Jews,  Luke  11:12;  a 
similar  proverb,  "  a  scorpion  for  a  perch," 
is  said  to  have  been  current  among  the 
Greeks. 

SCOURGE  or  WHIP,  i  Kin.  12:11-14. 
See  Scorpion.  Scourging  or  beating  was 
a  common  punishment  among  the  ancients. 
In  Egypt,  Exod.  5:14,  16,  it  was  often  ad- 
ministered by  a  stick  applied  to  the  soles 
of  the  feet,  the  modern  bastinado.  To  the 
Israelites  Moses  prescribed  scourging  for 
certain  offences,  limiting  the  number  of 
stripes  to  40,  Deut.  25:1-3.  Rods  or  twigs 
were  commonly  used,  Prov.  10:13;  26:3. 
In  order  not  to  break  this  law  the  Jews, 
after  the  Captivity,  if  not  before,  used  a 
scourge  of  3  thongs,  of  rope  or  leather,  13 
blows  of  which  equalled  39  stripes,  2  Cor. 
11:24.  Scourging  was  inflicted  by  the  mi- 
nor sanhedrins  in  the  synagogues.  Matt. 
10:17;  Acts  22:19;  and  by  the  Great  San- 
hedrin.  Acts  5:40.  See  Sanhedrin.  Beat- 
ing with  clubs  was  a  capital  punishment 
among  the  Greeks,  and  was  inflicted  on 
some  of  the  faithful  Jews  by  the  Graeco- 
Syrian  king  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.  C. 
170-167,  and  others  suffered  preliminary 
punishment  by  scourging ;  compare  Heb. 
12:35,  R.  V.  margin  ("beaten  to  death"), 
36.  Scourging  was  likewise  a  Roman  pun- 
ishment, Luke  23:16,  and  was  often  used 
for  extorting  confession.  Acts  22:24,  and 
sometimes  even  by  the  Jews.  The  Romans 
used  both  rods  and  whips,  the  leather 
thongs  of  the  latter  being  sometimes  tipped 
with  sharp  bits  of  metal,  which  terribly 
lacerated  the  culprit  and  often  occasioned 
death,  the  number  of  stripes  being  unlim- 
ited. Under  their  law  scourging  com- 
monly preceded  crucifixion.  Matt.  27:26. 
Among  the  Hebrews  the  culprit  was  strip- 
ped and  made  to  lie  down  with  his  face  to 
the  ground,  Deut.  25:2.     By  a  Roman  law, 

513 


SCR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCR 


about  B.  C.  300,  Roman  citizens  were  ex- 
empt from  scourging,  and  it  was  reserved 
for  slaves  and  foreigners,  Acts  22:24-29. 
Christ  predicted  his  own  suffering  from  the 
Roman  scourge,  Matt.  20:19;  Mark  10:34; 
Luke  18:33,  a"tl  submitted  to  it  as  a  part 
of  the  punishment  laid  on  him  as  the  sub- 
stitute for  sinners,  Matt.  27:26;  Mark  15:15; 
John  19:1;  compare  Isa.  53:5;  i  Pet.  2:24. 
Paul  was  5  times  scourged  by  the  Jews, 
2  Cor.  11:24;  o"e  of  the  3  beatings  with 
rods  of  which  he  speaks  in  ver.  25  was  re- 
ceived by  him  at  the  order  of  the  Roman 
magistrates  of  Philippi,  Acts  16:22,  R.  V., 
23-39;  ^"<i  besides  the  judicial  scourgings 
he  was  lawlessly  beaten  by  a  Jewish  mob, 
Acts  21 :  27-32.  Divine  judgments  are  sym- 
bolized by  the  scourge,  Isa.  10:26;  28:15, 
18.  The  parental  use  of  the  rod,  com- 
mended by  the  Word  of  inspiration,  Prov. 
13:24,  is  a  figure  of  the  wise  and  loving 
correction  of  God,  Heb.  12:5-11.  In  Lev. 
19:20  the  R.  V.  reads  for  "she  shall  be 
scourged,"  "  they  shall  be  punished." 

SCRAB'BLE,  I  Sam.  21 :  13,  to  scribble  or 
make  irregular  marks. 

SCREECH'-OWL,  Isa.  34:14.     See  Owl. 


SCRIBE,  writer,  as  in  Psa.  45:1;  Ezek. 
9:2,  3,  or  nvmberer ;  one  skilled  in  writing 
and  accounts.  Official  accountants  are 
often  depicted  on  Egyptian  monuments, 
taking  note  of  matters  of  public  and  private 
life,  recording  the  labor  performed,  some- 
times by  oppressed  Israelites,  E.vod.  5:6. 
In  Palestine  under  the  kings  reference  is 
frequently  made  to  scribes,  who  were  some- 
times Levites,  1  Chr.  24:6;  27:32;  2  Chr. 
34: 13.  Among  the  chief  officers  of  the  king- 
dom were  a  scribe  or  scribes,  2  Sam.  8:17; 
514 


20:25;  I  Kin.  4:3;  Jer.36:io,  12,21 ;  charged 
probably  with  the  preparation  of  the  king's 
decrees,  with  the  management  of  his  finan- 
ces, 2  Kin.  12:10;  22:3,  4,  and  even  repre- 
senting him  in  dealing  with  a  foreign  am- 
bassador or  with  a  prophet  of  Jehovah, 
2  Kin.  18: 17-19,  etc.,  26,  37;  19:2;  22: 12-14. 
Scribes  were  also  connected  with  the  army, 
2  Kin.  25:19;  2  Chr.  26:11.  In  Isa.  33:18 
the  reference  seems  to  be  to  some  officer 
of  the  Assyrian  army  threatening  Jerusa- 
lem in  Hezekiah's  time,  and  whose  disper- 
sion Isaiah  is  predicting;  compare  2  Kin. 
19:32-36.  So  in  the  later  sculptures  at 
Koyunjik,  Nimrud,  and  Khorsabad,  Assyr- 
ian scribes  are  seen  recording  the  number 
of  enemies  slain,  whose  heads  are  brought 
to  them  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  quantity 
of  spoil  captured.  Hezekiah  employed 
men  to  transcribe  old  records  and  write 
down  oral  traditions,  Prov.  25:1.  Nearly 
100  years  later  the  e.xistence  of  a  class  who 
were  not  merely  copyists,  but  also  teachers 
of  the  divine  law  and  boastful  of  wisdom, 
seems  to  be  implied,  Jer.  8:8.  After  the 
Captivity  the  office  of  expounding  the  law 
of  God  was  closely  associated  with  the  call- 
ing of  a  scribe,  as  in  the  case  of 
Ezra,  Ezra  7:6, 10, 12;  Neh.  8:1-3, 
13.  Jewish  tradition  ascribes  to 
these  guardians  and  teachers  of 
the  law  from  Ezra  to  the  death  of 
Simon  the  Just,  B.  C.  458-290,  the 
compilation  from  earlier  sources 
of  the  Chronicles,  and  the  collec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  all  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures.  They  are 
said  to  have  guarded  the  Mosaic 
law  from  errors  in  copying  by 
counting  its  letters.  From  B.  C. 
200  to  A.  D.  220  the  scribes  are 
said  to  have  formed  into  definite 
oral  precepts  the  interpretations 
and  opinions  of  their  predeces- 
sors in  regard  to  different  points 
of  the  law.  Gradually,  in  their 
desire  to  honor  these  traditions 
of  the  elders,  they  set  them  above  the 
Scriptures,  making  the  transgression  of 
the  former  the  greater  offence;  and  in  the 
effort  to  elaborate  from  the  law  precepts 
for  every  minute  circumstance  in  life,  they 
frequently  made  it  void  by  their  glosses, 
Matt.  15:1-20.  They  held  that  the  mere 
act  of  searching  the  Scriptures,  even  to 
support  their  idle  fancies,  entitled  them 
to  eternal  life,  John  5:39.  The  rise  of  the 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes  is  gen- 
erally referred  to   B.  C.  200  to  140.     The 


SCR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCR 


great  majority  of  the  scribes  were  Phari- 
sees, with  whom  they  are  constantly  asso- 
ciated in  the  New  Testament ;  compare 
Acts  23:9.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of 
these  teachers  of  the  law  were  Hillel  and 
Shammai,  president  and  vice-president  of 
the  Sanhedrin  in  the  reign  of  Herod  the 
Great.  They  held  different  opinions  and 
gave  rise  to  opposing  schools :  Shammai 
and  his  followers,  who  developed  into  the 
Zealots,  being  more  rigid,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  ceremonial  defilement  and  Sab- 
bath-keeping, and  Hillel  and  his  school 
showing  a  more  liberal  spirit.  Many  of 
their  disputes  turned  on  the  most  trifling 
and  foolish  questions.  The  existence  of 
these  2  parties  among  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  of  Christ's  time  partly  accounts 
for  the  different  attitude  towards  him  of 
different  members,  some  appearing  inclined 
to  accept  him  as  a  true  teacher,  Matt.  8:19; 
Mark  1 2 :  28-34,  and  others  bitterly  opposing 
him,  Mark  3:22;  11:18,  27;  14:1,  43,  53; 
15:1,  31.  Gamaliel,  the  advocate  of  tolera- 
tion towards  the  apostles.  Acts  5:34,  was 
Hillel's  grandson.  Both  scribes  and  Phar- 
isees, for  the  most  part  occupied  with  the 
letter  of  the  law  and  the  futile  and  often 
contradictory  traditions  and  discussions 
with  which  it  had  been  overlaid,  Tit.  1:14; 
3:9,  wrapped  up  in  self-conceit  and  bask- 
ing in  the  favor  of  the  people,  had  as  a 
class  lost  all  but  the  semblance  of  piety. 
Hence  the  scathing  rebukes  of  Christ,  Matt. 
5:20;  23:1-36.  Many  of  the  scribes  were 
members  of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  joined  their 
colleagues  the  chief  priests  and  elders  in 
persecuting  Christ  and  his  followers,  having 
perverted  ideas  as  to  the  promised  Messiah 
and  his  kingdom.  The  scribes  are  also 
called  "  lawyers  "  and  "  doctors  of  the  law," 
Matt.  22:35;  Luke  5:17;  Acts  5:34;  and 
Christ's  ministers  must  be  scribes  "  in- 
structed unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven," 
Matt.  13:52,  like  "  Zenas  the  lawyer"  and 
Apollos  "  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,"  Tit. 

3:13- 

The  teachings  of  Christ  presented  stri- 
king contrasts  to  those  of  the  scribes.  He 
spoke  as  with  authority  originating  in  him- 
self, Matt.  5:22,  etc.;  7:28,  29,  or  derived 
from  the  Father,  John  8:28;  12:49,50.  He 
laid  bare  the  divine  law  in  its  original  force 
and  true  spirit.  He  journeyed  through  the 
cities  and  villages  and  taught  the  multi- 
tudes, while  the  scribes  usually  expounded 
their  doctrines  to  privileged  classes  in  the 
schools.  He  taught  plainly  of  the  kingdom 
of  God,  and  explained  the  spiritual  qualifi- 


cations for  membership  in  it  as  differing 
widely  from  the  conceptions  of  the  scribes. 
Matt.  18:1-4;  compare  23:6-12.  He  pro- 
claimed a  suffering  and  atoning  Messiah, 
while  they  generally  misinterpreted  the 
predictions  concerning  him,  his  humilia- 
tion and  his  exaltation,  John  13:32-34. 

A  special  training  in  the  Scriptures  and 
traditions  in  some  noted  rabbi's  school 
was  requisite  to  fit  a  youth  for  the  calling 
of  a  scribe.  Questions  of  ethics  and  casuis- 
try, and  the  laws  of  property  contracts  and 
evidence,  were  embraced  in  the  course. 
In  due  time,  probably  at  30,  the  satisfactory 
pupil  was  received  into  the  association,  the 
presiding  rabbi  laying  hands  upon  him  and 
declaring  him  admitted  "  to  the  chair  of  the 
scribe,"  and  giving  him  tablets  and  a  key, 
Luke  11:52.  He  might  remain  in  compar- 
ative obscurity  as  a  simple  transcriber  of 
the  Scriptures  or  of  phylacteries,  or  as  a 
notary  writing  papers  of  sales,  betrothals, 
or  repudiations;  or  he  might  rise  to  emi- 
nence as  a  teacher  or  a  member  of  the  San- 
hedrin. Fees,  and  often  the  exercise  of 
some  handicraft,  contributed  to  his  sup- 
port, as  well  as  gifts  from  the  devout. 

The  oral  traditions,  precepts,  etc.,  of  the 
scribes  were  written  and  compiled  in  the 
2d  century,  and  are  known  as  the  Mishna, 
the  ist  part  of  the  Talmud.  After  the  final 
redaction  of  the  Mishna,  A.  D.  220,  the  or- 
der continued  its  peculiar  labors,  adding 
to  the  Mishna  2  bodies  of  commentaries 
and  discussions  thereon,  called  Gemaras, 
which  were  completed  about  A.  D.  500,  and 
constitute  the  2d  part  of  the  Talmud. 

SCRIP,  a  bag  or  leather  wallet,  in  which 
shepherds  or  travellers  carried  a  portion  of 
food  or  small  articles  of  convenience,  slung 
on  the  shoulder,  i  Sam.  17:40;  also  2  Kin. 
4:42,  instead  of  "husk;"  in  the  R.  V. 
"sack."  It  was  distinct  from  the  purse. 
Matt.  10:9,  10;  Luke  10:4;  22:35,  36. 

SCRIP'TURE,  writing.  In  "the  Scrip- 
ture of  truth,"  Dan.  10:21,  there  is  an  allu- 
sion to  the  divine  decrees,  figuratively 
represented  as  written  in  a  book,  Psa. 
139:16;  Rev.  5:1.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  collectively 
are  termed  "the  Scriptures,"  Matt.  22:29, 
"the  Holy  Scriptures,"  etc.,  Rom.  1:2; 
16:26;  2  Tim.  3:15.  The  epistles  of  Paul 
are  included  in  "the  Scriptures"  in  2  Pet. 
3 :  16.  Reference  is  also  made  to  particular 
passages,  Mark  12:10;  Acts  8:35,  or  an  in- 
dividual book,  ver.  32,  as  "  the  Scripture." 
The  special  force  of  the  term  in  the  time  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles  will  be  better  ap- 

515 


SCR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


predated  if  it  is  remembered  that  the  Jew- 
ish traditions  were  as  yet  unwritten.  In 
the  Mishna  the  usual  Hebrew  expression 
for  the  Old  Testament  books  is  the  Mikra, 
i.  e.y  reading,  as  in  Neh.  8:8;  the  Hebrew 
word  meaning  zvritiugs  being  appropri- 
ated to  the  books  called  the  Hagiographa. 
The  term  "  Holy  Scriptures"  as  including 
the  New  Testament  books  was  in  use  in 
the  church  as  early  as  the  2d  century.  "  All 
Scripture,"  i.  <?.,  every  portion  of  Holy 
Scripture,  is  inspired  and  profitable,  2  Tim. 
3:15,  16.  "No  prophecy  of  Scripture"  is 
to  be  interpreted  alone;  the  event  will  show 
its  true  place  among  all  the  prophetic  words 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  2  Pet.  1:20,  21.  But  it  is 
evident  that  the  Jews  in  Christ's  time  were 
familiar  with  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
as  appears  from  their  own  citations  of  them, 
John  6:31;  8:5,  and  Christ's  frequent  ref- 
erences to  the  fact.  Matt.  12:3,  5;  21: 16,  42  ; 
Mark  12:10,  26,  35-37;  Luke  6:3;  10:26; 
24:25-27;  John  5:39,  and  Christians  were 
expected  to  be  familiar  with  the  New  Tes- 
tament Scriptures  also,  Acts  17:11;  Col. 
4: 16;  Rev.  I  -.T,. 

SCROLL,  Isa.  34:4;  Rev.  6:14,  or  roll, 
the  ancient  form  of  a  book.    See  Book. 

SCUM,  Ezek.  24:6,  R.  V.  "  rust." 

SCUR"VY,  Lev.  21:20;  22:22;  the  same 
word  rendered  "  scab  "  in  Deut.  28 :  27,  A.  V. 
Scurvy  is  now  usually  occasioned  by  long 
confinement  in  cold  and  damp  climates  and 
the  use  of  salt  food,  and  is  marked  by  great 
debility  arid  a  dry,  scaly  skin,  with  livid 
spots.  Some  such  appearance  may  be  de- 
noted in  the  passages  above  quoted. 

SCYTH'IANS,  wandering  tribes  in  the 
immense  regions  north  of  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas.  They  are  said  by  Herodo- 
tus to  have  made  an  incursion  into  South- 
western Asia  and  Egypt  in  the  7th  century 
B.  C;  and  it  was  perhaps  a  fragment  of 
this  host,  located  at  Beth-shean,  which  gave 
that  city  its  classical  name  Scythopolis.  It 
is  supposed  that  Ezekiel,  chs.  38,  39,  al- 
ludes to  these  invading  Scythians  under 
the  names  of  Gog  and  Magog  as  symbols 
of  earthly  violence  arrayed  against  the  peo- 
ple of  God,  but  meeting  an  utter  overthrow ; 
compare  Rev.  20:8.  The  Scythians  were 
proverbially  rude  and  savage,  2  Mace.  4:47; 
the  r\idest  of  barbarians.  Col.  3:11. 

SEA,  Heb.  YAM,  a  word  applied  to  the 
terrestrial  waters  collectively,  Gen.  1:10, 
22,  26,  28;  9:2,  and,  with  or  without  dis- 
tinctive epithets,  to  bodies  of  water  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  salt  or  fresh,  including  lakes 
and  large  rivers ;  also  to  the  laver  of  Solo- 
516 


men's  temple,  i  Kin.  7:23-26.  The  use  of 
the  New  Testament  Greek  word,  thalas- 
SA,  is  nearly  the  same.  Th*^  following  are 
the  chief  applications  of  the  word  in  Scrip- 
ture. 

I.  The  Mediterranean;  called  "the 
sea,"  Josh.  16:3;  Acts  10:6;  "the  great 
sea,"  Num.  34:6;  the  "hinder,"  "utter- 
most," or  "  utmost  sea,"  i.  e.,  the  western 
sea— according  to  the  Hebrew  custom  of 
facing  the  east  in  naming  directions,  Deut. 
11:24;  Zech.  14:8;  whence  the  word  yam, 
as  denoting  this  sea,  is  often  put  for  the 
west.  Gen.  12:8 — the  "sea  of  the  Philis- 
tines," Exod.  23:31;  and  "  the  sea  of  Ja- 
pho"  or  Joppa,  Ezra  t,:^.  This  sea,  the 
western  boundary  of  Palestine,  is  2,250 
miles  long,  1,200  miles  in  greatest  width, 
and  its  average  depth  is  over  half  a  mile ;  it 
covers  an  area  of  1,000,000  square  miles.  It 
is  little  affected  by  tides,  but  often  agitated 
by  violent  winds,  Jonah  1:4;  Acts  27.  South- 
east and  southwest  winds  prevail  in  spring, 
and  northeast  and  northwest  ones  during 
the  rest  of  the  year.  Its  water  is  warm 
and  Salter  than  that  of  the  Atlantic ;  its 
loss  from  evaporation  exceeds  its  supply 
from  rains  and  rivers ;  but  it  receives  water 
also  from  the  Atlantic  through  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar.  On  its  eastern  border  the 
chief  ports  mentioned  in  Scripture  were 
Sidon,  Tyre,  Ptolemais,  Caesarea,  and  Jop- 
pa. The  best  harbor  is  now  found  at  Bei- 
rfit. 

II.  The  Red  Sea:  called  "the  sea," 
Exod.  14;  "the  Sea  of  Suph,"  A.  V.  "  Red 
Sea,"  Exod.  10:19,  ^""^  "the  Egyptian 
Sea,"  Isa.  11:15.  The  Egyptians  called  it 
"  the  Sea  of  Punt,"  i.  e.,  Arabia;  its  Arabic 
name  is  bahr  el-Hedjaz,  from  a  province 
on  its  eastern  coast,  or  bahr  el-Ahmar, 
red;  the  "Erythraean,"  7-ed,  sea,  was  the 
Greek  and  Roman  name,  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  the  New  Testament,  Acts  7:36; 
Heb.  11:29.  The  Hebrew  term  suph  de- 
notes a  wool-like  sea-weed  which  is  cast 
up  freely  on  its  shores.  The  name  Red 
may  have  been  derived  from  Edom  on  the 
northeast,  from  the  hue  of  the  mountains 
on  the  western  coast,  from  the  prevailing 
color  of  its  corals  and  weeds,  or  from  the 
red  zoophytes  which  at  certain  seasons  float 
in  masses  on  its  surface.  This  sea,  really 
an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  lies  between 
Arabia  on  the  east,  and  Egypt,  Nubia,  and 
Abyssinia  on  the  west ;  by  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb  it  is  joined  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  since  1869  the  Suez  Canal  con- 
nects it  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     It  is 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


1,450  miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of 
150  miles  and  a  depth  of  1,800  feet.  Its 
area  is  about  180,000  square  miles.  At  the 
northern  end  it  divides  into  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  on  the  west  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  on 
the  east.  The  former,  anciently  the  Gulf 
of  Heroopolis,  is  150  miles  long  and  20 
miles  wide;  the  eastern,  formerly  the  Ela- 
nitic  Gulf,  is  105  miles  by  15.  Between 
these  gulfs  lies  the  Sinai  peninsula.  The 
great  desert  valley,  el-Arabah,  extends 
from  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
See  Jordan.  The  Gulf  of  Suez  was  an- 
ciently connected  with  the  Nile  by  a  canal 
constructed  by  the  Pharaohs  and  used  as 
early  as  the  14th  century  B.  C.  This  has 
recently  been  restored,  and  now,  as  the 
Sweet-water  Canal,  supplies  fresh  water 
to  the  stations  on  the  ship-canal  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  Suez.  The  navi- 
gation of  the  Red  Sea  is  somewhat  difficult 
and  dangerous,  owing  to  the  submerged 
coral  reefs  and  islands.  It  receives  no 
rivers,  but  many  rain-torrents.  The  tide 
rises  from  3  to  7  feet.  The  water,  except 
when  colored  by  the  zoophytes,  is  blue, 
with  a  greenish  hue  in  the  shallower  parts. 
The  coasts  are  chiefly  rocky  or  sandy,  and 
generally  barren  and  uninhabited.  Suez, 
at  the  head  of  the  Western  gulf,  Cosseir 
the  port  of  Upper  Egypt,  Suakim  a  port  of 
Soudan,  Massua  an  Abyssinian  port,  and 
Jiddah  on  the  Arabian  shore,  are  the  only 
important  towns  along  its  entire  coast. 
Explorations  of  the  isthmus,  now  70  miles 
wide,  between  the  Suez  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean, show  that  the  land  at  the  head  of  the 
gulf  has  risen,  the  water  retired  southward, 
since  the  Christian  era,  thus  fulfilling  the 
prophecy  of  the  drying  up  of  "  the  tongue 
of  the  Egyptian  Sea,"  Isa.  11 :  15.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  in  Moses'  time  the  gulf  extend- 
ed 50  miles  farther  northward,  including 
the  present  Bitter  and  Crocodile  Lakes, 
and  narrowing  the  isthmus  to  some  25 
miles.  The  exact  locality  of  the  miracu- 
lous passage  of  the  Israelites  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  Egyptians,  Exod.  14;  15,  has 
been  much  disputed,  but  the  opinion  which 
seems  best  supported  places  these  events 
in  the  vicinity  of  Suez.  Having  crossed 
the  Western  gulf,  the  Israelites  encamped 
on  its  eastern  side,  Num.  33:10.  After 
many  years  of  sojourning  and  wandering 
between  Sinai  and  Canaan,  they  came  to 
Ezion-geber  at  the  head  of  the  Eastern 
gulf,  ver.  35,  36 ;  from  Mount  Hor,  60  miles 
to  the  north,  they  were  again  turned  south- 
ward to  the  gulf,  to  pass  around  Edom  on 


the  east.  Num.  21:4.  Ezion-geber  and 
Elath  were  ports  used  by  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
9:26;  10:22;  2Chr.  8:17,  18;  comp.  i  Kin. 
22:48.  In  Zech.  10:11  both  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Nile  appear  to  be  referred  to. 

III.  The  Dead  Sea;  called  in  Scripture 
"the  Salt  Sea,"  Gen.  14:3;  Josh.  18:19; 
"  the  sea  of  the  plain,"  i.  e.,  of  the  Arabah, 
Deut.  3:17;  "the  East"  or  "Former  sea," 
Ezek.  47:18;  Joel  2:20;  Zech.  14:8;  and 
once  simply  "the  sea,"  Ezek.  47:8.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  called  it  "  the  Asphal- 
tic  Lake,"  from  the  asphaltum  or  bitumen 
found  on  or  by  it,  and  "  the  Dead  Sea," 
from  the  absence  of  living  creatures  in  its 
waters.  The  Arabs  call  it  bahr  Lut,  the  sea 
of  Lot,  and  sometimes  the  Dead  Sea.  It 
occupies  the  lowest  part  of  the  deep  cre- 
vasse, about  250  miles  long,  which  extends 
from  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon  to  the  Gulf 
of  Akaba;  lies  between  31°  6'  and  31°  46' 
N.  lat.,  and  between  35°  24'  and  35°  t;]'  E. 
long. ;  is  about  46  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  over  10  miles  at  its  greatest 
breadth,  near  Ain  Jidy.  Its  full  area  is 
nearly  300  square  miles.  It  is  16  miles  frona 
Jerusalem,  and  can  be  seen  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  On  the  north  it  receives  the  Jor- 
dan; on  the  east  the  Zerka  Ma'in  (the  an- 
cient Callirrhoe),  the  Mojib  or  Arnon,  the 
Kerak,  and  the  Siddiyeh  or  Brook  Zered ; 
on  the  south  the  Kurahy ;  and  on  the  west 
the  Ain  Jidy.  Besides  these  its  receives 
numerous  winter-torrents,  among  them  the 
Kidron,  now  wady  en-Nar,  and  the  waters 
of  many  fresh,  salt,  sulphur,  and  warm 
springs,  chiefly  on  its  western  shore.  The 
marshy  and  salt-encrusted  plain  es-Sabkah 
(see  Salt,  valley  of)  extends  10  miles 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  is  partly  over- 
flowed after  the  winter  rains.  Bare  moun- 
tain ranges  flank  the  sea,  rising  in  cliffs 
of  gray  or  white  limestone  1,500  feet  on  the 
west,  and  in  still  more  rugged  heights  of 
limestone  capped  with  basalt  and  footed 
with  red  sandstone  2,000  feet  or  more  on 
the  east.  Both  ranges  are  cleft  by  deep 
torrent -beds.  These  ranges  closely  ap- 
proach the  sea,  and  in  some  places  jut  out 
into  the  waves  in  bold  headlands,  or  rece- 
ding leave  a  coast-strip  of  varying  width. 
Salt  forms  a  soft  crust  on  the  beach,  and  is 
deposited  by  evaporation  in  natural  and 
artificial  hollows  after  freshets.  Quantities 
of  bitumen,  sulphur,  and  musca  are  also 
found  on  the  shores ;  the  latter,  a  carbonate 
of  lime,  is  black  and  takes  a  fine  polish ; 
mementos  of  the  Dead  Sea  are  made  from 
it  and  sold  in  Jerusalem ;  it  has  an  intoler- 

517 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


,;^      ^  Er  Ratn 


Scale  of  Miles. 


DEAD  SEA  AND  VICINITY. 


able  odor  when  rubbed,  and  blazes  with  a 
sulphurous  smell  if  placed  on  hot  coals. 
Hot  springs  are  numerous :  one  about  3 
miles  north  of  Ain  Jidy,  a  sulphur  spring 
with  a  temperature  of  95°,  bubbles  up 
through  the  gravel  6  inches  from  the  sea, 
and  probably  under  the  water  also,  as  this 
is  heated  above  its  ordinary  62°  for  200 
yards  from  the  shore,  and  the  air  all  around 
has  a  strong  sulphurous  odor.  On  the 
southwest  coast  the  detached  salt-ridge, 
called  Jebel  or  Khashm  Usdum,  mountain 
or  ridf^e  of  Sodom,  runs  parallel  with  the 
shore  for  about  3  miles,  and  extends  south- 
ward 4  miles  farther.  See  Salt,  Valley 
OF.  On  the  east,  about  7  miles  from  the 
southern  shore,  a  low  promontory  called 
el-Lisan,  the  tongue,  projects  westward  and 
518 


northward  into  the  sea;  it  is  10  miles  long 
north  and  south,  and  5  or  6  miles  wide,  and 
is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  low  strip  of 
sand.  The  surface  is  flat  and  is  composed 
of  a  soft  chalk  marl  incrusted  with  salt,  and 
containing  lumps  of  pure  sulphur.  A  few 
ruins,  of  unknown  date,  exist  here.  North 
of  el-Lisan  the  sea  is  of  an  elongated  oval 
shape.  Its  sides  slope  steeply,  and  its 
greatest  depth  is  over  1,300  feet.  West  of 
the  peninsula  the  sea  narrows  and  shoals 
into  a  channel  little  more  than  2  miles  wide 
at  the  narrowest,  and  with  a  depth  of  about 
13  feet.  South  of  el-Lisan  it  broadens  again 
into  a  nearly  circular  bay  not  more  than  12 
feet  in  depth.  Blue  mud  and  sand,  with 
crystals  of  salt,  appear  to  compose  the  bed 
of  the  main  basin  ;  that  of  the  south  bay  is 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


slimy,  and  quantities  of  asphaltum  are  at 
times  thrown  up  from  it,  notably  after 
earthquakes,  as  in  1834  and  1837.  The 
northeast  coast  bears  traces  of  volcanic 
action  in  the  basaltic  rocks  and  scoriae  of 
the  mountain  range,  and  in  the  lava,  pum- 
ice, and  bitumen  imbedded  in  the  sand  or 
mud  of  the  shore.  The  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea  is  about  1,392  feet  below  that  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  3,750  below  Jerusalem. 
The  level  varies  10  or  15  feet,  according  to 
the  season.  A  series  of  ancient  terraces 
or  shore  lines  show  that  it  has  sunk  by  de- 
grees hundreds  of  feet.  The  bottom  seems 
to  be  still  subsiding:  15  or  20  years  ago 
the  channel  between  el-Lisan  and  the  west- 
ern shore  might  be  crossed  by  2  fords, 
which  are  now  reported  impassable.  The 
water  of  the  sea  is  clear  and  transparent, 
but  intensely  salt  and  bitter,  and  of  a  spe- 


cific gravity  exceeding  that  of  any  other 
water  known;  a  gallon  of  it  weighs  125^ 
lbs.,  2%  lbs.  more  than  distilled  water.  By 
repeated  analyses  it  has  been  found  to  con- 
tain ]/i  its  weight  of  mineral  substances,  yi 
of  this  being  chloride  of  sodium  or  common 
salt;  chloride  of  magnesium  gives  the  wa- 
ter its  bitter  taste,  and  chloride  of  calcium 
its  oily  feeling.  Other  substances  e.xist  in 
smaller  quantities.  These  qualities  of  the 
water  are  due  in  part  to  the  accumulation 
of  mineral  matter  flowing  into  a  basin  with 
no  outlet,  and  not  carried  off,  as  the  water 
is,  by  evaporation.  So  dense  is  the  water 
that  a  person  can  float  on  it  without  dan- 
ger of  sinking,  and  it  requires  an  effort  to 
submerge  the  body  for  swimming.  In  1848 
the  boats  of  Lieut.  Lynch  met  with  a  gale 
on  entering  the  sea  from  the  Jordan;  and 
"  it  seemed   as  if  the  bows  .  .  .  were  en- 


THE  DEAD  SEA,  AND  THE  CONVENT  OF  MAR  SABA,  ON  THK  BROOK;  KIDRON,  MIDWAY  FROM 


JERUSALEM. 


countering  the  sledge-hammers  of  the  Ti- 
tans instead  of  the  opposing  waves  of  an 
angry  sea."  These  heavy  waves  rapidly 
subside  when  the  wind  falls.  In  freshet 
times  the  brown  stream  of  the  Jordan  can 
be  traced  for  a  mile  and  a  half  after  enter- 
ing the  lake.  No  form  of  life  is  found  in 
the  Dead  Sea;  the  fish  brought  down  from 
the  Jordan,  and  even  sea-fish  introduced  as 
an  experiment,  quickly  die. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  region  is 
dreary,  sterile,  and  desolate,  and  quanti- 
ties of  drift-wood  line  the  shores,  inclu- 
ding besides  branches  of  other  trees,  great 


palm-trunks  blackened  with  age.  Among 
the  oases  on  the  western  shore  is  Ain  Jidy 
(En-gedi),  a  plain  of  about  2  miles  square. 
The  pistachio,  Christ-thorn,  tamarisk,  ole- 
ander, lily,  nightshade,  mallow,  migno- 
nette, and  kale  grow  in  these  fertile  spots; 
also  the  osher.  Calatropis  procera,  bearing 
the  so-called  "apple  of  Sodom,"  whose 
thin  yellow  rind  breaks  under  pressure 
and  leaves  only  worthless  shreds  in  one's 
grasp.  The  high  cane-brakes  and  thickets 
about  the  springs  shelter  birds  and  beasts 
of  many  varieties :  the  jackal,  wild  boar, 
and  leopard  ;  the  raven,  cormorant,  heron, 

519 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


SOUTH    SHORE   OK    THE    DEAD   SEA. 


Stork,  quail,  thrush,  bulbul,  etc.  Ducks 
have  been  seen  floating  on  the  water.  On 
the  southeastern  shore,  east  of  the  Sabkah, 
the  ground  slopes  upward  to  the  mountains 
of  Moab,  and  for  a  few  miles  is  very  fertile, 
yielding  to  the  Arabs  grain,  indigo,  melons, 
and  cucumbers.  A  few  ruins  are  found 
along  the  shores,  as  at  Ain  Jidy,  Sebbeh — 
the  site  of  the  old  Maccabaean  and  Herodi- 
an  fortress  of  Masada — and  on  the  penin- 
sula. The  strong  fortress  of  Machaerus, 
now  Mkhaur,  and  the  hot  baths  of  Cal- 
lirrhoe  were  on  the  steep  slope  of  the  east- 
ern mountains. 

The  climate  is  semi-tropical,  owing  to 
the  extraordinary  depression  of  the  sea. 
In  the  dry  season  it  is  e.xcessively  hot  and 
unhealthy  from  the  miasm  of  the  bordering 
marshes.  Tristram  notes  a  temperature 
in  January  of  84°  in  the  day  and  62°  at  i 
A.  M. ;  Warren  that  of  110°  after  sunset  at 
.\in  Jidy  in  July.  The  excessive  evapora- 
tion causes  a  mist  to  brood  over  the  water. 

Scripture  References.  In  Gen.  14:3  the 
vale  of  Siddim,  "  full  of  slime  "  or  bitumen 
"pits,"  ver.  10,  is  no  doubt  the  Salt  .Sea. 
This  valley  is  usually  regarded  as  the  site, 
or  in  the  immediate  neigliborhood,  of  the 
cities  of  Sodom,  etc.,  which,  with  their  fruit- 
ful environs  in  the  "plain  "  or  circle  "of 
the  Jordan,"  God  destroyed  by  fire  from 
the  sky,  Gen.  13:10;  19:24-29.  With  the 
identification  of  Genesis  agrees  the  ancient 
Jewish  view,  recorded  by  Josephus,  that 
the  vale  of  Siddim  was  submerged  under 
520 


the  Dead  Sea.  The  main  body  of  water 
bears  marks  of  an  age  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  ruined  cities  ;  but  it  is  the  view 
of  many  competent  scholars  that  the  shal- 
low southern  bay,  whose  peculiarities  have 
already  been  noted,  now  covers  the  ancient 
vale  of  Sodom.  On  the  limestone  cliffs  of 
wady  Muhawat,  west  of  the  north  end  of 
Jebel  Usdum,  Tristram  in  1864  discovered 
appearances  as  if  a  shower  of  sulphur  or 
an  irruption  of  hot  bitumen  had  fallen  on 
it;  masses  of  calcined  bitumen  impregna- 
ted with  sulphur  overlie  a  stratum  of  sul- 
phur, below  whicii  is  sand  impregnated 
with  sulphur.  Pillars  of  salt,  detached  from 
Jebel  Usdum  by  the  rains,  remind  the  ob- 
server now,  as  in  the  days  of  Josephus,  of 
Lot's  wife.  The  Salt  Sea  was  one  of  the 
boundaries  of  Canaan  and  of  the  tribes, 
Num.  34:3,  12;  Deut.3:i7;  4:49;  Josh.  15:2, 
5;  18:19;  2  Kin.  14:25.  Ezekiel,  47:8-10, 
forcibly  illustrates  the  healing  and  renova- 
ting power  of  divine  grace  by  the  symbol 
of  a  change  wrought  on  the  bitter  and  life- 
less waters  of  this  sea  by  the  stream  issu- 
ing from  the  temple  of  God  through  the 
brook  Kidron,  ver.  1-7.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  parched  and  arid  region  on  its  shores, 
given  over  to  perpetual  burning  heat  and 
salt  barrenness,  is  a  monument  and  warn- 
ing of  God's  just  indignation  and  ven- 
geance towards  unrepentant  sinners,  Deut. 
29:23;  Matt.  10:15;  11:23,24;  2  Pet.  2:4-9; 
Jude  7. 

A  leader  among  the  modern  explorers, 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


whose  careful  investigations  have  dissipa- 
ted the  exaggerated  and  superstitious  views 
formerly  held  in  regard  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
was  Lieut.  Lynch  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  who 
in  1S48  passed  down  the  Jordan  from  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias  with  2  metallic  boats,  and 
spent  3  weeks  in  a  survey  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
He  has  been  followed  by  other  investiga- 
tors, American,  English,  and  French.    The 


idea  that  this  lake  at  some  former  historic 
period  discharged  into  the  Gulf  of  Akaba 
is  now  generally  abandoned,  since  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  about  46  miles  north 
of  that  gulf  the  Arabah  is  now  crossed  by  a 
watershed  787  feet  above  the  ocean  level, 
the  wadies  north  of  it  draining  into  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  those  to  the  south  into  the 
Gulf  of  Akaba. 


SEA  OF  GALILEE,  FROM  THE   NORTHWEST   COAST,  WITH   MAGDALA   AND  TIBERIAS. 


IV.  Sea  of  Galilee  or  Tiberias,  Matt. 
4:18;  John  6: 1,  so  called  from  the  province 
of  Galilee  or  the  city  of  Tiberias  on  its 
western  bank.  Its  more  ancient  name  was 
"  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  "  or  "  Chinneroth," 
Num.  34:11;  Josh.  12:3,  probably  from  a 
town  or  district  on  its  border.  Josh.  19:35; 
I  Kin.  15:20;  it  was  also  called  "the  Lake 
of  Gennesaret,"  Luke  5:1,  from  the  fertile 
plain  on  its  northwest  shore.  Matt.  14:34. 
See  Gennesaret.  It  is  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  "the  sea,"  Isa.  9:1 ;  Matt.  4: 13, 
15;  17:27.  Its  present  name  is  bahr  Tu- 
bariyeh.  It  is  about  35  miles  south  of 
Mount  Hermon,  27  east  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  64  in  a  straight  line  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  is  13  miles  long,  from  4  to  7 
miles  wide,  and  about  160  feet  deep.  The 
level  of  the  lake  varies  at  different  seasons, 
its  average  depression  below  the  surface  of 
the  Mediterranean  being  about  682  feet.  It 
is  shaped  much  like  a  pear,  with  the  broad 
end  towards  the  north.  The  steep  hills 
which  inclose  it  on  both  sides  are  of  lime- 
stone, basalt,  and  volcanic  rock,  and  are 


from  500  to  1,700  feet  high.  In  most  places 
they  closely  approach  the  water,  leaving 
only  a  narrow  pebbly  beach  ;  on  the  north- 
west their  recession  forms  the  plain  of  Gen- 
nesaret, and  east  of  the  Jordan  inlet  is  the 
marshy  plain  el-Butihah.  The  basin  of  the 
lake  is  by  some  held  to  be  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin. Several  hot  springs  are  found  on  the 
shores,  and  the  region  is  often  visited  by 
earthquakes.  The  depression  occasions 
an  extreme  heat,  and  the  semi-tropical 
vegetation  which  beautifies  the  shores  in 
the  spring  is  soon  parched.  The  Jordan 
enters  the  lake  on  the  northeast,  coloring 
the  waters  for  a  mile,  and  flows  out  at  the 
southwest,  its  passage  being  marked  by  a 
strong  current.  The  water  of  the  lake  is 
clear  and  sparkling  and  good  for  drinking, 
though  it  has  a  slightly  salt  taste.  Various 
kinds  of  excellent  fish,  including  several 
tropical  species,  abound,  and  are  some- 
times seen  in  large  shoals,  Luke  5:6.  The 
lake  is  still  liable  to  sudden  tempests,  such 
as  were  encountered  by  Christ  and  his  dis- 
ciples, Matt.   14:22-33;  Mark  4:35-41.     In 

521 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


the  time  of  our  Lord  9  considerable  towns, 
of  which  the  chief  were  Hethsaida,  Cajjcr- 
naum,  Chorazin,  Tiberias,  and  Magdala, 
studded  its  sho-es,  and  contained  a  numer- 
ous and  busy  -/opulation;  many  vessels 
enlivened  the  lake;  and  Josephus  says 
that  the  plain  of  Gennesaret  was  a  marvel 
of  cultivated  fruitfulness  and  beauty.  Of 
these  towns  only  Tiberias  and  Magdala, 
now  Tubariyeh  and  Mejdel,  survive,  the 
sites  of  the  others  being  cither  indistin- 
guishable or  masses  of  ruins;  comp.  Matt. 
II :  20-24;  on  the  lake  are  onlj'  3  or  4  poor 
fishing-boats;  the  surrounding  hills  are 
usually  |bare  and  desolate,  and  the  plain 
el-Ghuweir,  though  producing  excellent 
figs,  olives,  wheat,  etc.,  is  much  neglected 
and  abounds  in  thorns.  But  the  sea  re- 
mains, hallowed  by  many  scenes  described 
in  the  Gospels.  The  Saviour  of  mankind 
often  looked  upon  its  quiet  beauty  and 
crossed  it  in  his  journeys;  he  stilled  its 
waves  by  a  word,  and  hallowed  its  shores 
by  his  miracles  and  teachings.  Here  sev- 
eral of  the  apostles  were  called  to  become 
"fishers  of  men;"  in  its  waters  Peter  sank 
trembling  and  crying,  "Lord,  save  me;" 
and  here  occurred  one  of  Christ's  inter- 
views with  his  disciples  after  his  resurrec- 
tion, Matt.  4  :  iS-22;  13  :  1-36;  14  :  13-36; 
Mark  5;  John  21. 

Before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  Ves- 
pasian and  Titus  were  victorious  over  the 
Jews  in  a  naval  battle  fought  on  the  lake 
after  I  the  taking  of  Tarichaea  by  the  Ro- 
mans. 

How  pleasant  to  me  thy  deep  blue  wave, 

O  Sea  of  Galilee, 
For  the  glorious  One  who  came  to  save 

Hath  often  stood  by  thee. 

O  Saviour,  gone  to  God's  right  hand, 

Yet  the  same  Saviour  still, 
Graved  on  thy  heart  is  this  lovely  strand 

And  every  fragrant  hill.         m'chkynk. 

V.  Sea  of  Jazer,  Jer.  48:32.     See  Jaa- 

ZER. 

VL  The  Heb.  y.\m,  like  the  Arabic  bahr, 
is  also  applied  to  great  rivers,  as  the  Nile, 
Isa.  19:5;  Amos  8:8,  A.  V.  "flood;"  Nah. 
3:8;  and  the  Euphrates,  Isa.  21:1;  Jer. 
51:36. 

VII.  The  BRAZEN  or  molten  sea,  made 
by  Solomon  for  the  temple,  about  B.  C. 
1005,  was  a  large  laver  supported  by  12 
metal  oxen,  in  the  southeast  quarter  of  the 
court  of  the  priests,  i  Kin.  7:23-26,  39,  44, 
46;  2  Chr.  4:2-5,  9,  10.  It  was  made  from 
the  copper  or  bronze  taken  by  David  from 
conquered  cities,  i  Chr.  18:8.  See  Brass 
522 


and  Laver.  It  was  yVt  feet  in  height,  15 
feet  in  diameter,  45  feet  in  circumference, 
and  contained  16,000  gallons,  or  according 
to  2  Chr.  4:5,  24,000 gallons;  the  latter  per- 
haps including  1,000  baths  contained  by 
the  foot  or  basin,  with  2,000  contained  in 
the  cup  or  bowl.     It  is  said  to  have  been 


f^ 


supplied  with  water  at  first  by  the  labor  of 
the  Gibeonites,  and  afterwards  by  a  con- 
duit from  the  pools  of  Solomon  near  Beth- 
lehem. The  water  was  for  the  ablutions  of 
the  priests,  2  Chr.  4:6;  compare  Exod. 
30:18-21.  This  vessel  was  mutilated  by 
king  Ahaz  about  B.  C.  739,  2  Kin.  16:17, 
and  finally,  after  lasting  more  than  400 
years,  was  broken  in  pieces  and  carried  to 
Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar's  army,  B.  C. 
5,  2  Kin.  25:13,  16. 


SEAL,  SEALING.  From  a  very  early 
period  seals  or  signets  have  been  common 
in  the  East  as  an  article  for  ornament  and 
use,  furnishing  a  convenient  substitute  for 
writing  the  name.  They  were  made  of 
gold,  silver,  bronze,  common  or  precious 
stones — which  were  sometimes  set  in  met- 
al— and  also  of  burned  clay  or  pottery. 
Small  ones  were  set  in  finger-rings ;  larger 
ones  were  of  various  shapes,  often  a  cylin- 
der 2  or  3  inches  long,  used  as  a  roller,  and 
suspended  on  the  breast.  Song  8:6,  or  worn 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


on  the  wrist,  as  it  now  is  by  many  Arabs, 
Gen.  38:18,  25.  The  Heb.  hotham,  signet 
or  ring,  was  also  a  proper  name,  i  Chr. 
7:32;  11:44.  The  art  of  engraving  seals  is 
very  ancient,  Exod.  28:11,  etc.  The  signet 
bore  the  owner's  name  and  title,  or  some 
chosen  device,  and  was  frequently  en- 
graved on  several  sides,  and  if  set,  turned 
on  a  swivel,  as  did  the  cylinders.  Among 
the  Babylonians  the  seal,  almost  universal- 
ly worn  by  the  men  depicted,  was  usually 
of  a  religious  character,  and  many  Egyp- 
tian signet-rings  bear  the  names  and  ima- 
ges of  their  gods.  Still  e.xtant  are  the  rings 
of  Thothmes  III.  and  Amenophis  III.,  kings 
of  the  i8th  dynasty  (before  B.  C.  1400) ;  the 
engraved  cylinder-seal  of  Ilgi,  a  Chalda;an 
king  at  Ur,  about  2,000  B.  C. ;  one  of  green 
feldspar  found  in  the  ruins  of  Sennache- 
rib's palace  at  Koyunjik,  and  believed  to 
have  been  his  royal  seal ;  and  another  of 
the  Persian  king  Darius  Hystaspis.  Pri- 
vate and  public  documents  were  authenti- 
cated by  the  impress  of  the  signet — some- 
times smeared  with  a  thick  ink  and  stamped 
on  the  document;  sometimes,  as  among 
the  Chaldaeans  and  Assyrians,  stamped  on 
fresh  clay,  which  was  then  baked,  the  clay 
having  in  many  cases  been  afifi-xed  to  cords 
secured  around  the  documents,  and  being 
preferable  to  wa.x  in  hot  climates.  See  So. 
The  impress  of  the  royal  seal  gave  to  any 
document  the  force  of  law  or  decree,  i  Kin. 
21:8;  and  permanent  or  temporary  invest- 
ment with  authority  as  the  king's  agent  was 
confirmed  by  the  transfer  of  the  royal  seal. 
Gen.  41:42;  Esth.  3: 10,  12;  8:2,  8,  10;  com- 
pare Tobit  1:22.  A  sealed  lump  of  clay 
secured  the  strings  around  bo.xes,  bags, 
and  book-rolls,  Isa.  8:16;  Rev.  5:1 ;  a  sim- 
ilar mode  of  guarding  doors  and  other 
openings  was  in  use,  Song  4:12;  Dan. 
6:17;  Matt.  27:66;  Rev.  20:3,  R.  V.  Trav- 
ellers in  the  East  in  modern  times  have 
met  the  same  custom.  The  use  of  clay  in 
sealing  is  referred  to  in  Job  38:14.  The 
signet,  often  beautiful  and  costly,  was 
highly  prized  and  guarded  by  its  owner. 
Song  8:6;  Jer.  22:24;  Hag.  2:23.  Seals 
were  affixed  to  deeds  attesting  the  transfer 
of  property,  the  Hebrew  custom  apparent- 
ly requiring  the  seal  of  the  purchaser,  as 
an  evidence  of  his  claim,  and  the  executing 
of  2  documents,  one  closely  sealed  and  the 
other  open,  Jer.  32:8-15,  44.  Such  clay 
tablets,  from  i  to  5  inches  in  length,  found 
among  exhumed  remains  assigned  to  the 
first  Chaldaean  monarchy,  before  B.  C.  1300, 
have  been   ascertained  to  be  deeds  and 


contracts.  They  are  closely  inscribed  on 
both  sides  with  cuneiform  characters,  ex- 
cept where  a  cylinder  seal  has  been  rolled 
across  the  document,  leaving  its  impress; 
after  which  they  were  baked  and  then  en- 
veloped in  a  thin  covering  of  moist  clay, 
on  which  was  inscribed  the  title  of  the  in- 
ner document,  and  the  whole  was  then 
baked  afresh.  Discovery  was  recently 
made  in  Babylonia  of  records  of  a  rich 
banking  firm,  e-xtending  from  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's reign  to  that  of  Darius  Hystaspis, 
and  including  deeds  kept  in  large  jars. 
Agreements  and  covenants  were  sealed  by 
both  contracting  parties,  Neh.  9:38;  10:1. 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  signet 
was  usually  set  in  a  ring,  i  Mace.  6: 15,  and 
impressed  on  clay  or  wax. 

Figuratively,  sealing  signifies  authenti- 
cation or  attestation,  Dan.  9:24;  John  z'-oo' 
6:27 ;  Rom.  4:11;  I  Cor.  9:2;  2  Tim.  2:19; 
security.  Dent. 32: 34;  Job  14: 17;  Song 4: 12; 
Ezek.  28:12;  Rom.  15:28;  and  secrecy,  Isa. 
29:11 ;  Dan.  12:4,  9.  What  a  man  seals  he 
claims  as  his  own,  to  be  securely  guarded; 
so  God  is  said  to  seal  his  servants,  Rev. 
7:2,3;  14: 1 ;  comp.  Ezek.  9:4,  6.  He  seals 
believers  by  communicating  to  them  his 
Spirit,  and  thus  securing  and  attesting 
them  as  the  children  of  God,  2  Cor.  1:22; 
Eph.  1:13,  14;  4:30. 

SEA'SONS.     See  Canaan. 

SEAT,  MO'SES',  Matt.  23:2,  the  authority 
of  that  lawgiver,  shared  hy  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  so  far  as  they  taught  in  harmony 
with  him. 

SEATS.  Wealthy  Egyptians  and  Assyr- 
ians had  chairs  and  stools  of  elegant  work- 
manship, as  no  doubt  wealthy  Hebrews 
had,  I  Kin.  2:19;  10:5;  2  Kin.  4:10.  See 
Stool.  Different  degrees  of  rank  and 
dignity  were  ancientlj^  as  now,  in  the  East 
indicated  by  the  style  and  position  of  the 
seat,  Esth.  1:14;  3:1;  Job  29 : 7 ;  Matt.  23 : 5. 
See  Throne.  Low  stools,  on  which  peo- 
ple sat  with  their  feet  on  the  ground,  were 
used,  as  Assyrian  sculptures  show,  by  the 
mass  of  that  people.  A  luxurious  couch 
was  a  favorite  article  of  furniture  with  the 
Persians,  who  reclined  even  at  meals,  Esth. 
1:6;  7:8.  In  earlier  times  the  Hebrews, 
like  the  Egyptians,  sat  at  meals,  Gen.  43:33; 
I  Sam.  20:5,  18,  25.  Later  they  reclined 
at  table  on  couches,  Ezek.  23:41;  Amos 
6:4;  Matt.  9:10,  R.  V.  margin.  See  Eat- 
ing. Sitting  or  lying  on  the  ground  was  a 
sign  of  mourning,  2  Sam.  12:16;  13:31 ;  Job 
2:8,  13;  Isa.  3:26;  47:1,8;  Lam.  2: 10;  Ezek. 
26:16;  Luke   10:13.     Ill  modern  Oriental 

523 


SEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEE 


houses  tlie  inmates  sit,  with  legs  bent  un- 
der and  crossed  in  a  half-kneeling  posture, 
upon  mats  or  carpets  spread  upon  the  floor. 
In  the  houses  of  the  rich  are  cushions  and 
low  divans,  stufTed  with  cotton,  on  which 
people  sit  in  the  same  manner.  Probably 
similar  customs  prevailed  in  ancient  times, 
Mark  3: 19,  20,  32,  34;  Luke  10:39;  Jas.  2:3. 
In  the  East  anciently,  as  now,  not  only 
teachers  and  scholars  or  hearers  sat.  Matt. 
26:55;  Luke  2:46;  5:17;  Acts  22:3,  but 
councillors,  Acts  6:15,  and  judges,  John 
19:13;  Acts  23:3;  25:6,  ta.x-gatherers,  Matt. 
9:9,  merchants  and  exchangers.  Matt.  21:12; 
John  2:14,  and  beggars.  Matt.  20:30.  Dr. 
Wm.  M.  Thomson  says,  "  In  Palestine  peo- 
ple sit  at  all  kinds  of  work,"  and  specifies 
carpenters,  washerwomen,  and  shopkeep- 
ers; and  Canon  H.  B.  Tristram  saw  ma- 
sons, paviors,  and  reapers  sitting  as  they 
wrought. 

In  Rev.  4:4  the  same  Greek  word  is 
used,  translated  in  the  A.  V.  "  seats  "  and 
"thrones;"  in  R.  V.  "thrones;"  compare 
2  Tim.  2:12.  So  in  Rev.  2:13;  16:10,  the 
R.  V.  has  "  Satan's  throne,"  and  "  throne  of 
the  beast." 

SE'BA.     See  Sabeaxs. 

SE'BAT  or  SHE'BAT,  Zech.  1:7,  the  5th 
month  of  the  Hebrew  civil  year,  and  the 
nth  of  the  ecclesiastical  year — from  the 
new  moon  of  February  to  that  of  March. 
See  Month.  They  began  in  this  month  to 
number  the  years  of  the  trees  they  plant- 
ed, the  fruits  of  which  were  esteemed  im- 
pure till  the  4th  year. 

SECA'CAH,  inclosure,  one  of  the  6  cities 
of  Judah  in  "the  wilderness  "  towards  the 
Dead  Sea,  Josh.  15:61.  Perhaps  at  Bir- 
Sukairiyeh,  6  miles  southeast  of  Tekoa  and 
10  east  by  north  from  Hebron. 

SE'CHU,  zvalch-place,  a  place  near  Ra- 
mah,  possessing  a  large  cistern,  i  Sam. 
19:22.  Conder  proposes  Kh.  Suweikeh,  7 
miles  north  by  west  from  Jerusalem,  as  its 
site. 

SECOND  CHILD,  Eccles.  4: 15,  2d  to  the 
king. 

SE'CRET.     See  MvSTERV. 

SECT,  from  a  Latin  word  answering  to 
the  Greek  word  lueresis,  which  latter  our 
translators  have  in  some  places  rendered 
"sect,"  in  others  "heresy."  As  used  in 
the  New  Testament,  it  implies  neither  ap- 
probation nor  censure  of  the  persons  to 
whom  it  is  applied,  or  of  their  opinions, 
Acts  5:17;  15:5.  Among  the  Jews  there 
were  5  sects,  distinguished  by  their  practi- 
ces and  opinions,  yet  united  in  commun- 
524 


ion  with  each  other  and  with  the  body  of 
their  nation :  namely,  the  Pharisees,  the 
Sadducees,  the  Essenes,  the  Herodians, 
and  the  Zealots.  Christianity  was  origi- 
nally considered  as  a  new  sect  of  Judaism ; 
hence  Tertullus,  accusing  Paul  before  Fe- 
li.x,  says  that  he  was  chief  of  the  seditious 
sect  of  the  Nazarenes,  Acts  24:5;  and  the 
Jews  of  Rome  said  to  the  apostle  when  he 
arrived  in  this  city,  "As  concerning  this 
sect,  we  know  that  everywhere  it  is  spoken 
against,"  Acts  28:22.     See  Heresy. 

SECUN'DUS,  fortunate,  a  disciple  of 
Thessalonica,  who  accompanied  Paul  in 
his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  20:4. 

SECURE'  without  caj'e,  free  from  anxiety, 
rather  than  safe,  Judg.  8:11;  18:7,  10,  27; 
Prov.  3:29.  In  Matt.  28:14,  R.  V.,  "rid 
you  of  care." 

SEDI'TION,  Luke  23:19,  25,  A.  V.,  "in- 
surrection," as  in  Mark  15:7.  In  Gal.  5:20 
a  diflferent  Greek  word  is  used,  meaning 
"  divisions,"  as  in  the  R.  V.  and  Rom. 
16:17. 

SEDUCE',  Mark  13:22;  i  John  2:26,  to 
"lead  astray,"  as  in  the  R.  V.  "Sedu- 
cers," 2  Tim.  3:13,  means  "impostors,"  as 
in  the  R.  V. 

SEE.  By  a  Hebrew  idiom  this  term  is 
often  used  to  express  perception  gained 
otherwise  than  by  the  eyes,  Exod.  20:18, 
and  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  "  enjoy," 
Job  7:7;  Psa.  27:13.  To  "see  the  king's 
face,"  2  Kin.  25:19,  margin;  Esth.  1:14; 
Jer.  52:25,  margin,  implies  a  special  privi- 
lege of  approach  to  the  king  as  a  favored 
or  chief  courtier.  The  Persian  court  cere- 
monial was  esjiecially  rigid.  Comp.  Matt. 
iS:  10  ;  I  Cor.  13:12;  Rev.  22:4.    See  F.A.CE. 

SEED,  Gen.  i:u;  often  used  figurative- 
ly. Gen.  3:15;  4:25;  22:17,  iS;  Jer.  31:37; 
Gal.  3:16;  I  Pet.  1:23;  I  John  3:9.  The 
Mosaic  law  forbade  sowing  a  field  with 
"mingled  seed,"  i.  c,  two  or  more  kinds 
of  seed,  Lev.  19:19.  The  "precious  seed" 
is  often  committed  to  the  ground  with 
many  fears ;  but  the  harvest,  at  least  in 
spiritual  things,  shall  be  a  season  of  joy, 
Psa.  126:5,  6. 

SEER,  the  A.  V.  translation  of  2  Hebrew 
words  denoting  persons  supernaturally  en- 
lightened to  see  things  which  God  only  can 
reveal;  applied  to  certain  Hebrew  proph- 
ets, I  Sam.  9:9;  2  Chr.  29:30;  33:18,  19; 
Isa.  29:10;  30:10.  Compare  Num.  24:3,4. 
See  Prophet.  In  2  Chr.  33:19  the  R.  V. 
reads  "  Hosai,"  as  a  proper  name,  instead 
of  translating  it  "seers." 

SEETHE,  E.xod.  16:23;  2  Kin.  4:38,  A.  V., 


SEG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEL 


to  boil  or  stew.  A  "  seething  pot,"  Job 
41:20;  Jer.  1:13,  was  "a  pot  blown,"  i.  e., 
with  a  fanned  fire  under  it — a  kettle  with 
contents  violently  boiling;  compare  Isa. 
54:16. 

SE'GUB,  raised.  I.  A  Judahite,  son  of 
Hezron,  i  Chr.  2:21,  22. 

II.  Youngest  son  of  Hiel,  the  rebuilder 
of  Jericho  in  Ahab's  time,  B.  C.  918-896, 
I  Kin.  16:34. 

SE'IR,  hairy,  shaggy,  a  chief  of  the  Hor- 
ites,  who  early  occupied  the  mountainous 
region  afterwards  possessed  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  Gen.  36:20;  comp.  Gen.  14:6;  Deut. 
2: 12. 

SE'IR,  I.,  MOUNT  SE'IR,  Gen.  14:6,  or 
LAND  OF  SE'IR,  Gen.  32:3;  36:30,  the 
mountainous  region  lying  between  the 
Dead  Sea  on  the  north  and  the  eastern 
gulf  of  the  Red  Sea  on  the  south,  and  be- 
tween the  Arabah  valley  on  the  west  and 
the  elevated  Arabian  desert  on  the  east, 


Deut.  2:1-8.  The  rugged  appearance  of 
the  tract  as  viewed  from  the  mountain 
generally  recognized  as  Mount  Hor,  the 
central  and  highest  peak,  4,800  feet  high, 
justifies  its  name.  See  Idum/ea.  The 
northern  part  of  Mount  Seir  is  now  called 
el-Jebal,  the  Arabic  for  Gebal,  mountain, 
Gebala  having  been  one  of  the  ancient 
names  of  the  region.  South  of  Petra  the 
range  is  called  esh-Sherah,  apparently  a 
corruption  of  Seir. 

II.  Mount  Seir  in  Josh.  15 :  10  was  a  land- 
mark on  the  northern  boundary  of  Judah, 
between  Kirjath-jearim  and  Beth-shemesh. 
Probably  the  ridge  on  which  is  a  village 
called  Saris,  2  miles  southwest  of  Khub- 
bet  el-Enab. 

SEI'RATH,  Judg.  3:26,  Ehud's  place  of 
refuge  after  killing  Eglon ;  apparently  on 
the  southern  verge  of  "  Mount  Ephraim," 
ver.  27,  and  possibly  the  same  as  "  Mount 
Seir,"  II. 


VIEW  OF  PART  OF  THE  MAIN  VALLEY  OF  PETRA. 


SE'LA  or  SE'LAH,  rock,  a  city  of  the 
Edomites  taken  by  Amaziah,  king  of  Ju- 
dah, about  B.  C.  826,  and  by  him  named 
Joktheel,  subdued  by  God,  2  Kin.  14:7. 
About  a  century  later  it  is  mentioned  by 
its  old  name  and  as  if  belonging  to  the  Mo- 
abites,  Isa.  16:1;  compare  Isa.  15.  It  may 
be  denoted  in  other  passages  by  the  word 
sela,  translated  "  rock  "  in  the  A.  V.,  as  in 
Judg.  1:36;  2  Chr.  25:12;  Isa.  42:11;  Obad. 


3,  but  their  references  are  more  or  less 
uncertain.  Under  the  Greek  name  Petra, 
also  meaning  rock,  the  city  is  mentioned 
by  heathen  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and 
by  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  Jerome.  At 
the  close  of  the  4th  century  B.  C.  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  Nabathseans,  who  succeeded 
the  Edomites  in  Edom  proper  or  Mount 
Seir,  and  who  at  Petra  successfully  resist- 
ed the  attacks  of  Antigonus,  one  of  Alexan- 

525 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEL 


der's  successors,  B.  C.  310.  The  city  be- 
came an  important  station  of  trade  between 
the  East  and  Rome,  and  many  Romans 
settled  there.  About  B.  C.  70  it  is  men- 
tioned as  the  capital  of  Arabia  Petraea  and 
the  residence  of  its  line  of  kings  called 
Aretas.  The  ist  wife  of  Herod  Antipas 
was  a  daughter  of  one  of  these  kings,  and 
was  divorced  by  him  to  make  room  for 
Herodias,  Luke  3:19.  Petra  was  subject- 
ed to  Rome  by  Trajan  about  A.  D.  105. 
Christianity  was  early  planted  here,  and  Pe- 
tra furnished  members  for  several  church 
councils.  In  a  few  centuries,  however,  the 
commerce  and  power  of  the  city  declined, 
and  it  is  not  mentioned  in  history  after 
A.  D.  536.  Burckhardt,  in  1812,  was  the 
ist  traveller  who  visited  and  described  it. 
Subsequent  travellers,  especially  Laborde 
in  a  work  published  in  1830,  have  given 
minute  and  graphic  descriptions  of  this 
wonderful  city,  with  drawings  of  the  prin- 
cipal ruins  which  attest  its  ancient  splen- 
dor. 

Petra  is  situated  midway  between  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and 
about  no  miles  from  Jerusalem.  It  lies  in 
an  elevated  valley  of  Jebel  esh-Sherah  (see 
Seir,  Mount),  called  by  the  Arabs  wady 
Mousa,  from  a  tradition  connecting  the  ori- 
gin of  the  gorge  and  the  supply  of  water 
here  with  Moses.  Mount  Hor,  the  sup- 
posed scene  of  Aaron's  death,  rises  above 
Petra  on  the  west.  The  valley  is  2,200  feet 
above  the  Arabah,  and  is  about  J<  of  a 
mile  long  from  north  to  south,  and  from 
350  to  500  yards  wide,  with  numerous  short 
ravines  in  its  sides.  It  is  inclosed  by  pre- 
cipitous cliffs  of  variegated  sandstone,  those 
on  the  west  being  steepest  and  highest.  It 
is  accessible  through  ravines  at  the  north 
and  south,  but  the  main  passage  is  from 
the  east,  through  es-Sik,  the  cleft,  and  be- 
gins between  cliffs  40  feet  high  and  50 
yards  apart,  which  soon  become  higher, 
nearer,  and  full  of  excavated  tombs.  Por- 
tions of  the  ancient  pavement  of  the  road 
in  this  gorge  still  remain.  Es-Sik  is  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  long.  A  small  brook, 
bordered  with  oleanders,  flows  through  it, 
crosses  the  city,  and  passes  off  at  the  west 
through  a  continuation  of  es-Sik.  Near 
the  entrance  to  Petra  its  sides  are  but  12 
feet  apart  and  250  feet  high.  Hewn  out  of 
the  cliff  facing  this  narrow  and  lofty  gate- 
way is  the  most  beautiful  structure  of  Pe- 
tra, a  temple  or  mausoleum,  called  by  the 
Arabs  el-Khaznet  Fir'aun,  the  Treasury  of 
Pharaoh;  the  fa9ade,  85  feet  high,  is  adorn- 
526 


ed  with  pillars  and  rich  sculptures,  for  the 
most  part  in  excellent  preservation.  The 
principal  chamber  is  12  yards  square  and 


GORGI-;   IN   I'lilRA,  WITH  \  PART  OF  EL-KHAZNET. 

25  feet  high  ;  its  walls  and  those  of  3  side- 
chambers  are  plain.  From  here  the  Sik 
widens  towards  the  northwest;  in  a  recess 
on  the  left,  about  2<x)  yards  from  the  Khaz- 
net,  is  a  magnificent  theatre,  also  cutout  of 
the  rock ;  it  has  t,2>  tiers  of  seats,  is  39  yards 
in  diameter,  and  would  accommodate  3,000 
or  4,000  spectators.  About  100  yards  far- 
ther north  the  great  valley  of  the  main  city 
opens.     It  is  strewn  with  ruins  of  temples 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEL 


THE  ROCK-TEMPLE   EL-KHAZNET,  IN   PETRA. 


and  other  public  buildings,  including  a 
church,  and  bridges.  The  large  inclosure 
on  the  western  side,  called  Kasr  Fir'aun, 
Pharaoh's  Casile,  is  the  only  structure  with 
walls  still  standing  of  those  not  excavated 
from  the  mountain.  East  of  it  rises  a  tri- 
umphal arch.  Another  remarkable  monu- 
ment, called  ed-Deir,  the  Convent,  is  reach- 
ed by  a  steep,  narrow,  and  tortuous  ravine 
running  from  the  northwe.stern  angle  of  the 
valley.  It  is  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock; 
its  front  is  152  feet  in  length  and  height, 
and  within  are  naked  walls  of  rock,  with 
a  single  niche.  The  tombs  excavated  in 
the  cliffs  inclosing  the  valley  and  its  side 
gorges  are  numberless,  rising  range  above 
range,  and  are  in  many  cases  highly  orna- 
mented. Many  are  reached  by  steps  cut 
in  the  rock,  while  others  are  inaccessible, 
at  a  height  of  some  400  feet.  The  style  of 
the  various  monuments  shows  a  mixture 
of  Greek  and  Roman  with  Oriental  and 
sometimes  Egyptian  taste.  The  beauty  of 
the  stone  from  which  they  are  wrought 
gives  to  the  whole  scene  a  singular  charm, 
enhanced  by  the  stern  surroundings  of  the 
city.     The  rock  is  a  fine  and  soft  sand- 


stone, variegated  with  red,  purple,  black, 
white,  azure,  and  yellow,  the  deepest  crim- 
son and  the  softest  pink,  while  high  above 
the  cliffs  rise  in  their  native  rudeness  and 
majesty.  Though  the  extant  ruins  belong 
to  the  Nabathaean  and  Roman  period,  none 
the  less  does  the  present  desolation  of  Sela 
show  the  fulfilment  of  prophetic  denuncia- 
tions against  its  former  Edomite  inhabi- 
tants, Isa.  34:5-15;  Je''-  49:7-22;  Ezek.  35; 
Joel  3:19;  Amos  i:ri,  12;  Obad.  3-16.  See 
HoR  and  Idum/ea. 

Sela, translated  "rock"  in  Num.  20:8-11; 
Judg.  1:36,  Rowlands,  Trumbull,  and  oth- 
ers identify  with  a  bold  cliff  at  'Ain  Kadeis, 
Kadesh-barnea,  from  the  base  of  which  a 
copious  stream  of  pure  and  sweet  water 
still  flows,  as  when  struck  by  the  rod  of 
Moses,  supplying  several  wells  and  pools 
and  forming  an  oasis  in  the  desert. 

SE'LAH  a  musical  term  which  occurs  71 
times  in  the  Psalms,  and  is  found  also  in 
Hab.  y.i,  9,  13.  It  usually  occurs  at  the 
end  of  a  period  or  strophe,  but  sometimes 
at  the  end  only  of  a  clause.  This  difficult 
word,  it  is  now  generally  believed,  was  a 
direction   for  a  meditative   pause   in    the 

527 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEN 


singing  of  a  psalm,  during  which  perhaps 
there  was  an  instrumental  interlude. 

SELEU'CIA,  a  fortified  city  of  Syria,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  5  miles  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes  and  16  miles  west  of 
Antioch,  whose  seaport  it  was.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  embarked  here  on  their  ist  mis- 
sionary tour.  Acts  13:4,  and  probably  land- 
ed here  on  their  return,  Acts  14:26.  The 
chief  part  of  the  city  lay  on  the  slope  of 
Mount  Coryphaeus,  the  southern  e.xtrem- 
ity  of  Mount  Pierius,  a  branch  of  Mount 
Amanus,  and  was  called  Seleucia  Pieria, 
and  sometimes  Seleucia  by  the  sea,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  several  other  cities  named 
from  its  founder  Seleucus  Nicator,  one  of 
the  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Seleucus  died  B.  C.  280,  and  was  buried 
here.  The  city  was  taken  by  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  B.  C.  246,  but  was  recovered  70 
years  later  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  It 
retained  its  importance  under  the  Romans, 
and  was  a  free  city  in  Paul's  time.  Seleu- 
cia had  a  good  harbor,  with  an  outer  port, 
and  an  inner  basin  covering  over  47  acres. 
The  harbor  is  now  choked  with  sand  and 
mud;  but  its  masonry  is  well  preserved, 
and  includes  2  ancient  piers  called  Paul 
and  Barnabas.  A  part  of  the  city  wall  re- 
mains, with  a  gateway  at  its  southeastern 
angle,  through  which  Paul  may  have  passed. 
The  ruins,  now  Selukeyeh,  are  desolate, 
but  a  small  village  called  Kalusi  is  near 
the  ancient  city. 

SELEU'CUS,  the  name  of  6  of  the  Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  from  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great  until  Syria  was  made  a  Ro- 
man province,  B.  C.  65.  Seleucus  I.,  called 
Nicator,  conqueror,  reigned  B.  C.  312-280, 
founded  Antioch  and  other  cities,  and  was 
the  most  powerful  of  the  Seleucidae.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Antiochus  (I.) 
Soter,  B.  C.  280-261.  The  dynasty  is  in- 
cluded among  the  "4  horns"  of  the  "he- 
goat,"  Dan.  8:8,  22,  and  several  of  the  kings 
are  denoted  by  the  "  king  of  the  north,"  as 
opposed  to  the  "  king  of  the  south,"  i.  e., 
Egypt,  in  ch.  11.  Verse  6  refers  to  the  3d 
Seleucid  king  Antiochus  (II.)  Theos,  B.  C. 
261-246;  ver.  7-9  to  his  son  and  successor 
Seleucus  (II.)  Callinicus,  B.  C.  246-226; 
ver.  10  to  his  2  sons,  Seleucus  (III.)  Cerau- 
nus,  B.  C.  226-223,  a"d  Antiochus  (III.)  the 
Great,  B.  C.  223-187,  whose  course  verses 
11-19  predict;  from  his  reign  dates  the 
subjection  of  the  Jews  to  the  Seleucidae. 
Verse  20  refers  to  Seleucus  (IV.)  Philopa- 
tor,  B.  C.  187-175,  styled  "  king  of  Asia  "  in 
■»  Mace.  2>'-2»  ^"d  "raiser  of  taxes  "  in  Dan. 
528 


11:20.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  younger 
brother,  Antiochus  (IV.)  Epiphanes,  B.  C. 
175-164,  who  terribly  oppressed  the  Jews, 
as  Daniel  predicted,  11:21-30.  The  re- 
maining Seleucidae  had  somewhat  short 
and  troubled  reigns.  In  the  time  of  Simon 
Maccabaeus,  B.  C.  143,  the  Jews  acquired  a 
degree  of  independence  for  a  time,  and 
more  completely  under  his  son  John  Hyr- 
canus. 

The  Seleucidic  Era  dated  from  the  vic- 
tory of  Seleucus  I.  over  Antigonus,  in  Bab- 
ylonia, B.  C.  312.  This  era  was  long  dorri- 
nant  in  Central  and  Western  Asia.  The 
Jews  were  forced  to  adopt  it,  for  civil  con- 
tracts, etc.,  after  they  passed  from  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt 
to  that  of  Antiochus  the  Great  and  his  suc- 
cessors, B.  C.  200;  and  continued  to  use  it 
till  the  final  close  of  their  schools  on  the 
Euphrates,  A.  D.  1040,  since  when  they 
have  dated  from  the  creation. 

SEM,  Luke  3:36,  A.  v.,  Greek  form  of 
She.m. 

SEM'EI,  Luke  3:26,  or  Sem'ein,  R.  V., 
one  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ ; 
possibly  Shemaiah,  i  Chr.  3:22. 

SENA' AH,  thorny,  a  place  whose  inhab- 
itants returned  with  Zerubbabel,  B.  C.  536, 
Ezra  2:35;  Neh.  7:38;  and  according  to 
Neh.  3:3,  where  the  Hebrew  article  is  pre- 
fixed (has-Senaah),  built  the  fish-gate,  B.  C. 
445.  It  is  traced  in  Magdal-Senna,  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  now  Kh. 
el  'Afijah,  7  miles  north  of  Jericho. 

SEN'ATE,  Acts  5:21,  probably  the  body 
of  elders,  constituting  one  of  the  3  elements 
of  the  Sanhedrin,  the  other  2  being  the 
chief  priests  and  the  scribes.  See  Sanhe- 
drin. 

SE'NEH,  Ihorn-biish,  apparently  the 
southernmost  of  the  2  "  sharp  rocks  "  be- 
tween Geba  (A.  V.  Gibeah)  on  the  south 
and  Michmash  on  the  north,  i  Sam.  14:4,  5. 
Between  Jeba  and  Mukhmas,  which  are 
about  a  mile  apart,  is  the  deep  valley  wady 
Suweinit,  crossed  by  "  the  passage  of  Mich- 
mash," I  Sam.  13:23;  Isa.  10:28,  29.  The 
rocks  may  denote  its  steep  sides,  or  per- 
haps the  hillocks  which  obstruct  its  bed. 

SE'NIR.     See  Shenir. 

SENNACH'ERIB  or  SENNACHE'RIB,  on 
the  monuments  Sin-akhi-erba,  Sin  (the 
moon-god)  increases  brothers,  king  of  As- 
syria, son  and  successor  of  Sargon,  B.  C. 
705-681.  The  Scripture  references  to  him 
are  remarkably  confirmed  and  supplement- 
ed by  contemporary  inscriptions  on  cylin- 
ders, sculptured  bulls,  and  slabs  of  stone 


SEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEN 


exhumed  from  the  long -buried  ruins  of 
Nineveh.  In  the  2d  year  of  his  reign  he 
quelled  a  revolt  in  Babylon,  where  Mero- 
dach-baladan,  dethroned  a  few  years  be- 
fore by  Sargon,  had  reestablished  himself 
as  king.  Appointing  an  Assyrian  viceroy 
in  Babylon,  Sennacherib  waged  a  success- 
ful war  against  the  Aramtean  tribes  on  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Zagros  mountains  east  of  Assyria,  and 
in  a  hitherto  independent  portion  of  Media. 
In  B.  C.  701  he  led  a  campaign  against  the 
Phoenician  and  Philistine  cities  and  Judah, 
all  of  which  had  been  tributary  to  Assyria 
and  had  revolted.  Compare  2  Kin.  16:7-9; 
18:7.  He  subdued  Phceniciaand  Philistia, 
defeating  an  Egyptian  army  sent  to  the  re- 
lief of  Ekron,  and  turned  his  arms  against 
Hezekiah,  who  had  encouraged  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  Ekronites.  Sennacherib  attacked 
the  fortified  cities  of  Judah,  2  Kin.  18:13; 
2  Chr.  32:1,  of  which  he  claims  to  have 
captured  46,  with  their  suburban  fortress- 
es and  villages  and  their  spoil;  he  also 
claims  to  have  taken  captive  over  200,000 
Judahites,  and  to  have  prepared  to  besiege 
Jerusalem  by  building  towers  around  it 
and  earth-mounds  opposite  its  gates.  If 
these  records  are  correct,  Isaiah  may  refer 
to  this  desolation  and  captivity  of  Judah  in 
ch.  24:1-12  ;  and  in  ch.  22:1-13  to  this  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  for  whose  defence  Hezekiah 
prepared  by  strengthening  the  walls  and 
diverting  the  outer  water-courses,  2  Chr. 
32:2-8.  He  sent  ambassadors  to  Sennach- 
erib at  Lachish  with  a  message  of  sub- 
mission, and  paid  a  tribute  of  30  talents 
of  gold  and  300  talents  of  silver,  2  Kin. 
18:14.  The  amount  of  gold  is  the  same  in 
the  Assyrian  inscription,  but  the  silver  is 
there  stated  at  800  talents — the  additional 
amount  being  perhaps  afterwards  e.xtorted 
by  Sennacherib  on  finding  Hezekiah's  re- 
sources equal  to  it,  ver.  15.  The  Assyrian 
record  adds  that  many  of  Hezekiah's  cities 
were  given  to  the  kings  of  Ashdod,  Aske- 
lon,  Ekron,  and  Gaza.  In  B.  C.  700  anoth- 
er revolt  in  Babylonia  was  quelled  by  Sen- 
nacherib, who  made  his  eldest  son  viceroy. 
It  is  believed  that  Hezekiah  "after  this," 
2  Chr.  32:9,  again  revolted  from  Assyria, 
engaging  the  help  of  Egypt,  as  the  Bible 
narrative  implies,  Isa.  30:1-7;  31:1;  36:6; 
that  Sennacherib  again  invaded  Judah, 
and  there  sustained  that  tremendous  re- 
verse of  which  naturally  his  own  monu- 
ments say  nothing,  but  which  seems  to  be 
referred  to  in  an  Egyptian  story.  A  year 
or  two  may  have  intervened  betw-en  these 

34 


2  invasions.  From  Lachish  Sennacherib 
despatched  ambassadors  and  troops  to  Je- 
rusalem to  demand  with  insults  Hezekiah's 
unconditional  surrender,  2  Kin.  18:17-37; 
from  Libnah  also  he  sent  a  letter  defying 
Jehovah,  2  Kin.  19:8-13.  Hezekiah  spread 
the  threats  and  blasphemies  of  Sennache- 
rib before  the  Lord,  and  received  through 
Isaiah  assurances  of  divine  protection — 
which  were  speedily  fulfilled,  and  185,000 
Assyrians  were  miraculously  slain  "that 
night,"  ver.  1-7,  14-35;  Isa.  31:4-9;  37:29, 
33-36.  This  may  have  occurred  at  Libnah 
or  at  some  point  nearer  Egypt,  towards 
which  Sennacherib  may  have  marched  to 
meet  the  Ethiopian  army,  2  Kin.  19:9.  An 
Egyptian  story,  reported  by  Herodotus, 
relates  that  Sennacherib  was  opposed  at 
Pelusium  by  an  inferior  force  under  an 
Egyptian  king  named  Sethos,  who  invoked 
the  help  of  his  gods,  and  that  in  the  night 
field-mice  nibbled  the  bowstrings  of  the 
Assyrians,  who  the  ne.xt  morning  fled. 
Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh,  ver.  36, 
and  appears  to  have  thenceforth  left  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt  unmolested.  He  prosecu- 
ted successful  wars  in  Armenia  and  Media 
and  against  the  Babylonians  again  in  re- 
volt, and  their  allies  the  Susianians,  whom 
he  assailed  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
with  a  Phoenician  naval  force.  In  the  last 
8  years  of  his  reign  Babylon  seems  to  have 
been  independent,  but  submitted  to  his  suc- 
cessor Esar-haddon.  Sennacherib,  while 
worshipping  in  a  temple,  was  murdered 
by  2  of  his  sons,  about  B.  C.  681,  2  Kin. 
19:37;  compare  ver.  7.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  younger  and  favorite  son. 

Isaiah's  portraiture  of  the  pride  of  Sen- 
nacherib, who  still  was  but  an  instrument 
of  God,  Isa.  10:12-27,  is  verified  by  the 
boastful  tone  of  his  inscriptions:  he  calls 
himself  "  the  subduer  of  kings  from  the 
upper  sea  of  the  setting  sun  to  the  lower 
sea  of  the  rising  sun,"  i.  e.,  from  the  Med- 
iterranean to  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  was  a 
great  builder  also.  At  Nineveh,  which  he 
made  his  capital,  he  built  a  magnificent 
palace  over  8  acres  in  area,  and  containing 
more  than  60  ground-floor  apartments,  in- 
cluding a  hall  180  feet  long  and  40  feet 
wide.  Planks  of  foreign  timber,  including 
cedars  of  Lebanon,  Isa.  37:24,  were  em- 
ployed for  ceilings,  spanning  the  width  of 
the  rooms.  This  palace,  much  of  which 
has  been  e.xplored  since  its  first  unearth- 
ment  by  Layard  in  1847,  occupies  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  mound  of  Koyunjik  op- 
posite Mosul.     The  huge  alabaster  tablets 

529 


SEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


wainscoting  the  rooms  to  the  height  of  lo 
or  12  feet,  were  covered  with  bas-reHefs 
and  cuneiform    inscriptions;    and   though 


large  portions  of  these  have  perished  by 
violence  and  time,  the  remaining  slabs  and 
fragments  are  full  of  interest.      Hunting 
S30 


and  building  scenes  are  represented,  the 
king  often  aj^pearing  as  a  spectator.  His 
military  exploits  are  portrayed,  including 
his  war  against  Phccnicia  and  Judali.  A 
series  of  well-preserved  bas-reliefs  repre- 
sents the  siege  and  capture  of  a  large  and 
strong  city;  part  of  it  is  already  taken, 
while  elsewhere  the  battle  is  fiercely  ra- 
ging. Captives  are  seen  flayed,  impaled, 
and  put  to  the  sword.  From  one  of  the 
gales  a  long  procession  of  prisoners  is 
brought  before  the  king,  who  is  seated  on 
his  throne  outside  of  the  city.  Two  eunuchs 
stand  behind  him  holding  fans  and  nap- 
kins. The  prisoners  are  presented  by  the 
vizier,  accomimnied  bj^  military  officers. 
The  inscription  is  thus  translated :  "  Sen- 
nacherib the  mighty  king,  king  of  the 
country  of  Assyria,  sitting  on  the  throne 
of  judgment  at  the  gate  of  the  city  Lachisa  ; 
I  give  permission  for  its  slaughter."  The 
captives  are  partially  stripped  and  have 
the  appearance  of  Hebrews.  Sennacherib 
also  restored  an  ancient  palace  at  Nineveii, 
partially  e.xhumed  in  the  mound  of  Neby 
Yunus,  improved  the  city  fortifications, 
embanked  the  Tigris  channel,  constructed 
aqueducts,  and  built  a  temple  to  Nergal. 

Little  did  Sennacherib  anticipate  the 
utter  ruin  of  his  own  proud  metropolis, 
and  still  less  that  the  ruins  of  his  palace 
should  preserve  to  this  remote  age  the  tab- 
lets containing  his  own  history,  and  the 
image  of  his  god  Nisroch  so  incapable  of 
defending  him,  to  bear  witness  for  the  dod 
whom  he  blasphemed  and  defied.  See 
NiNEVKH,  Nisroch,  Sargon,  and  So. 

SEN'TENCE,  Acts  IS- 19,  in  the  R.  V. 
"judgment." 

SE'PHAR,  "a  mountain  of  the  East,"  a 
boundary  of  the  Joktanites,  Gen.  10:30; 
generally  identified  with  the  ancient  sea- 
port Dhafari  or  Zafar.on  the  Indian  Ocean, 
east  of  the  midway  point  of  the  southern 
coast  of  Arabia.  A  mountain  near  the 
town  was  celebrated  for  its  frankincense. 
The  district  of  Isfor  is  now  occupied  by  a 
series  of  villages  with  adjacent  ruins.  See 
Mi;sH.\. 

SEPHA'RAD,  Obad.  20,  a  place  from 
which  captive  Jews  were  to  return  to  Ju- 
dah.  Jewish  authorities  interpret  it  as 
Spain,  and  the  Spanish  Jews  have  long 
been  named  Sephardim,  in  distinction 
from  the  other  chief  section  of  the  race, 
the  Ashkenazim  or  German  Jews.  It  is  a 
question,  however,  whether  any  Jews  had 
been  transported  to  Spain  at  the  date  of 
Obadiah's    prophecy:    and    some    regard 


SEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


Sei)harad  as  identical  with  Sippara;  see 
Ski'HARVAIM;  others  with  Sardis  in  Lydia; 
compare  Joel  3:6. 

SEPHARVA'IM,  a  j)lace  whence  colonists 
were  transported  to  Samaria  as  substitutes 
for  the  captive  Israelites,  after  B.  C.  721, 
2  Kin.  17  :  24.  It  is  identified  with  Sip- 
para, situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphra- 
tes (hence  its  dual  Hebrew  name),  about 
20  miles  north  of  Babylon.  Sennacherib 
mentions  Sepharvaini  as  a  city  subdued 
by  the  Assyrians  before  his  time,  2  Kin. 
19:11-13,  no  doubt  by  Sargon  and  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.  Sippara  was  a  chief  seat  of  the 
worship  of  the  sun,  and  appears  in  various 
inscriptions  as  Tsipar-sha-Shamas,  Sippara 
of  the  smi,  with  the  goddess  Anunit  wife 
of  the  sun— the  2  deities  being  probably 
intended  by  the  "  Adrammelech  and  Anam- 
melech  "  cruelly  adored  by  the  Sepharvites, 
2  Kin.  17:31.  The  Chaldsean  account  of 
the  Deluge  says  that  Xisuthros  (Noah) 
buried  the  antediluvian  records  at  Sippa- 
ra, and  that  his  posterity  recovered  them 
thence.  The  modern  town  Mosaib  is  near 
the  ancient  site. 

SEP'TUAGINT,  seventy,  the  oldest  Greek 
version  of  the  Old  Testament.  Its  name, 
(jften  represented  by  the  Roman  numerals 
LXX.,  is  generally  derived  from  the  tradi- 
tion that  the  translators  were  70  or  72  in 
number.  According  to  Josephus,  6  elders 
I'lom  each  tribe  were  sent  to  Ale.\-andria 
with  a  copy  of  the  Law  requested  by  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,  and  translated  it  in  72 
days.  The  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the 
translation  vary  in  some  points,  but  agree 
in  stating  that  it  was  made  at  Alexandria, 
begun  under  the  early  Ptoletnies,  about  B. 
C.  285,  and  that  the  Pentateuch  was  transla- 
ted first.  The  whole  of  the  Old  Testament 
seems  to  have  been  complete  in  Greek  in 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  (VII.)  Physcon,  about 
B.  C.  130.  See  Alexandria.  Internal 
evidence  suggests  that  it  was  made  by 
different  persons  at  different  times  from 
Egyptian  Hebrew  MSS.,  and  by  Alexan- 
drian Jews  more  or  less  imperfectly  versed 
in  Hebrew.  The  books  of  Moses  are  the 
best  translated.  The  version  is  faithful  in 
substance  as  a  whole,  but  contains  many 
errors.  Its  chronology  differs  materially 
from  that  of  the  Hebrew  te.xt,  adding,  for 
example,  5o6  years  between  the  creation 
and  the  deluge.  The  version  is  of  great 
value  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  in  some  passages  is  believed 
to  represent  the  older  and  more  accurate 
Hebrew  text  than  that  of  existing  Hebrew 


MSS.  It  is  frecjuenlly  quoted  by  the  New 
Testament  writers,  whose  Greek  is  found- 
ed on  that  of  the  Septuagint.  It  was  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Jews  at  the  coming  of 
Christ;  according  to  Philo  a  festival  was 
held  yearly  at  Alexandria  to  celebrate  its 
completion.  By  its  diffusion  wherever 
Greek-speaking  Jews  were  settled  it  pre- 
pared the  minds  of  surrounding  heathen 
inquirers  for  the  gospel;  and  when  finally 
Christ  was  preached  it  made  easy  for 
Greeks  and  Hellenistic  Jews  the  verifica- 
tion of  his  claims  by  comparison  of  them 
with  the  LXX.  Old  Testament  prophecies, 
Acts  17:11.  See  Quotations.  It  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  the  close  cf  the 
2d  century,  and  later  into  Egyptian  dia- 
lects, Elhiopic,  and  other  languages.  So 
constantly  was  it  quoted  by  Christian  teach- 
ers and  writers  that  the  Jews,  pressed  in 
controversy  by  references  to  it,  began  to 
deny  its  faithfulness  to  the  Hebrew,  and 
in  the  2d  century  adopted  in  its  stead  a 
more  literal  Greek  version  by  Aquila,  a 
Jewish  proselyte  of  Pontus.  The  LXX.  is 
still  the  recognized  authority  in  the  Greek 
Church.  The  Apocryi;)hal  books  were  grad- 
ually and  early  added  to  the  Septuagint. 
See  Apocrypha.  The  oldest  known  MSS. 
of  the  Septuagint  are  3,  supposed  to  have 
been  written  in  the  4th  century,  and  now 
in  St.  Petersburg,  London,  and  Rome.  No 
Hebrew  Old  Testament  MS.  of  an  earlier 
date  than  the  loth  century  is  known  to 
exist. 


TOMBS   HEWN   IN  THE  ROCK,  PETRA. 

SEP'ULCHRE,  a  burial-place  or  tomb. 
The  ist  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  that  of 
Abraham,  was  a  cave  in  the  field  of  Mach- 
pelah   near   Hebron,   Gen.   23.      See    He- 

531 


SEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


BKON.  Family  sepulchres  were  common 
£i:id  prized  among  the  Hebrews,  Gen. 
49:29-32;  50:13;  Judg.  8:32;  16:31;  2  Sam. 
2:32;  21 :  14  ;  comp.  2  Sam.  19:37  and  i  Kin. 
13:22.  They  had  also  public  burial-places, 
2  Kin.  23:6;  Jer.  26:23;  Matt.  27:7.  Their 
tombs  were  sometimes  underground,  Clen. 
3S'-^'<  I  Sam.  31:13;  Ezek.  39:15;  Luke 
11:44;  but  were  often  in  the  side  of  a  hill, 
2  Kin.  23:16.  Natural  caverns  abound  in 
the  hills  of  Palestine,  and  were  often  used 
as  tombs,  being  enlarged  and  otherwise 
adapted.  Gen.  50:5,  13.  Sepulchres  were 
also  excavated  in  the  solid  rock  at  great 
expense,  Isa.  22:16;  Matt.  27:57-60;  comp. 
Isa.  53:9.  Richly  adorned  tombs  of  this 
kind  are  numerous  in  Petra.  See  cuts  and 
SicLA.  Burial  caves  are  found  along  the 
bases  of  hills  in  all  parts  of  Syria:  as  on 
the  south  side  of  Hermon,  the  west  side  of 
Olivet,  the  hillside  west  of  Nain,  in  the 
gorge  of  Barada  and  in  the  sea-cliffs  north 


'»*«i^ 


with  2  Chr.  33:20,  or  in  a  sepulchral  house. 
Job  30:23;  PZccles.  12:5.  See  also  Josh. 
24:30;   I  Kin.  2:34.     The  kings  of  Israel 


OTHKR  TOMBS,  ETC.,  IN  PETRA. 

of  Acre.  Burial-grounds  were  usually  out- 
side of  city  limits,  as  is  now  the  case  in 
Syria,  "Mark  5:1-5;  Luke  7:11-14;  and  it 
appears  to  be  noted  as  e.\ceptional  that  the 
kings  of  Judah  were  buried  in  Jerusalem, 
on  Mount  Zion,  i  Kin.  2:10;  11:43;  15:24; 
2  Kin.  9:28;  2  Chr.  16:14;  32:33;  35:24; 
Neh.  3:16;  comp.  Acts  2:29.  The  good 
high-priest  Jehoiada  shared  this  royal  hon- 
or, 2  Chr.  24:16,  from  which  sotne  of  the 
kings  were  debarred,  2  Chr.  21:6-20;  26:23; 
28:27.  The  prophet  Samuel  was  interred 
in  "his  house  at  Ramah,"  i  Sam.  25:1, 
perhaps  in  the  garden;  comp.  2  Kin.  21:18 
532 


"tomb  of  ABSALOM,"  ROCK  TOMBS,  AND  GRAVES 
IN  THE   KIDRON  VALLEY. 

were  buried  in  Samaria  after  they  estab- 
lished their  capital  there,  i  Kin.  16:28; 
22:37.  Sepulchral  inscriptions  seem  to 
have  been  rare  among  the  Hebrews,  but 
burial-places  were  sometimes  honored  by 
"pillars,"  Gen.  35:20,  or  marked  for  dis- 
honor by  heaps  of  stones.  Josh .  7 :  26 ;  8 :  29 ; 
2  Sam.  18: 17.  The  Hebrew  word  translated 
"  title  "  in  2  Kin.  23 :  17,  R.  V.  "  monument," 
is  "sign"  in  Ezek.  39:15.  Contact  with 
sepulchres  produced  defilement  according 
to  the  Mosaic  law.  Num.  19:16;  comp.  Isa. 
65:4.  In  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Jews  every  spring  to  whitewash 
the  outside  of  sepulchres  as  a  guard  against 
defilement,  and  Christ  com|)ares  the  hypo- 
critical Pharisees  to  such  tombs,  Matt.  23:27, 
28;  also  to  "tombs  which  api^ear  not,"  as 
not  suggesting  to  their  admiring  observers 
any  idea  of  their  inward  defilement,  Luke 
11:44.  It  was  thought  an  act  of  piety  by 
the  Pharisees  to  preserve  and  adorn  the 
tombs  of  the  prophets;  yet  they  were  as 
far  as  their  fathers  the  prophet-killers  had 
been  from  honoring  the  real  principles  of 
God's  servants,  as  they  showed  by  oppo- 
sing and  killing  the  divine  Prophet  and  his 
disciples.  Matt.  23:29-36;  Luke  11:47-51. 
In  the  East  as  elsewhere  superstitious  ven- 
eration for  the  tombs  and  bones  of  men 
reputed  as  saints  is  still  combined  with 
habitual  violation  of  many  of  the  laws  of 
God. 

The  Mishna,  about  A.  D.  200,  describes 
a  Jewish  rock  tomb  as  consisting  of  a  fore- 
court large  enough  to  accommodate  a  bier. 


SEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


bearers,  etc.,  and  opening,  through  an  en- 
trance closed  by  a  large  stone  tliat  could 
be  rolled  away,  Matt.  27 :  59-66 ;  Mark  15 :  46 ; 
i6:i-S;  Lu. 24:1-12;  John  11 : 38-44;  19:38- 
42,  into  a  chamber  3  yards  square  or  more, 
whose  3  other  sides  contained  recesses, 
each  for  one  corpse.  Sometimes  the  court 
gave  entrance  on  different  sides  to  several 
such  chambers.  The  recesses  were  cut  into 
the  rock  horizontally  6  feet  or  more,  and 
were  about  2  feet  wide  and  3  feet  high ;  the 
corpse  was  placed  in  one  of  these  uncof- 
fined,  with  the  feet  outward,  and  the  en- 
trance was  closed  by  a  stone.  Sometimes 
there  were  2  or  3  tiers  of  recesses,  with  a 
ledge  in  front  on  which  the  closing  stone 


rested.  Hebrew  tombs  of  earlier  times 
may  have  been  simpler,  as  were  those  of 
the  poor  at  all  times,  and  did  not  alway;; 
prevent  bodies  from  touching  each  other, 
2  Kin.  13:21.  After  the  introduction  of 
Greek  and  Roman  customs,  shallow  or 
shelf  recesses  were  also  used,  parallel  witli 
the  side  of  the  chamber,  not  at  right  angles 
with  it;  such  are  found  in  some  of  the  sep- 
ulchres about  Jerusalem,  and  of  this  sort 
apparently  was  Christ's  tomb,  in  which  one 
angel  sat  at  the  head  and  another  at  the 
foot  of  the  recess,  John  20: 12. 

The  most  noted  tombs  of  Palestine  are 
the  cave  of  Machpelah  under  the  mosque 
at  Hebron ;  the  tomb  of  Joseph  near  She- 


RACHliLS   TOMB,    NHAR   BKTHLEHEM. 


chem,  Josh.  24:32;  the  traditional  tomb  of 
David  and  his  dynasty  on  Mount  Zion, 
outside  of  the  city  wall  and  under  a  build- 
ing once  a  Christian  church  and  now  a 
mosque ;  the  traditional  sepulchre  of  Christ 
luider  the  "  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre," 
within  Jerusalem;  the  so-called  "  tombs  of 
the  kings,"  about  ^  a  mile  north  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  "  of  the  judges,"  about  a  mile  north 
of  the  city;  and  "  of  the  prophets,"  on  the 
west  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The 
last  seems  to  be  a  specimen  of  a  purely  Jew- 
ish sepulchre — originally  a  natural  cavern, 
having  only  the  deep  recesses,  and  no  ar- 
chitectural mouldings  such  as  indicate  the 


late  origin  of  many  of  the  tombs  around 
Jerusalem.  The  "tombs  of  the  judges" 
has  3  chambers,  with  about  60  deep  re- 
cesses arranged  in  3  tiers.  The  extensive 
and  costly  sepulchre  called  "  the  tombs  of 
the  kings  "  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  the 
work  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabentf ,  a  little 
kingdom  east  of  the  Tigris;  she  was  a 
proselyte  to  Judaism  and  a  benefactress  of 
the  poor  at  Jerusalem  in  the  famine  pre- 
dicted by  Agabus,  Acts  11:28.  The  tomb 
is  approached  through  a  low  arched  door- 
way, closed  by  a  cumbrous  rolling  stone, 
which  admits  into  an  open  court  excavated 
out  of  the  rock,  and  92  feet  long  by  87  feet 

533 


SEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


SCALE  OF  FEET; 


"tombs  of  the  prophets,"  on  olivet. 


wide.  On  the  west  of  this  is  a  vestibule  39 
feet  wide,  with  a  richly-sculptured  frieze. 
On  the  south  side  of  the  vestibule  is  the 
descent  to  the  sepulchre,  which  consists  of 
an  entrance-hall  about  20  feet  square,  with 
3  square  chambers  opening  from  it,  2  of 
them  below  its  level  and  approached  b\ 


steps ;  one  of  these  lower  rooms  gives  en- 
trance on  the  north  to  a  4th  chamber.  la 
the  sides  of  the  chambers  are  many  deep- 
recesses  for  the  reception  of  the  dead.  The 
innermost  chamber  formerly  contained  i 
richly-ornamented  stone  sarcophagi.  The 
loinljs  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  valley 


PLAN  OF  THE 


'tombs  of  the  kings." 


of  Hinnom,  wady  er-Rab5bi,  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Christian  church  served  as  her- 
mitages, and  were  later  used  as  dwellings 
for    the   poor    and    as    shelter    for    flocks. 

534 


Some  bear  Greek  inscriptions  of  Christiai» 
origin. 

A  more  probable  site  for  the  sepulchre 
of  Christ  than  that  of  the  church  in  Jerusa- 


SER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


lein  has  been  suggested  by  Capt.  Conder : 
it  is  a  tomb  lately  discovered  outside  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  near  a  locality  which, 
according  to  a  tradition  current  among 
Spanish  Jews  at  Jerusalem,  was  the  ancient 
place  of  execution,  and  which  agrees  with 
the  description  of  the  "  house  of  stoning  " 
given  by  Jewish  writers  of  the  2d  century. 
The  tomb  is  of  the  shallow-recess  form 
described  above,  John  19:17-20,41;  20:12. 

The  Egyptians  excavated  large  sepul- 
chres in  the  sides  of  the  mountains  that 
skirt  the  Nile  valley,  Exod.  14:11.  The 
pyramids  were  erected  as  tombs  for  their 
kings.     See  Embalming. 

In  the  Chaldsean  lowland,  sepulchres, 
Gen.  11:28,  as  appears  from  excavations 
in  the  vast  and  crowded  burial  mounds 
around  the  sites  of  ancient  cities,  e.  g.,  at 
Mugheir  and  VVarka  (probably  Ur  and 
Erech),  were  sometimes  arched  brick 
vaults  large  enough  to  hold  several  bodies 
deposited  uncoffined;  or  the  corpse  was 
laid  on  a  brick  pavement  and  inclosed  with 
a  rounded  cover  of  baked  clay  7  feet  long, 
2  or  3  feet  high  and  broad;  or  was  placed 
in  2  great  clay  jars,  which  were  then  bitu- 
niened  together  at  the  mouths.  Articles  of 
personal  property,  for  use  and  ornament, 
were  buried  with  the  dead  in  Egypt  and 
Chaldaea. 

The  Greeks  commonly  burned  their  dead 
and  deposited  the  bones  and  ashes  in  urns 
to  be  buried  in  the  public  burying-places 
outside  the  cities.  Among  the  Romans, 
who  at  first  interred  the  dead,  the  practice 
of  burning  them,  adopted  from  the  Greeks, 
became  general  towards  the  end  of  the  re- 
public.    Burial  was  outside  of  the  cities. 

SE'RAH,  abundance,  a  daughter  of  Ash- 
er,  thrice  named  among  those  who  migra- 
ted to  Egypt,  Gen.  46:17;  Num.  26:46; 
I  Chr.  7:30.  Why  she  was  thus  distin- 
guished is  unknown,  but  the  rabbis  have 
many  fables  respecting  her.  The  A.  V. 
has  Sarah  in  Numbers. 

SERA'IAH,  ivarrior  of  Jehovah,  I.,  a  Ju- 
dahite,  i  Chr.  4:13,  14;  comp.  Josh.  15:17. 

II.  A  scribe  of  David,  2  Sam.  8: 17  ;  called 
also  Sheva,  2  Sam.  20:25;  Shisha,  i  Kin. 
4:3;  Shavsha,  i  Chr.  18:16. 

III.  A  Simeonite,  i  Chr.  4:35;  compare 
ver.  38-41. 

IV.  One  of  the  men  charged  by  Jehoia- 
kim  to  take  Jeremiah  and  Baruch,  about 
B.  C.  606,  Jer.  36:26. 

V.  A  brother  of  Jeremiah's  secretary  Ba- 
ruch, Jer.  51:59-64;  comp.  Jer.  32:12.  He 
went  to  Babylon  on  some  embassy  from 


king  Zedekiah,  B.  C.  595;  Jer.  51:59,  mar- 
gin, and  was  commissioned  by  Jeremiah 
to  perform  there  an  act  symbolical  of  the 
destruction  of  the  city.  He  is  called  "  a 
quiet  prince  "  in  the  A.  V.,  in  the  margin 
"chief  of  vicnncha,"  which  is  translated 
"resting-place"  in  Num.  10:33;  he  may 
have  directed  the  caravan  and  its  halts  on 
its  way  to  Babylon. 

VI.  The  high-priest  at  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldseans,  B.  C.  5SS; 
put  to  death  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Rib- 
lah,  2  Kin.  25:18-21;  1  Chr.  6:14;  Jer. 
52 :  24-27  ;  an  ancestor  of  Ezra,  Ezra  7:1. 

VII.  One  of  the  Jewish  military  leaders 
who  accepted  Gedaliah  as  governor,  2  Kin. 
25:23;  Jer.  40:8. 

VIII.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel,  B.  C.  536,  Ezra  2:2;  Neh.  12:1,  12; 
called  Azariah  in  Neh.  7:7. 

IX.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  B.  C.  445; 
perhaps  the  same  mentioned  as  "  ruler  of 
the  house  of  God,"  Neh.  11: 11. 

SER'APHIM,  burning  ones,  beings  be- 
held by  Isaiah  in  his  vision  of  God  en- 
throned in  the  temple,  Isa.  6:1-7.  Their 
form  is  represented  as  human,  with  the 
addition  of  6  wings,  2  pairs  of  which  cov- 
ering the  face  and  the  feet  indicate  the 
deepest  humility  and  reverence,  the  other 
pair  being  used  promptly  to  execute  the 
will  of  God.  The  seraphim  surround  his 
throne  and  responsively  praise  him.  The 
prophet  being  overwhelmed  with  a  sense 
of  personal  and  national  guilt,  a  seraph 
ministers  to  him  from  the  altar,  the  ap- 
pointed provision  for  atonement,  Heb.  i :  14. 
The  seraphim  appear  to  be  distinct  from 
the  cherubim  in  Ezekiel's  vision,  Ezek. 
1:5-25;  10;  though  the  latter,  in  Ezek. 
1  :  13,  14,  have  the  burning  appearance 
supposed  to  be  denoted  by  the  word  sera- 
phim; comp.  Heb.  1:7.  Gesenius  derives 
the  word,  not  from  the  Heb.  saraph,  "  to 
burn,"  but  from  the  root  of  an  Arabic  word 
meaning  "  high,  exalted." 

SER'GEANTS,  Acts  16:35,  38,  properly 
Roman  lictors,  public  servants  who  bore 
bundles  of  rods,  sometimes  with  an  axe  in 
the  centre,  before  the  magistrates  of  cities 
and  colonies  as  insignia  of  their  office,  and 
who  executed  the  sentences  which  their 
masters  pronounced. 

SER'GIUS  PAU'LUS,  the  Roman  ruler  of 
Cyprus,  converted  under  Paul's  ministry. 
Acts  13:6-12,  A.  D.  45  ;  called  "  deputy  "  in 
the  A.  V. ;  "proconsul  "  in  the  R.  V.  He 
was   a    man  of  intelligence   and   candor. 

535 


SER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


Cyprus,  at  first  an  imperial  province  after 
the  assignment  made  by  Augustus,  B.  C. 
27,  and  governed  by  a  propraetor,  was  left 
by  the  emjieror  under  the  senate,  and 
thereafter  governed  by  a  "proconsul." 
Luke's  use  of  the  proper  Greek  title  is  an 
instance  of  his  minute  accuracy.  Coins  of 
Cyprus  struck  in  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Claudius,  A.  D.  41-54,  give  the  same  title 
to  the  governor  of  Cyprus. 

SER'MON  ON  THE  MOUNT,  the  com- 
mon name  of  the  longest  reported  dis- 
course of  Jesus,  Matt.  5-7.  In  Luke  6:20- 
49  there  is  probably  a  briefer  report  of  the 
same,  the  variations  being  only  what  might 
well  be  expected  from  2  different  narra- 
tors. It  was  delivered  near  Capernaum 
earl}'  in  the  2d  year  of  Christ's  public  min- 
istry, probably  A.  D.  28,  and  as  Matthew 
states  on  a  mountain,  as  Luke  says  on  a 
plain  ;  Christ  no  doubt  having  come  down 
from  the  higher  and  more  retired  region 
to  which  he  had  withdrawn  for  prayer  and 
the  choice  of  the  12  apostles,  to  the  verge 
of  the  mount  where  was  "  a  level  place," 
Luke  6:17,  R.  v.,  capable  of  accommoda- 
ting a  large  number  of  hearers — his  disci- 
ples and  the  multitude.  In  it  our  Lord 
illustrates  in  many  ways  the  divine  and 
spiritual  nature  of  true  religion,  having  its 
throne  in  the  heart  and  effectually  control- 
ling the  life,  in  contrast  with  a  merely  in- 
herited, ceremonial,  or  outwardly  moral 
religion. 


THE   COBRA    DI    CAPELLO. 

SER'PENTS.  These  reptiles,  unclean  by 
the  Mosaic  law,  Lev.  1 1 :  10,  41,  42,  are  most 
numerous  and  venomous  in  tropical  cli- 
mates. They  are  divided  into  2  great  class- 
es :  the  first  including  those  which  have  on 
each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  a  movable  tu- 
bular poison-fang  connected  with  a  poison- 
sac  at  its  root,  and  constituting  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  the  species  known  to  naturalists. 
536 


The  remaining  species,  though  destitute  of 
these  movable  fangs,  contain  several  kmds 
which  are  venomous.  Venomous  serpents 
abounded  and  still  abound  in  North  Africa, 
Arabia,  and  Syria,  and  are  often  referred 
to  in  tiie  Bible;  but  the  various  terms  em- 
ployed are  not  always  so  definite  that  we 
can  apply  them  with  certainty  to  existing 
species.  See  Adder,  Asp,  Cock.\trici;. 
Vii'icK.  The  most  frequent  Hebrew  term 
for  the  serpent  is  nachasli,  probably  de- 
rived from  its  hissing.  Allusion  is  made 
to  the  serpent's  subtilty.  Gen.  3:1;  its  in- 
sidious attack,  Gen.  49:17;  its  fierceness 
and  venom,  Psa.  58:4;  Prov.  23:32;  its 
lurking  in  hedges  and  walls,  Eccles.  10:8; 
Amos  5:19;  its  forked  tongue,  Psa.  140:3: 
its  mode  of  progression,  Prov.  30: 19 — aided 
by  its  scales,  and  its  numerous  ribs,  at- 
tached only  to  the  spinal  vertebrae;  and  to 
the  oviparous  nature  of  most  of  the  spe- 
cies, Isa.  59:5.  A  serpent-form  was  em- 
ployed by  Satan  to  tempt  Eve,  Gen.  3: 1-13; 
hence,  as  well  as  for  his  crafty  malignity, 
he  is  called  "the  serpent"  and  the  "old 
serpent,"  2  Cor.  11:3;  Rev.  12:9,  14,  15, 
over  whom  Christ  is  to  be  completely  vic- 
torious. Gen.  3:15;  Rev.  20:1-3,7-10;  com- 
pare Rom.  16:20.  It  is  not  probable  that 
the  form  and  movement  of  the  serpent  were 
ever  otherwise  than  they  are  at  present; 
but  after  its  agency  in  the  fall  they  were 
appointed  a  sign  of  the  debasement  and 
defilement  of  sin  and  of  God's  condemna- 
tion of  it,.Gen.  3:14.  See  R.MNBOW.  The 
serpent  symbolizes  wickedness,  Matt.  23 :  jt},- 
Among  most  heathen  nations  it  has  been 
an  emblem  of  evil,  probably  from  a  tradi- 
tion of  the  fall.  The  Assyrian  tablets  of 
creation  connect  the  agency  of  a  serpent 
with  the  first  sin  of  man.  Zoroastrianism 
taught  that  the  evil  spirit  Ahriman  spoiled 
the  beautiful  region  first  prepared  by  the 
good  spirit  Ormuzd  by  sending  into  it  a 
venomous  serpent,  and  also  that  Ahriman 
under  the  guise  of  a  serpent  first  taught 
man  to  sin.  Yet  the  serpent  was  wor- 
shipped in  Egypt  and  was  regarded  as  the 
emblem  of  a  beneficent  power  among  the 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  On 
Egyptian  monuments  the  cobra  occurs  as 
the  emblem  of  immortality  and  of  the  be- 
neficent god  Kneph;  and  thus  the  first 
miracle  performed  before  Pharaoh  by  Mo- 
ses and  Aaron  had  a  direct  bearing  on  the 
idolatry  of  Egypt,  Exod.  7:8-12;  compare 
4: 1-5,  17,  20,  28-30.  Serpent-charming  has 
from  time  immemorial  been  practised  in 
the  East,  and  is  alluded  to  in  the  Bible. 


SER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


The  serpent  usually  employed  by  the  Egyp- 
tian charmers  is  the  Egyptian  cobra,  or 
haje,  a  snake  from  3  to  6  feet  long,  similar 
to  the  Naja  tripudians,  dancing  naja,  or 
cobra  di  capello,  of  India,  with  which  the 
Hindoo  jugglers  perform  their  feats.  Both 
these  serpents  when  excited  expand  sev- 
eral pairs  of  anterior  ribs  and  inflate  the 
fore  part  of  the  body  so  that  it  somewhat 
resembles  a  hood.  The  modern  Egyptian 
charmers  are  said  to  be  able  to  render  the 
haje  perfectly  rigid  by  a  peculiar  pressure 
upon  its  neck,  so  that  it  can  be  held  out 
horizontally  like  a  rod;  and  this  has  been 
suggested  as  a  possible  explanation  of  the 
operations  of  Pharaoh's  magicians.  It  is 
more  probable,  however,  that  the  power  of 
God  worked  with  them  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent for  the  furtherance  of  his  own  pur- 
pose and  glory;  comp.  Exod.  7:22;  8:7, 
18;  I  Sam.  28:11-14.  The  cerastes  or 
horned  viper  is  also  charmed  in  Egypt. 
Serpents  have  no  external  ear-opening,  and 
appear  to  take  pleasure  in  shrill  sounds ; 
hence  the  charmers  whistle,  or  play  on  a 
pipe  or  flute,  and  sing  a  sort  of  incantation, 
and  attract  uncaught  serpents  from  their 
concealment  and  capture  them.  The  ser- 
pents on  exhibition  sway  back  and  forth 
to  the  music,  and  allow  themselves  to  be 
freely  handled  by  the  charmer,  even  while 
in  full  possession  of  fangs  and  poison-bags 
and  using  them  immediately  afterwards  on 
other  animals.  Eusebius,  A.  D.  270-340, 
speaks  of  serpent-charmers  as  abounding 
in  Palestine  and  using  a  vocal  charm,  Psa. 
58:4,  5;  Eccles.  10:11;  Jer.  8:17;  Jas.  3:7. 
See  Charmer. 

The  "fiery  serpents"  by  which  many  of 
the  rebellious  Israelites  were  bitten  and 
killed  in  the  desert  on  the  north  of  Sinai, 
Num.  21:4-6;  Deut.  8:15,  may  have  been 
so  called  from  the  agonizing  heat  caused 
by  their  bite.  In  our  own  day  death  has 
been  known  to  follow  the  bite  of  a  venom- 
ous serpent  in  2  or  5  minutes.  The  "  ser- 
pent of  brass,"  Num.  21:7-9,  had  no  heal- 
ing virtue  in  itself,  but  was  a  test  of  the 
penitence,  faith,  and  obedience  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  true  healer  was  God,  Isa.  45:22. 
The  apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom,  about 
B.  C.  100,  ch.  16:6,  7,  says  of  this  "sign  of 
salvation,"  "  He  that  turned  himself  to- 
wards it  was  not  saved  by  the  thing  that  he 
saw,  but  by  Thee,  that  art  the  Saviour  of 
all."  Christ  himself  shows  that  the  brazen 
serpent  was  a  type  of  him — the  believing 
view  of  whom  is  instant  salvation  to  the 
soul  infected  by  the  fatal  poison  of  sin,  John 


3 :  14,  15 ;  comp.  Rom.  8:3:2  Cor.  5:21;  Gal. 
3:13.  The  brazen  serpent,  having  become 
an  object  of  idolatrous  worship,  was  de- 
stroyed by  Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  18:4.  See 
Nehushtan. 

Isaiah,  30:6,  mentions  the  "fiery  flying 
serpent "  as  a  denizen  of  Egypt,  or  of  the 
desert  between  Judah  and  Egypt;  in  ch. 
14:29  he  applies  the  same  term  figuratively 
to  some  oppressor  of  the  Philistines,  possi- 
bly Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  18:8;  comp.  2  Chr. 
26:1,  6,  7;  or  Sennacherib.  (See.)  The 
designation  may  refer  to  the  burning  effect 
of  a  serpent's  bite  and  to  the  rapidity  of  its 
dart.  In  Egypt  a  serpent  was  a  common 
symbol  of  a  powerful  king.  Some  power 
oppressive  to  the  people  of  God  is  symbol- 
ized in  Isa.  27: 1. 

The  "  crooked  '"  or  rather  "fleeing  "  ser- 
pent of  Job  26: 13  is  believed  to  be  the  con- 
stellation called  "  the  Dragon  "  in  both  an- 
cient and  modern  times,  passing  between 
the  "Great  Bear"  and  the  "  Little  Bear." 

The  sagacity  shown  by  serpents  in  avoid- 
ing danger  is  alluded  to  by  Christ  in  warn- 
ing his  disciples  not  to  provoke  unneces- 
sary persecution.  Matt.  10:16;  comp.  ver. 
23;  Acts  8;  I.  Immunity  from  harm  by 
serpents  was  promised  by  Christ  to  his 
first  disciples,  Mark  16:18;  Luke  10:19, 
and  experienced  by  Paul,  Acts  28  : 3-6; 
comp.  Psa.  91 :  13.  In  the  early  Christian 
church  the  serpent  symbolized  Christ's  vic- 
tory over  the  devil,  the  virtue  of  prudence 
or  wisdom,  and  also  the  cross  of  Christ 
himself,  John  3:14. 

SE'RUG,  branch,  a  descendant  of  Shem 
and  an  ancestor  of  Abraham,  Gen.  11:20- 
26;  Luke  3:35,  R.  V.  Jewish  tradition  says 
he  was  the  ist  of  his  line  that  fell  into  idol- 
atry, Josli.  24:2. 

SER'VANT.  This  word  is  the  A.  V.  ren- 
dering of  several  Hebrew  and  Greek  words, 
most  frequently  of  the  Heb.  ebed,  from  a 
verb  signifying  to  work,  and  of  the  Greek 
DOULOs,  from  a  verb  meaning  to  bind. 
Both  words  might  in  a  great  number  of 
cases  be  rendered  "  bond -servant  "  or 
"slave,"  denoting  one  in  a  state  of  invol- 
untary servitude  to  another.  Gen.  41:12; 
comp.  39:1;  Exod.  12:44;  I  Cor.  7:21,  22. 
This  was  the  condition  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  Exod.  1:13,  14;  20:2;  Deut.  5:15. 
Sometimes  the  word  denotes  one  who  vol- 
untarily dedicates  himself  to  another's  ser- 
vice :  thus  Joshua  was  the  "servant"  of 
Moses,  Exod.  33: 11,  the  Hebrew  word  here 
used  being  also  translated  "minister," 
Exod.  24:13.    The  servants  of  Pharaoh,  of 

537 


SER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


Saul,  and  of  David  were  their  subjects  in 
general,  and  their  court  officers  and  coun- 
sellors in  particular.  The  Syrians  and 
other  nations  were  servants  of  Uavid,  that 
is,  they  obeyed  liim  and  paid  Iiim  tribute, 
2  Sam.  8.  The  servants  of  (iod  are  those 
who  are  devoted  to  his  service  and  obey 
his  holy  word.  Israel  is  called  the  ser- 
vant of  God,  Lev.  25:42,  55;  Isa.  41:8;  and 
the  term  is  applied  preeminently  to  the 
Messiah,  Isa.  52:13;  Acts  4:27,  30,  R.  V. ; 
comp.  Phil.  2:7.  One  appointed  by  God 
to  perform  any  special  work  is  called  his 
servant,  as  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  25 : 9.  The 
a])ostles  were  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
servants  of  Jesus  Christ,  Rom.  1:1,  a  title 
given  also  to  all  Christians,  i  Cor.  7:22.  By 
nature  man  liabitually  obeys  the  prompt- 
ings of  his  own  evil  heart  and  the  sugges- 
tions of  the  tempter,  and  so  is  "  the  bond- 
servant of  sin;"  from  this  bondage  Christ 
delivers  those  who  receive  him  as  their 
Saviour  and  King,  John  8:31-47;  Rom. 
6:16-23. 

The  households  of  some  of  the  early 
patriarchs  contained  many  servants,  who 
were  apparently  treated  with  kindness  and 
justice;  the  highest  trusts  were  sometimes 
confided  to  them,  and  they  might  inherit 
their  master's  estate,  Gen.  14:11-16:  15:2- 
4;  24:1-10;  Job  31:13-18.  They  shared  the 
religious  privileges  of  the  household,  Gen. 
17:9-13,  27;  18:19,  and  probably  were  not 
transferred  to  other  masters. 

At  the  establishment  of  the  Hebrew  com- 
monwealth involuntary  servitude  was  ev- 
erywhere prevalent ;  and  so  far  as  it  exist- 
ed among  the  Hebrews  Moses  sought  to 
bring  it  under  the  restrictions  demanded 
by  religion  and  humanity.  The  mildest 
form  of  bond-service  was  that  of  a  Hebrew 
in  the  house  of  another  Hebrew.  He  might 
become  bound  to  this  service  in  various 
ways,  chiefly  through  poverty.  Exod.  21 .2- 
II  ;  Lev.  25:39-47;  to  acquit  himself  of  a 
debt  he  could  not  otherwise  pay,  2  Kin. 
4:1 ;  to  make  restitution  for  a  theft,  Exod. 
22:3;  or  to  earn  the  price  of  his  ransom 
from  captivity  among  heathen.  This  form 
of  service  could  not  continue  more  than  6 
or  7  years;  unless,  when  the  7th  year  ar- 
rived, the  servant  chose  to  remain  perma- 
nently or  until  the  Jubilee  with  his  master, 
in  token  of  which  he  suffered  his  ear  to  be 
bored  before  witnesses.  Exod.  21:2,  6; 
Lev.  25:40.  The  Hebrew  servant  was  not 
to  be  made  to  serve  with  rigor,  nor  trans- 
ferred to  any  harder  bondage;  he  had  an 
appeal  to  the  tribunals,  a  right  to  all  reli- 
538 


gious  privileges,  the  power  of  demanding 
release  on  providing  a  pecuniary  equiva- 
lent, and  a  donation  from  his  master  at  his 
release.  Lev.  25:47-55;  Deut.  15: 12-18.  The 
law  likewise  provided  for  the  deliverance 
of  a  Hebrew  who  was  in  bondage  to  a  res- 
ident foreigner,  Lev.  25:47-54.  But  that 
the  Mosaic  regulations  in  regard  to  the 
treatment  of  Hebrew  servants  were  at  times 
violated  appears  from  Jer.  34:8-23;  comp. 
2  Chr.  28:8-15.  At  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Captivity  they  possessed  7,337 
servants  or  slaves,  Ezra  2:65,  presumably 
non-Hebrews.  The  attempt  to  resume  the 
holding  of  Hebrews  as  bond-servants  was 
promptly  disallowed  by  Nehemiah,  ch. 
5:1-13.  Large  numl>ers  of  Hebrews  were 
at  different  times  enslaved  as  war-captives 
by  the  Philistines  and  Pluenicians,  Joel 
3:1-6;  Amos  1:6,  by  the  kings  of  Egypt 
and  Syria,  and  by  the  Romans. 

From  the  heathen  around  and  among 
them,  especially  from  their  captive  enemies 
and  the  remains  of  the  Caiiaanites,  the 
Hebrews  obtained  many  servants.  These 
were  protected  by  law,  Deut.  i  :  16,  17; 
27: 19.  and  might  become  i)roselytes,  attend 
the  festivals,  enjoy  religious  instruction 
and  privileges,  Exod.  12:44;  Deut.  12:18; 
29:10-13;  31:10-13.  The  servant  who  was 
mutilated  by  his  master  was  to  be  set  free, 
Exod.  21:26,  27;  the  refugee  from  foreign 
oppression  was  to  be  welcomed,  Deut. 
23:15,  16;  and  kidnapping  or  man-stealing 
was  forbidden  on  pain  of  death,  Exod. 
21:16;  Deut.  24:7;  I  Tim.  r:io.  See  Nkth- 
INIM  and  Solomon's  si-;rv'.\nts.  The 
holding  of  non- Hebrew  slaves  survived 
the  return  from  Captivity,  but  was  opposed 
by  the  Pharisees. 

Hired  servants,  sometimes  fientiles,  were 
also  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  Exod. 
12:45;  Lev.  25:6;  Isa.  16:14;  Mark  1:20. 

The  Romans  held  in  bondage  captives 
taken  in  war,  and  purchased  slaves.  Their 
bondage  was  perpetual,  and  the  master 
held  unquestioned  control  of  the  person 
and  life  of  his  slaves.  Yet  large  numbers 
were  set  free,  and  in  many  instances  Ro- 
man freedmen  rose  to  the  highest  honors. 
A  favorite  slave  of  a  Roman  centurion  was 
healed  by  Christ,  Luke  7:2-10.  Many  of 
the  early  Christians  were  slaves,  i  Cor. 
7:21 ;  such  was  Onesimus  the  bond-servant 
of  Philemon.     (See.) 

The  allusions  of  the  Bible  to  involuntary 
servitude  imply  that  it  is  an  evil  and  unde- 
sirable condition  of  life;  yet  tiie  bondman 
who  cannot  obtain  his  freedom  is  divinely 


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exhorted  to  contentment,  i  Cor.  7  :  20-24. 
Meanwhile  the  Bible  gives  directions  as 
to  the  mutual  duties  of  masters  and  ser- 
vants, Eph.  6:5-9;  €01.3:22-4:1;  Tit.  2:9, 
10;  Phile. ;  i  Pet.  2:18;  and  proclaims  the 
great  truths  of  the  common  origin  of  all 
men,  the  immortality  of  every  human  soul, 
and  its  right  to  the  Bible  and  to  all  neces- 
sary means  of  knowing  and  serving  the 
.Saviour — the  application  of  which  to  all 
the  relations  of  master  and  servant,  supe- 
rior and  inferior,  employer  and  employed, 
would  prevent  all  oppression,  which  God 
abhors,  Deut.  24:14;  Psa.  103:6;  Isa.  10:1- 
3;  Amos  4:1 ;  Mai.  3:5;  Jas.  5:4.  The  prin- 
ciples of  the  Bible  have  operated  to  the 
mitigation  and  gradual  abolition  of  slavery 
in  Christian  countries. 

The  term  applied  to  Phoebe,  Rom.  16:1, 
is  the  feminine  of  the  Greek  word  which  is 
also  translated  "deacon."  See  Dk.^con- 
Kss  and  Phebe. 

SER'VITOR,  2  Kin.  4:43,  a  servant  or 
attendant. 

SET  ON,  Acts  18: 10,  assault.  "  Set  to  his 
seal,"  John  3:33,  "  set  his  seal  to  this." 

SETH,  appointed,  called  SHETH  in  i  Chr. 
I :  I,  the  1st  son  of  Adam  after  the  death  of 
Abel,  Gen.  4:25,  26;  5:3,  6,  8,  and  ancestor 
of  the  line  of  godly  patriarchs,  who  believed 
the  promises  and  held  fast  the  truth  trans- 
mitted through  them  from  Adam. 

SE'THUR,  hidden.  Num.  13:13,  a  prince 
from  the  tribe  of  Asher,  one  of  the  12  sent 
by  Moses  to  explore  Canaan. 

SET'TLE,  Ezek.  43:14,  17,  20;  45:19,  a 
border  or  ledge  around  the  altar. 

SEVEN.  As  from  the  beginning  this 
was  the  number  of  days  in  the  week,  so  it 
often  has  in  Scripture  a  sort  of  emphasis 
attached  to  it,  and  is  very  generally  used  as 
a  round  or  perfect  number.  Clean  beasts 
were  taken  into  the  ark  by  sevens,  Gen.  7. 
The  years  of  plenty  and  famine  in  Egypt 
were  marked  by  sevens.  Gen.  41.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Mosaic  law  not  only  was  there  a 
7th  day  Sabbath,  but  the  7th  month  was 
particularly  distinguished,  every  7th  year 
was  a  sabbath,  and  after  every  7  times  7 
years  came  a  jubilee.  The  great  feasts  of 
unleavened  bread  and  of  tabernacles  were 
observed  for  7  days;  the  number  of  ani- 
mals in  many  of  the  sacrifices  was  lim- 
ited to  7.  The  golden  candlestick  had  7 
branches.  Seven  priests  with  7  trumpets 
went  around  the  walls  of  Jericho  7  days, 
and  7  times  on  the  7th  day.  In  the  Apoc- 
alypse we  find  7  churches  mentioned,  7 
candlesticks,  7  spirits.   7  stars,  7  seals,  7 


trumpets,  7  thunders,  7  vials,  7  plagues, 
and  7  angels  to  pour  them  out. 

Seven  is  often  put  for  any  round  or 
whole  number, just  as  we  use  "ten"  or  "a 
dozen  ;"  so  in  Matt.  12:45 ;  i  Sam.  2:5;  Job 
5:19;  Prov.  26:16,  25;  Isa.  4:1;  Jer.  15:9. 
In  like  manner  7  times  or  7-fold  often 
means  abundantly,  completely,  Gen.  4:15, 
24;  Lev.  26:24;  Psa.  12:6;  79:12;  Matt. 
iS:2i.  And  70  times  7  is  a  still  higher  su- 
perlative, Matt.  18:22. 

The  regard  given  to  the  number  7  was 
not  restricted  to  the  Hebrews,  but  pre- 
vailed among  the  Persians,  Esth.  1:10,  14, 
the  ancient  people  of  India,  and  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  to  a  certain  extent. 

With  the  exception  of  six,  seven  is  the 
only  numeral  word  which  the  Shemitic 
languages  have  in  common  with  the  Indo- 
European.  The  Hebrew  "  sheba,"  seven, 
is  essentially  the  same  as  the  term  in 
Greek,  Latin,  Sanscrit,  Persian,  Gothic, 
English,  etc.  The  notion  of  7  is  also  em- 
bodied in  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  to 
swear,  literally  to  "  do  7  times;"  compare 
Gen.  21:29-31.  See  Sheba.  The  half  of 
7,  3>2 ,  is  believed  to  represent  incomplete- 
ness, and  secondarily  suffering  and  disas- 
ter; it  appears  in  the  prophetic  term  "a 
time,  and  times,  and  half  a  time,"  Rev. 
12:14;  Dan.  7:25;  12:7,  and  other  equiva- 
lent expressions,  Rev.  11:3;  12:6;  13:5. 

SEVEN,  THE,  Acts  21:8.  Comp.  Acts 
6:1-6. 

SEVEN  STARS,  THE,  Amos  5:8.  See 
Plei.\.des. 

SEVENTY  ■WEEKS,  Dan.  9  :  24-27. 
Counting  "  each  day  for  a  year,"  Ezek.  4:6, 
this  is  a  period  of  490  years,  the  last  period 
of  probation  for  the  Jewish  nation.  It  has 
been  estimated  to  begin  with  the  "  com- 
mand," Dan.  9:25,  of  Artaxerxes  Longima- 
nus  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  pub- 
lished at  Jerusalem  in  July,  B.  C.  457,  by 
Ezra,  ch.  7;  and  to  end  with  the  divinely- 
appointed  formal  commencement  of  the 
proclamation  of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles, 
as  represented  by  Cornelius  and  his  friends, 
Acts  10:1-11:18,  whose  conversion  would 
be  placed  by  this  calculation  in  A.  D.  32. 
The  70th  "week"  of  years  is  estimated  to 
begin  with  Christ's  entrance  upon  his  pub- 
lic ministry  at  his  baptism  in  the  fall  of 
A.  D.  25;  for  one  "week,"  /.  /?.,  7  years,  he 
personally,  and  after  his  ascension  through 
his  apostles,  "  confirmed  the  covenant  with 
many;"  compare  the  notices  of  numerous 
conversions  among  the  Jews  prior  to  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen  and  the  mission  of 

539 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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Peter  to  Cornelius,  Acts  2:41,  47;  5:14-16; 
6:7.  "  In  the  midst  of  the  week,"  i.  e.,  after 
a  ministry  of  y/2  jears,  Christ  superseded 
tiie  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  ritual,  Dan. 
9:26,  27,  fulfilling  their  typical  import  and 
efficacy  and  providing  the  reason  for  their 
actual  termination,  by  his  sacrifice  of  him- 
self on  the  cross  in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  29. 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Ro- 
man prince  Titus,  A.  D.  70,  is  predicted  in 
ver.  26,  27;  compare  Matt.  24:15-22;  Luke 
21:20. 

SEVERAL,  2  Kin.  15:5;  Matt.  25:15,  sep- 
arate, individual,  or  isolated. 

SHAALAB'BIN,  Josh.  19:42,  or  SHAAL'- 
BIM,  Judg.  1 :35,  place  of  foxes,  a  town  as- 
signed to  Dan,  but  held  for  a  time  by  the 
Amorites,  whom  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  as- 
sisted in  subduing.  It  was  in  one  of  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  districts,  i  Kin.  4:9,  is 
associated  with  Beth-shemesh  and  Ajalon, 
and  is  probably  represented  now  by  the 
village  Selbit,  3  miles  northwest  of  Yalo  or 
Ajalon. 

SHAAL'BONITE,  2  Sam.  23:32;  I  Chr. 
11:33,  a  native  of  Shaalbon,  a  place  un- 
known. 

SHAARA'IM,  or  in  the  A.  V.,  Josh.  15:36, 
incorrectly  SHARA'IM,  two  gateways,  I.,  a 
town  in  the  Shephelah  or  plain  of  Judah, 
I  Sam.  17:52.  It  may  be  represented  by 
the  ruin  Kh.  es-.Siagh,  13  miles  west  of  Je- 
rusalem, 2^  east  of  Beth-shemesh. 

II.  Shaaraim  in  the  list  of  the  cities  of 
Simeon,  i  Chr.  4:31,  is  probably  identical 
with  Sharuhen,  Josh.  19:6,  and  Shilhim, 
Josh.  15:32. 

SHAASH'GAZ,  scrt'aut  of  the  beatitiful, 
Esth.  2: 14,  a  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus. 

SHAD'DAI,  in  the  A.  V.  always  rendered 
'■  .Almighty, "  an  ancient  name  of  God,  self- 
appropriated  in  his  revelations  to  the  He- 
brew patriarchs,  and  in  use  by  them.  Gen. 
17:1;  28:3;  35:11;  43:14,  before  the  name 
Jehovah  was  revealed  in  its  full  signifi- 
cance, Exod.  6:3.  In  the  book  of  Job  it  is 
often  used  by  Job,  Eliphaz,  and  Elihu,  Job 
5:17;  6:4;  32:8,  and  once  by  God  himself. 
Job  40:2.  It  was  also  used  by  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  Balaam,  Num.  24:4,  16,  and  contin- 
ued in  occasional  use  in  Israel,  as  by  Nao- 
mi, Ruth  1:20,  21;  David,  Psa.  68:14;  see 
also  Psa.  91  :  I ;  Isaiah,  ch.  13:6;  Ezekiel, 
ch.  I  :  24 ;  10  :  5 ;  and  Joel,  ch.  i :  15.  One 
of  the  Greek  equivalents  used  in  the  Septu- 
agint,  Pantokrator,  Almighty  or  All-ruler, 
is  also  employed  in  the  New  Testament  as 
one  of  the  titles  of  God,  2  Cor.  6:18;  Rev. 
1:8;  4:8,  etc. 
540 


SHAD'OW  sometimes  denotes  intense 
darkness  and  gloom,  Psa.  23:4,  and  some- 
times a  cool  retreat;  Isa.  32:2,  or  perfect 
protection,  Psa.  17:8;  Isa.  49:2.  The  long 
shadows  cast  by  the  declining  sun  are  allu- 
ded to  in  Job  7:2;  Jer.  6:4.  The  swift, 
never-ceasing  motion  of  a  shadow  is  an 
emblem  of  human  life,  i  Chr.  29:15;  Psa. 
102:11.  The  term  is  sometimes  used  to 
express  the  relation  of  the  types  of  the 
Mosaic  economy  to  the  realities  of  the 
Christian  dispensation,  Col.  2:17;  Heb. 
8:5;  10:1. 

SHA'DRACH,  7-oyal  one,  the  Chaldaean 
name  given  to  Hananiah  at  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's court,  B.  C.  604,  Dan.  i  -.j.  See  Abkd- 
NKGO.  Shadrach  and  his  2  companions  in 
the  furnace,  ch.  3,  are  alluded  to  among  the 
examples  of  faith,  Heb.  11:34.  During  the 
persecution  of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  Mattathias,  father  of  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus,  encouraged  his  sons  by  referring 
to  their  deliverance,  i  Mace.  2:59. 

SHA'KING,  Ezek.  37:7,  an  earthquake. 

SHA'LEM,  peace,  Gen.  33:18.  Most  in- 
terpreters read  here,  "Jacob  came  in  peace 
to  the  city  of  Shechem  ;"  comp.  Gen.  28 :  21 ; 
33:19;  Josh.  24:32;  John  4:5.  If,  however, 
Shalem  is  a  proper  name,  the  town  may  be 
identified  with  Salim,  a  village  35^  miles 
east  of  Nablus,  or  Shechem.  The  Samari- 
tan codex  and  apparently  Josephus  favor 
the  former  reading;  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate 
the  latter. 

SHA'LIM.  rather  SHA'ALIM,  jackals, 
LAND  OF,  I  Sam.  9:4,  an  undetermined 
locality  in  Ephraim;  perhaps  the  "  land  of 
Shual,"  I  Sam.  13:17,  in  the  region  of  Oph- 
rah. 

SHAL'ISHA,  LAND  OF,  I  Sam.  9:4,  a 
district  adjoining  Mount  Ephraim.  The  city 
Baal-shalisha,  2  Kin.  4:42,  is  thought  to  be 
traced  at  Tullfiza,  6  miles  east  of  Samaria, 
and  the  land  of  Shalisha  in  the  plain  south 
of  the  town  and  east  of  Shechem. 

SHAL'LECHETH,  cutting  otd,  I  Chr. 
26:16,  a  gate  on  the  west  of  Solomon's 
temple,  communicating  with  the  viaduct 
from  his  palace,  i  Kin.  10:5.  Grove  would 
place  it  at  the  gate  now  called  es-Silsileh. 
the  main  entrance  to  the  Haram  area,  600 
feet  from  its  southwestern  corner. 

SHAL'LUM,  retribution,  I.,  the  murderer 
of  Zachariah,  king  of  Israel,  and  usurper 
of  his  throne,  B.  C.  772.  He  reigned  only 
I  month,  and  was  killed  in  Samaria  by 
Menahem,  2    Kin.   15:10-15.      See    Z.^CH.v- 

RIAH. 

II.  See  Jkhoahaz,  II. 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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III.  The  husband  of  Huldah  the  proph- 
etess in  the  time  of  Josiah,  B.  C.  623,  2  Kin. 
22:14. 

Others  of  this  name  are  alluded  to  in 


I  Chr.  2:40;  7:13;  9:17,  19,  31 ;  Ezra  2:42; 
7:2;   10:24,42;  Neh.  3:12;  7:45;  but  little 
is  known  of  them. 
SHAL'MAN.     See  next  page. 


SHALMANE'SER,  fire-ivor shipper,    the  I  connected  with  the  history  of  the  kingdom 
name  of  4  Assyrian_kings,  2  of  whom  are  I  of  Israel. 

541 


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I.  Shalnianeser  I.  appears  from  inscrip- 
tions on  bricks  found  at  Kaleh-Shergat, 
anciently  Assluir,  an  old  capital  of  Assyria, 
to  have  reigned  about  ii.  C  I320-I30(^). 

II.  Shalnianeser  II.  succeeded  his  father, 
Asshur-natsi-pal,  a  great  warrior  and  con- 
queror, and  reigned  35  years,  B.  C.  858-823. 
lie  personally  conducted  23  campaigns, 
besides  others  led  by  a  tartan  or  general. 
In  854  he  defeated  the  united  forces  of  Ben- 
hadad  II.  king  uf  Syria,  the  king  of  Ha- 
math,  Ahab  king  of  Israel,  and  kings  of  the 
Hittites  and  IMuenicians.  In  842  he  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  Ben-liadad's  suc- 
cessor, Hazael,  whose  territtiry  he  overran 
and  plundered.  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Byblus, 
and  Jehu  king  of  Israel,  intimidated  by  his 
successes,  sent  him  tributes.  A  few  years 
before  his  death  his  eldest  son  led  a  revolt 
against  him,  but  was  subdued  by  his  2d 
son,  Shamasrimmon  II.,  who  succeeded 
Shalnianeser.  At  Calah  (Nimrud)  Shal- 
nianeser built  a  palace  whose  ruins  were 
uncovered  by  Layard  in  1840,  and  are 
known  as  the  "central  palace;"  much  of 
its  material  had  been  removed  for  use  in 
later  buildings.  Here  was  found  a  4-sided 
black  marble  obelisk,  about  7  feet  high,  in 
excellent  preservation,  and  containing  on 
each  side  5  bas-reliefs  and  records  in  cu- 
neiform writing.  The  bas-reliefs  in  the  2d 
row  represent  Israelite  envoys  presenting 
tributes  of  gold  and  silver  to  the  king,  be- 
fore whom  the  chief  ambassador  humbly 
prostrates  himself.  (See  the  illustration  on 
the  preceding  page.)  The  accompanying 
inscription  relates  that  this  tribute  was  sent 
by  Jehu,  "son,"  i.  «■.,  successor,  "of  Khum- 
ri,"  or  Omri.  The  obelisk  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  It  seems  possible  that 
the  "Shalman  "  referred  toby  Hosea,  10: 14, 
as  the  destroyer  of  Beth-arhel,  may  have 
been  Shalnianeser  II.,  who  during  his  west- 
ern campaigns  may  have  invaded  Israel. 

III.  Shalmaneser  III.,  B.  C.  781-771, 
reigned  during  a  period  of  decline  in  the 
Assyrian  power. 

IV.  Shalmaneser  IV.,  B.  C.  727-722, 
succeeded  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  who  had 
strengthened  and  reorganized  the  Assyr- 
ian Empire,  had  attacked  Israel  under  Pe- 
kah,  and  transported  Israelite  captives 
from  both  sides  of  the  Jordan  to  Assyrian 
territories,  2  Kin.  15:29;  i  Chr.  5:26.  It 
was  probably  soon  after  Shalmaneser's  ac- 
cession that  he  reasserted  Assyrian  domin- 
ion over  Israel  by  invading  it  and  securing 
from  Hosheathe  payment  of  tribute,  2  Kin. 
17:3.     On  Hoshca's  defection  and  alliance 

542 


with  Egypt,  Shalmaneser  returned  and  im- 
prisoned him,  ver.  4.  Soon  after  he  over- 
ran the  whole  kingdom  and  besieged  Sa- 
maria, which  withstood  the  Assyrian  arms 
3  years,  ver.  5,  6.  Sargon  claims  its  cap- 
ture in  his  ist  year,  and  it  seems  probable 
that  he  usurped  the  Assyrian  throne  dur- 
ing Shalmaneser's  prolonged  absence  in 
these  campaigns.  Scripture  does  not  name 
Shalmaneser  as  the  taker  of  Samaria,  ver. 
6;  18:10.  See  Sargon.  According  to 
Josephus,  Shalmaneser  subdued  the  Phue- 
nician  cities ;  but  insular  Tj-re  revolted 
and  for  5  years  sustained  a  siege  the  issue 
of  which  is  unknown.    He  died  in  722  B.  C. 

SHAL'MAN,  Hos.  10:14,  probably  not  to 
be  identified  with  Shalmaneser  IV.,  as  is 
commonly  thought,  since  Hosea's  prophecy 
seems  to  have  been  delivered  years  before 
that  monarch's  invasions  of  Israel.  Shal- 
man is  by  some  interpreters  regarded  as 
an  Assyrian  king  before  Pul.  See  Shal- 
man i:sek,  II. 

SHAM'BLES,  I  Cor.  10:25,  a  public  meat- 
market. 

SHAME'FACEDNESS,  I  Tim.  2:9,  in  R. 
V.  "  shamefastness,"  a  character  fi.xed  in 
blushing  modesty.  "Shameful  spewing," 
Hab.  2:16,  in  the  R.  V.  "ignominy." 

SHAM'GAR,  cup-bearer,  son  of  Anath, 
the  3d  judge  of  Israel,  after  Ehud  and 
shortly  before  Barak,  in  a  time  of  great  in- 
security and  distress,  Judg.  3:31 ;  5:6.  He 
defended  Israel  and  killed  600  Philistines 
with  an  o.x-goad.     See  Plough. 

SHAM'HUTH,  desolation,  I  Chr.  27:8; 
perhaps  the  same  as  Shammoth,  i  Chr. 
II  :27. 

SHA'MIR,  a  sharp  point,  I.,  a  city  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah  ;  probably  Kh.  el-Emi- 
reh,  12  miles  south  of  Hebron. 

II.  A  city  in  Mount  Ephraim,  residence 
and  burial-place  of  Tola,  a  judge  of  Israel, 
Judg.  10:1,  2;  probably  at  Bir  ed-Dowa,  in 
wady  SSmiir,  10  miles  southeast  of  She- 
chem. 

SHAM'MAH,  desolation,  I.,  one  of  the  3 
chief  of  David's  30  heroes,  who  shared  with 
David  and  Eleazar  the  honor  of  the  exploit 
recorded  in  2  Sam.  23:11.  12;  i  Chr.  11:12- 
14.  Another  feat  in  which  he  took  part  is 
described  in  2  Sam.  23:13-17. 

II.  A  brother  of  David,  i  Sam.  16:9; 
17:13;  elsewhere  called  Shimeah  and  Shim- 
ma,  2  Sam.  13:3,  32;   I  Chr.  2:13;  20:7. 

Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned,  Gen. 
36:13,  17;  2  Sam.  23:25,  33;  I  Chr.  11:27; 
27:8. 

SHAMMOTH,     1     Chr.     11:27.    perhaps 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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Shamhuth,    i    Chr.   27  : 8,   and   Shammah, 
2  Sam.  23:25. 

SHAMMU'AH,  rcnoivned,  one  of  the  4 
sons  of  David  and  Bath-sheba,  2  Sam.  5: 14; 
I  Ch.  14:4;  called  Shimea  in  i  Chr.  3:5. 

Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in 
Num.  13:4;  Neh.  11:17;  12:18.  The  2d  of 
these  is  called  Shemaiah  in  i  Chr.  9: 16. 

SHA'PHAN,  coney,  the  scribe  or  secre- 
tary of  king  Josiah,  sent  with  the  governor 
of  the  city  and  the  recorder  to  the  high- 
priest,  from  whom  he  received  the  newly- 
found  roll  of  the  law  and  read  it  to  the 
king,  2  Kin.  22:12;  2  Chr.  34:15-23.  He 
was  the  father  of  Gemariah.  Jer.  36:10, 
and  perhaps  of  Ahikam  and  Elasah,  2  Kin. 
22:12;  Jer.  26:24;  29:3;  grandfather  of  Mi- 
chaiah,  Jer.  36:11,  and  perhaps  of  Gedaliah 
and  Jaazaniah,  2  Kin.  25:22;  Ezek.  8:11. 

SHA'PHAT,  judge,  the  father  of  Elisha, 
I  Kin.  19:16,  19. 

Four  others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
in  Num.  13:5;  i  Chr.  3:22;  5:12;  27:29. 

SHA'PHER,  ^oti(//l',  MOUNT,  22d  station 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  Num. 
33:23;  probably  Jebel  Sheraif,  30  miles 
west-southwest  from  'Ain  Kadeis  (Kadesh) 
and  60  miles  from  the  mouth  of  wady  Arish 
on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  a  conspicuous 
conical  mountain  75  miles  northwest  of 
Elath. 
SHARA'IM,  Josh.  15:36.  See  Shaaraim. 
SHA'RAR,  father  of  one  of  David's  he- 
roes, 2  Sam.  23:33;  called  Sacar  in  i  Chr. 
11:35,  A.  V. 

SHARE,  I  Sam.  13:20,  probably  the  iron 
point  of  the  plough. 

SHARE'ZER,  prince  0/ fire,  I.,  a  son  of 
Sennacherib,  who  assisted  in  slaying  his 
father,  2  Kin.  19:37;  Isa.  37:38. 

II.  Zech.  7:2,  3,  in  the  A.  V.  Sherezer;  a 
delegate  sent,  B.  C.  518,  with  Regem-me- 
lech  and  others  from  some  of  the  returned 
Jews  to  inquire  of  the  priests  and  prophets 
at  Jerusalem  whether,  as  the  new  temple 
was  approaching  completion,  Ezra  4:24; 
5:1,2;  6:14,  15;  Hag.  1 :  14,  15,  it  was  proper 
to  observe  the  fast  bewailing  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  70  years  before,  2  Kin. 
25:8-10;  Jer.  52:12-14.  In  answer  the 
Lord  rebuked  the  formality  of  their  fasts, 
but  gave  them  a  gracious  assurance  of 
prosperity  and  joy,  Zech.  7:4  to  8: 19. 

SHA'RON,  a  plain,  I,,  a  level  tract  along 
the  Mediterranean  from  Carmel  to  Joppa, 
or  even  as  far  south  as  Jamnia,  about  60 
miles,  varying  in  width  from  8  to  15  miles. 
It  was  noted  as  a  place  for  pasturage,  i  Chr. 
27:29,  and  flowers.  Song  2:1,  and  for  its 


fertility  and  beauty,  Isa.  35:2.  Its  desola- 
tion in  time  of  war  is  noted  as  a  calamity, 
and  its  peaceful  reoccupation  is  promised 
as  a  blessing,  Isa.  33:9;  65:10.  Many 
dwellers  in  Sharon  accepted  Christ,  Acts 
9:35,  R.  V.  According  to  some  "  Lasha- 
ron '■  in  Josh.  12:18  is  "the  Sharon,"  with 
a  preposition  prefi.xed.  The  Hebrew  arti- 
cle always  accompanies  the  name,  except 
in  I  Chr.  5:16.     See  II. 

Sharon  is  still  very  fertile,  though  its 
cultivation  is  decreased  and  made  difficult 
for  the  settled  villagers  by  the  raids  of 
Bedouins,  who  encamp  on  the  plain  and 
use  parts  of  it  as  grazing-ground  for  their 
flocks.  It  is  also  much  encroached  upon 
by  the  sand ;  a  line  of  sand-dunes  extends 
along  the  shore,  in  some  places  3  miles 
wide  and  300  feet  high.  The  plain  is  cross- 
ed by  several  streams  from  the  mountains 
on  the  east,  the  largest  of  which,  the  Nahr 
el  Aujeh,  breaks  boldly  through  the  sand- 
hills, empties  into  the  Mediterranean  north 
of  Jaffa,  and  contains  water  all  the  year. 
Dense  thickets  of  cane  line  the  streams, 
and  extensive  marshes  are  formed  by  the 
damming  of  the  waters  by  the  sand.  East 
of  the  sand-dunes  the  plain  and  hilly  slopes 
are  in  part  thickly  wooded  with  pine  and 
oak,  remnants  of  the  "great  forest"  of 
which  Strabo  spoke,  A.  D.  24.  The  heat 
of  summer  is  excessive,  and  the  climate 
somewhat  unhealthy.  Travellers  describe 
the  view  of  the  plain  from  the  tower  of 
Ramleh  as  one  of  surpassing  richness  and 
beauty.  The  frowning  hills  of  Judah  on 
the  east  confront  the  glittering  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  west.  Towards 
the  north  and  south  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach  spreads  the  beautiful  plain,  covered 
in  many  parts  with  fields  of  green  or  gold- 
en grain.  Near  by  are  the  immense  olive- 
groves  of  Ramleh  and  Lydda,  and  amid 
them  the  picturesque  towers,  minarets,  and 
domes  of  these  villages;  while  the  hill- 
sides towards  the  northeast  are  thickly 
studded  with  native  hamlets.  The  uncul- 
tivated parts  of  the  plain  are  covered  in 
spring  and  the  early  summer  with  a  rich 
profusion  of  flowers.     See  Rose. 

II.  A  place  occupied  by  Gad,  east  of  the 
Jordan ;  perhaps  equivalent  to  "  the  Mi- 
shor  "  or  upland  downs,  called  "the  plain" 
in  the  A.  V.,  Deut.  3:10— a  region  suitable 
for  pasturage  like  the  western  Sharon. 
This  would  agree  well  with  the  meaning  of 
the  word  "suburbs,"  i  Chr.  5:16,  an  out- 
lying pasture-ground,  as  around  the  Levit- 
ical  cities.     See  Suburbs. 

543 


SHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


SHARU'HEN,  home  of  grace,  a  city  al- 
lotted to  Simeon,  on  the  south  of  Judah's 
portion,  apparently=Shiliiim,  Josii.  15:32, 
and  Shaaraim,  i  Chr.  4:31;  traced  in  the 
ruins  at  Tell  esh  Sheriah,  12  miles  north- 
west of  Beer-sheba. 

SHA'UL,  desired,  the  son  of  Simeon  by 
a  woman  of  Canaan,  and  father  of  the 
Shaulites,  Gen.  46:10;  Exod.  6:15;  Num. 
26:13;   I  Chr.  4:24.     See  also  S.\UL. 

SHA'VEH,  a  plain,  tlie  open  valley  where 
Abrahani  and  the  king  of  Sodom  met,  Gen. 
14;  17,  called  also  "  the  king's  dale  "  or  val- 
ley; it  is  usually  identified  with  the  place 
so  called  where  Absalom  erected  a  monu- 
ment, 2  Sam.  18:18.  Robinson  regards  it 
as  the  upper  part  of  the  Kidron  valley, 
north  of  Jerusalem;  Stanley  would  place 
it  east  of  tlie  Jordan. 

SHA'VEH-KIRIATHA'IM,  Gen.  14:5,  a 
plain  near  the  town  of  Kirjathaim — at  Ka- 
reyat,  about  11  miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
5  miles  northwest  of  Diban  or  Dibon. 

SHA'VING.  The  Egyptians,  except  when 
mourning,  shaved  the  head  and  beard,  as 
appears  from  the  ancient  monuments  and 
the  statements  of  Herodotus.  Hence  Jo- 
seph, as  the  servant  of  an  Egyptian,  shaved 
himself  when  called  before  Pharaoh,  Gen. 
41:14.  The  Egyptians,  however,  wore 
some  artificial  head-covering,  as  a  wig  or 
a  cap,  except  the  priests,  who  are  repre- 
sented with  naked  heads  or  with  some 
symbolical  head-dress.  Egyptian  women 
wore  long  hair,  in  elaborate  curls.  The 
Assyrians,  and  usually  the  Babylonians, 
retained  the  hair  on  the  head  and  face,  but 
Babylonian  priests  shaved  their  faces 
smooth.  The  Hittites  shaved  off  the  eye- 
brows, moustache,  and  beard  ;  the  Moab- 
ites  shaved  the  fore  part  of  the  head,  Ara- 
bian tribes  the  temples;  comp.  Jer.  9:26; 
25:23;  49:32,  margins,  where  the  Arabian 
custom  is  alluded  to.  It  is  also  mentioned 
by  Herodotus.  By  the  Mosaic  law  the 
Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  "  round  the 
corners  of  their  heads  "  or  "  mar  the  cor- 
ners of  the  beard,"  Lev.  19:27;  and  the 
priests  were  especially  forbidden  to  shave 
the  head  or  face  in  mourning  or  at  any 
time.  Lev.  21:5;  Ezek.  44:20;  these  regu- 
lations being  designed  to  distinguish  God's 
chosen  people  from  the  heathen  around 
them,  Deut.  14:1,  2.  Shaving  the  face  and 
head  was,  however,  prescribed  in  examin- 
ing a  suspected  leper  and  in  the  ceremony 
of  his  purification,  Lev.  13:29-34;  14:8,  9; 
comp.  Num.  8:5-7;  Deut.  21:12.  During 
the  period  of  a  Nazarite's  vow  the  hair 
544 


was  permitted  to  grow  without  the  usual 
trimming,  and  at  the  termination  of  the 
vow  the  head  was  shaved.  Num.  6:1-9,  18, 
19;  Acts  18:18;  21:24.  Samson's  Nazarite- 
ship  was  intended  to  be  life-long,  Judg. 
13-5.  7;  16:17,  19;  comp.  I  Sam.  i:ii.  The 
Hebrews  and  other  bearded  nations,  like 
Orientals  of  the  present  day,  cherished 
the  beard  and  resented  any  insult  to  it, 
2  Sam.  10:4,  5.  See  Bkard.  Neglect  of  it 
in  David's  time  was  a  sign  of  mourning, 
2  Sam.  19:24.  Shaving  the  head  and  sha- 
ving or  shortening  the  beard  were  common 
signs  of  mourning  aniong  the  Arabians  and 
Syrians,  Job  1:20;  Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  47:5; 
48:37;  Ezek.  27:31 ;  and  the  custom,  though 
forbidden  by  Moses,  became  so  prevalent 
among  the  Israelites,  Jer.  41:5,  that  tITe 
prophets  often  refer  to  it  as  a  synonym  for 
mourning,  Isa.  22:12;  Amos  8:10;  Micah 
1:16;  Jer.  16:6;  Ezek.  7:18;  compare  Ezra 
9:3.  Modern  Arabs  in  towns  frequently 
keep  their  heads  shaved,  according  to  the 
Moslem  requirements;  but  the  Bedouins 
and  fellahin  permit  both  beard  and  hair 
to  grow. 

SHAV'SHA.  I  Chr.  18:16.     See  Seraiah. 

SHEAL'TIEL.     See  Salathiel. 

SHEAR'ING-HOUSE,  Heb.  BKTH-KKKD 
ha-roim,  2  Kin.  10:12,  14,  margin,  a  place 
between  Jezreel  and  Samaria,  where  Jehu 
killed  42  members  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah.  The  Septuagint  and  Eusebius  make 
it  a  proper  name,  Beth-eked ;  and  the  latter 
speaks  of  it  as  a  village  of  Samaria,  in  the 
plain  of  Jezreel,  15  Roman  miles  from  Me- 
giddo;  Conder  suggests  Akadah,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  plain. 

SHE'AR-JASH'UB,  llie  remnant  shall  re- 
turn, Isa.  7:3;  10:21,  the  name  of  one  of 
Isaiah's  sons ;  supposed  to  have  had  a  pro- 
phetic meaning,  like  Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz.     Comp.  Isa.  8:18. 

SHE'BA,  I.,  son  of  Raamah,  Gen.  10:7; 
I  Chr.  1:9.  His  posterity  are  supposed  to 
have  settled  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  See 
CusH  and  Raamah. 

II.  Son  of  Joktan,  of  the  race  of  Shem, 
Gen.  10:28;  I  Chr.  1:22.     See  Sabeans,  II. 

III.  Son  of  Jokshan  and  grandson  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah,  Gen.  25:3;  i  Chr. 
1:32.  He  is  supposed  to  have  settled  in 
Arabia  Deserta. 

SHE'BA,  Queen  of.    See  Sabeans,  II. 

SHE'BA,  seven  or  an  oath.  In  the  He- 
brew this  name  differs  from  the  foregoing. 
I.  A  turbulent  Benjamite,  who  after  the 
death  of  Absalom  made  a  fruitless  effort  to 
excite  a  rebellion  in  Israel  against  David. 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


Being  pursued  and  besieged  in  Abel-beth- 
maachah,  near  the  southern  part  of  Leba- 
non, he  was  beheaded  by  the  people  of  the 
■city,  2  Sam.  20. 

II.  A  Gadite  chief  in  Bashan,  i  Chr.  5:13. 

III.  A  town  in  Simeon,  Josh.  19:2,  by 
■some  identified  with  Shema ;  at  first  as- 
•signed  to  Judah,  Josh.  15:26.  Probably 
found  at  Tell  es  Seba',  3  miles  east  of 
Beer-sheba,  on  the  road  to  Moladah. 

SHE'BAH,  or  SHI'BEAH,  fem.  of  the 
preceding,  Gen.  26:33;  comp.  margin;  the 
.4th  well  reopened  by  Isaac's  servants.  Gen. 
26:18,23-32;  21:25-31.     See  Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAM, /ra£-rance,  a  town  in  the  pas- 
toral district  east  of  the  Jordan,  Num.  32 : 3 ; 
probably=SiBMAH,  which  see. 

SHEBAN'IAH,  whom  tlie  Lord  makes  to 
_grow,  the  name  of  2  priests  and  2  Levites. 
I.  Neh.  9:4,5;  10:10. — II.  Neh.  10:4;  12:14. 
— III.  Neh.  10:12.— IV.  I  Chr.  15:24. 

SHEBA'RIM,  breaches,  Josh.  7:5,  a  point, 
perhaps  in  a  craggy  ravine,  to  which  the 
Israelites  fled  before  the  men  of  Ai. 

SHE'BER,  a  ff-aclicre,  son  of  Caleb  and 
Maachah,  i  Chr.  2:48. 

SHEB'NA,  yoiitliful  vigor,  I.,  a  "treas- 
urer "  or  prefect  of  the  palace  of  king  Hez- 
■ekiah,  Isa.  22:15,  a  proud  and  imperious 
man,  whose  degradation  the  prophet  was 
•commissioned  to  foretell,  ver.  16-25.  He 
was  to  be  tossed  "  like  a  ball "  into  a  large 
"Country.'  See  Wheel.  Gen.  Gordon,  in 
■crossing  the  Korosko  desert  in  the  Soudan, 
saw  many  balls  of  matted  dry  grass,  some 
of  them  3  feet  in  diameter,  driven  cease- 
lessly over  the  hot  sands  by  the  wind :  an 
impressive  image  of  a  restless  soul  driven 
away  in  its  wickedness. 

II.  A  scribe  or  secretary  of  Hezekiah, 
2  Kin.  18:18  to  19:7;  Isa.  36:3-22;  37:2-7. 
Some  regard  him  as  the  same  as  the  pre- 
ceding. 

SHE'CHEM,  shoulder,  I.,  a  Hivite  prince 
who  abducted  Jacob's  daughter  Dinah,  ai)d 
who,  with  his  father  Hamor  and  many 
other  Shechemites,  was  treacherously  slain 
by  Simeon  and  Levi,  Gen.  34. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Manasseh,  Num. 
26:31 ;  Josh.  17:2. 

III.  Another  of  Manasseh's  posterity, 
I  Chr.  7:19. 

IV.  A  city  of  Central  Canaan,  in  the  val- 
ley between  Mounts  Gerizim  and  Ebal. 
Abraham  here  erected  his  first  altar  in  Ca- 
naan, Gen.  12:6,  7.  Jacob,  returning  from 
Padan-aram,  encamped  near  Shechem, 
then  a  city  of  the  Hivites,  bought  land, 
-which  he  bequeathed  as  a  special  portion 

35 


to  Joseph,  and  erected  an  altar.  Gen.  33: 18- 
20;  48:22;  Julni  4:3.  In  revenge  for  a 
wrong  his  sons  ca,;lured  and  spoiled  the 
city.  Gen.  34.  Under  an  oak  near  She- 
chem Jacob,  before  departing,  buried  the 
amulets  and  teraphim  of  his  household, 
Gen.  35: 1-4.  His  sons  returned  with  their 
flocks  to  this  fertile  region;  and  here  Jo- 
seph, journeying  from  Hebron,  50  miles 
south,  sought  them.  Gen.  37:12-17.  After 
the  Conquest  Joseph's  bones  were  buried 
in  his  inheritance  near  Shechem,  Josh. 
24:32;  Acts  7:16.  Tlie  town  lay  in  Ephra- 
im's  territory,  and  was  assigned  to  the  Ko- 
halhite  Levites  and  made  a  city  of  refuge, 
Josh.  20:7;  21: 2D,  21.  From  its  central 
position  and  sacred  associations  it  became 
a  gathering-place  of  the  tribes.  Near  its 
site  occurred  the  soLmn  reading  of  the 
law,  with  accompanying  curses  and  bless- 
ings, where  Mounts  Lbal  and  Gerizim  most 
nearly  approach  each  other,  and  persons 
on  the  opposite  sides  and  in  the  valley  can 
readily  converse,  Deut.  11  :  29;  27;  28; 
Josh.  8:30-35.  Here  Joshua  won  the  tribes 
to  a  solemn  engagement  to  serve  Jehovah, 
in  commemoration  of  which  he  set  up  "a 
great  stone  "  under  the  oak  already  hal- 
lowed by  Abraham  and  Jacob,  Josh.  24:1- 
28.  By  this  same  monument  probably  Gid- 
eon's son  Abimelech  was  made  king,  Judg. 
9:6;  and  from  Mount  Gerizim,  at  whose 
foot  the  city  nestled,  Jotham  prophesied  ill 
against  the  people  and  king,  Judg.  9:7-20; 
a  prediction  fulfilled  3  years  later  in  their 
destruction,  ver.  22-57.  Shechem  was  after- 
wards rebuilt.  David  alludes  to  it  as  rep- 
resenting the  promised  land  west  of  the 
Jordan,  Psa.  60:6.  Rehoboam  went  thither 
to  be  crowned,  but  there  gave  the  10  tribes 
occasion  to  revolt,  i  Kin.  12:1-18.  The 
city  became  the  first  capital  of  the  northern 
kingdom  under  Jeroboam,  ver.  25,  but  the 
seat  of  government  was  soon  transferred 
to  Tirzah,  i  Kin.  14:17;  15:21,  -^i.  After 
the  Assyrian  conquest  and  captivity,  B.  C. 
721,  Shechem  doubtless  received  its  share 
of  heathen  colonists,  2  Kin.  17:6,  24-41. 
After  the  Babylonian  conquest  of  Judah, 
B.  C.  588,  Shechemites  were  among  those 
slain  at  Mizpah  by  Ishmael,  Jer.  41:5-7; 
the  "treasures  in  the  field"  for  which  10 
were  spared,  ver.  8,  were  probably  provis- 
ions hid  in  covered  pi*^s,  such  as  are  still 
used  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  dry  hill- 
sides of  Palestine.  S'lechem  became  the 
chief  city  of  the  Samaritans,  as  near  their 
national  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  and  so 
continued  at  least  till  John  Hyrcanus  cap- 

545 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


tured  the  city  and  destroyed  tlie  temple, 
B.  C.  129.  See  GicKiziiM  and  Samaritans. 
Near  Sliechem  was  Jacob's  well,  at  which 
Christ  talked  with  the  Samaritan  woman, 
John  4.  Later,  in  the  time  of  Josephus,  the 
city,  which  doubtless  suffered  in  the  Jew- 
isli  war,  was  rebuilt  by  the  Romans  and 
named  Flavia  Neapolis,  F".  new  town,  in 
honor  of  Flavius  Vespasian,  Roman  general 
and  emperor.  Many  coins  of  the  city  under 
this  title  are  extant,  and  it  is  still  retained 
in  the  Arabic  form  Nabulus  or  Nablus. 
Whether  the  "  Sychar  "  of  John  4:5  was 
identical  with  Shechem,  whose  ordinary 
Greek  form  "  Sychem  "  was  used  by  Ste- 


phen, Acts  7:16,  is  a  disputed  question. 
See  Sychar.  Shechem  was  no  doubt  vis- 
ited by  the  apostles  and  disciples  in  their 
evangelizing  tours  through  Samaria,  Acts 
8:25;  9:31;  15:3.  The  Christian  philoso- 
pher and  martyr  Justin,  a  heathen  bj-  birth, 
was  born  at  Neapolis  about  A.  D.  100.  Pas- 
tors of  Neapolis  are  mentioned  as  attend- 
ing church  councils  until  A.  D.  536.  The 
city  was  taken  by  the  Moslems  in  the  "th 
century.  It  submitted  to  the  Crusaders 
after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  1099, 
but  was  retaken  by  the  Moslems  A.  D. 
1242,  and  has  since  remained  in  their 
hands. 


^.•^^' 


VIEW  OF  NABLUS   AND   MOUNT   GERIZIM   FROM   THE  NORTHWEST 


The  valley  in  which  Nablfls  lies  extends 
8  or  9  miles  northwest;  it  is  2,360  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  the  mountains  Gerizim 
on  the  south  and  Ebal  on  the  north  rise 
some  600  and  800  feet  higher.  On  the  east 
the  valley  opens  into  the  northern  end  of 
the  fertile  plain  el-Mukhna,  \Vz  miles  wide 
and  about  10  miles  long  from  north  to 
south.  Along  this  plain  runs  the  road  to 
Jerusalem,  30  miles  south  of  Nablus;  the 
road  leads  northeast  to  Tubas  or  Thebez, 
10  miles  from  Nablus,  and  thence  nearly 
30  miles  to  the  southern  end  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  Sebustiveh,  or  Samaria,  is  5'.^ 
miles  northwest  of  Nablfls,  on  a  hill  at  the 
end  of  the  valley;  Nazareth  is  nearly  30 
miles  north  of  Nablds.  At  the  foot  of 
Mount  Gerizim,  [where  the  Nablus  valley 
546 


opens  on  the  plain,  and  close  to  the  road  to 
Jerusalem,  is  Jacob's  well,  still  called  Bir- 
Yakub,  a  site  acknowledged  by  Jews,  Sa- 
maritans, Christians,  and  Moslems.  Here 
Jesus,  "wearied  with  his  journey,"  sat  "at 
the  6th  hour,"  noon,  probably  in  Chisleu 
or  December,  while  his  disciples  went "  into 
the  city  to  buy  food ;"  here  he  revealed  his 
Messiahship  to  the  Samaritan  woman  and 
received  her  fellow-citizens.  At  "  Sychar  " 
he  spent  2  days,  reaping  the  harvest  of 
souls  of  which  he  had  spoken  to  his  disci- 
ples, John  4:5-8,  25-42.  The  well  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  ruins  of  a  Christian  church, 
built  in  the  4th  century  and  destroyed  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Crusades.  Its  depth 
in  1838  was  105  feet,  but  is  now  decreased 
to  75  feet  by  the  stones  which  have  fallen 


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or  been  thrown  in.  See  Jacob's  Well. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  northeast  of  the 
well  is  the  traditional  site  of  Joseph's  tomb, 
now  covered  by  a  square  inclosure  with 
high  whitewashed  walls,  a  Mohammedan 
wely's,  i.e.,  saint's  tomb.  The  Moslems  claim 
that  Joseph's  bones  were  removed  hence 
to  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  A  quarter  of  a 
mile  farther,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ebal,  is 
the  village  of  Askar,  by  some  identified 
with  Sychar.  See  Svchar.  There  are 
ancient  tombs  around  the  mountain  base. 
Nablus  is  a  mile  and  a  half  northwest  of 
Jacob's  well,  but  may  anciently  have  lain 
farther  east  than  now.  The  road  lies 
through  a  beautiful  little  valley,  more  than 
half  a  mile  wide  at  its  opening  on  the 
Mukhna,  but  narrowing,  again  expanding, 
and  then  contracting  again  to  its  narrowest 
at  Nablus.  About  half  way  between  the 
well  and  the  city  is  the  watershed  between 
the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
springs  which  rise  on  both  sides  of  this 
point  and  flow  eastward  and  westward  were 
in  the  possession  of  the  Canaanites  when 
Jacob,  according  to  the  tradition  cited  by 
the  Samaritan  woman,  dug  his  well.  About 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  well,  in  a 
recess  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Geri- 
zim,  is  a  place  now  named  el-Amud,  Ihe 
pillar,  which  the  Samaritans  make  the  site 
of  the  oak  —  A.  V.  "plain"  —  of  Moreh, 
Gen.  12:6;  35:4,  and  the  stone  of  Joshua, 
Josh.  24:26.  The  valley  is  well  watered 
by  several  streams,  and  is  fertile  and  cul- 
tivated ;  near  the  town  it  is  well  wooded, 
olive-trees  being  most  abundant.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  flourishing  gardens 
and  orchards  of  figs,  mulberries,  grapes, 
almonds,  oranges,  apricots,  and  other  fruits. 
The  main  street  runs  from  the  eastern  gate 
to  the  western,  and  contains  most  of  the 
bazars.  The  side  streets  are  narrow,  vault- 
ed, and  dark.  The  houses  are  high,  built 
of  stone,  with  domes  and  battlements  on 
the  flat  roofs.  There  are  5  mosques,  3  of 
which  were  originally  churches  of  the  Cru- 
saders. The  Samaritans  live  in  the  south- 
western quarter,  near  their  synagogue,  and 
from  the  western  gate  of  the  city  a  road 
leads  up  to  their  sacred  place  on  Mount 
Gerizim.  The  population  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  9,000  to  13,000,  all  Moham- 
medans e.xcept  about  140  Samaritans,  a  few 
Jews,  and  about  650  Christians,  chiefly  of 
the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  actively  engaged  in  manufactures 
and  trade ;  about  20  factories  make  soap 
from  olive-oil,  and  pile  their  refuse  in  heaps 


outside  of  the  city ;  woollen  and  cotton 
goods  are  also  manufactured ;  and  the  pro- 
ducts supply  the  neighborhood  and  are 
sent  to  distant  points  by  caravans. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  Dr. 
Clarke's  description  of  this  place:  "There 
is  nothing  in  the  Holy  Land  finer  than  a 
view  of  Nablus  from  the  heights  around  it. 
As  the  traveller  descends  towards  it  from 
the  hills  it  appears  luxuriantly  embos- 
omed in  the  most  delightful  and  fragrant 
bowers,  half  concealed  by  rich  gardens  and 
by  stately  trees  collected  into  groves  all 
around  the  bold  and  beautiful  valley  in 
which  it  stands.  ...  In  the  morning  after 
our  arrival  we  met  caravans  coming  from 
Grand  Cairo,  and  noticed  others  reposing 
in  the  large  olive  plantations  near  the 
gates.  .  .  . 

"  Upon  the  hills  around  flocks  and  herds 
were  feeding  as  of  old  ;  nor  in  the  simple 
garb  of  the  shepherds  of  Samaria  was  there 
anything  repugnant  to  the  notions  we  may 
entertain  of  the  appearance  presented  by 
the  sons  of  Jacob.  .  .  . 

"  Perhaps  no  Christian  scholar  ever  at- 
tentively read  the  4th  chapter  of  John 
without  being  struck  with  the  numerous 
internal  evidences  of  truth  which  crowd 
upon  the  mind  in  its  perusal.  .  .  .  In- 
dependently of  its  importance  as  a  theo- 
logical document,  ...  a  volume  might  be 
filled  with  the  illustration  it  reflects  on  the 
history  of  the  Jews  and  on  the  geography 
of  their  country.  All  that  can  be  gathered 
on  these  subjects  from  Josephus  seems  but 
as  a  comment  to  illustrate  this  chapter. 
The  journey  of  our  Lord  from  Judsea  into 
Galilee,  the  cause  of  it,  his  passage  through 
the  territory  of  Samaria,  his  approach  to 
the  metropolis  of  this  country,  its  name, 
his  arrival  at  the  Amorite  field  which  ter- 
minates the  narrow  valley  of  Sychem,  the 
ancient  custom  of  halting  at  a  well,  the 
female  employment  of  drawing  water,  the 
disciples  sent  into  the  city  for  food,  by 
which  its  situation  out  of  the  town  is  obvi- 
ously implied,  the  question  of  the  woman 
referring  to  existing  prejudices  which  sep- 
arated the  Jews  from  the  Samaritans,  the 
depth  of  the  well,  the  Oriental  allusion  con- 
tained in  the  expression  'living  water,'  the 
history  of  the  well  and  the  customs  there- 
by illustrated,  the  worship  upon  Mount 
Gerizim— all  these  occur  within  the  space 
of  20  verses." 

SHECHI'NAH,  divelling,  a  word  not 
found  in  the  Bible,  but  used  in  the  Jewish 
Targums  and  by  Christian  writers  to  de- 

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note  the  visible  majestic  manifestation  of 
the  presence  of  Jehovah,  as  in  the  cloud 
concealing  and  also  revealing  his  glory, 
Num.  16:42,  which  guided  the  Israelites, 
enveloped  Sinai,  Exod.  13:21,  22;  19:9,  16, 
18,  came  to  the  tabernacle  at  its  dedica- 
tion, rested  on  it  during  its  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  Exod.  40 :  34-38,  and  abode 
within  it  on  the  mercy -seat,  Lev.  16:2; 
2  Sam.  6:2;  which  also  came  to  Solomon's 
temple  at  its  dedication,  i  Kin.  8:10,  11, 
and  abode  there  on  the  mercy-seat,  2  Kin. 
19:15;  Fsa.  80: 1,  perhaps  with  intervals  of 
withdrawal,  till  the  destruction  of  the  tem- 
ple, Fsa.  91:1;  99: 1,  but  was  absent,  as  the 
Jews  claim,  from  the  rebuilt  temple.  The 
Jews  based  an  expectation  of  the  return  of 
the  Shechinah  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah 
on  such  prophetic  passages  as  Ezek.  43:7, 
9;  Hag.  i:S;  Zech.  2:10;  comp.  Isa.  4:5. 
Allusion  is  made  in  the  New  Testament  to 
this  "glory  of  the  Lord,"  Acts  7:2;  Rom. 
9:4;  Heb.  9:5.  Similar  manifestations  at- 
tended the  birth  and  transfiguration  of 
Christ,  Luke  2:9;  Matt.  17:5;  2  Pet.  1:17, 
18.  As  a  type,  the  Shechinah  pointed  to 
the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  John 
1:14;  comp.  Heb.  1:3. 


THE   BRO.\D-T.\ILED  SYRIAN  SHEEP. 

SHEEP.  This  animal  was  early  domes- 
ticated, Gen.  4:2,  and  offered  in  sacrifice, 
ver.  4.  Much  of  the  wealth  of  the  ancient 
patriarchs  consisted  in  sheep,  Gen.  12:16; 
13:2,  5;  24:35;  26:14;  32:5,  14;  Job  1:3; 
42:12.  They  formed  an  important  part  of 
the  possessions  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  at  their 
settlement  in  Egypt,  Gen.  46:32;  47:1,  3, 
and  of  their  descendants  at  the  Exodus, 
Exod.  12:38,  and  on  and  after  their  en- 
trance into  the  promised  land,  Num.  32:  i ; 
I  Sam.  25:2;  2  Sam.  12:2.  Scripture  says 
that  Pharaoh  gave  Abraham  shee]),  not 
horses ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  con- 
548 


temporary  Egyptian  monuments  show 
sheep,  but  no  horses  till  after  the  Hyksos' 
invasion.  They  are  among  the  animals 
accounted  "  clean "  and  eatable  by  the 
Mosaic  law,  Lev.  11:2,  3;  Deut.  12:20,  21; 
14:4.  Their  milk  was  in  common  use  for 
food,  Deut.  32:14;  Isa.  7:21,  22;  their  flesh 
was  often  eaten  when  animal  food  was  em- 
ployed, as  on  festive  occasions,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  iiospitality,  or  ordinarily  in  the 
households  of  persons  of  high  rank,  i  Sam. 
25: 18  ;  2  Sam.  12:4;  17:29;  i  Kin.  4:22,  23  ; 
Neh.  5:18;  Isa.  22:13;  Amos  6:4.  Their 
wool  was  spun  into  cloth,  Lev.  13:47;  Deut. 
22:11 ;  Job.31 :2o;  Prov.3i:i3.  Sheep-skins 
formed  one  of  the  coverings  of  the  taber- 
nacle, Exod.  26:14;  36:19,  and  were  worn 
by  the  poor,  Heb.  11:37.  Tribute  was  paid 
by  the  Moabite  king  Mesha  in  sheep  and 
w-ool,  2  Kin.  3:4;  and  they  were  important 
articles  of  trade,  as  between  Tyre  and  the 
Syrians  and  Arabians,  Ezek.  27:18,  21. 
Sheep  were  ofiered  as  sacrifices  on  many 
occasions.  Gen.  15:9;  22:13;  Exod.  20:24; 
the  Mosaic  law  prescribed  2  lambs  as  a 
daily  burnt-offering,  Exod.  29:38,  39,  and  4 
for  the  Sabbath,  Num.  28:3-10;  and  rams 
and  lambs  were  among  the  burnt-offerings 
appointed  for  the  new  moons,  the  3  great 
feasts,  and  the  Day  of  Atonement,  Num. 
28:  II ;  29.  A  lamb  was  the  usual  Passover 
victim,  Exod.  12:3-5;  and  from  the  sheep 
were  often  taken  peace-offerings  and  sin 
or  trespass-offerings,  Lev.  3:6,  7;  4:32; 
5:6,  15,  18;  6:6.  See  Sacrifice.  When  a 
sheep  was  presented  as  a  peace  or  sin- 
offering,  in  addition  to  the  internal  parts 
required  to  be  burned  on  the  altar,  as 
when  the  victim  was  an  ox  or  a  goat,  the 
"whole  rump,"  that  is,  the  tail,  is  speci- 
fied, Exod.  29:22;  Lev.  3:9:  7:3.  Dr.  Rus- 
sell describes  2  varieties  of  Syrian  sheep  : 
the  so-called  Bedouin  sheep,  resembling 
our  ordinary  sheep  ;  and  the  more  numer- 
ous broad-tailed  sheep,  whose  tail  is  com- 
posed of  a  delicate  fat  resembling  marrow, 
which  is  often  used  in  cooking  instead  of 
butter,  and,  cut  into  small  pieces,  forms  an 
ingredient  in  many  dishes.  The  tail  of  an 
ordinary  sheep  of  this  sort  often  weighs  15 
pounds,  and  that  of  a  fatted  specimen  may 
weigh  3  times  as  much.  Probably  this 
broad-tailed  sheep  anciently,  as  now,  was 
the  favorite  variety,  and  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  devote  to  Jehovah  its  choi- 
cest part. 

Sometimes  strong  towers  were  erected 
for  the  defence  of  the  flock,  Gen.  35:21  ; 
Mic.  4:8,  as  is  still  the  case  in  lonely  dis- 


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tricts.  When  the  sheep  were  lo  be  shorn 
they  were,  as  now,  collected  in  a  fold. 
Frequently  also,  as  now  in  the  East,  the 
sheep  were  not  folded  at  night,  Luke  2:8. 
Christ  informed  the  Jews  that  besides  his 
"own  sheep"  in  the  "fold"  of  Israel,  he 
had  other  sheep  among  the  Gentiles  who 
would  "  hear  his  voice,"  and  whom  he 
would  gather  with  Jewish  believers  into 
"one  flock,"  John  10:16,  R.  V.  None  can 
pluck  them  out  of  his  hand,  John  10:27-29. 

SHEEP'-GATE,  a  gate  of  Jerusalem  as 
rebuilt  by  Nehemiah,  Neh.  3:1,  32;  12:39. 
It  is  believed  to  be  referred  to  by  John  as 
near  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  John  5:2,  R.  V. 
Tradition  would  identify  it  with  the  pres- 
ent St.  Stephen's  gate,  bej'ond  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  temple  inclosure.  More 
probably  it  was  in  the  centre  of  the  west- 
ern wall,  at  the  present  Bab-el-Kattanin, 
near  which  is  the  Hammam  esh-Shifa,  lieal- 
ing  bath. 

SHEEP'-  MARKET,  John  5  :  2,  rather 
SHEEP-GATE,  as  in  the  R.  V.    See  Sheep- 

G.\TE. 

SHEETS,  Judg.  14:12,  A.  v.;  "shirts," 
as  in  the  margin ;  probably  the  garments 
worn  ne.xt  to  the  skin. 

SHEK'EL,  -weight.  The  shekel  was  pri- 
marily only  a  certain  weight,  and  as  such 
a  common  standard  of  measure  and  valu- 
ation for  many  articles,  as  spices,  E.xod. 
30:23,  24;  hair,  2  Sam.  14:26;  brass  or 
bronze  and  iron.  Gen.  24:22;  E.xod.  38:24, 
25,  29;  Josh.  7:21;  I  Sam.  17:5,  7.  It  was 
equal  to  about  yi  an  ounce  avoirdupois. 
Uncoined  silver,  in  the  form  of  ingots, 
rings,  etc.,  was  weighed  by  shekels  in  pay- 
ment as  money,  as  by  Abraham  to  Ephron, 
Gen.  23:15,  16,  and  bj^  Jeremiah  to  Hana- 
meel,  Jer.  32:9,  10.  In  distinction  from  the 
common  shekel,  the  "  shekel  of  the  sanctu- 
ary," equal  to  20  gerahs,  probably  denotes 
a  just  and  full  shekel  according  to  the 
standard  weight  preserved  in  the  house  of 
God,  E.xod.  30:13;  Ezek.  45:12;  compare 
Lev.  19:36;  Ezra  8:29,  7,7,.  By  this  were 
to  be  weighed  all  tajces,  fines,  and  contri- 
butions for  sacred  purposes,  Exod.  38:24- 
26;  Lev.  5:15;  27:2-7,  25;  Num.  3:45-50; 
18:14-16.  Whether  a  shekel  "after  the 
king's  weight "  differed  from  this  is  un- 
known, but  in  2  Sam.  14:26  a  copyist's 
error  of  "  200  "  instead  of  "  20  "  shekels  is 
suspected.  In  silver  by  weight  in  shekels 
civil  taxes  were  paid,  2  Kin.  15:20;  Neh. 
5: 15,  and  dues  in  general,  2  Sam.  24:24.  In 
a  time  of  famine  at  Samaria  a  half-pint  of 
food  ordinarily  despised  was  worth  5  shek- 


els, 2  Kin.  6:25;  but  soon  after  a  "meas- 
ure," Heb.  seah,  =  10  quarts,  of  fine  flour 
sold  for  a  shekel,  2  Kin.  7:1,  16,  18.  A  time 
of  scarcity  is  shown  by  the  rating  of  a  choe- 
nix,  =  \%  pints,  of  wheat  at  a  denarius,  or 
nearly  K  of  a  shekel.  Rev.  6:6.  Dishonest 
merchants  cheated  their  customers  by  giv- 
ing small  measure,  weighing  the  silver 
paid  them  with  too  heavy  shekels,  Amos 
8:5;  comp.  Mic.  6:10,  II.  See  Eph.\h. 
Where  amounts  are  mentioned  a  word  is 
often  omitted  in  the  Hebrew,  as  in  Gen. 
20:16;  37:28;  Song  8:11;  instead  of  "pie- 
ces," the  word  supplied  should  always  be 
"  shekels,"  as  it  is  in  some  cases,  Judg. 
17:2,  etc.;  I  Kin.  10:29.  Half,  third,  and 
quarter  shekels  of  silver  are  mentioned, 
Exod.  30:13,  15;  I  Sam.  9:8;  Neh.  10:32. 
The  Jews  became  acquainted  with  coined 
money  in  the  lands  of  their  captivity,  and 
after  their  return  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  men- 
tion the  Persian  gold  coin  called  "daric," 
A.  V.  "dram,"  Ezra  2:69;  Neh.  7:70-72; 
but  the  practice  of  weighing  silver  still 
continued,  Zech.  11:12,  13.  About  B.  C. 
139  Simon  Maccabseus,  then  high -priest 
and  governor  of  the  Jews,  received  per- 
mission from  the  Syrian  king  Antiochus 
VII.  "to  coin  monej'^  with  his  own  stamp," 
I  Mace.  15:6,  and  there  are  silver  shekels 
and  half-shekels  still  extant  which  are  at- 
tributed  to  him.      The   obverse   of  these 


shekels,  the  first  Jewish  coinage,  bears  a 
vase,  perhaps  a  representative  of  the  pot  of 
manna,  and  an  inscription  meaning  "the 
shekel  of  Israel ;"  the  reverse  bears  a  twig 
with  3  buds,  perhaps  indicating  Aaron's 
almond-rod,  and  an  inscription  meaning 
"Jerusalem  the  holy."  The  letters  are 
nearly  identical  with  those  now  known  as 
Samaritan.  See  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 
Bockh  estimates  the  original  weight  of  this 
shekel  at  about  274  Paris  grains.  It  equal- 
led about  60  cents  of  U.  S.  currency.  The 
tribute"  (Greek  two  drachmas)  asked  of 
Christ  at  Capernaum,  Matt.  17:24-27,  R.  V., 
was  the  half-shekel  tax  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus  as  annually  paid  by  the  Jews  in  his 
time  into  the  temple  treasury;  compare 
Exod.  30:13;  2  Kin.  12:4,  5;  2  Chr.  24:6-9; 

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the  "piece  of  money  "  found  in  the  fish's 
mouth,  in  Greek  "stater,"  =i^  4  drachmas 
or  I  shekel,  was  just  the  amount  required 
for  2  persons.  The  "  30  pieces  of  silver  " 
paid  to  Judas  for  betraying  Christ,  Matt. 
26:15;  comp.  Zech.  11:12,  was  the  valua- 
tion set  on  a  slave's  life,  Exod.  21 :32. 

SHE'l^AH,  />c/i7ton,  I.,  Judah's  youngest 
son,  Gen.  38:5,  11,  14,  26;  46:12;  Num. 
26:20;  I  Chr.  2:3. 

II.  Son  of  Arphaxad,  i  Clir.  i :  18,  24 ; 
called  Salah  in  (jcn.  10:24. 

SHE'LEPH,  drawn  out,  the  2d  son  of 
Joktan,  Gen.  10:26;  1  Chr.  1:20.  An  Ara- 
bian tribe  and  district  in  Yemen  in  South 
Arabia  are  mentioned  by  Arabic  writers 
as  bearing  from  him  the  name  Sulaf. 

SHELO'MITH,  peaceful,  Lev.  24:11,  a 
woman  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  whose  hus- 
band was  an  Egyptian  and  whose  son  was 
stoned  for  blasphemy. 

SHELU'MIEL,//7<;-«^o/"Corf,  Num.  i:6; 
2:12,  a  Simeonite  prince  at  tlie  Exodus. 

SHEM,  name,  a  son  of  Noah,  Gen.  5:32; 
6:10,  always  named  before  Ham  and  Ja- 
pheth,  as  the  eldest  son,  or  as  the  forefa- 
ther of  the  Hebrews.  In  Gen.  10:21  "el- 
der "  may  be  applied  to  Shem  instead  of 
Japheth.  Shem  was  98  at  the  time  of  the 
Flood,  Gen.  7:13;  comp.  11:10;  his  son  Ar- 
phaxad was  born  2  years  after  the  Flood. 
The  Hebrews  were  descended  from  Ar- 
phaxad's  grandson  Eber,  through  his  son 
Peleg,  Gen.  11:12-16,  18-26;  many  Arabian 
tribes  descended  from  Eber  through  his 
son  Joktan,  Gen.  10:25-30.  Elam,  Asshur, 
Lud,  and  Aram,  also  sons  of  Shem,  ver.  22, 
were  progenitors  of  other  nations.  Shem 
died,  aged  600,  Gen.  11:10,  11.  According 
to  the  apparent  chronology  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  in  his  first  century  he  was  contempo- 
rary with  Methuselah,  whose  first  243  years 
contemporized  with  Adam ;  and  when  Shem 
died  Abraham  was  148  years  old.  Shem 
received  from  his  father  a  blessing,  Gen. 
9:26,  in  the  form  of  a  doxology  to  "Jeho- 
vah," afterwards  to  reveal  himself  as  pecu- 
liarly the  "  God  of  Shem,"  of  whose  line 
were  the  chosen  patriarchs  and  Israel,  and 
finally  the  Messiah,  Luke  3:23-36.  Many 
Jewish  and  Christian  scholars  regard  part 
of  Gen.  9:27  as  included  in  the  blessing  of 
Shem,  explaining,  as  the  Hebrew  allows, 
"  God  shall . . .  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem ;" 
comp.  Exod.  25:8;  Num.  5:3;  others  read, 
"  Japheth  shall  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem," 
and  find  it  fulfilled  spiritually  in  the  admit- 
tance of  the  Gentiles  to  the  church  of  God, 
Eph.  2:13,  14;  3:6.  The  servitude  of  Ca- 
550 


naan  under  Shem,  Gen.  9:26,  was  fulfilled 
partly  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Canaanites 
to  Israel,  Josh.  23:4;  2  Chr.  8:4,  7,  8;  comp. 
Gen.  10:15-18;  15:18-21.  The  regions  peo- ■ 
pled  by  Shem's  descendants  intersect  por- 
tions of  Japheth  and  Ham.  A  family  of 
languages  is  called  Shemitic,  as  pertaining 
to  nations  descended  from  Shem;  it  in- 
cludes Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Ethiopic,  etc. ;  but  in  this  general  class  are 
included  several  languages  spoken  by  na- 
tions descended  from  Ham. 

SHE'MA,  fame.  Josh.  15:26,  a  town  in 
the  territory  first  assigned  to  Judah.  See 
Sheba,  HI.  Probably  found  at  Tel  Jem- 
neh,  9  miles  south  by  west  of  Gaza. 

SHEMA'IAH,  fehovah  hears,  the  name  of 
many  Hebrews,  of  whom  we  specify,  I., 
one  of  the  chief  Levites  who  helped  David 
transport  the  ark  from  Obed-edom's  house 
to  Jerusalem,  i  Chr.  15:8,  11,  12;  about  B. 
C.  1042. 

II.  A  Levite  who  made  for  David  a  reg- 
ister of  the  24  priestly  classes,  i  Chr.  24:6; 
about  B.  C.  1015. 

HI.  A  prophet  b}-^  whom  God  forbade 
Rehoboam's  projected  attempt  to  recover 
by  arms  the  revolted  10  tribes,  i  Kin.  12:21- 
24,  and  a  few  years  later  called  Rehoboam 
and  his  court  to  repent  at  the  invasion  of 
Shishak,  2  Chr.  12:5-8.  He  was  a  chroni- 
cler of  Rehoboam's  reign,  ver.  15. 

IV.  A  false  prophet  among  the  exiled 
Jews  in  Babylon,  who  opposed  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  and  incurred  divine  judgments  on 
himself  and  his  family,  Jer.  29:24-32.  His 
appellative, "  the  Nehelamite,"  is  translated 
"dreamer  "  in  the  margin  ;  comp.  ver.  8. 

V.  A  false  prophet  hired  by  Sanballat 
and  Tobiah,  who  sought  to  terrify  Nehe- 
miah  into  a  cowardly  retreat  within  the 
temple,  Neh.  6:10-14. 

SHEME'BER,  soaring  aloft,  king  of  Ze- 
boim  in  Abraham's  time.  Gen.  14:2-10. 

SHE'MER,  lees  of  wine,  caWed  SHO'MER 
in  I  Chr.  7:32;  the  former  owner  of  the 
hill  on  which  Omri  built  Samaria,  i  Kin. 
16:24. 

SHEM'INITH,  the  eighth;  Psa.  6;  12. 
titles;  I  Chr.  15:21.  It  seems  to  denote 
not  an  instrument,  but  a  part  in  music, 
perhaps  the  lowest;  or,  as  others  think,  a 
a  certain  musical  time  or  key. 

SHEMU'EL,  heard  of  God,  I  Chr.  6:33, 
the  true  Hebrew  name  of  the  prophet 
Samuel. 

SHEN,  the  tooth,  I  Sam.  7:12,  probably 
a  sharp  conspicuous  rock,  like  "Seneh, " 
I  Sam.  14:4. 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


SHE'NIR  and  SE'NIR,  snowy  peak,  the 
Amorite  name  for  Mount  Harmon,  Deut. 
3:9;  Ezek.  27:5;  or  perhaps  for  a  portion 
of  Hermon,  i  Chr.  5:23;  Song  4:8.  The 
part  of  Anti- Lebanon  north  of  Damascus, 
now  called  Jebel  esh-Shurky,  east  moun- 
tain, was  mentioned  as  Senir  by  the  Ara- 
bian historian  and  geograper  Abulfeda, 
A.  D.  1300.     See  Hermon  and  Sirion. 

SHE'OL,  a  Hebrew  word,  transferred  in 
the  R.  V.  in  many  passages  of  the  65  in 
which  it  occurs  and  in  which  in  the  A.  V. 
it  is  incorrectly  rendered  "hell,"  "the 
grave,"  or  "the  pit."  It  denotes,  not  the 
final  abode  of  the  lost,  nor  the  place  where 
dead  bodies  are  deposited,  but  the  realm 
of  departed  spirits,  both  the  righteous,  Gen. 
37:35;  Psa.  16:10,  and  the  wicked,  Psa.  9: 17. 
See  Hell,  Soul. 

SHE'PHAM, /rz<///>^/.  Num.  34:10,  11,  a 
place  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  land 
promised  to  Israel,  between  Hazar-enan 
and  Riblah. 

SHEPHATI'AH,  the  name  of  8  men  allu- 
ded to  in  the  following  passages :  2  Sam. 
3:4;  I  Chr.  12:5;  27:16;  2  Chr.  21:2;  Ezra 
2:4;  ver.  57;  Neh.  11:4;  Jer.  38:1. 

SHEPHE'LAH,  THE,  the  lowland,  the 
southern  portion  of  that  region  of  Canaan 
lying  between  the  central  hills  and  the 
Mediterranean,  the  northern  part  being 
called  Sharon.  "  The  Shephelah  "  often 
occurs  in  the  Hebrew  and  always  with  this 
definite  signification  ;  it  continued  to  be  so 
used  down  to  the  5th  century,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius  and  Jerome.  It  should 
have  been  transferred  to  the  English,  but 
is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  the  vale,"  Deut. 
1:7;  Josh. 10:40;  I  Kin. 10:27;  2  Chr. 1:15; 
Jer.  33:13;  "the  valley  "or  "valleys,"  Josh. 
9:1;  11:2,  16;  12:8;  15:33;  Judg.  1:9;  Jer. 
32:44;  "the  plain,"  Jer.  17:26;  Obad.  19; 
Zech.  7:7;  "the  low  plains,"  i  Chr.  27:28; 
2  Chr.  9:27;  and  "the  low  country,"  2  Chr. 
26:10;  28:18.  In  I  Mace.  12:38  it  appears 
as  "  Sephela."  Josh.  15:33-47  contains  a 
list  of  43  cities  included  in  the  Shephelah, 
showing  that  it  embraced  not  only  the  mar- 
itime plain  from  Ekron  to  the  "river  of 
Egypt"  southwest  of  Gaza,  but  also  the 
lower  hills  leading  up  to  "  the  mountains  of 
Judah."  It  formed  one  of  the  3  main  divis- 
ions of  Judah,  the  others  being  "the  Moun- 
tains "  and  the  Negeb,  in  the  A.  V.  "  the 
south,"  Judg.  1:9;  Jer.  32:44.  The  region 
was  favorable  for  olive  and  sycamore  trees, 

1  Chr.  27:28;  2  Chr.  9:27,  and  for  cattle, 

2  Chr.  26:10.     Though  in  the  territory  of 
Judah.  the    Philistines   long   retained  the 


corn  -  producing  maritime  plain,  with  its 
cities,  2  Kin.  8:1-3;  Obad.  19.  See  Phi- 
LISTIA.  The  Shephelah  rises  from  100  to 
500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  still  exceed- 
ingly fertile ;  the  lower  western  plain  and 
the  broad  valleys  among  the  hills  produce 
large  crops  of  grain,  and  on  the  hills  olive- 
groves  still  flourish.  The  hilly  district  con- 
tains many  villages,  with  houses  of  stone 
or  mud,  and  also  many  ruins  of  ancient 
sites.  Ancient  wells  and  some  fine  springs 
occur.  The  hills  are  of  soft  white  lime- 
stone, with  bands  of  brown  quartz  between 
the  strata. 

In  Josh.  11:16,  the  2d  "  Shephelah,"  with- 
out the  article  in  the  Hebrew,  in  the  A.  V. 
"valley  of  the  same,"  evidently  refers  to 
the  lowland  adjoining  Mount  Ephraim— 
"the  mountain  of  Israel" — /.  e.,  probably 
the  northern  continuation  of  the  Shephe- 
lah, elsewhere  called  Sharon. 

SHEP'HERD,  or  P.4STOR.  Abel  was  a 
keeper  of  sheep.  Gen.  4:2.  When  men 
began  to  multiply  and  to  follow  different 
employments,  Jabal  son  of  Lamech  was 
acknowledged  as  father,  that  is  the  first,  of 
shepherds  and  nomads.  Gen.  4 :  20.  A  large 
part  of  the  wealth  of  the  ancient  patriarchs 
consisted  in  flocks  and  herds,  the  care  of 
which  was  shared  by  their  sons,  daughters, 
and  servants.  Gen.  13:7;  29:9;  37:2.  Shep- 
herds were  also  employed,  but  were  not 
highly  esteemed.  Job  30:1.  Jacob  seems 
to  have  been  pressed  by  Laban  beyond 
the  requirements  of  the  pastoral  law.  Gen. 
31:39;  compare  Exod.  22:13;  Amos  3:12. 
Oriental  law  still  provides  that  a  cattle- 
tender  may  exonerate  himself  from  blame 
or  loss  by  carrying  to  his  employer  some 
portion  of  an  animal  that  has  died  without 
the  tender's  fault;  but  if  he  cannot  prove 
his  innocence  and  due  carefulness  he  must 
bear  the  loss.  Moses  and  David  were  both 
shepherds  before  they  were  called  to  be 
leaders  of  Israel,  Exod.  3:1-10;  i  Sam. 
16:11-13;  Psa.  78:70-72.  Shepherds  were 
highly  honored  in  receiving  from  heaven 
tidings  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  Luke  2:8-20. 
In  the  time  of  the  kings,  the  "chief  herds- 
man "  held  a  post  of  importance  and  honor, 
I  Sam.  21:7;  I  Chr.  27:29-31.  In  Spain, 
flocks  of  merino  sheep  sometimes  number 
10,000,  and  are  under  the  care  of  a  chief 
shepherd  with  some  50  assistants.  Char- 
din  mentions  a  clan  of  Turcoman  shep- 
herds whose  sheep  and  goats  numbered 
3,000,000,  and  who  had  besides  camels, 
horses,  oxen,  and  cows  amounting  to  400,- 
000.     In  Palestine  and  its  vicinity,  besides 

551 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


those  who  united  the  keeping  of  flocks  and 
herds  with  the  tillage  of  the  ground,  there 
were  and  still  are  numbers  of  nomads  or 
wandering  shepherds  confining  themselves 
to  no  settled  home.  These  dwellers  in 
tents  often  had  a  wide  range  of  pasture- 
grounds,  from  one  to  another  of  which  they 
drove  their  flocks  as  occasion  required, 
Gen.  37:12-17.  In  the  vast  deserts  east 
and  south  of  Palestine  they  found  many 
spots  which  in  winter  and  spring  were 
clothed  with  verdure,  E.Kod. 3: 1  ;  Psa.  65:12, 
13.  But  the  heat  of  summer  withered  these 
"  pastures  of  the  wilderness  "  and  drove 
the  shepherds  and  their  flocks  to  seek  for 
highlands  and  streams.  There  are  many 
indications  in  Scripture  of  the  conscious 
strength  and  independence  of  the  ancient 
shepherd  patriarchs,  of  the  e.xtent  of  their 
households,  and  the  consideration  in  which 
they  were  held,  Gen.  14:14-24;  21:22-32; 
26:13-16;  30:43;  Job  1:3.  The  Egyptians, 
however,  despised  shepherds,  Gen.  46:34, 
a  fact  attested  by  the  ancient  monuments, 
which  represent  shepherds  as  of  low  caste, 
slovenly,  and  in  some  cases  deformed. 

God  sometimes  takes  the  name  of  Shep- 
herd of  Israel,  Psa.  So:i;  Jer.  31:10;  and 
kings,  both  in  Scripture  and  ancient  wri- 
ters, are  distinguished  by  the  title  of  "Shep- 
herds of  the  people."  The  prophets  often 
inveigh  against  the  "shepherds  of  Israel," 
that  is,  the  kings,  who  feed  themselves  and 
neglect  their  flocks,  or  distress  them  and 
lead  them  astray,  Ezek.  34:10.  In  like 
manner  Christ,  as  the  Messiah,  is  often 
called  a  shepherd,  Zech.  13:7,  and  also 
takes  on  himself  the  title  of  "  the  Good 
Shepherd,"  who  gives  his  life  for  his  sheep, 
John  10:11,  14,  15.  Paul  calls  him  the 
great  Shepherd  of  the  sheep,  Heb.  13:20, 
and  Peter  gives  him  the  appellation  of 
Chief  shepherd,  i  Pet.  5:4.  His  ministers 
are  in  like  manner  the  pastors  or  under- 
shepherds  of  the  flock, Jer.  3:15;  23:3,  4; 
Acts  20:28-30;  Eph.  4:11.  In  many  passa- 
ges where  the  word  "  feed "  occurs,  the 
expressive-  original  word  means  "  be  a 
shepherd  to,"  Psa.  28:9;  John  21:16;  Acts 
20:28;  I  Pet.  5:2;  Rev.  7:17. 

In  John  10:1-16,  27-29,  our  Saviour  says 
the  Good  Shepherd  lays  down  his  life  for 
his  sheep,  that  he  knows  them  and  they 
know  him,  that  they  hear  his  voice  and  fol- 
low him,  that  he  goes  before  them,  that  no 
one  shall  force  them  out  of  his  hands,  and 
that  he  calls  them  by  their  names.  These, 
however,  being  all  incidents  taken  from  the 
customs  of  the  country,  are  by  no  means 
552 


so  striking  to  us  as  they  must  have  been 
to  those  who  heard  our  Lord,  and  who 
had  often  witnessed  such  methods  of  con- 
ducting this  domesticated  animal.  Mod- 
ern travellers  in  the  East  meet  with  many 
pleasing  confirmations  of  the  truth  of  Scrip- 
ture in  respect  to  these  particulars;  they 
see  the  shepherd  walking  before  his  flock, 
any  one  of  which  will  instantly  run  to  him 
when  called  by  its  own  name.  The  hire- 
ling, or  bad  shepherd,  forsakes  the  sheep, 
and  the  thief  enters,  not  by  the  door  of  the 
sheepfold,  but  climbs  in  another  way.  See 
Shkep.  The  Bible  applies  many  of  the 
excellences  of  the  faithful  shepherd  in  il- 
lustration of  the  Saviour's  care  of  his  flock. 
The  shepherd  was  responsible  for  each 
member  of  the  flock  intrusted  to  him,  Exod. 
22:10-13;  John  10:28;  he  had  need  of  great 
courage  and  endurance.  Gen.  31 :4o;  i  Sam. 
17:34,  35;  John  10:15;  he  exercised  a  ten- 
der care  towards  the  feeble,  carried  the 
lambs  in  his  arms.  Gen.  33:13;  Isa.  40:11 ; 
Mark  10:14,  16;  and  searched  for  the  lost 
sheep,  bringing  it  back  from  the  "  land  of 
drought  and  the  shadow  of  death"  into 
green  pastures  and  by  the  still  waters,  Psa. 
23;  Luke  15:4-7. 

SHEPHU'PHAN,  serpc7it,  I  Chr.  8:5,  a 
grandson  of  Benjamin ;  called  Shu'pham, 
Num.  26:39;  Shup'pim,  i  Chr.  7:12,  15; 
and  Mrp'piM,  Gen.  46:21. 

SHE'RAH,  consanguinity,  I  Chr.  7:24,  a 
female  descendant  of  Ephraim,  founder  of 
several  towns. 

SHERD,  an  earthenware  vessel  or  frag- 
ment, Isa.  30:14;  Ezek.  23:34. 

SHEREBI'AH,  heat  of  Jehovah,  a  Levite 
trusted  and  faithful  in  the  return  from  Cap- 
tivity, Neh.  8:7  ;  9:4,  5;  10:12;  12:8,24. 

SHERE'ZER,  Zech.  7:2.  See  Share- 
ZER,  II. 

SHER'IFFS,  Dan.  3:2,  3,  in  the  Babylo- 
nian kingdom,  probably  officials  answering 
to  the  muftis  or  "  head-doctors  "  of  Moham- 
medan law  in  the  Turkish  Empire. 

SHE'SHACH.  a  poetical  or  symbolical 
name  for  Babylon,  Jer.  25:26;  51:41-  The 
word  may  designate  Babylon  as  the  city 
with  bronze  gates;  or  may  signify,  from 
the  Persian,  "  the  house  of  the  prince;"  or 
it  may  contain  the  name  of  one  of  the  di- 
vinities worshipped  by  the  Babylonians. 

SHESHBAZ'ZAR,  Ezra  1:8,  II ;  5=14.  16; 
comp.  Ezra  2:1,2;  3:8-10;  Zech.  4:9;  the 
Chakhean  or  Persian  name  of  Zerubbabel. 

SHETH,  tumult,  I.,  i  Chr.  i:i,  the  more 
correct  form  of  the  patriarch  Seth's  name. 
See  Seth. 


SHEPHERD  IN  THE  BETHLEHEM  VALLEY. 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHI 


II.  Num.  24:17;  the  word  here  is  proba- 
bly not  a  proper  name :  instead  of  "  chil- 
dren of  Sheth,"  it  is  proposed  to  render 
"sons  of  tumult,"  /.  e.,  the  tumultuous 
warriors  of  Moab;  comp.  Jer.  48:45. 

SHE'THAR,  star,  one  of  the  7  chief 
princes  of  Persia  and  Media  under  Ahasu- 
erus  or  Xer.xes,  B.  C.  483,  Esth.  i :  14;  comp. 
Ezra  7: 14. 

SHE'TH  AR-BOZ'NAI,  star  of  splendor,  a 
Persian  officer  in  Palestine  under  Tatnai, 
in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  B.  C.  520, 
Ezra  5:3,  6;  6:6,  13.     See  Tatnai. 

SHE'VA,  2  Sam.  20:25.    See  Seraiah,  II. 

SHEAV'-BREAD,  or  SHOW-BREAD.  See 
Bread. 

SHIB'BOLETH,  an  ear  of  grain,  Gen. 
41 :5,  a  branch  or  twig,  Zech.  4: 12,  a  streatn 
or  flood,  Psa.  69:2,  15.  The  Ephraimites, 
jealous  of  the  Gileadites'  victory  over  the 
Ammonites,  provoked  a  war  with  the  Gile- 
adites under  Jephthah,  and  were  defeated. 
When  an  escaping  Ephraimite  sought  to 
pass  the  Jordan,  denying  that  he  was  an 
Ephraimite,  the  Gileadites  guarding  the 
fords  bade  him  say  shibboleth,  but  as  he 
pronounced  it  sibboleth,  he  was  discovered 
and  killed.  In  this  war  42,000  Ephraimites 
perished,  Judg.  12:1-6;  comp.  ch.  11.  This 
incident  shows  that  variations  of  dialect 
existed  among  tribes  of  the  same  nation 
and  speaking  the  same  language.  It  is  no 
wonder,  therefore,  that  the  same  word  is 
found  written  in  different  ways,  according 
to  the  pronunciation  of  different  tribes. 
Thus  in  the  time  of  Christ  the  peculiarities 
of  Peter's  dialect  bore  witness  tliat  he  was 
brought  up  in  Galilee,  Matt.  26:73.  Shib- 
boleth is  naturalized  in  English  in  the 
sense  of  a  party  test  or  watchword. 

SHIB'MAH,  balsam,  a  town  in  Reuben, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  Num.  32:38.     See  Sib- 

MAH. 

SHIC'RON,  drunkenness,  a  landmark  in 
the  northern  boundary  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15:11.  Traced  at  Kh.  Sukerei,  5  miles 
northeast  of  Ashdod. 

SHIELD,  BUCK'LER,  TAR'GET,  a  piece 
of  defensive  armor,  in  all  ages  before  fire- 
arms rendered  them  useless,  of  different 
forms  and  sizes,  not  imiforrrily  distinguish- 
ed in  the  A.  V. ;  usually  round  or  oval. 
The  large  shield,  tsinnah,  i  Chr.  12:24,  34, 
was  sometimes  borne  before  a  warrior  by 
an  attendant  when  not  in  actual  combat, 
I  Sam.  17:7,  41.  A  smaller  shield,  magen, 
Judg.  5 :  8,  often  translated  "  buckler," 
I  Chr.  5:18,  was  in  common  use,  and  the  2 
are  often  mentioned  together  as  soldiers' 


equipments,  2  Chr.  14:8;  Jer.  46:3;  Ezek. 
23:24.  Both  Hebrew  terms  are  applied  to 
God  as  the  protector  of  his  people :  magen 
in  Gen.  15:1;  Deut.  33:29;  Psa.  84:9,  11; 
trinnah  in  Psa.  5:12.  Earthly  rulers  are 
also  called   "shields,"    Psa.   47:9.      From 

1  Kin.  10:16,  17  it  appears  that  much  more 
material  was  required  for  the  trinnah  or 
"  target  "  than  for  the  magen  or  "  shield." 
Shields  were  borne  on  the  left  arm  held 
by  a  thong  near  the  elbow  and  another 
grasped  by  the  hand,  or  with  a  central 
knob  or  handle.  They  were  made  with 
a  light  wooden  framework  covered  with 
tough  hides,  and  so  might  be  burned,  Ezek. 
39 : 9 ;  often  with  projecting  bosses  or  spikes, 
Job  15:26,  and  rounded  and  polished  to- 
turn  aside  weapons.  Sometimes  they  were 
rimmed  with  iron  or  cased  with  gold,  as 
the  shields  made  by  Solomon  for  religious 
or  state  processions,  i  Kin.  10:16,  17,  taken 
by  Shishak,  and  replaced  by  Rehoboam 
with  bronze  ones,  i  Kin.  14:25-28.  Metal 
shields  were  used  by  the  soldiers  of  Anti- 
ochus  v.,  I  Mace.  6:39.  The  surface  was 
kept  in  good  condition  by  applying  oil,  Isa. 
21:5,  and  was  further  protected  by  a  cover 
when  not  in  use,  Isa.  22:6.  Saul's  shield 
was  cast  away  in  battle  and  "  not  anoint- 
ed," 2  Sam.  1:21.  Shields  protected  the 
wearers  in  besieging  cities,  Isa.  37:33; 
Ezek.  26:8,  being  so  interlocked  as  to  form- 
an  unbroken  front.  The  word  rendered 
"shield"  in  Job  39:23;  i  Sam.  17:45,  and 
"target"  in  i  Sam.  17:6,  means  a  lance  or 
javelin.  Paul  the  prisoner  takes  the  shield 
of  his  Roman  guard  as  the  symbol  of  Chris- 
tian faith,  Eph.  6:16;  i  John  5:4;  compare 

2  Sam.  22:36.     See  Arms. 
SHIGGA'ION,  pi.  SHIGIO'NOTH,  Psa.  7, 

title ;  variously  derived  and  interpreted  by 
Hebrew  scholars:  as  a  song  or  psalm,  a 
song  of  praise  or  of  lamentation,  an  irreg- 
ular lofty  ode.  "Upon  Shigionoth,"  or 
"after  the  manner  of  the  Shiggaion,"  Hab. 
3:1,  may  be  a  musical  direction  as  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  "  prayer  "  or  ode. 

SHI'HON,  ruins,  Josh.  19:19,  a  town  of 
Issachar ;  traced  at  Ayfln  esh-Shain,  3  miles 
northwest  of  Mount  Tabor. 

SHI'HOR,  black,  I  Chr.  13:5.  See  River 
OF  Egypt  and  Sihor. 

SHI'HOR-LIB'NATH,  black-white,  a  point 
in  the  boundary  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:26,  the 
Nahr  Namein,  a  stream  emptying  into  the 
Bay  of  Acre,  a  little  southeast  of  that  city. 

SHIL'HIM,_/o//w/rt/«j',  Josh.  15:32,  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Judah.     See  Sharuhen. 

SHIL'LEM,  Gen.  46:24;  Num.  26:49 
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called  Shallum  in  i  Chr.  7:13,  recompense ; 
a  soil  of  Naphtali. 

SHILO'AH,  Isa.  8:6.    See  Siloam. 

SHI'LOH,  Gen.  49:10.  This  term  in  Ja- 
cob's prophetic  blessing  upon  Judah  has 
been  applied  by  some  scholars  to  the  town 
Shiloh — until  Judah  "  come  to  Shiloh  \'  but 
this  town  did  not  then  exist,  nor  was  Judah 
there  dethroned.  The  common  view,  sup- 
ported by  the  ancient  Jewish  and  Christian 
versions  (the  Jewish  Septuagint,  the  tar- 
gums  of  Onkelos  and  Jerusalem,  the  Ara- 
bic version,  the  Christian,  Syriac,  and  Latin 
versions,  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch) 
refers  the  word  to  the  Messiah.  All  are 
not,  however,  agreed  as  to  the  literal  sig- 
nification of"  Shiloh  :"  some  translate,  "till 
He  come  to  ivliom  it  belongs,"  i.  e.,  the 
sceptre;  comp.  Ezek.  21:27;  others,  "the 
Peacemaker;"  others  still,  "the  Desired 
One."  The  most  probable  meaning  is  "  the 
Peaceful  One,"  of  whom  So\omon.,  peaceful, 
was  a  type,  and  who  is  termed  in  Isa.  9:6 
"the  Prince  of  Peace;"  comp.  John  14:27. 
The  last  clause  of  the  verse  is  to  be  ren- 
dered, "and  unto  him  shall  the  obedience 
of  the  peoples  be,"  including  heathen  na- 
tions. Compare  Matt.  1 1 :  2S-30 ;  23:37,  and 
Isaiah's  description  of  the  combined  peace 
and  power  of  the  Messiah,  Isa.  42  :  1-3. 
The  prophecy  thus  falls  into  line  with  the 
previous  divine  announcements  to  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob  of  a  Seed  in  whom  all 
the  nations  should  be  blessed.  Gen.  12:3; 
22:18;  26:4;  28: 14;  comp.  John  8:56;  Gal. 
3:16,  while  it  goes  beyond  them  in  defin- 
ing among  Jacob's  12  sons  the  one  from 
whom  the  Seed,  the  "  Lawgiver  between 
his  feet,"  should  descend;  compare  Num. 
24:17;  Zech.  9:9,  10;  Rev.  5:5.  It  is  fur- 
ther expanded  in  such  passages  as  Psalms 
2,  72,  and  no.  King  David  and  his  line 
long  held  the  sceptre  of  Judah,  i  Chr.  5:2, 
and  Isaiah  predicted  the  springing  of  a 
powerful  "  rod,"  an  everlasting  kingship, 
from  the  stock  of  Jesse,  Isa.  11:1-12.  The 
beginning  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy 
of  the  Messiah's  reign  was  announced  to 
Mary  by  Gabriel,  Luke  i  :32,  33.  After  the 
fall  of  the  actual  kingdom  of  Judah,  the 
tribal  name  survives  as  that  of  a  national- 
ity, the  term  Yehudim,  Judaeans  or  Jews,  in- 
cluding representatives  of  the  other  tribes, 
Neh.  1:2;  Esth.  2:5;  3:6;  John  5:1;  Acts 
26:3-7.  The  final  passing  away  of  the  civil 
power  from  Judah,  indicated  by  the  "  tax- 
ing "  at  Christ's  birth,  and  completed  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  did  not  occur  till 
Shiloh  had  come,  to  assume  a  spirilual 
554 


sceptre  which  is  in  no  danger  of  ever  pass- 
ing away. 

SHI'LOH, /^^ar^,  resl,  a  city  of  Ephraim, 
19  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  11  south  of 
Shechem,  about  2  miles  east  of  the  main 
road  between  them  via  Bethel,  Judg.  21 :  19. 
Here,  when  the  Promised  Land  was  sub- 
dued, the  Israelites  assembled  and  estab- 
lished the  ark  and  tabernacle,  previously 
at  Gilgal ;  here  Joshua  allotted  the  portions 
of  the  7  tribes  not  already  located.  Josh. 
18;  19;  to  Eleazar  and  Joshua  and  the  el- 
ders at  Shiloh  the  Levites  applied  for  their 
promised  cities,  Josh.  21 ;  from  Shiloh  Josh- 
ua solemnly  dismissed  the  tribes  whose 
possessions  were  east  of  the  Jordan,  Josh. 
22:1-9,  and  hence  a  deputation  of  inquiry 
was  sent  to  them  on  a  rumor  of  idolatry, 
ver.  10-34.  The  tabernacle  and  ark,  the 
centre  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  remained 
at  Shiloh  through  the  period  of  the  Judges, 
Judg.  18:31.  Here,  at  an  annual  "feast  of 
the  Lord,"  the  remnant  of  the  Benjamites 
seized  maidens  of  Shiloh  for  wives,  Judg. 
21 :  19-23  ;  comp.  Exod.  15  :  20;  Psa.  68  :  25. 
At  Shiloh  Hannah's  vow  was  made  and  ful- 
filled, I  Sam.  1:8  to  2:  II ;  and  here  Samuel 
grew  up  and  was  called  to  be  a  prophet  of 
the  Lord,  i  Sam.  2:18-21,  26;  3;  4:1.  The 
ark,  removed  by  Saul  to  the  battlefield  and 
captured  by  the  Philistines  in  Eli's  time, 
I  Sam.  4:2-22,  was  not  returned  to  Shiloh, 
ch.  5:1  to  7:2 ;  2  Sam.  6:2,  11,  12 ;  and  the 
tabernacle  was  transferred  to  Gibeon, 
I  Kin.  3:4;  I  Chr.  16:39.  This  catastrophe 
was  a  striking  proof  that  sacred  objects 
and  forms  have  no  talismanic  virtue,  but 
will  surely  fail  those  who  rely  upon  them 
instead  of  God.  The  degradation  of  Shi- 
loh because  of  the  iniquities  of  Israel, 
I  Sam.  2:12-17,  22-25,  is  referred  to  by 
Asaph,  Psa.  78:58-60,  and  cited  by  Jeremi- 
ah as  a  type  of  God's  vengeance  on  Jeru- 
salem and  the  temple,  Jer.  7: 12-14;  26:6,  9. 
The  prophet  Ahijah  was  a  resident  of  Shi- 
loh, I  Kin.  11:29;  12:15;  14:2-4.  See  also 
Jer.  41 : 5.  In  Jerome's  time,  A.  D.  340-420, 
Shiloh  was  in  ruins. 

Shiloh  has  been  identified  with  Seilfln, 
where,  on  a  low  hill,  surrounded  by  higher 
hills,  are  ruins  of  a  comparatively  modern 
village,  with  hewn  stones  and  foundations 
of  a  much  earlier  date.  In  a  little  valley 
half  a  mile  northeast  are  a  spring  and  pool 
affording  an  abundant  supply  of  water — 
the  scene  probably  of  the  dance  and  cap- 
ture of  the  "daughters  of  Shiloh;"  and 
near  by  are  rock-hewn  tombs,  among  which 
Jewish  tradition  places  those  of  Eli  and  b''' 


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SEILUN,  FORM 

sons.  Traces  of  terraces  are  on  the  hills, 
proofs  of  former  cultivation.  The  position 
of  Shiloh  was  both  central  and  secluded, 
and  well  fitted  for  the  national  sanctuary 
of  Israel. 

SHILO'NI,  Neh.  11:5.     See  Shilonites. 

SHI'LONITE,  an  appellation  of  Ahijah, 
as  a  native  or  resident  of  Shiloh,  i  Kin. 
11:29:  comp.  ch.  14:2,  4. 

SHI'LONITES,  THE,  I  Chr.  9:5,  descend- 
ants of  Judah's  son  Shelah,  Gen.  46:12; 
elsewhere  called  Shelanites,  Num.  26:20, 
and  in  Neh.  11:5  Shiloni,  A.  V. 

SHIM'EA,  SHIM'EAH,  rumor,  I.,  a  bro- 
ther of  David,  2  Sam.  13:3;  21:21;  i  Chr. 
20:7;  called  Shammah,  i  Sam.  16:9,  and 
Shimma,  i  Chr.  2:13. 

II.  A  son  of  David  and  Bath-sheba,  i  Chr. 
3:5;  called  also  Shammua,   2  Sam.  5:14; 

1  Chr.  14:4. 

III.  A  Merarite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:30. 

IV.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:39. 
SHIM'EAM    or    SHIM'EAH,    splendor,   a 

Benjamite,  i  Chr.  8:32;  9:38. 

SHIM'EATH,yrtw2£',  an  Ammonitess,  mo- 
ther of  Zabad  or  Jozachar,  one  of  the  2 
murderers   of  king  Joash,   2  Kin.    12:21; 

2  Chr.  24:26. 

SHIM'EI,yawo?«,  the  name  of  14  or  more 
Hebrews,  of  whom  the  following  may  be 
specified: 

I.  A  son  of  Gershon  the  son  of  Levi, 
Num.  3:18;   I   Chr.  6:17,  42;  23:7,  9,   10; 


ERLV    SHILOH. 

called  Shimi,  Exod.  6:17.  It  is  to  his  de- 
scendants, probably,  that  reference  is  made 
in  Zech.  12:13;  comp.  Num.  3:21. 

II.  The  son  of  Gera,  a  Benjamite  and  a 
kinsman  of  Saul,  who  insulted  king  David 
when  fleeing  before  Absalom,  and  humbled 
himself  on  David's  return.  On  both  occa- 
sions David  spared  and  forgave  him;  but 
when  dying  he  cautioned  Solomon  against 
a  man  who  knew  no  restraints  but  those 
of  fear.  Shimei  gave  his  parole  never  to 
leave  Jerusalem,  but  broke  it  by  pursuing 
his  fugitive  servants  to  Gath,  and  was  put 
to  death  on  returning,  2  Sam.  16:5-14; 
19:16-23;  I  Kin.  2:8,9,36-46. 

III.  An  officer  under  David,  and  perhaps 
under  Solomon,  i  Kin.  1:8;  4:18. 

SHI'MI,  Exod.  6:17,  and  SHIM'ITES, 
Num.  3:21.     See  Shimei,  I. 

SHIM'MA,  hearing,  i  Chr.  2:13.  See 
Shimea,  I. 

SHIM'RITH,  'watchful ,  a  Moabitess,  mo- 
ther of  Jehozabad,  one  of  the  murderers 
of  king  Joash,  2  Chr.  24:26,  who  in  2  Kin. 
12:21  is  called  the  son  of  Shomer. 

SHIM'ROM,  watch,  I  Chr.  7:1,  A.  V., 
properly  SHIM'RON,  a  son  of  Issachar, 
Gen.  46:13;  Num.  26:24. 

SHIM'RON,  watch,  an  ancient  city  of 
Canaan,  whose  king,  under  Jabin,  opposed 
Joshua  and  was  defeated,  Josh.  11 :  i  :  comp. 
ver.  5-12;  probably  the  same  as  Shimron- 
meron,  whose  king  was  one  of  the  31  allies 

555 


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defeated  by  Joshua,  Josh.  12:20.  Shimron 
was  allotted  to  Zebulun,  Josh.  19:15.  It  is 
traced  at  Semuniyeh,  14  miles  southeast  of 
Haifa,  and  11  miles  west  of  Mount  Tabor. 

SHIM'RONITES,  descendants  of  Issa- 
char's  son,  Shimron,  Num.  26:24. 

SHIM'RON-ME'RON,  Josh.  12:20.  See 
Shi.mrox. 

SHI'NAR,  THE  LAND  OF,  contained  the 
cities  of  Babel,  Erech,  Calneh,  and  Accad, 
Gen.  10:10.  In  this  region  the  confusion 
of  tongues  occurred.  Gen.  11:2-9.  One  of 
its  kings,  retreating  with  his  allies  from  a 
successful  inroad  011  Canaan,  was  pursued 
and  routed  by  Abrani,  Gen.  14:1-17.  Its 
textile  fabrics  were  early  and  widely  prized, 
Josh.  7:21  (Heb.  "garment  of  Shinar"). 
The  term  is  used  by  Isaiah,  11:11,  Daniel, 
1:2,  and  Zechariah,  5:11.    Shinar  is  prob- 


ably to  be  identified  with  the  Sumer  or 
Shumer  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  a 
name  there  denoting  apparently  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  "land  of  the  Chaldae- 
ans,"  "  Babylonia,"  or  "Mesopotamia"  in 
its  wider  sense,  Acts  7:2.  "Sumer  and 
Accad  "  frequently  occurs  in  the  inscrip- 
tions as  a  name  for  the  whole  rich  and 
populous  alluvial  plain  along  the  Euphra- 
tes and  Tigris,  from  the  Persian  Gulf  (which 
anciently  extended  northward  beyond  the 
present  junction  of  the  2  rivers)  to  a  point 
a  little  north  of  modern  Bagdad,  more  than 
200  miles.  A  highly -cultivated  non-She- 
mitic  people  appear  to  have  early  held  this 
region,  compare  Gen.  10:8-10,  before  the 
Shemitic  Chalda;ans  subjugated  it,  adopt- 
ing the  civilization  and  preserving  the  dia- 
lect of  the  conquered  race. 


A   LARGE   ANCIENT   SHIP:    FROM    A    FAINTING   AT    POMPEU. 


SHIP.  The  Hebrews  were  not  a  mari- 
time people.  The  Mediterranean  and  Red 
Sea  ports  were  usually  in  the  hands  of  their 
heathen  neighbors.  When  Solomon  re- 
quired timber  from  Lebanon,  the  ships  of 
Tyre  conveyed  it  to  Joppa,  2  Chr.  2:16; 
comp.  Ezra  :i:7;  and  when  he  undertook 
foreign  navigation  he  again  had  recourse 
to  Phoenicians,  i  Kin.  9:26-28,  who  were 
long  celebrated  for  the  ships  and  their  ex- 
tensive commerce.  The  attempt  of  Jehosh- 
aphat  in  foreign  commerce  was  a  failure, 
I  Kin.  22:48.  The  people  of  the  northern 
kingdom,  by  contact  with  the  Phoenicians, 
may  have  acquired  some  naval  skill ;  comp. 
the  prophetic  "blessing"  of  Jacob  upon 
Zebulun,  Gen.  49:1.^,  and  of  Moses  upon 
Zebulun  and  Issachar,  Deut.  33:18,  19; 
also  Deborah's  rebuke  to  Dan  and  Asher, 
Judg.  5:17;  and  Ahaziah's  offer  of  aid  to 
Jehoshaphat,  1  Kin.  22:49;  2  Chr.  20:35,  36. 
Of  the  Phoenician  ships,  with  their  cedar 
masts,  oaken  oars,  and  sails  of  Egyptian 
cloth,  some  idea  may  be  gained  from  Ezek. 
27,  a  description  in  accord  with  represen- 
tations of  Phoenician  galleys  in  Assyrian 
sculptures.  For  an  account  of  a  tempestu- 
ous voyage  in  an  ancient  merchant-ship 
556 


from  the  port  of  Joppa,  see  Jonah  i.  These 
ships,  Prov.  31 :  14,  which  also  carried  pas- 
sengers, are  those  commonly  referred  to  in 
the  Old  Testament;  but  the  following  pas- 
sages relate  to  ships  of  war,  Num.  24:24; 
Dan.  11:30,  40,  and  probably  Isa.  33:21; 
Ezek.  30:9.  Ancient  Egyptian  monuments 
represent  ships  with  a  central  mast,  a  large 
square  sail,  and  also  many  rowers.  War- 
ships were  often  armed  with  a  sharp  pro- 
jecting prow,  and  were  used  as  rams.  The 
Chaldeans  doubtless  had  ships  on  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  Isa.  43: 14-  The  "  ships  "  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  were  fishing-boats,  impelled 
by  oars,  Mark  6:48;  John  21:6,  and  some- 
times having  a  mast  and  sail,  Luke  8:23. 
The  verb  "was  full  "  in  Mark  4:37  's  better 
rendered  in  the  R.  V.,  "  was  filling."  Paul 
made  many  voyages  in  ships,  and  was  sev- 
eral times  wrecked,  2  Cor.  11:25.  In  his 
voyage  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome  he  sailed  in 
3  ships,  the  first  probably  being  a  coasting 
vessel  of  small  size,  Acts  27:2,  R.  V.,  the 
others  large  Alexandrian  corn-ships,  Acts 
27:6;  28:11.  In  Greek  and  Roman  ships 
there  were  usually  several  banks  of  row- 
ers, one  above  another,  who  could  propel 
the  vessel  steadily  and  swiftly  without  the 


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aid  of  a  sail.  Their  merchant-ships  were 
•of  larger  and  heavier  build,  often  from  500 
to  1,000  tons  burden,  and  relied  upon  sails  ; 


that  in  which  Paul  was  wrecked  carried 
276  persons,  besides  a  cargo  of  wheat, 
Acts  27:37,  38.     Besides   the   large   mast, 


PART   OF  A  WAR-GALLEY  :   FROM  AN  ANCIENT    BAS-RELIEF. 


■with  a  long  yard  and  a  large  square  sail, 
top-sails  were  also  used,  and  a  fore-sail 
attached  to  a  smaller  mast  at  the  bow,  ver. 
40,  R.  V.  In  a  gale  the  heavy  top-gear  of 
the  mainmast  was  taken  down,  ver.  17, 
R.  V.  The  great  strain  on  the  mainmast 
was  sometimes  relieved  and  prevented 
from  causing  leaks  by  the  use  of  "helps," 
i.  e.,  cables  or  chains  passed  around  the 
ship  to  tighten  it,  ver.  17.  Ships  were 
steered  by  two  large  paddle-rudders  pro- 
jecting through  row-locks,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  stern ;  these  were  lashed  up  when 
at  anchor,  out  of  the  way  of  the  ground- 
tackle,  and  loosed  when  again  needed, 
ver.  40,  R.  V.  The  anchors  resembled 
those  of  modern  times,  and  were  frequent- 
ly cast  from  the  stern,  ver.  29.  The  ship's 
■outfit  included  a  boat,  ver.  16,  17,  30,  32. 
Ships  were  often  highly  ornamented  at  the 
prow  and  stern,  which  were  similar  in 
shape;  an  eye  being  often  painted  on  each 
side  of  the  bow,  ver.  15,  R.  V. — literally 
"  could  not  look  at  the  wind."  The  "  sign  " 
by  which  a  vessel  was  known  was  often  "a 
sculptured  image  of  its  tutelar  divinity, 
Acts  28:11.  An  ancient  ship  could  sail  7 
miles  an  hour.  Having  no  compasses, 
ancient  navigators  guided  their  course  by 
the  heavenly  bodies,  Acts  27:20,  making  a 
Tiarbor  on  dark  nights  if  practicable,  Acts 
20:13-16;  21:1,  and  not  willingly  remain- 


ing at  sea  in  winter,  when  the  sky  was 
often  obscured.  Acts  27:9,  12;  28:11.  The 
Romans  spoke  of  the  sea  as  "  closed  "  from 
November  till  March,  when  it  was  "open- 
ed "  again.  Luke's  faithful  description  of 
the  voyage  and  shipwreck  of  Paul  and  him- 
self. Acts  27 ;  28,  gives  many  details  as  to 
ancient  navigation  confirmed  by  such  noti- 
ces as  we  find  in  classic  authors,  ancient 
sculptures,  pictures,  and  coins,  and  the  re- 
sults of  modern  study.     See  Tarshish. 

SHIPH'MITE,  I  Ciir.  27:27,  probably  a 
native  of  Shephani. 

SHIPH'RAH  and  PU'AH,  midwives  in 
Egypt,  who  through  the  fear  of  God  spared 
the  newborn  sons  of  the  Hebrews,  contrary 
to  the  orders  of  the  king.  God  rewarded 
their  kindness  to  his  people,  though  con- 
demning no  doubt  the  untruthfulness  of 
their  excuse  to  the  king.  He  "  made  them 
houses,"  that  is,  probably  gave  each  of 
them  a  numerous  family,  Exod.  1:15-21. 

SHI'SHA,  I  Kin.  4:3.     See  Seraiah,  II. 

SHI'SHAK,  a  king  of  Egypt  who  afforded 
a  refuge  to  Jeroboam  fleeing  from  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  11:40.  Perhaps  incited  by 
Jeroboam  when  the  latter  had  become  king 
over  Israel,  Shishak,  with  a  vast  army  of 
subjects  and  allies,  invaded  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  in  the  5th  year  of  Rehoboam, 
about  B.  C.  969,  captured  his  fortified  cit- 
ies, and  appeared  before  Jerusalem,  forcing 

557 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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Rehoboam  to  yield  to  him  the  treasures  of 
the  temple  and  of  the  royal  palace,  inclu- 
ding the  golden  shields  made  by  Solomon, 
1  Kin.  14:25,  26;  2  Chr.  12:2-9;  compare 
11:5-10. 

Shishak  is  identified  with  the  Sesonchis 
of  the  Egyptian  priest-historian  Manetho, 
B.  C.  300,  the  Sheshonk  I.  of  the  monu- 
ments, first  king  of  the  22d  or  Bubastite 
dynasty.  He  overthrew  the  rival  dynasty 
of  Tanis  (into  which  probably  Solomon  had 
married)  and  that  of  Thebes,  and  estab- 
lished his  court  at  Bubastis,  taking  as  the 
title  of  his  standard,  "  He  who  attains  roy- 
alty by  uniting  the  two  regions  " — Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt.  Shishak  has  left  a  rec- 
ord of  his  conquests,  including  that  of  Ju- 
dah,  on  a  wall  of  the  great  temple  at  Kar- 
nak,  Thebes.  He  is  represented  in  a  large 
bas-relief  as  preparing  to  inflict  death,  in 
the  presence  of  the  chief  Theban  god  Amun, 
upon  a  group  of  captives.  Each  conquered 
country  or  city  is  personified,  its  name  be- 


ing written  in  an  oval  shield  attached  to 
the  figure.  One  of  these  figures,  with  He- 
brew features,  has  on  its  shield  the  charac- 
ters which  stand  for  Joudh-Malek,  followed 
by  the  character  for  land,  the  whole  signi- 
fying "kingdom  of  Judah."  See  Reho- 
boam. Many  other  symbols  are  believed 
to  denote  fortified  cities  of  Judah  and  Le- 
vitical  cities  of  Israel — which  it  is  conjee- 
558 


tured  Jeroboam  may  have  abandoned  to 
Shishak  to  punish  them  for  adhering  to 
Rehoboam  and  leaving  Israel,  2  Chr.  11:13. 
14.  Shishak  reigned  at  least  21  years,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Osorthon  or 
Usarken,  possibly  the  Zerah  of  Asa's  reign. 
See  FnAK.\on  and  Zerah. 

SHIT'TAH-TREE,  Isa.  41:19.     See  Shit- 

TIM-WOOU. 

SHIT'TIM,  the  acacias,  the  place  where 
the  Moabites  and  the  Midianites,  by  Ba- 
laam's advice,  seduced  Israel  into  sin,  for 
which  a  terrible  punishment  was  inflicted 
on  the  Israelites,  Num.  25,  and  later  upon 
the  Midianites,  Num.  31.  Shittim.or  Abel- 
shittim,  was  the  last  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  before  crossing  the  Jordan  into 
Canaan,  Num.  33:49;  Josh.  2:  i ;  3:  i.  It  is 
the  well-watered  plain  extending  from  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  of  Moab  to  the  Jor- 
dan, and  was  named  from  the  number  of 
acacias  which  grew  there.  It  is  now  called 
Ghor  es-Seisaban,  and  is  described  by 
Tristram  as  "  the  largest  and  richest  oasis 
in  the  whole  Ghor"  or  Jordan  depression. 
At  the  southern  extremity  is  Suweimeh, 
identified  by  Dr.  Merrill  and  others  with 
Beth-jeshimoth ;  and  at  the  northern  mar- 
gin is  Tell  Kefrain,  whose  "  marshy  ver- 
dure," according  to  Tristram,  identifies  it 
with  Abel-shittim,  meadow  of  the  acacias. 

SHIT'TIM,  THE  VALLEY  or  winter-tor- 
rent OF,  Joel  3:18;  probably  some  wady 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan ;  by  some  identi- 
fied with  the  gorge  through  which  the  Kid- 
ron  in  rainj'  seasons  flows  to  the  Dead  Sea ; 
comp.  Ezek.  47:  i,  8. 

SHIT'TIM -WOOD,  Exod.  25:5.  The 
wood  of  the  shittah-tree,  Isa.  41  :  19,  was 
much  employed  in  constructing  the  taber- 
nacle and  its  furniture :  the  boards,  bars, 
and  pillars  of  the  building,  the  ark,  the 
show-bread  table,  and  the  incense-altar, 
with  their  staves,  were  of  shittim-wood 
overlaid  with  gold;  the  burnt-offering  altar 
and  its  staves  were  of  the  same  wood  over- 
laid with  brass,  Exod.  25;  26;  27;  30;  36; 
37;  38.  The  shittim-wood  is  identified 
with  the  acacia,  several  varieties  of  which 
grow  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Palestine. 
The  Acacia  seyal  is  the  only  timber-tree 
of  any  considerable  size  growing  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia  ;  it  is  scattered  over  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  and  is  found  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  it 
gives  its  name  to  wady  Seyal,  south  of  Ain 
Jidy,  or  En-gedi.  SeeSnixTiM.  The  seyal 
at  a  distance  resembles  an  apple-tree.  Its 
wood  is  close-grained,  hard,  and  of  a  brown 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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color,  being  both  handsome  and  exceed- 
ingly durable.  The  leaves  are  decom- 
pound and  pinnate,  the  blossoms  cluster  in 
yellow,  fibrous-looking  balls,  and  the  fruit 


resembles  a  locust-pod.  The  bark  is  yel- 
low and  smooth,  and  the  branches  abound 
in  long,  sharp  thorns.  From  cracks  or  in- 
cisions in  the  seyal  and  some  other  acacias 
exudes  the  well-known  gum-arabic,  which 
the  Arabs  gather  and  sell  and  sometimes 
use  as  food.  They  convert  much  of  the 
wood  into  charcoal.  The  trunk  is  some- 
times 3  or  4  feet  in  diameter. 

SHO' A,  Ezek.  23:23,  is  variously  inter- 
preted, as  a  title,  noble,  or  the  name  of  a 
place,  or  of  some  Chaldaean  tribe. 

SHO'BACH,  the  general  of  Hadarezer, 
king  of  Syria-Zoba;  he  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  a  battle  with  David,  2  Sam.  10;  15- 
18.  He  is  called  Shophach  in  i  Chr.  19: 16- 
18. 

SHO'BI,  taking  captive,  a  chief  Ammon- 
ite who  befriended  David  in  his  flight  from 
Absalom,  2  Sam.  17:27-29,  son  of  a  former 
king,  Nahash,  also  friendly  to  David,  2  Sam. 
10:1,  2;  comp.  Prov.  17:17;  27:10. 

SHO'CHO,  2  Chr.  28:18;  SHO'CHOH, 
I   Sam.  17:1;    SHO'CO.  2  Chr.    11:7.      See 

SOCOH. 

SHOES.  See  Sandals.  In  Egypt  and 
Syria  taking  off  one's  slipper  and  striking 
another  with  it,  or  throwing  it  at  him,  is 
still  a  customary  token  of  renunciation,  as 
of  an  unworthy  son — and  perhaps,  play- 
fully, of  a  daughter  leaving  her  parents  at 
her  marriage;  in  lieu  of  this  the  modern 
Arab  sometimes  exclaims,  "My  shoe  at 
you!"  Compare  Ruth  4:7,  8;  Psa.  60:8; 
108:9,  and  the  treatment  of  the  refractory 
brother  by  the  Mosaic  law,  Deut.  25:5-9. 
A  missionary  in  Alexandria  reports  that 
the  Moslems  thus  renounce  their  relatives 
converted  to  Christianity. 


SHO'MER,  keeper,  I.,  an  Asherite,  called 
also  Shamer,  i  Chr.  7:32,  34. 

II.  Parent,  perhaps  father,  of  Jehozabad, 
2  Kin.  12:21 ;  comp.  2  Chr.  24:26. 

SHO'PHACH,  I  Chr.  19:16,  18.    See  Sho- 

BACH. 

SHO'PHAN,  bareness,  Num.  32:35,  prob- 
ably to  be  connected  with  the  "  Atroth " 
preceding,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Ata- 
roth  of  ver.  34,  both  in  Gad,  east  of  the 
Jordan. 

SHOSHAN'NIM,  lilies,  Psa.  45;  69,  titles; 
SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH,  lilies,  a  testimo- 
ny, Psa.  80,  title ;  SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH,  lily, 
a  testimotiy,  Psa.  60,  title.  These  expres- 
sions are  all  inscribed  "to  the  chief  musi- 
cian," and  may  safely  be  regarded  as  indi- 
cating the  melody  "  after  "  or  "  in  the  man- 
ner" of  which— A.  V.  "upon" — the  Psalm 
was  to  be  sung.  Some,  however,  see  in 
the  terms  an  allusion  to  the  subject-matter 
of  the  Psalm;  and  others  regard  the  shu- 
shan,  pi.  shoshannim,  as  a  lily-shaped  mu- 
sical instrument,  a  cymbal,  a  trumpet,  or 
an  instrument  with  6  strings. 

SHOULD,  John  6:71,  would;  in  Acts 
23 : 27,  "  was  about  to  be." 

SHOUL'DER.  Burdens  being  commonly 
borne  on  the  shoulder,  Num.  7:9;  Psa. 
81:6,  to  "bow  the  shoulder"  denotes  ser- 
vitude, Gen.  49:15,  and  to  "withdraw"  it 
denotes  rebellion,  Nell.  9:29;  Zech.  7:11. 

SHOVEL,  Isa.  30:24,  a  winnowing  fork 
or  fan . 

SHOW-BREAD.     See  Bread. 

SHRINE.     See  Diana. 

SHROUD,  Ezek,.3i  :3,  cover  or  shelter. 

SHU'A,  noble,  daughter  of  Heber,  i  Chr. 
7:32. 

SHU'AH,  depression,  a  son  of  Abraham 
and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:2;  i  Chr.  1:32;  per- 
haps the  progenitor  of  Bildad  the  Shuhite, 
Job  2:11. 

SHU'AH,  prosperity,  a  descendant  of 
Caleb  son  of  Hur,  i  Chr.  4:11. 

SHU'AL,  jackal,  ox  fox,  THE  LAND  OF; 
a  region  towards  which  one  of  the  maraud- 
ing Philistine  bands  went  from  Michmash, 
I  Sam.  13:17;  probably  the  range  south- 
east of  Shechem,  on  the  east  border  of 
Ephraim,  overlooking  the  Jordan  valley. 
See  Shalim  and  Zeboim. 

SHU'HAM,  a  son  of  Dan,  Num.  26:42; 
called  Hushim  in  Gen.  46:23. 

SHU'HITE.     See  Shuah. 

SHU'LAMITE,  the  title  of  the  bride  in 
Solomon's  Song,  6:13;  literally  the  Shulam- 
viitess,  Heb.  hash-Shulammith,  which  some 
interpret  as  equivalent  to  "  the  Shunam- 

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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHU 


mitess,"  or  woman  of  Shunem — as  if  con- 
trasting the  rustic  origin  of  the  bride  with 
that  of  "  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem,"  Song 
1 :5,  6,  etc.  Others  regard  it  as  a  figurative 
proper  name,  derived  from  the  same  root 
with  Solomon — Heb.  Shelonioh,  peaceful — 
and  corresponding  with  it  as  a  feminine 
form,  as  Julia  with  Julius.  Still  others 
consider  it  a  simple  appellative,  meaning 
"the  peaceful."  See  Shunammite  and 
Shunkm. 

SHU'NAMMITE,  a  female  of  Shunem; 
applied  to  Abishag,  i  Kin.  1:3,  15;  2:17,  21, 
22;  and  to  Elisha's  hostess,  2  Kin.  4:12,  25, 
36;  comp.  ver.  8.     See  Shunem. 

SHU'NEM,  double  resting-place,  a  city  in 
Issach'ar,  Josh.  19:18.  Here  was  the  first 
encampment  of  the  Israelites  before  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  i  Sam.  28:4.  Abishag, 
king  David's  nurse,  was  of  Shunem,  i  Kin. 
1:3;  also  the  woman  who  entertained  Eli- 
sha  and  whose  son  the  prophet  restored  to 
life,  2  Kin.  4:8-37.  It  is  now  represented 
by  the  village  of  Sulem,  on  the  southwest- 
ern slope  of  Jebel  Duhy,  "  the  hill  of  Mo- 
reh,"  6  miles  south  of  Tabor  and  north  of 
Gilboa,  35^2  miles  north  of  Jezreel.  It  is  a 
mud  hamlet,  with  a  fountain  and  trough, 
■surrounded  by  fine  grain-fields  and  fruit- 
gardens,  and  looking  westward  across  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  to  Mount  Carmel.  Its 
people  are  rude  and  unfriendly,  and  its 
boys  are  still  to  be  seen  playing  bare-head- 
ed in  the  grain-fields  under  the  scorching 
sun. 

SHUR,  zvall  or  fori,  a  place  east  of  the 
northeastern  border  of  Egypt.  Hagar, 
fleeing  from  Sarah,  was  "in  the  way  to 
Shur  "  when  met  by  the  angel.  Gen.  16:7; 
comp.  ver.  17.  Abraham  "dwelt  between 
Kadesh  and  Shur."  Geri.  20:1;  it  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  Ish- 
maelites,  Gen.  25:18,  and  as  an  ancient 
boundary  of  the  Amalekites,  the  southern 
Geshurites,  and  the  Gezrites,  i  Sam.  15:7; 
27:8;  comp.  Josh.  13:2,3.  The  Israelites, 
after  crossing  the  Red  Sea,  entered  upon 
the  wilderness  of  Shur,  Exod.  15:22,  23, 
called  also  the  wilderness  of  Etham,  Num. 
33:8.  The  region  indicated  stretched  along 
the  northeastern  frontit-r  of  Egypt,  inclu- 
ding the  district  now  called  el-Jififar — white 
shifting  sands  with  a  few  fertile  spots. 
E.  H.  Palmer  derives  the  name  Shur  from 
the  long  wall  like  range  which  stretches  on 
the  east  of  Suez  northward  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  which  Dr.  Trumbull  claims 
was  so  fortified  and  guarded  as  to  prevent 
the  Israelites  from  attempting  the  northern 
560 


and  direct  route  from  Egypt,  and  turn 
them  to  the  south  by  the  way  of  Suez, 
Exod.  13: 17,  18. 

SHU'SHAN,  lily,  the  capital  of  Elam  and 
a  very  ancient  city.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
inscriptions  of  Assur-bani-pal  as  captured 
by  him,  about  B.  C.  650,  and  a  plan  of  the 
city  is  given.  It  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Babylonians  at  the  division  of  the 
Assyrian  Em])ire  between  Nabopolassar  of 
Babylon  and  Cyaxares  of  Media.  In  the  3d 
year  of  Belshazzar  Daniel  was  at  Shushan 
"on  the  king's  business,"  when  he  beheld 
"the  vision  of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat," 
Dan.  8:1,  2,  27.  The  conquest  of  Babylon 
by  Cyrus  transferred  Shushan  to  the  Per- 
sians, and  it  became  the  capital  and  chief 
residence  of  the  Aclia^menian  kings,  being 
cooler  than  Babylon  and  more  central  than 
Ecbatana  and  Persepolis,  their  summer 
resorts.  Darius  Hystaspis  founded  at  Shu- 
shan the  grand  jialace  referred  to  in  Esther 
as  occupied  b\'  his  son  and  successor  Xer- 
xes, Esth.  1:2,  5.  Nehemiah  was  at  Shu- 
shan when  he  received  from  Jerusalem  the 
intelligence  that  led  him  to  seek  leave  from 
Artaxerxes  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the  holy 
citj'',  Neh.  1 : 1-28.  As  Stisa,  Shushan  is 
often  mentioned  by  classic  authors  as  the 
Persian  capital,  the  province  of  Elam  being 
called  Susis  or  Susiana,  and  also  Cissia. 
The  city  retained  its  eminence  till  the  Mac- 
edonian conquest,  when  Alexander  found 
there  treasure  worth  ^12,000,000.  After 
this  period  Susa  declined  and  Babylon  in- 
creased. It  was  taken  by  Antigonus,  B.  C. 
315.  The  Moslems  gained  Susiana  A.  D. 
640. 

The  site  of  Shushan  has  been  identified 
with  the  ruins  of  Sus  or  Shush  in  lat.  32° 
10'  N.,  long.  48°  26'  E.,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Shapur  River,  275  miles  east  of  Baby- 
lon, 175  miles  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
See  Ul.a.1.  The  remains  consist  of  4  prin- 
cipal mounds,  in  a  circuit  of  3  miles,  with 
lesser  mounds  eastward,  the  whole  within 
a  circumference  of  about  7  miles.  Of  the 
4  chief  mounds,  the  westernmost,  of  earth, 
gravel,  and  sun-dried  brick,  measures 
about  2,580  feet  around  the  summit,  the 
highest  point  being  1 19  feet  above  the  river. 
Its  sides  are  steep,  and  it  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  citadel.  West  of  it  is  the 
traditional  tomb  of  Daniel.  East  of  the 
citadel  mound  is  the  great  central  platform, 
covering  more  than  60  acres,  and  from  40 
to  70  feet  high.  The  square  northern 
mound  shiws  the  remains  of  a  vast  palace : 
the  central  hall,  about  200  feet  square,  had 


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36  columns,  probably  about  60  feet  high. 
Adjoining  on  the  north,  east,  and  west 
were  3  porches,  each  with  12  columns,  and 
each  200  feet  wide  by  65  feet  deep.  In  one 
of  these  the  great  feast  of  Ahasuerus  was 
probably  held.  The  "  king's  gate,"  where 
Mordecai  sat,  Esth.  2 :  19,  21,  may  have 
been  the  hall  100  feet  square,  150  feet  or 
more  from  the  northern  portico ;  and  this 
intervening  apartment,  the  "  inner  court," 
where  Esther  implored  the  king's  favor, 
ch.  5:1,  2.  The  "  royal  house,"  ch.  1:9,  and 
the  "houses  of  the  women,"  ch.  2:9,  11, 
would  be  south  of  the  great  central  hall, 
between  it  and  the  citadel.  Shush  now 
abounds  in  wild  beasts  —  lions,  wolves, 
boars,  etc.,  Ezek.  33:24.  The  summer  heat 
is  intense,  but  is  sometimes  mitigated  by 
breezes  from  the  mountain  range  25  miles 
eastward.  Spring  in  this  region  is  delight- 
ful; and  after  the  winter  rains  the  country 
is  clothed  with  verdure  and  the  air  is  laden 
with  the  scent  of  flowers. 

SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH,  Psa.  80,  title.  See 
Shoshannim. 

SIB'BECHAI,  or  SIB'BECAI,  a  thicket, 
2  Sam.  21:18;  I  Chr.  11:29;  20:4;  27:11, 
one  of  David's  heroes ;  called  Mebunnai 
in  2  Sam.  23:27. 

SIB'MAH,  balsam,  SHIB'MAH,  and  SHE'- 
BAM,  Num.  32:3,  a  town  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan, rebuilt  or  fortified  by  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  ver.  38;  Josh.  13:15,  19.  The  Is- 
raelites conquered  this  region  from  the 
Amorites,  as  the  latter  had  taken  it  from 
the  Moabites,  Num.  21:25-31.  After  the 
trans-Jordanic  tribes  of  Israel  were  carried 
captive  by  the  Assyrians,  the  Moabites 
seem  to  have  reoccupied  their  ancient  pos- 
sessions, 2  Kin'.  15:29;  I  Chr.  5:26.  Sib- 
mah  was  renowned  for  its  grapes,  Isa.  16:6- 
11;  Jer.  48:32.  Jerome  says  it  was  hardly 
500  paces  from  Heshbon,  and  some  trace 
of  it  may  be  preserved  in  the  ruined  vil- 
lage es-Sameh,  4  miles  northeast  of  Hes- 
ban. 

SIB'RAIM,  double  hill,  a  landmark  in  the 
northern  boundary  of  Israel,  between  Da- 
mascus and  Hamath,  in  the  portion  assign- 
ed to  Dan  in  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  resto- 
ration of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  Ezek.  47:16; 
comp.  ver.  13-17;  40:1-4;  48:1. 

SI'CHEM,    Gen.    12:6,  A.  V.     See  She- 

CHEM. 

SID'DIM,  THE  VALE  OF,  the  scene  of  the 
battle  between  Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies 
and  the  kings  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  etc., 
Gen.  14:3,  8-10;  it  abounded  in  wells  of 
bitumen,  ver.  10.  The  Hebrew  word  here 
36 


rendered  "vale"  is  the  same  used  in  the 
term  "the  valley  of  Jezreel  " — a  long  low 
plain;  probably  a  section  of  the  Arabah 
somewhat  lower  than  the  rest  is  indicated. 
It  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  the 
site  of  the  cities  afterwards  destroyed.  In 
Gen.  14:3  it  seems  to  be  identified  with  the 
Salt  Sea.  For  the  view  which  locates  the 
vale  of  Siddim  in  part  or  wholly  in  the 
shallow  southern  portion  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
see  Sea,  III.  Some  scholars  now  main- 
tain that  the  cities  stood  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  hence  look  for 
the  vale  of  Siddim  there  also.  Dr.  Merrill 
suggests  identifying  it  with  the  plain  of 
Shittim,  in  which  he  claims  to  have  found 
many  bitumen  pits.     See  Shittim. 

SI'DON,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
properly  called  in  the  Old  Testament  ZI'- 
DON  (Heb.  Ts\do\\,Jish-lown);  a.  celebra- 
ted Phoenician  city  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  20  miles  north  of  Tyre, 
40  miles  south  of  Beirut,  and  123  north  of 
Jerusalem,  on  the  northern  slope  of  a 
promontory  jutting  out  from  a  narrow  plain 
between  the  Lebanon  range  and  the  sea. 
Zidon,  now  Saida,  was  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  in  the  world,  its  founder  having  beea 
apparently  a  great-grandson  of  Noah,  Gen, 
10: 15,  19;  49: 13.  At  the  division  of  Canaaa 
"  Great  Zidon  "  was  allotted  to  Asher,  Josh. 
11:8;  19:28,  but  was  never  subdued  by  the 
Hebrews,  Judg.  1:31;  2)'i'>  10:12.  In  the 
time  of  the  Judges  it  was  still  the  chief  city 
of  the  Phoenicians,  Judg.  18:7,  28,  who  were 
generally  called  Zidoniansby  the  Hebrews. 
Its  principal  deities  were  Baal  and  Ashto- 
reth,  into  whose  worship  the  Israelites 
were  at  different  times  seduced,  Judg.  10:6; 
I  Kin.  11: 1,  5,  33;  16:31 ;  2  Kin.  23:13.  The 
Zidonians  were  among  the  oppressors  of 
Israel  in  the  timeof  the  Judges,  Judg.  10: 12. 
Friendly  relations  subsisted  under  David 
and  subsequent  kings,  2  Sam.  24:2,  6.  Its 
people  were  noted  for  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, commerce  and  navigation,  Isa.  23:2; 
Ezek.  27:8.  They  assisted  in  the  construc- 
tion of  Solomon's  temple,  i  Kin.  5:6;  I  Chr. 
22:4,  and  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
under  Zerubbabel,  Ezra  3: 7.  For  much  of 
their  food  supply  they  depended  on  Pales- 
tine, I  Kin.  5:9,  II ;  Ezek.  27:17;  Acts  12:20. 
Zirephath,  the  scene  of  one  of  Elijah's  mir- 
acles, was  in  its  territory,  i  Kin.  17:9;  Luke 
4:26.  Zidon  continued  under  the  govern- 
ment of  its  own  kings,  but  after  David's 
time  was  usually  subordinate  to  Tyre,  Isa. 
23;  Ezek.  28.  It  joined  Tyre  in  selling  in- 
habitants of  Judah  into  slavery,  and  was 

561 


SID 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SID 


SAIDA,  THE   ANCIENT    SIDON,   FROM     I  111-,    MiKIH. 


threatened  by  the  prophets,  though  less 
severely  than  Tyre,  Isa.  23:4;  Jer.  25:22; 
'^Tl'y  47:4;  Ezek.  28:20-23;  32:30;  Joel 
3:4-8;  com  p.  Amos  1:9. 

Homer  celebraj^es  the  skill  of  Zidonian 
workmen,  and  mentions  the  presence  of 
Zidonian  ships  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  In 
the  9th,  8th,  and  7th  centuries  B.  C.  Zidon 
was  tributary  to  Assyria;  it  was  destroyed 
by  Esar-haddon  about  B.  C.  680,  but  was  re- 
built. It  was  next  subject  to  the  Babyloni- 
ans, Jer.  27:2-7.  Under  the  Persian  domi- 
nation Zidon  recovered  preeminence  over 
Tyre  ;  according  to  Herodotus,  Zidonian 
ships  and  sailors  were  the  best  in  the  fleet 
which  Xerxes  led  against  Greece,  B.  C. 
480,  and  the  king  of  Zidon  sat  next  to  Xer- 
xes in  council.  It  rebelled  in  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes  (III.)  Ochus,  but  was  betrayed 
to  the  Persians  by  its  king,  and  40,000  citi- 
zens perished  in  the  flames  of  the  city,  kin- 
dled by  themselves,  B.  C.  351.  After  the 
battle  of  Issus,  Zidon,  which  had  gradually 
recovered  prosperity,  willingly  yielded  to 
Alexander  the  Great,  B.  C.  t,^,^,,  and  its  fleet 
assisted  him  in  subduing  Tyre.  After  his 
death  it  was  subject  to  Egypt,  and  then  to 
the  Seleucidae;  and  fell  under  the  Roman 
power  B.  C.  65,  and  became  a  wealthy  and 
flourishing  city. 

People  from  Tyre  and  Sidon,  or  the  ad- 
jacent region,  attended  upon  the  teaching 
of  Christ,  Mark  3:7,  8;  Luke  6:17;  com- 
pare Matt.  11:20-22;  Luke  10:13,  i4-  The 
neighborhood,  and  possibly  the  city  itself, 
562 


which  is  about  40  miles  northwest  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  was  visited  by  Jesus,  Matt. 
15:21;  Mark  7:24,  31,  R.  V.  The  gospel 
was  preached  to  the  Jews  at  Sidon  after  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen,  Acts  11:19,  and 
Paul  visited  Christian  friends  there  on  his 
way  to  Rome,  Acts  27:3.  See  also  Acts 
12:20. 

A  pastor  from  Sidon  attended  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea,  A.  D.  325.  Sidon  surrendered 
to  the  Moslems  after  their  conquest  of  Syria, 
A.  D.  636.  It  suffered  greatly  during  the 
Crusades,  being  repeatedly  taken  and  lost, 
destroyed  and  rebuilt,  between  its  capture 
by  Baldwin  I.  in  mi  and  its  final  recovery 
by  the  Moslems  in  1291,  when  it  was  again 
destroyed.  It  gradually  recovered,  and 
until  1791  was  the  principal  commercial 
city  on  the  Syrian  coast,  a  position  to  which 
BeirQt  has  succeeded. 

Saida  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  prom- 
ontory with  an  island  in  front  of  it;  its 
southern  harbor  is  abandoned,  and  the 
northern  is  so  choked  with  sand  and  stones 
as  to  be  inaccessible  to  any  but  the  small- 
est vessels.  The  city  is  surrounded  by 
walls  and  has  many  large  and  fine  houses. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  10,000,  7,000 
being  Mohammedans  and  the  rest  Greek 
Catholics,  Maronites,  Orthodox  Greeks,  and 
Jews.  Saida  is  the  seat  of  a  flourishing 
Protestant  mission  of  the  American  Pres- 
byterian Board.  There  are  remains  of 
quays  built  of  large  hewn  stones,  frag- 
ments of  marble  and  granite  columns.  Mo- 


SID 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIL 


saic  pavements,  pottery,  etc. ;  and  on  the 
island  ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle.  In  the 
environs  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  bana- 
nas, etc.,  grow  luxuriantly.  Numerous 
sepulchral  caverns  exist  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  east  of  the  city,  and  sarcophagi 
of  various  shapes  and  materials  have  been 
found  in  them— one,  of  black  sj'enite,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  "  Ashmanezer,  king  of  the 
Sidonians,"  and  found  in  1855,  being  now 
in  Paris.  Its  probable  date  was  during 
the  Persian  domination. 

SIDO'NIANS,  Deut.  3:9;  Josh.  13:4,  6; 
Judg.  3:3;  18:7;    I   Kin.  5:6;    11:1.      See 

SiDON. 

SIEVE,  SIFT.  Ancient  writers  mention 
4  qualities  of  flour,  implying  sieves  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  fineness.  The  allusion  in 
Isa.  30:28;  Amos  9:9;  Luke  22:31  seems  to 
be  to  the  husbandman's  process  of  winnow- 
ing grain  to  remove  the  chaff,  rather  than 
to  the  household  task  of  sifting  meal  or 
flour;  comp.  Matt.  3:12. 

SIGN,  a  token,  pledge,  or  proof.  Gen. 
9:12,  13;  17:11;  Exod.  3:12;  Isa.  8:18. 
Also  a  supernatural  portent,  Luke  21:11, 
25,  and  a  miracle,  regarded  as  a  token  of 
the  divine  agency,  Exod.  4:7-9;  Mark  8:11, 
The  "signs"  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
not  evenly  distributed,  but  seem  to  have 
been  more  numerous  than  usual  at  3  crit- 
ical epochs  :  at  the  delivery  of  Israel  from 
Egypt  and  their  establishment  in  Pales- 
tine; at  the  period  of  their  apostasy,  in  the 
days  of  Elijah  and  Elisha;  and  during  their 
captivity,  in  the  time  of  Daniel.  The  mir- 
acles of  Christ  were  foretold,  Isa.  42:7; 
Matt.  8:17.  Comp.  the  question  of  John's 
disciples  and  the  miracles  which  Jesus 
wrought  as  his  reply,  Luke  7:19-23;  also 
Matt.  12:23;  John  7:31.  Those  recorded 
by  the  evangelists  were  only  specimens  of 
many  others.  Matt.  4:23;  8:16;  Luke  6:17- 
19;  John  2:23.  The  "signs  of  heaven" 
were  the  movements  and  aspects  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  from  which  heathen  as- 
trologers pretended  to  obtain  revelations, 
Isa.  44:25 ;  Jer.  10:2.     See  Ship. 

SIG'NET.    See  Rings  and  Seal. 

SI'HON,  sweeping  away,  bold.  This  king 
of  the  Amorites  was  reigning  at  Heshbon 
on  the  Israelites'  arrival  at  his  border,  he 
having  driven  out  the  Moabites  to  the  south 
of  the  Arnon.  On  refusing  passage  to  the 
Israelites  and  attacking  them,  he  was  slain 
and  his  army  routed,  and  his  dominions 
were  divided  between  Reuben  and  Gad. 
Num.  21:21-31,  34;  32:1-5,  33-38;  Deut. 
2:24-36;  Josh.  13:15-28.     In  several  later 


books  reference  is  made  to  his  signal  over- 
throw, Judg.  ii :  12-28;  Psa.  135:10,  II.  His 
name  seems  to  be  preserved  in  Shihan  and 
Jebel  Shihan,  3  or  4  miles  south  of  the  Ar- 
non, and  the  ruins  called  Shihan  4  miles 
south  of  the  Jabbok. 

SI'HOR,  properly  SHI'HOR,  black,  turbid. 
In  Isa.  23 : 3 ;  Jer.  2 :  18,  this  word  must  mean 
the  Nile;  in  Josh.  13:3;  i  Chr.  13:5,  it  is 
probably  a  name  for  "  the  river  of  Egypt," 
Num.  34:5;  I  Kin.  8:65,  the  desert  winter- 
torrent  now  called  wady  el-Arish,  a  boun- 
dary between  Canaan  and  Egypt,  flowing 
northwest  into  the  Mediterranean  about  45 
miles  southwest  of  Gaza. 

SI'LAS,  a  contraction  of  SILVA'NUS,  a 
forester ;  one  of  the  chief  men  of  the  early 
church  at  Jerusalem,  deputed,  with  Judas 
Barsabas,  to  accompany  Paul  and  Barnabas 
to  Antioch,  bearing  the  decree  of  the  coun- 
cil at  Jerusalem  as  to  the  relations  of  Gen- 
tile converts  to  the  Mosaic  law,  Acts  15:22- 
30;  compare  ver.  1-21.  Silas,  himself  "a 
prophet"  (see  Prophet)  spent  some  time 
preaching  at  Antioch,  ver.  32, 33.  After  the 
separation  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Silas  ac- 
companied the  former,  A.  D.  51,  on  his  2d 
missionary  tour  through  the  provinces  of 
Western  Asia,  Acts  15:36-16:10,  and  his  ist 
visit  to  Europe ;  he  was  imprisoned  with 
Paul  at  Philippi,  and  seems  to  have  been  a 
Roman  citizen,  16:11-40.  After  some  stay 
at  Thessalonica  he  parted  from  Paul  at 
Beroea,  Acts  17:1-15,  but  rejoined  him  at 
Corinth,  Acts  18:5,  perhaps  bearing  the 
donations  referred  to  in  2  Cor.  11:9;  Phil. 
4:15.  He  may  have  returned  with  Paul  to 
Syria,  Acts  18 :  18-22.  During  the  18  months 
spent  at  Corinth,  ver.  11,  Paul  sent  2  epis- 
tles to  the  Thessalonians,  A.  D.  52,  53,  in 
the  superscriptions  to  which  he  inserts  the 
name  of  Silvanus,  i  Thess.  1:1;  2  Thess. 
1:1;  and  in  an  epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
A.  D.  57,  he  mentions  the  labors  of  Silva- 
nus among  them,  2  Cor.  i :  19.  This  fellow- 
worker  with  Paul  is  supposed  to  be  the 
same  whom  Peter  commends  as  a  "  faithful 
brother,"  and  by  whom  he  sent  an  epistle 
to  the  Jewish  Christians  in  Asia  Minor, 
I  Pet.  5:12. 

SILK  has  been  from  ancient  times  a  pro- 
duct of  China,  whence  it  was  early  export- 
ed to  India.  It  may  have  become  known 
to  the  Hebrews  through  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  Solomon  and  his  successors ;  com- 
pare Isa.  49:12.  See  Sinim.  The  word 
shesh,  rendered  "  silk  "  in  the  A.  V.,  Gen. 
41:42;  Exod.  25:4,  margins,  and  Prov.  31:22, 
is  however  the   same  elsewhere  correctly 

563 


SIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIL 


translated  "  fine  linen."  Ezekiel,  i6:  lo,  13, 
describing  rich  attire,  uses  another  word, 
denoting  something  drawn  out  fine,  which 
may  well  denote  silk — which  was  probably 
well  known  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  long 
before  Ezekiel's  captivity,  B.  C.  59S.  Pliny 
says  that  the  raw  material  came  to  Greece 
from  Assyria,  and  was  worked  up  by  Gre- 
cian women.  Silk  was  among  the  valuable 
spoils  taken  from  the  Syrians  by  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  about  B.  C.  166,  i  Mace.  4:23. 
It  is  mentioned  among  the  luxuries  of  the 
typical  Babylon,  Rev.  18:12.  Under  the 
Roman  emperors,  a  robe  composed  wholly 
of  silk  was  accounted  too  lu.vurious  for  a 
man ;  and  one  of  the  extravagances  im- 
puted to  the  emperor  Heliogabalus,  A.  D. 
218-222,  was  that  he  wore  such  a  robe. 

SIL'LA,  2  Kin.  12:20,  a  place  near  which 
king  Joash  was  killed ;  apparently  in  the 
valley  south  of  Jerusalem. 

SIL'LY,  Hos.  7:11;  2  Tim.  3:6,  simple 
and  heedless,  rather  than  foolish. 

SILO'AH,  The  pool  of,  Neh.  3: 15,  prop- 
erly the  pool  of  Shelach,  i.  e.,  the  dart,  a 
corruption  probably  of  the  more  ancient 
form  Shiloach  —  from  shelach,  to  send, 
Isa.  8:6.  The  pool  is  believed  to  have  been 
included  within  the  ancient  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem at  the  southeast  corner.  The  "wa- 
ters of  Shiloah,"  gently  fertilizing  the  adja- 
cent gardens  and  symbolizing  the  blessings 
of  Jehovah,  in  whom  alone  Judah  should 
have  trusted,  Isaiah,  8 : 6-8,  contrast  with 
the  desolating  flood  of  the  swollen  Euphra- 
tes, symbolizing  the  kingdom  of  Assyria, 
alliance  with  which  was  secured  by  Ahaz 
to  his  impoverishment,  2  Kin.  16:5-9;  2  Chr. 
28:16-21:  and  whose  forces  were  erelong 
to  desolate  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  2  Kin. 
15:29;  17:3-6,  and  to  sweep  through  Judah, 
2  Kin.  18:13-17;  19:32-36.    See  SiLOAM. 

SILO'AM.THE  POOL  OF,  to  which  Christ 
sent  the  blind  man,  John  9:7,  11,  is  doubt- 
less the  same  as  the  above.  Josephus  lo- 
cates it  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tyropoeon 
valley,  and  Jerome  in  the  valley  of  the  son 
of  Hinnom.  It  still  exists  at  the  junction 
of  these  2  valleys,  at  the  foot  of  Ophel, 
the  southward  prolongation  of  the  temple 
mount,  and  nearly  1,900  feet  from  the  Ha- 
ram  wall.  Though  the  smallest  of  the 
ancient  pools  of  Jerusalem,  it  alone  retains 
its  old  name,  under  the  Arabic  form  "  Bir- 
ket  Silvvan."  It  is  an  artificial  reservoir, 
about  52  feet  long,  18  feet  wide,  and  19  feet 
deep,  with  steps  leading  to  the  bottom. 
The  water  does  not  now  exceed  3  or  4  feet 
in  depth,  but  flows  off  by  an  opening  in  the 
564 


southeastern  end  of  the  reservoir,  in  a  sin- 
gle stream,  afterwards  subdivided  to  irri- 


gate fruit  and  vegetable  gardens  in  the 
valley  below.  The  reservoir  is  partly  cut 
out  of  the  rock  and  partly  of  masonry,  and 
is  in  a  ruinous  condition  ;  broken  columns 
extend  from  top  to  bottom  around  its  sides, 
possibly  supports  of  a  building  mentioned 
by  travellers  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  built 
over  the  pool.     The  water  is  supplied  front 


UPPER   POOL,  OR    KOLNIAIN  01-"   THK   VIRGIN. 

the  much  smaller  "  Fountain  of  the  Virgin," 
Ain  Sitti  Maryam— or  "  Fountain  of  the 
Mother  of  Steps,"  Ain  Um  ed-Deraj— about 
1,200  feet  north  of  Siloam,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  Ophel ;  the  connection  is  by  a  zig- 
zag underground  channel  cut  through  the 
rock,  1,708  feet  long.  This  passage,  whose 
height  varies  from  16  feet  at  its  Siloam  out- 
let to  16  inches  in  some  places,  was  trav- 


SIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIL 


ersed  by  Dr.  Robinson,  and  more  recently 
by  Barclay,  Warren,  and  Sayce.  Several 
side  channels  were  discovered,  now  block- 
ed with  rubbish,  supposed  to  have  once 
brought  to  the  conduit  water  from  the  city 
pools  or  the  temple  wells.  The  water 
ebbs  and  flows  at  intervals  varying  with 
the  season  in  the  "  Mother  of  Steps  " — so 
named  from  the  2  flights  of  steps  leading 
down  to  it — and  less  perceptibly  in  Siloam. 
In  the  upper  fountain  Dr.  Robinson  saw  it 
rise  a  foot  and  fall  again  within  10  minutes. 
The  water  has  a  peculiar  taste,  slightly 
brackish,  especially  in  the  dry  season,  and 
probably  due  in  part  to  the  use  of  both 
reservoirs  by  washerwomen  and  tanners. 
In  1880  an  inscription  was  discovered  on 
the  east  side  of  this  conduit,  on  a  tablet 
set  in  the  wall  19  feet  from  the  Siloam  end  : 
6  lines  of  pure  Biblical  Hebrew,  probably 
of  the  time  of  king  Hezekiah,  commemora- 
ting the  skill  of  the  excavators,  who  worked 
from  both  ends  and  met  midway.  The  con- 
duit enters  a  rock-cut  chamber  5  or  6  feet 
broad,  at  the  northwest  angle  of  Siloam, 
at  the  base  of  the  cliff"  above  the  pool ;  into 
this  "  vestibule  "  a  few  steps  lead,  under 
which  the  water  falls  into  the  pool.  Flow- 
ing out  from  Siloam  the  stream  seems  an- 
ciently to  have  passed  into  another  reser- 
voir before  watering  the  gardens ;  this  2d 
pool,  perhaps  5  times  as  large  as  Siloam, 
is  now  abandoned  and  overgrown  with 
trees;  it  may  have  been  the  "  king's  pool  " 
of  Neh.  2:14;  it  is  now  called  "  Birket  el- 
Hamra,"  the  red  pool.  According  to  the 
Rabbins  it  was  from  the  pool  of  Siloam  that 
a  Levite  drew  water  to  pour  on  the  sac- 
rifice on  "  the  last  or  great  day  "  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  in  memory  of  the 
water  from  the  rock  of  Rephidim,  Exod. 
17:1-6,  a  custom  thought  to  be  alluded  to 
by  Christ,  John  7:37,  38;  and  from  Siloam 
was  taken  the  water  to  be  mingled  with 
the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer  for  purification. 
The  gardens  below  Siloam,  Isa.  8:6,  are 
the  greenest  spot  about  Jerusalem. 

SILO'AM,  The  tower  in,  Luke  13:4,  5, 
at  some  point  in  the  city  wall,  which  it  is 
believed  then  inclosed  Siloam,  Neh.  3:15, 
26.  Christ  teaches  us  in  this  passage  that 
temporal  calamities  are  not  always  proofs 
of  special  guilt,  though  the  utmost  suffer- 
ings here  endured  are  far  less  than  the  sins 
even  of  the  best  of  men  deserve.  Lam.  3:39. 

Fast  of  the  Kidron  valley,  near  the  foot 
of  the  southern  height  of  Mount  Olivet  and 
opposite  the  rough  gray  slope  between  the 
■"  Virgin's  Fount "  and  Siloam  pool,  is  the 


"  kefr"  or  village  Silwan,  an  irregular  and 
dirty  village  on  the  site  of  an  old  quarrj', 
and  probably  near  the  spot  where  altars 
were  erected  by  Solomon  to  Chemosh  and 
other  idols,  i  Kin.  11:7;  2  Kin.  23:13. 

SILVA'NUS.     See  SiLAS. 

SIL'VER  is  first  mentioned  in  Scripture 
in  the  history  of  Abraham,  Gen.  13:2; 
20:16,  though  iron,  gold,  and  lead  are  spo- 
ken of  before  the  Deluge.  It  was  used  in 
building  the  tabernacle,  Exod.  26:19-25, 
and  the  temple  and  its  furniture,  i  Chr. 
28:14-17;  29:2-7;  for  trumpets.  Num.  10:2, 
ornaments.  Gen.  24:53,  vessels  of  various 
sorts.  Gen.  44:2;  Num.  7:13,  and  in  the 
covering  and  adornment  of  idols,  Deut. 
29: 17;  Isa.  40: 19;  Dan.  5:4,  23 ;  Acts  17:29. 
It  was  the  chief  medium  of  trade,  and  as 
such  was  anciently  weighed  out  uncoined, 
Gen.  23:16;  Job  28:15;  Zech.  11:12.  Sil- 
ver coins  were  common  in  New  Testament 
times,  Luke  15:8,  9.  See  Shekel  and 
Money.  The  Hebrew  word  for  silver, 
"keseph,"  also  denotes  money  in  general, 
like  the  French  "argent."  Solomon  ob- 
tained silver,  which  in  his  reign  was  very 
abundant  in  Israel,  i  Kin.  10:27,  from  Ara- 
bia, 2  Chr.  9:14,  and  from  Tarshish,  i  Kin. 
10:22;  2  Chr.  9:21 — whence  also  Tyre  was 
supplied,  Ezek.  27  :  12.  The  Midianites 
were  nomads,  yet  gold  and  silver  are  men- 
tioned in  Num.  31:22,  50-54;  Judg.  8:24- 
26,  as  abundant  among  them  ;  a  statement 
confirmed  by  Capt.  Burton's  discovery  of 
ancient  mine-workings  in  that  land  and  an 
abundance  of  precious  metals.  Masses  of 
almost  pure  silver  are  sometimes  found, 
but  it  usually  occurs  in  rock  veins,  Job 
28:1,  in  combination  with  other  metals. 
The  mining  and  refining  of  silver  are  re- 
ferred to  in  Psa.  12:6;  Prov.  25:4;  Ezek. 
22:18-22;  and  filigree  work  in  Prov.  25:11. 
In  Mai.  3:3  there  is  a  reference  to  the  so- 
called  fulguration  of  silver,  the  sudden 
brightening  of  its  surface  at  the  end  of  the 
smelting  process,  when  the  last  film  of  the 
oxide  of  lead  disappears  from  tlie  molten 
mass  and  the  pure  silver  flashes  forth. 

The  silver  breast  and  arms  of  the  image 
in  Nebuchadnezzar's  vision,  Dan.  2:32,  are 
usually  interpreted  as  representing  the 
Medo- Persian  Empire,  which  succeeded 
the  Babylonian,  ver.  39;  comp.  Dan.  5:28, 

31- 

SIL'VERLING,  Isa.  7:23,  literally  "sil- 
ver," as  the  word  is  elsewhere  rendered; 
probably  the  quantity  denoted  by  a  shekel. 
See  Silver. 

SIM'EON,  hearing,  I.,  the  2d  son  of  Ja- 
565 


SIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIM 


cob  and  Leah,  Gen.  29:33,  one  of  "the  12 
patriarchs  "  or  fathers  of  the  tribes  of  Isra- 
el, Acts  j:8.  His  disposition  was  revenge- 
ful and  violent.  He  and  Levi  took  a  vin- 
dictive and  cruel  revenge  on  Shechem  and 
his  people  for  the  injury  done  to  their  sister 
Dinah,  and  were  reproved  by  their  father. 
Gen.  34.  There  is  no  record  that  Simeon 
relented,  as  Reuben  and  Judah  did,  in  re- 
gard to  the  murderous  purpose  against 
Joseph,  Gen.  37:18-33.  It  may  have  been 
as  the  one  either  actively  or  by  omission 
guiltiest  in  this  matter  that  Simeon  was 
afterwards  detained  as  a  hostage  by  Jo- 
seph, Gen.  42:21-24,  55,  36.  He  was  re- 
stored to  his  brethren  on  their  2d  visit  to 
Egypt,  Gen.  43:23,  and  afterwards  settled 
in  Egypt  with  his  6  sons.  Gen.  46: 10 ;  E.\od. 
1:1,  2.  Jacob  in  his  dying  address  rebukes 
the  sin  of  Simeon  and  Levi  in  regard  to 
the  Shechemites,  and  predicts  the  visita- 
tion of  it  upon  their  descendants.  Gen. 
49:5-7;  comp.  Exod.  20:5.  See  Simeon, 
Tribe  of. 

II.  An  eminently  pious  man  at  Jerusa- 
lem, under  the  special  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  Luke  2:21-35.  He  was  awaiting 
'■  the  consolation  of  Israel,"  compare  Isa. 
40:1,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  had  revealed  to 
him  that  he  should  live  to  behold  the  long- 
promised  Messiah.  So  he  was  led  to  the 
temple  just  when  Joseph  and  Mary  pre- 
sented Jesus  there  in  obedience  to  the  law ; 
comp.  E.\od.  13:12,  13;  22:29;  Num.  18:15, 
16;  Lev.  12:1-8;  he  took  the  child  in  his 
arms,  gave  thanks  to  God,  and  blessed 
Joseph  and  Mary,  uttering  a  remarkable 
prediction  of  the  effects  of  the  Saviour's 
coming;  comp.  Isa.  42:6;  45:17-25;  49:6. 

III.  Sym'eon  Ni'ger,  i/ie  black.  Acts 
13:1,  one  of  the  prophets  and  teachers  of 
the  Christian  church  at  Antioch.  Some, 
without  proof,  identify  him  with  Simon  the 
Cyrenian. 

IV.  This  is  the  name  given  to  Peter  in 
Acts  15:14,  though  he  is  elsewhere  called 
Simon. 

V.  A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Joseph, 
Luke  3:30. 

SIM'EON,  TRIBE  OF.  At  the  ist  census 
in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  the  tribe  had 
59,300  men,  Num.  1:1-3,  22,  23,  being  ex- 
ceeded only  by  Judah  and  Dan ;  38  years 
later,  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  Simeon  was 
the  smallest  of  the  tribes,  numbering  only 
22,200  men,  Num.  26: 1-4,  14  ;  the  tribe  may 
have  suffered  more  severely  than  the  rest 
in  chastisement  for  special  sins,  if  its  char- 
acter is  at  all  indicated  by  the  flagrant  and 
.S66 


obstinate  wickedness  of  Zimri,  one  of  its 
princes.  Num.  25:6-9, 14.  Simeon  belonged 
to  the  "  camp  of  Reuben,"  which  encamped 
south  of  the  tabernacle,  and  was  2d  to  the 
camp  of  Judah  in  the  order  of  marching, 
Num.  2:10-16;  10:18-20.  Simeon  had  its 
station  on  Gerizim,  the  mount  of  blessing, 
at  the  solenna  ceremony  at  Shechem,  Deut. 
27:12;  comp.  Josh.  8:33.  In  conformity 
with  the  prediction  of  Jacob  that  Simeon 
should  be  scattered  and  divided  in  Israel, 
Gen.  49:7,  the  territorial  limits  of  the  tribe 
seem  to  have  been  at  the  outset  loosely 
defined  and  to  have  varied  somewhat  in 
later  times.  Their  portion  under  Joshua 
was  only  a  district  set  off  from  the  territory 
previously  assigned  to  Judah,  Josh.  19:1-9, 
including  18  cities,  with  villages,  in  the 
south  of  Judah  ;  comp.  Josh.  15:26-32.  In 
this  region,  which  the  Judahites  helped  the 
Simeonites  to  conquer,  Judg.  1:3,  17,  the 
latter  were  dwelling  in  David's  time,  i  Chr. 
4:24-33,  and  their  warriors  helped  to  es- 
tablish him  king  over  all  Israel,  i  Chr. 
12:23-25,  38;  2  Sam.  5:1-3.  At  the  divis- 
ion of  the  kingdom,  B.  C.  975,  the  Sime- 
onites apparently  sympathized  with  the 
seceding  northern  tribes,  Simeonites  being 
mentioned  among  the  "strangers"  outside 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin  who  were  affected 
by  the  reformation  of  Asa,  B.  C.  941,  2  Chr. 
15:9-13;  and  again  in  the  reformation  of 
Josiah,  B.  C.  630-624,  2  Chr.  34:6-9,  which 
extended  to  the  "  remnant  of  Israel  "  left 
after  the  Assyrian  captivity,  the  cities  of 
Simeon  are  so  classed  with  Manasseh, 
Ephraim,  and  Naphtali  as  to  suggest  that 
a  part  of  the  tribe  had  been  "  scattered  " 
into  the  northern  kingdom.  In  the  earlier 
reign  of  Hezekiah,  B.  C.  726-697,  two  expe- 
ditions of  Simeonites  had  conquered  terri- 
tory south  and  east  of  their  original  por- 
tion, I  Chr.  4:34-43.  The  name  of  Simeon 
is  omitted  from  the  benedictions  of  Moses, 
Deut.  33,  but  is  mentioned  in  Ezekiel's  vis- 
ion of  tile  restoration  of  Israel,  in  which  the 
tribe  is  placed  between  Benjamin  and  Issa- 
char,  Ezek.  48:24,  t^t^;  and  in  the  vision  of 
John,  Rev.  7:7. 

SIM'EONITES,  members  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  Num.  25:14;  26:14.  Judith,  the 
heroine  of  a  story  in  the  Apocrypha,  is  rep- 
resented as  a  Simeonite,  Judith  8:1;  9:2, 
also  her  husband  Manasses,  8:2,  and  Ozi- 
as,  a  governor  of  their  city  Bethulia,  near 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  6:14,  15. 

SI'MON,  a  contraction  for  Simeon,  or 
borrowed  by  the  post-captivity  Jews  from 
the  Greeks. 


SIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


I.  One  of  the  12  apostles,  Matt.  4:18. 
See  Peter. 

II.  Another  of  the  12  apostles,  distin- 
guished as  "  the  Cananaean,"  Matt.  10  :  4, 
R.  v.,  or  "zealot,"  Luke  6:15;  Acts  1:13, 
R.  V.  The  "  Zelotes  "  of  Luke  is  the  Greek 
equivalent  for  the  Chaldee  term  used  by 
Matthew  and  Mark,  3:18,  which  has  no  ref- 
erence to  Canaan  or  Cana,  but  is  derived 
from  the  Hebrew  kan.\,  zeal,  and  desig- 
nates Simon  as  a  member  of  the  faction  of 
the  Zealots,  fierce  defenders  of  the  Mosaic 
law  and  ritual. 

III.  One ofthe" brethren  "of  Jesus,  Matt. 
13:55;  Mark  6:3.  Some  have  supposed 
him  the  same  with  Simon  Zelotes,  or  with 
the  Symeon  who  succeeded'  James  in  the 
pastorate  at  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  62,  and  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  Trajan's  reign  at  the 
age  of  120.  Both  identifications  are  prob- 
ably erroneous. 

IV.  A  Pharisee  in  Galilee,  at  whose  house 
Jesus  was  anointed  by  a  penitent  sinner, 
Luke  7:36-50. 

V.  A  leper,  probably  healed  by  Jesus. 
At  his  house  in  Bethany  Jesus  was  anoint- 
ed by  Mary,  a  sister  of  Lazarus,  Matt. 
26:6-13;  Mark  14:3-9;  comp.  John   12:1-8. 

VI.  A  man  of  Cyrene,  who  was  compelled 
to  bear  the  cross  of  Jesus  when  the  Saviour 
was  exhausted,  Matt.  27:32;  Mark  15:21; 
Luke  23:26;  comp.  Jolin  19:17;  an  igno- 
minious yet  most  blessed  ministry.  Mark, 
writing  for  Roman  Christians,  calls  him 
"the  father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus,"  the 
latter  being  perhaps  the  Rufus  residing  at 
Rome,  to  whom  with  his  mother  Paul  sent 
a  cordial  greeting,  Rom.  16: 13. 

VII.  Simon  Iscariot,  the  father  of  Judas 
Iscariot,  John  6:71,  R.  V. ;   13:2,  26,  R.  V. 

VIII.  A  tanner,  in  whose  house  at  Joppa 
Peter  lodged.  Acts  9:43;  10:6,  17,  32. 

IX.  A  Samaritan  sorcerer,  often  called 
"Simon  Magus,"  /.  e.,  the  magiciati.  By 
the  practice  of  magical  arts  this  imposter 
acquired  an  ascendency  over  the  people  of 
Samaria,  who  seem  to  have  regarded  him 
as  divine.  Under  Philip's  preaching  many 
of  his  fellow-citizens  became  Christians, 
and  Simon  also  professed  conversion  and 
was  baptized— having  long  "  amazed  "  the 
people  by  his  false  wonders,  and  now  being 
truly  "amazed"  at  the  genuine  miracles 
wrought  through  Philip,  Acts  8:4-13,  R.  V. 
On  the  arrival  of  Peter  and  John  he  sought 
to  purchase  from  them  the  divine  gift  of 
imparting  the  Holy  Spirit.  Peter  denoun- 
ced his  hypocrisy,  to  his  great  alarm,  but 
he  showed  no  true  penitence,  Acts  8 :  14-24 ; 


comp.  Exod.  8:8.  Peter  bade  him  ask 
mercy  from  God,  evidently  far  from  claim- 
ing any  power  in  himself  to  forgive  sin. 
There  are  doubtful  traditions  as  to  Simon's 
subsequent  course.  The  sin  of  buying  and 
selling  spiritual  offices  and  privileges,  or 
ecclesiastical  preferments,  called  simony 
after  Simon  Magus,  was  severely  censured 
and  punished  by  early  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  law.  It  however  became  frequent  in 
the  corrupted  Church  of  Rome,  being  more 
odious  to  Peter  than  to  many  who  have 
claimed  to  be  his  especial  followers. 

SIM'PLE  and  SIMPLICITY  are  some- 
times used  in  the  Bible  in  a  good  sense, 
denoting  sincerity,  candor,  and  an  artless 
ignorance  of  evil,  2  Sam.  15:11 ;  Rom.  16:19; 
2  Cor.  1:12;  11:3;  sometimes  in  a  bad 
sense,  denoting  a  heedless  foolishness  both 
mental  and  moral,  Prov.  1:22;  9:4;  14:15; 
22:3;  and  sometimes  in  the  sense  of  mere 
ignorance  or  inexperience,  Prov.  1:4; 
21:11. 

SIN,  any  thought,  word,  desire,  action,  or 
omission  of  action,  contrary  to  the  law  of 
God  or  defective  when  compared  with  it, 
I  John  3:4;  5:17. 

The  origin  of  sin  is  a  subject  which  baf- 
fles all  investigation ;  and  our  inquiries 
are  much  better  directed  when  we  seek 
through  Christ  a  release  from  its  penalty 
and  power,  for  ourselves  and  the  world. 
Its  entrance  into  the  world  and  infection 
ofthe  whole  human  race,  its  nature,  forms, 
and  effects,  and  its  fatal  possession  of  ev- 
ery unregenerate  soul,  are  fully  described 
in  the  Bible,  Gen.  3;  6:5;  Psa.  51:5;  Matt. 
15:19;  Rom.  5:12;  Jas.  1:14,  15. 

As  contrary  to  the  nature,  worship,  love, 
and  service  of  God,  sin  is  called  ungodli- 
ness or  impiety,  Rom.  1:18;  as  a  violation 
of  the  law  of  God  and  of  the  claims  of  man, 
it  is  a  transgression  or  trespass ;  as  a  devi- 
ation from  eternal  rectitude,  it  is  called  in- 
iquity or  unrighteousness,  Exod.  34:7.  As 
the  evil  and  bitter  root  of  all  actual  trans- 
gression, the  depravity  transmitted  from 
our  first  parents  to  all  their  seed,  it  is  called 
by  theologians  "original  sin,"  or  in  the 
Bible  "the  flesh,"  Rom.  7:18;  Gal.  5:16-21. 
The  just  penalty  or  "  wages  of  sin  is  death," 
Roin.  6:23  ;  this  was  threatened  against  the 
first  sin.  Gen.  2  :  17,  and  all  subsequent 
sins:  "The  soul  that  sinneth  it  shall  die," 
Ezek.  18:4,  20.  A  single  sin,  unrepented  of 
and  unforgiven,  destroys  the  soul,  as  a  sin- 
gle break  renders  a  whole  ocean  cable  use- 
less. Its  guilt  and  evil  are  to  be  measured 
by  the  holiness,  justice,  and  goodnes"  of 

567 


SIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


the  law  it  violates,  the  eternity  of  the  mis- 
ery it  causes,  and  the  greatness  of  the  Sac- 
rifice necessary  to  expiate  it. 

"  Sin  "  sometimes  denotes  the  sacrifice 
of  expiation,  the  sin-offering,  described  in 
Lev.  4:3,  25,  29.  So  Hos.  4:8;  Rom.  8:3; 
and  in  2  Cor.  5:21  Paul  says  that  God  was 
pleased  that  Jesus,  who  knew  no  sin,  should 
be  our  victim  of  expiation:  "  For  he  hath 
made  him  to  be  sin  for  us  who  knew  no 
sin,  that  we  might  be  made  the  righteous- 
ness of  God  in  him."  Thus  many  under- 
stand Gen.  4:  7,  "sin,"  or  a  sin -oftering, 
"coucheth  at  the  door,"  implying  that  the 
use  and  meaning  of  sacrifices  for  sin  had 
already  been  revealed.     See  S.\ckifice. 

For  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  see 

Bl.'^SI'HEMV. 

SIN,  mire,  a  fortified  city  on  the  north- 
east frontier  of  Egypt,  and  exposed  to  the 
predicted  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  probably  also  to  later  inva- 
sions, Ezek.  30:15,  16.  It  is  identified  with 
the  Pelusium,  muddy,  of  Greek  and  Latin 
authors,  2  miles  from  the  sea,  in  the  midst 
of  morasses,  on  the  easternmost  or  Pelusiac 
outlet  of  the  Nile,  now  dry.  It  witnessed 
many  great  battles.  Its  exact  site  is  not 
determined-  some  place  it  at  the  mounds 
of  el-Farma,  one  mile  from  the  Bay  of 
Tineh,  the  supposed  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the 
Nile,  and  14  miles  east  of  the  Suez  Canal ; 
others  at  the  mound  Abu-Khiyar,  between 
el-Farma  and  Tel-Defenneh,  or  Tehaphne- 
hes,  which  is  13  miles  west  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  The  mounds  are  now  approached 
only  by  boats,  except  during  the  driest  part 
of  summer. 

SIN,  WILDERNESS  OF,  between  Elim 
and  Rephidim,  Exod.  16:1;  17:1;  Num. 
33:11,  12.  Here,  a  month  after  leaving 
Egypt,  the  Israelites  received  their  first 
miraculous  supply  of  quails  and  of  manna; 
and  here  the  Sabbath  was  reinstituted, 
Exod.  16:2-34.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
desert  plain  now  called  el-Markha,  running 
along  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  25 
miles,  from  wady  Taiyibeh  to  wady  Feiran. 
It  is  a  dreary  region  and  has  little  vegeta- 
tion. Travellers  report  having  seen  many 
quails  there. 

SI'NA,  Acts  7:30,  38,  A.  v.,  the  Greek 
form  of  Sinai. 

SI'NAI,  thornbxish,  the  mount  in  Arabia 
Petraea  from  which  God  proclaimed  the 
Ten  Commandments  to  assembled  Israel, 
in  the  3d  month  after  they  left  Egypt,  Exod. 
19:1-20;  20;  Deut.  4:10-13,  33,  36;  5:1-22; 
and  to  which  Moses  retired  at  several  times 
568 


to  receive  from  God  various  ordinances  for 
his  people,  Exod.  20:21;  24:1;  Lev.  27:34; 
Deut.  5:  23-31.  Here  Moses  remained  for 
two  periods  of  40  days,  miraculously  sus- 
tained without  food,  at  the  end  of  the  first 
period  receiving  the  2  tablets  of  stone  in- 
scribed with  the  Ten  Commandments  by 
God,  Exod.  24:12;  31:18;  32:15,  16,  19; 
here  he  had  a  vision  of  the  divine  glory 
and  continued  his  intercession  for  Israel 
after  their  idolatry  of  the  golden  calf,  Exod. 
34:5-9;  comp.  Exod.  33:18-23;  and  here, 
at  the  close  of  the  second  40  days,  he  re- 
ceived the  stone  tables  substituted  for  those 
which  he  had  broken,  E.xod.  34:1-4,28,  29; 
comp.  Deut.  9:9-19,  25  to  10:5.  In  this 
same  region  Moses  had,  a  year  or  two  be- 
fore, beheld  the  burning  bush  and  been 
commissioned  by  God  to  liberate  Israel, 
Exod.  3:1  to  4:17;  Acts  7:30,  38.  Here 
also,  6  centuries  later,  God  revealed  him- 
self to  Elijah,  who  had  fled  from  the  wrath 
of  Jezebel,  i  Kin.  19:1-18.  The  manifested 
presence  of  God  and  his  sublime  and  aw- 
ful delivery  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai  are 
referred  to  in  Judg.  5:5;  Neh.  9:13;  Psa. 
68:8,  17.  In  the  New  Testament  the  dis- 
pensation proclaimed  from  Sinai  is  con- 
trasted with  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God, 
Gal. 4:24, 25;  Heb.  12:18-29. 

The  Scripture  use  of  the  2  names  Sinai 
and  Horeb  is  such  as  to  make  it  probable 
that  Horeb,  dry,  was  the  general  name  for 
the  mountain  group,  and  Sinai  the  name  of 
the  special  summit  on  which  Jehovah  "  de- 
scended in  fire  "  and  "  talked  with  "  Israel, 
Exod.  19:16,  18;  Deut.  5:4;  33:2. 

Modern  usage  applies  the  name  Sinai  to 
the  whole  peninsula  flanked  by  the  2  gulfs 
of  the  Red  Sea,  as  well  as  to  the  central 
group  of  mountains,  and  to  an  individual 
peak  of  that  group. 

The  peni)isiila  of  Sinai  is  a  triangle, 
whose  base  extends  from  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Suez  to  that  of  Akaba,  about  150 
miles ;  its  western  side,  along  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  being  about  190  miles  long,  and  its 
eastern  side,  along  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  about 
130  miles.  It  contains  about  11,500  square 
miles,  one-tenth  more  than  the  State  of 
Vermont.  On  its  northern  border  is  a 
broad  sand-belt,  adjoining  the  bare  lime- 
stone ridge  which  forms  the  southern  bor- 
der of  the  desert  et-Tih.  A  gravelly  plain 
of  varying  breadth  extends  along  the  Gulf 
of  Suez,  but  the  coast  along  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba  is  narrow,  being  closely  approached 
by  mountains.  A  rugged  mass  of  granite 
mountains  occupies  the  body  of  the  penin- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


PLAIN  ER  RAHAH  \ND  CONVENT  OF  ST  CATHARINE. 


sula,  the  eastern  and  western  ranges  meet- 
ing in  an  angle  at  the  south.  Deep  wadys 
leap  up  from  the  borders  to  the  central 
heights.  The  mountains  are  of  granite  and 
gneiss,  with  some  outcropping  of  limestone, 
and  on  the  north  and  west  buttresses  of  red 
sandstone.  The  highest  summits  are  over 
8,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  cliffs  some- 
times show  gorgeous  tints  of  red,  purple, 
and  green,  but  the  whole  aspect 
of  the  region,  though  grand,  is 
naked  and  desolate.  The  pen- 
insula contains  iron,  copper,  and 
turquoise.  The  Egyptians  early 
established  colonies  there,  and 
at  times  conducted  mining  oper- 
ations— notably  at  Maghara,  15 
miles  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
where  hieroglyphic  inscriptions 
exhibit  the  names  of  Pharaohs 
from  the  4th  dynasty  to  the  19th 
— from  the  building  of  the  great 
pyramid  of  Gizeh  to  the  He- 
brew Exodus.  At  this  time  the 
peninsula  was  inhabited  by  the 
Amalekites  and  Midianites,  and 
later  by  the  Nabathaean  Arabs, 
whose  chief  city  was  Petra  in 
Idumaea.  See  Sela.  With  the 
rest  of  Arabia  Petrgea  the  penin- 
sula was  annexed  to  the  Roman 
Empire,  A.  D.  105.  Christian- 
ity was  early  planted  here,  and 
coexisted  with  the  native  Saba- 
ism,  or  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Christian    refugees    from    persecution    in 


Egypt  fled  here,  and  many  brotherhoods  of 
monks  were  formed,  on  Mount  Serbal  and 
in  wady  Feiran.  They  suffered  much  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Arabs,  and  in  A.  D.  527 
Justinian  authorized  them  to  build  a  church 
surrounded  by  a  fortified  convent,  the  orig- 
inal of  the  present  convent  of  St.  Catha- 
rine. Mohammedanism  established  its 
sway  over  the  peninsula  in  the  7th  century. 


WADV  MUKATTEB. 


In    many    parts    of    the    peninsula,   but 
chiefly  in  wady  Mukatteb,  written,  which 

569 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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enters  wady  Feiran  from  the  northwest, 
there  are  many  inscriptions  on  the  native 
rocks,  short  and  rudely  cut,  largely  of 
l)roper  names — neither  Jewish  nor  Chris- 
tian, often  preceded  by  such  words  as 
"peace,"  "blessed,"  "in  memory  of" — 
mingled  with  rough  representations  of 
men  and  animals,  stars,  crosses,  ships,  etc. 
Prof.  Palmer,  of  the  English  ordnance  sur- 
vey, pronounces  the  language  Aramaean, 
the  characters  Nabathtean,  and  the  inscrip- 
tions "the  work  of  idle  loungers."  They 
appear  to  range  through  several  centuries, 
from  the  2d  B.  C.  to  the  4th  A.  D.,  and 
some  are  in  Greek,  Coptic,  and  Arabic. 

The  loftiest  summits  of  the  Sinaitic  pen- 
insula are  Jebel  Serbal,  in  the  northwest, 
6,734  feet;  Jebal  Musa,  7,363  feet;  Jebel 
umm-Shaumer,  8,449  feet;  Jebel  Catharina, 
8,536  feet;  Jebel  Zebir,  8,551  feet.  The 
district  around  Jebel  Musa,  which  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  mountain  range,  has,  with  the 
exception  of  the  oasis  in  wady  Feiran,  and 
near  Tur  on  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  the  best  sup- 
plies of  water  and  pasturage  in  the  penin- 
sula, and  to  it  the  Bedouins  resort  when 
springs  and  wells  elsewhere  are  dry. 


There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
which  mountain  was  the  scene  of  (iod's  giv- 
ing the  law,  the  chief  claimants  being  Ser- 
bal, Musa,  and  Ras  Sufsafeh.  The  Scrip- 
ture requirements  are:  I.  The  summit  must 
be  visible  from  a  level  space  large  enough 
to  accommodate  2,000,000  of  people,  E.\od. 
19:11;  20:18.  2.  The  mount  must  rise  ab- 
ruptly from  the  plain,  E.vod.  19:12;  Deut. 
4:11;  Heb.  12:18.  3.  The  neighborhood 
must  afford  a  supply  of  water  and  pas- 
turage— a  condition  met  by  all  3  claim- 
ants. 

Jebel  Serbal,  2  miles  south  of  wady  Fei- 
ran through  the  rugged  wady  .Aleiyat,  does 
not  fulfil  the  ist  and  2d  requirements;  it 
rises  more  than  4,000  feet  above  the  valleys 
at  its  base,  but  its  summit,  a  ridge  3  miles 
long,  is  broken  into  a  number  of  sharp 
peaks,  and  the  surrounding  valleys  are  "  a 
wilderness  of  boulders  and  torrent-beds." 
Only  an  occasional  glimpse  of  the  moun- 
tain can  be  obtained  from  wady  Feiran. 

About  20  miles  southeast  from  Jebel  Ser- 
bal is  an  isolated  ridge  2  miles  long  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  and  nearly  a  mile 
broad.     Its  highest  peak  is  at  the  southern 


1  .~**^^'// 


extremity,  and  is  now  called  Jebel  Mflsa, 
mountain  of  Moses,  being  identified  by 
monastic  tradition  from  Justinian's  time 
with  the  sacred  summit;  but  wady  Sebai- 
yeh,  the  keeper's  valley — so  called  with  ref- 
erence to  Exod.  3:1 — is  too  contracted  and 
570 


rugged  to  have  afforded  standing-ground 
for  the  Hebrew  host. 

The  northern  peak  of  the  same  ridge, 
Ras  es-Sufsafeh,  peak  of  the  willow — from 
a  willow-tree  on  its  side — meets  all  the  re- 
quirements.    It  rises  abruptly  from  wady 


MOUNT  SERBAL. 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


er-Rahah  high  above  all  the  other  moun- 
tains near  it  and  in  sight,  and  is  so  isolated 
from  them  by  the  plain  and  by  deep  and 
steep  ravines,  that  bounds  might  have  been 
set  around  it.  At  its  very  base  lies  the 
wady  er-Rahah,  rest,  a  plain  2  miles  long 
from  southeast  to  northwest,  and  half  a  mile 
wide,  containing  2,000,000  square  yards 
available  standing-room,  a  space  doubled 
by  the  valleys  which  open  into  it  on  the 
east.  The  summit  of  Ras  Sufsafeh,  nearly 
2,000  feet  above  the  plain,  is  accessible  from 


er-Rahah  by  a  wild  ravine,  descending 
which  between  two  cliffs  Moses  might  have 
heard  the  shouts  of  the  calf-worshippers 
before  he  saw  them,  Exod.  32:17,  19.  By 
the  same  ravine  a  winter-torrent  finds  its 
way  down  to  er-Rahah;  and  there  are  sev- 
eral perennial  springs  and  streams  in  the 
neighborhood,  Deut.  9:21.  Dr.  Robinson, 
who  ascended  Ras  Sufsafeh  in  1838,  first 
proposed  its  identification  as  the  sacred 
mount.  "  The  e.xtreme  difficulty,"  he  says, 
"and  even  danger  of  the  ascent,  was  well 


MOUNT  SINAI,  FROM   THE  PLAIN  ER-RAHAH. 


rewarded  by  the  prospect  that  now  opened 
before  us.  The  whole  plain  cr-Rahah  lay 
spread  out  beneath  our  feet ;  while  wady 
esh-Sheikh  on  the  right  and  a  recess  on 
the  left,  both  connected  with  and  opening 
broadly  from  er-Rahah,  presented  an  area 
which  serves  nearly  to  double  that  of  the 
plain.  Our  conviction  was  strengthened 
that  here,  or  on  some  one  of  the  adjacent 
cliffs,  was  the  spot  where  the  Lord  de- 
scended in  fire  and  proclaimed  the  law. 
Here  lay  the  plain  where  the  whole  con- 
gregation might  be  assembled ;  here  was 
the  mount  which  might  be  approached 
and  touched;  and  here  the  mountain  brow 
where  alone  the  lightnings  and  the  thick 
clould  woud  be  visible,  and  the  thunders 
and  the  voice  of  the  trump  be  heard,  when 
the  Lord  came  down  in  the  sight  of  all  the 
people  upon  Mount  Sinai.     We  gave  our- 


selves up  to  the  impressions  of  the  awful 
scene,  and  read  with  a  feeling  which  will 
never  be  forgotten  the  sublime  account  of 
the  trans  ction  and  the  commandments 
there  promulgated,  in  the  original  words 
as  recorded  by  the  great  Hebrew  legisla- 
tor," Exod.  19:1  to  20:21. 

The  members  of  the  English  Ordnance 
Survey,  after  a  careful  survey  of  the  re- 
gion in  1868-9,  unanimously  agreed  in 
identifying  Ras  Sufsafeh  with  the  sacred 
mountain. 

Separated  by  ravines  from  the  Sufsafeh- 
Musa  ridge  are  2  parallel  ridges.  Mount 
Catharine,  3  miles  southwest  of  Jebel  Mflsa, 
is  the  southern  peak  of  the  western  ridge. 
In  wady  ed-Deir,  between  Sufsafeh  and 
the  eastern  ridge,  is  the  convent  or  deir  of 
St.  Catharine,  founded  by  Justinian,  A.  D. 
527,  where  about  50  monks  now  reside.    Its 

571 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


library  contains  some  1,500  printed  books 
and  700  MSS.,  among  which  Tischendorf, 
in  1859,  discovered  the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  a 
most  valuable  Greek  MS.  of  the  Septua- 
gint  and  the  New  Testament,  probably  of 
the  4th  century.  North  of  er-Rahah  is  a 
mountain  called  Jebel  Seneh,  suggesting 
the  ancient  name  of  Sinai,  but  far  less  im- 
posing than  Ras  Sufsafeh. 

The  Israelite  host,  travelling  from  the 
wilderness  of  Sin  eastward  from  the  Red 
Sea,  are  believed  to  have  reached  their 
camping-ground  near  Mount  Sinai  by  a  se- 
ries of  wadys  winding  up  among  the  moun- 
tains, chiefly  wady  Feiran  and  wady  esh- 
Sheikh,  in  one  of  which  was  Rephidim. 
Wady  Feiran  commences  near  the  Red 
Sea,  and  curving  to  the  northeast  opens 
into  wady  esh-Sheikh,  which  making  a  cir- 
cuit north  of  Jebel  Seneh  bends  southward 
and  enters  the  plain  cr-Rahah  at  its  east- 
ern end.  A  shorter  but  much  more  diffi- 
cult way  is  sometimes  taken  by  travellers 
through  the  rough  and  sublime  Nu:b  Ha- 
wa,  pass  0/  the  wind,  which  leaves  csh- 
Sheikh  west  of  Jebel  Seneh,  and  c:nters 
er-Rahah  on  its  northwestern  extret~iity, 
commanding  a  grand  view  of  the  plain, 
the  fortified  convent  of  St.  Catharine,  and 
the  majestic  height  of  Mount  Sinai. 

SI'NAI,  WILDERNESS  OF,  a  region  be- 
tween 2  stations  of  the  Israelites,  Rephidim 
and  Kibroth-hattaavah,  Num.  33:15,  16, 
which  the  Israelites  reached  on  the  3d 
month  after  they  left  Egypt,  Exod.  19:1,  2; 
comp.  Exod.  18:5,  .-\nd  where  they  remain- 
ed nearly  a  year,  Nun.  10:11,  12,33.  Dur- 
ing this  time  judges  were  appointed,  Exod. 
icS:  13-26:  the  law  was  communicated  to 
the  people  through  Mos^.:> ;  the  tabernacle 
was  constructed  and  furnished,  Exod.  39:42 
to  40:35;  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  conse- 
crated to  the  priesthood;  Nadab  and  Abl- 
hu  perished.  Lev.  8-10;  Num.  3:4;  the 
Levites  were  consecrated,  Num.  3:5-16; 
8:5-22;  the  first  recurring  passover  feast 
was  observed.  Num.  9:1-5;  and  the  first 
census  taken,  Num.  1:1-19.  This  year's 
camping-ground  of  the  Israelites  was  in  the 
smooth  and  roomy  upland  plain  north  of 
Mount  Sinai,  now  called  er-Rahah,  togeth- 
er with  the  adjoining  wady  esh-Sheikh, 
and  other  minor  wadys  adjacent  to  these. 
This  region  is  well  supplied  witii  springs, 
streams,  and  pasturage.  See  Sinai,  Mount. 
SIN'CERE,  I  Pet.  2  :  2;  2  Pet.  3:1,  R.  V., 
without  guile.  SINCER'ITY,  pureness,  gen- 
uineness; opposed  to  guile  or  deceit,  Phil. 
1:10. 

572 


SING'ING,  in  the  ancient  church,  was  an 
appointed  part  of  divine  worship,  2  Chr. 
29:28;  Ezra  3:11;  7:24;  Psa.  87:7;  100:2, 
and  in  all  ages  a  manifestation  of  joy,  Psa. 
126:2;  Eccl.  2:8;  Isa.  35:2;  44:23;  49:13; 
Jer.  7:34.  See  Music.  A  recent  traveller 
says  that  in  Egypt  and  Palestine  there  is 
an  entire  absence  of  cheerful  music,  es- 
pecially from  the  children;  "  the  mirth  of 
the  land  is  gone,"  Isa.  24:11. 

SIN'GLE  EYE,  Matt.  6:22;  Luke  11:34, 
unclouded  and  clear  vision,  rather  than  sin- 
gleness of  aim. 

SIN'GLENESS,  Acts  2:46;  Eph.6:5;  Col. 
3:22,  freedom  from  duplicity. 

SIN'GULAR,  Lev.  27:2,  A.  V.,  special  or 
particular,  not  odd. 

SI'NIM,  a  people  remote  from  the  Holy 
Land,  whose  conversion  to  the  God  of  Is- 
rael is  foretold,  Isa.  49:12.  They  are  now 
generally  identified  with  the  Chinese,  called 
Sinae  or  Thinae  by  the  Greek  geographer 
Ptolemy,  A.  D.  140,  and  earlier  known  to 
the  Arabs  as  Sin,  and  to  the  Syrians  as 
Tsini.  Tsin  is  also  the  rabbinical  name 
for  China.  Commercial  routes  early  con- 
nected the  east  of  Asia  with  the  west,  and 
brought  some  of  the  commodities  of  China, 
such  as  raw  silk  and  silken  goods.  See 
Silk. 

The  Nestorians  early  preached  the  gos- 
pel in  China.  In  1625  a  Jesuit  missionary 
discovered,  at  Si-gan-foo,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  China,  and  now  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shin-se  in  the  Northwest,  a  stone 
tablet  of  th:  year  7S1,  recording  in  Chinese 
and  Syriac  the  establishment  in  the  city, 
by  imperial  consent,  of  the  "King  Kiao" 
or  Illustrious  Religion,  and  bearing  a  long 
list  of  Nestorian  clergymen.  In  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries  the  conquests  of  Jen- 
ghis  Khan  and  his  successors,  covering  the 
greater  part  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe, 
opened  anew  the  way  for  communication 
with  China,  then  known  as  Khitai  or  Ca- 
thay—from the  Khitan,  the  ruling  dynasty 
of  the  9th  and  loth  centuries.  Travellers, 
including  the  famous  Venetian  Marco  Polo, 
traders,  and  Franciscan  missionaries,  now 
visited  Cathay;  converts  to  Romanism 
were  made,  and  an  archbishopric  was  es- 
tablished at  Cambaluc,  now  Peking.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Jenghis  dynasty,  1368,  Cathay 
again  became  closed  to  Europeans,  and  all 
traces  of  Christianity  disappeared.  In  the 
i6th  century  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
naval  officers  rediscovered  it  under  the 
name  of  China,  and  Jesuit  and  Dominican 
missionaries  were  sent  there  from  Rome. 


SIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SLU 


Their  missions  flourished  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half;  but,  compromising  with 
the  national  idolatry  and  withholding  the 
Bible  from  the  converts,  they  accomplished 
little  for  the  promotion  of  true  religion, 
morality,  or  intelligence.  At  last  a  jeal- 
ousy of  papal  influence  sprang  up  among 
the  ruling  classes  of  the  empire,  and  in 
1722  an  edict  for  the  suppression  of  Chris- 
tianity was  issued:  300  churches  were  de- 
stroyed or  suppressed,  and  300,000  con- 
verts were  exposed  to  persecution,  many 
submitting  to  suffering  and  death  with  ad- 
mirable constancy.  In  1842  the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ning-po,  and 
Shanghai  were  opened  to  foreign  com- 
merce ;  in  1845  toleration  was  granted  by 
edict  to  Christian  converts ;  and  in  1858 
all  forms  of  Christianity  were  sanctioned 
throughout  the  empire.  The  pioneer  of 
Protestant  missions  in  China  was  the  Rev. 
Robert  Morrison,  1S07  to  1834,  who  made 
the  first  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Chi- 
nese, and  labored  privately  to  spread  the 
gospel,  its  public  proclamation  being  then 
forbidden.  After  the  opening  of  the  5  ports 
Protestant  missions  commenced  in  earnest, 
and  their  abundant  fruits,  especially  in 
recent  years,  attest  the  faithfulness  of  the 
divine  promise. 

SI'NITES,  a  Canaanite  tribe.  Gen.  10: 17  ; 
I  Chr.  1 :  15,  probably  near  Mount  Lebanon. 

SIN'-OF'FERING.     See  SACRIFICE. 

srON,  I.,  one  of  the  names  of  Mount 
Hermon,  Deut.  4:48;  comp.  Deut.  3:9,  and 
see  Hermon. 

II.  The  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Zion, 
Matt.  21:5,  A.  V. 

Sl^n'MOTU,  fruitful  fields,  i  Sam.  30:28, 
a  resort  of  David  when  a  refugee  from  S^ul. 
Probably  12  miles  southeast  of  Hebron. 

SIP'PAI,  threshold?  a  Philistine  giant, 
I  Chr.  20:4;  called  Saph  in  2  Sam.  21:18. 

SI'RAH,  retired,  THE  WELL  OF,  2  Sam. 
3:26,  the  place  which  Abner  had  reached, 
going  from  Hebron,  when  he  was  recalled 
by  Joab.  There  is  a  spring  and  reservoir 
called  Ain  Sara  on  the  western  side  of  the 
road  about  a  mile  north  of  Hebron. 

SIR'ION,  breastplate,  the  Zidonian  name 
of  Mount  Hermon,  Deut.  3:9;  Psa.  29:6. 
See  Hermon. 

SIS'ERA,  battle  array,  I.,  the  general  of 
Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  an  oppressor  of  Is- 
rael in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  defeated  by 
the  Hebrew  army  under  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak, and  ingloriously  slain  by  Jael,  I  Sam. 
12:9;  Psa.  83:9.     See  Jael  and  KiSHON. 

II.  Ancestor  of  Nethinim  who  returned 


with  Zerubbabel  from  captivity,  Ezra  2:53 ; 
Neh.  7:55. 

SIS'TER,  in  Scripture  usage  as  broad  a 
term  as  "brother,"  "father,"  "son,"  etc. 
It  denotes  not  only  "  a  full  sister  "  by  the 
same  father  and  mother,  but  also  a  "step- 
sister "  or  "  half-sister,"  or  any  near  female 
relative.  Gen.  12:13;  20:12;  26:7;  Matt. 
13:56.  It  also  denotes  one  in  close  affinity 
of  thought  and  inclination,  Ezek.  16:46; 
and  one  of  the  same  spiritual  family  by 
faith,  Rom.  16:1;  i  Cor.  9:5.  It  is  one  of 
the  terms  by  which  Christ  e.xpresses  the 
close  relation  to  which  he  graciously  ad- 
mits his  disciples.  Matt.  12:49,  50.  In  Col. 
4:10  "sister's  son"  should  be  rendered 
"cousin,"  as  in  the  R.  V. 

SITH,  Ezek.  35:6,  in  some  copies  of  the 
Bible,  an  obsolete  word  meaning  "since." 

SIT'NAH,  strife,  the  2d  well  dug  by  Isaac 
in  the  valley  of  Gerar,  whose  possession 
Abimelech's  herdsmen  claimed.  Gen.  26:21. 

SI'VAN,  the  3d  Hebrew  ecclesiastical 
month  and  the  9th  of  the  civil  year,  begin- 
ning with  the  new  moon  of  our  June,  Esth. 
8:9.  The  name  is  probably  of  Persian  ori- 
gin.    See  Month. 

SKILL,  often  used  in  Scripture  as  a  verb, 
to  understand  or  know  how,  i  Kin.  5:6; 
2  Chr.  2:7,  8;  34:12. 

SKINS,  Gen.  3:21,  perhaps  of  animals 
offered  in  sacrifice,  by  divine  appointment, 
immediately  after  the  fall. 

SLAVE,  Jer.  2:14;  Rev.  18 :  13.  See  Ser- 
vant. 

SLIME.    See  Pitch  and  Sea,  III. 

SLING,  a  favorite  weapon  of  Oriental 
shepherds,  i  Sam.  17:40;  comp.  the  meta- 
phor of  Abigail,  the  wife  of  the  great  flock- 
owner  Nabal,  i  Sam.  25:29.  It  was  also 
very  effective  in  war,  Judg.  20:16;  i  Sam. 
17:49,  50;  2  Kin.  3:25;  I  Chr.  12:2;  and 
was  regularly  employed  not  only  by  the 
Israelite  troops,  but  also  by  the  Syrians, 
I  Mace.  9:11,  the  Assyrians,  Judith  9:7,  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  Persians.  Sling-stones 
were  chosen  for  their  smoothness,  i  Sam. 
17:40,  and  Uzziah  had  stores  of  them  pro- 
vided for  his  troops,  2  Chr.  26:14,  margin. 
The  sling  supplied  Jeremiah  with  an  image 
of  violent  removal,  Jer.  10:18.  Travellers 
speak  of  modern  Bedouin  shepherds  as 
dexterous  in  the  use  of  this  weapon.  See 
War. 

SLOW-BELLIES,  Tit.  i:i2,  in  the  R.  V. 
"  idle  gluttons." 

SLUI'CES,  translated  "  reward  "  in  Prov. 
ii:iS.  In  Isa.  19:10,  for  "all  that  make 
sluices  and  ponds  for  fish,"  the  R.  V.  reads, 

573 


SMI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SMY 


"all  they  that  work  for  hire  shall  be  grieved 
in  soul." 

SMITH,  a  worker  in  metal ;  in  the  Bible 
particularly  copper,  iron,  gold,  and  silver. 
The  art  of  the  smith,  as  one  of  the  first 
essentials  of  civilization,  was  early  prac- 
tised, Gen.  4:22.  Without  it  a  nation  was 
defenceless  in  time  of  war,  hence  Israel 
was  deprived  of  smiths  by  the  Philistines, 


I  Sam.  13:19-22;  comp.  Judg.  5:8;  and  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Kin.  24:14,  16;  Jer. 
24:1 ;  29:2.  In  Israel,  as  among  the  heath- 
en, the  art  was  often  perverted  to  the  ser- 
vice of  idolatry,  Judg.  17:4;  Isa.  40:19; 
41:7;  44:12;  Acts  19:24.  A  smith  at  his 
work  is  described  in  Ecclus.  38:28. 

SMI'TING  and  "slew"  in  Exod.  2:11,  12 
are  the  same  verb  in  Hebrew,  to  s/qy. 


PORT   AND    CASll.E    OK    S.MNRNA. 


SMYR'NA,  myrrh,  an  ancient  and  im- 
portant city  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, the  seat  of  one  of  the  "  7  churches  " 
addressed  by  Christ  in  the  Revelation  of 
John,  Rev.  i:ii;  2:8-11.  It  was  on  the 
borders  of  ^olis  and  Ionia,  at  the  head  of 
the  Hermaean  or  Smyrnaean  Gulf,  on  the 
northeast  side,  and  was  40  miles  north  of 
Ephesus.  It  was  captured  and  destroyed 
by  Alyattis,  king  of  Lydia,  B.  C.  628,  and 
its  inhabitants  were  scattered  into  villages. 
Antigonus,  B.  C.  320,  founded  a  new  Smyr- 
na on  the  southeast  side  of  the  gulf,  2% 
miles  from  the  former  site,  partly  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill,  but  chiefly  on  the  plain  at 
its  foot  and  extending  to  the  gulf.  It  was 
enlarged  and  embellished  by  Lysimachus, 
574 


and  soon  became  the  most  beautiful  city  of 
Asia  Minor  as  well  as  one  of  the  wealthiest 
and  most  commercial.  Among  its  temples 
was  one  to  the  Olympian  Zeus,  in  whose 
honor  games  were  celebrated  every  4th 
year.  Christianity  was  early  planted  here. 
In  the  general  persecution  under  Marcus 
Aurelius  the  Christians  of  Smyrna  suffered 
severely.  Rev.  2:10;  the  most  distinguished 
of  those  who  were  then  "  faithful  unto 
death  "  was  Polycarp,  the  aged  bishop  of 
that  church,  a  disciple  of  the  apostle  John, 
and  possibly  the  "  angel "  addressed  in 
Rev.  2:8;  he  died  at  the  stake  about  A.  D. 
166.  A  contemporary  letter  from  the  Smyr- 
naean church  to  Christians  elsewhere  de- 
scribes the  Jews  as  joining  the  heathen  in 


SNA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SNO 


accusing  Polycarp  of  enmity  to  the  state 
religion,  Rev.  2:9.  His  traditional  grave 
is  still  pointed  out  on  a  hill.  The  church 
was  represented  at  the  Council  of  Nice, 
A.  D.  325.  Smyrna  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  earthquakes  in  178  and  180,  and  has 
since  suffered  from  the  same  cause,  as  well 
as  from  sieges  and  fires.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1313. 

Modern  Smyrna  has  a  population  of 
about  190,000,  a  large  portion  of  whom  are 
Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  and  Europeans 
of  various  nationalities ;  hence  the  Turks 
call  it  Giaour  Izmir,  infidel  Smyrna.  It 
contains  several  Greek,  Roman-catholic, 
and  Protestant  churches.  It  is  still  a  flour- 
ishing city,  visited  by  many  foreign  ships 
and  by  numerous  caravans  of  camels  from 
the  interior;  its  old  fame  for  raisins  and 
figs  continues.  Its  harbor  is  deep  and  ca- 
pacious, well  protected  e.xcept  on  the  west 
by  the  hills  which  inclose  the  city  on  3 
sides. 

The  ruins  of  the  2d  Smyrna  are  of  much 
interest.  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Pagus,  south 
of  the  city,  is  the  site  of  the  theatre,  now 
occupied  by  a  Jewish  cemetery,  the  marble 
seats  being  turned  to  tombstones.  Ruins 
of  the  temple  of  Zeus  and  of  a  watch-tower 
are  on  the  hillside,  and  remains  of  exten- 
sive fortifications  crown  the  summit.  The 
site  of  the  stadium  where  Polycarp  is  re- 
ported to  have  suffered  martyrdom  is 
pointed  out  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  west  of 
Mount  Pagus. 

Traces  of  the  earlier  Smyrna  have  been 
discovered  on  a  steep  hill  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  gulf,  including  some  remarkable 
tombs,  built  of  large  stones,  and  an  acrop- 
olis on  higher  ground  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  Cyclopean  workmanship. 


SNAIL,  in  Psa.  58:8  the  common  snail 
or  slug,  both  of  which  in  moving  deposit  a 
thick  slime  on  their  path,  and  thus  seem  to 
"melt"  away;  though  the  allusion  in  the 


Psalm  may  be  to  the  destructive  effect  of 
extreme  summer  heat  upon  these  crea- 
tures. In  Lev.  11:30,  A.  V.,  the  Hebrew 
word  probably  denotes  some  sort  of  lizard, 
perhaps  the  sand-lizard,  which  abounds  in 
Mount  Sinai  and  in  Palestine,  and  like  other 
species  is  sometimes  eaten  by  the  Arabs. 

SNOW,  vapor  congealed  in  the  air  and 
falling  in  flakes  resembling  wool,  Psa. 
147:16,  is  often  alluded  to  in  Scripture,  es- 
pecially in  reference  to  its  whiteness,  Exod. 
4:6;  Psa.  51:7;  Isa.  1:18;  Dan.  7:9;  Mark 
9:3;  Rev.  1:4.  Like  all  other  natural  phe- 
nomena, it  is  ascribed  to  the  operation  of 
God,  Job  37:6;  Psa.  147:16,  who  is  glori- 
fied, Psa.  148:8,  by  its  fulfilment  of  his  pur- 
pose, Isa.  55:10,  II.  The  fall  of  snow  in 
Syria  and  Palestine,  2  Sam.  23:20;  i  Chr. 
11:22;  I  Mac.  13:22,  varies  with  the  differ- 
ing altitudes  of  the  localities.  At  Jerusalem 
in  January  and  February  it  sometimes  falls 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  but  seldom  lies  long. 
In  the  ravines  of  the  highest  ridge  of  Leb- 
anon it  lies  till  late  in  the  summer  and 
never  entirely  disappears ;  and  the  summit 
of  Hermon  in  the  western  range  always 
glistens  with  snow,  its  constancy  being 
contrasted  in  Jer.  18:13-16  with  Israel's 
abandonment  of  Jehovah.  Probably  in 
ancient  times,  as  now,  snow  was  brought 
from  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  to  lower 
localities;  its  use  in  preparing  cool  drinks 
for  reapers  is  mentioned  in  Prov.  25:13; 
while  in  Prov.  26:1  a  fall  of  snow  in  sum- 
mer is  compared  to  honors  inappropriately 
lavished  on  a  fool.  The  contrast  of  the 
white  falling  flakes  with  the  dark  foliage 
of  Lebanon — shady;  comp.  Judg.  9:48 — 
symbolizes,  according  to  Dr.  J.  A.  Alexan- 
der, the  change  from  war  to  peace,  Psa. 
68:14.  Friends  unfaithful  in  adversity  are 
compared  to  torrents  formed  by  winter 
rains  and  melted  snow  in  the  highlands, 
but  soon  dried  up  in  the  summer  heat, 
when  most  needed.  Job  6:15-21.  The  wa- 
ter obtained  by  the  melting  of  snow  is  very 
soft  and  cleansing,  Job  9:30. 

SO,  the  king  of  Egypt  with  whom  Hoshea, 
the  last  king  of  Israel,  allied  himself  on 
revolting  from  Assyria  ;  in  consequence  of 
this  rebellion  Hoshea  was  imprisoned  by 
the  Assyrian  king,  Samaria  was  besieged 
and  taken,  B.  C.  721,  and  the  Israelites  were 
deported  to  Assyria,  2  Kin.  17:4-6.  See 
Shalmaneser,  IV.,  and  Sargon.  By  dif- 
ferent writers  So  is  differently  identified, 
either  with  Shabak,  the  ist,  or  less  proba- 
bly with  Shabak  or  Shabatuk,  the  2d  king, 
of  the  25th  dynasty,  an  Ethiopian  line  of  3 

575 


SOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOD 


kings.  The  first  Shabak,  the  Sabacon  of 
Manetho,  is  said  to  have  conquered  and 
put  to  death  Bocchoris,  the  sole  king  of  the 
24th  dynasty,  and  to  have  reigned  S  or  12 
years;  his  name  occurs  on  the  ruins  at 
Luxor  and  Carnak.  The  2d  Shabak,  by 
Manetho  called  Sebichos  or  Sevecluis,  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  the  former  king, 
and  predecessor  of  Tirhakah,  tlie  last  of 
the  dynasty.  A  reign  of  12  or  14  years  is 
assigned  to  him.  Sargon,  in  an  inscription 
found  in  his  e.xhumed  palace  at  Khorsa- 
bad,  states  that  after  his  capture  of  Sama- 
ria, B.  C.  721,  he  defeated  "  Sebech  " — 
probably  Shabak  I.— sultan  of  Egypt,  and 
Hanon  king  of  Gaza,  at  Raphia.  In  a  room, 
apparently  a  hall  of  records,  in  the  ruins 
of  Sennacherib's  palace  at  Koyunjik,  was 
found  among  other  seals  a  piece  of  fine 
clay  bearing  the  impress  of  2  signets,  that 
of  Shabak— probably  Shabak  II.— king  of 
Egypt,  and  that  of  the  Assyrian  king.  The 
seal  is  supposed  to  have  been  attached  to 
the  record  of  a  treaty  between  the  two 
kings.  In  a  cylinder  inscription  Sennach- 
erib claims  to  have  defeated,  in  his  4th 
campaign,  B.  C.  701,  an  Egyptian  army 
under  native  princes  and  an  unnamed 
Ethiopian  king,  at  Altaku  (Eltekeh,  Josh. 
19 :  44),  whither  the  Egyptians  had  ad- 
vanced to  aid  the  Philistine  city  Ekron. 
The  Ethiopian  monarch  is  identified  by 
some  scholars  with  Shabak  II. ;  and  a  treaty 
of  peace  might  naturally  follow  such  an 
eveot.    See  Sennacherib  and  Seal. 

SOAP,  Mai.  3:2,  Heb.  borith,  the  clean- 
ser. In  Jer.  2:22  it  is  distinguished  from 
NETER,  A.  V.  "  nitre,"  R.  V.  "  lye,"  by 
which  probably  natron  is  denoted.  See 
Nitre.  Certain  plants  and  their  juices  or 
ashes  were  anciently,  as  now,  used  for 
cleansing  purposes.  Such  as  grow  near 
salt  water  contain  barilla,  or  carbonate  of 
soda,  used  in  making  glass  as  well  as  soap, 
and  the  ashes  of  poplar  and  other  inland 
plants  contain  carbonate  of  potash.  The 
ancients  combined  these  alkalies  with  oil, 
and  thus  made  a  soft  soap,  used  for  clean- 
sing the  person  and  the  clothes.  They  also 
applied  them  to  the  refining  of  metals; 
comp.  Job  9:30,  3d  clause,  R.  V.  margin, 
and  Isa.  1:25,  R.  V.  margin.  The  hard 
soap  now  abundantly  manufactured  in  Pal- 
estine was  unknown  to  the  Egyptians,  and 
probably  to  the  ancients  generally. 

SO'CHO,  SO'CHOH,   SO'COH,   also    Sho- 

cho,   Shochoh,  and  .Shoco,   branches,  I.,  a 

town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:35. 

See  Shephelah.    Near  it  the  Philistines 

576 


encamped  before  Davids  conflict  with  Go- 
liath, I  Sam.  17:1.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
notice  of  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat 
districts,  i  Kin.  4:10;  was  fortified  by  Re- 
hoboam,  but  was  captured  by  the  Philis- 
tines in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr.  11:7; 
2S:iS.  Dr.  Robinson,  following  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  found  it  at  the  ruins  esh-Shu- 
weikeh,  on  the  southern  slope  of  wady 
es-Sumt,  the  "  vale  of  Elah,"  7  miles  north- 
east of  Beit  Jibrin  and  16  southwest  of  Je- 
rusalem. 

II.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:48,  identified  with  esh-Shuweikeh 
in  the  wady  el-Khalil,  3  miles  north  of  Jat- 
tir  and  10  miles  southwest  of  Hebron. 

SOD,  SOD'DEN,  Gen.  25:29;  E.\od.  12:9, 
the  preterite  and  past  participle  of 
"seethe,"  to  boil  or  stew. 

SOD'OM,  burning?  one  of  the  "cities  of 
the  plain,"  Gen.  13:12,  destroj-ed  by  God 
with  fire  from  heaven  for  their  e.xcessive 
wickedness.  It  was  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  region  occupied  by  the  Canaanites, 
Gen.  10:19,  ^^'^s  governed  by  its  own  king, 
like  each  of  the  4  cities  associated  with  it 
and  which  it  seems  to  have  outranked  in 
importance.  Gen.  14:2.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham  these  cities  were  subject  to  4  con- 
federate kings  of  countries  bordering  on 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  against  wliom 
they  at  length  rebelled.  These  kings,  after 
overrunning  the  regions  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  Dead  Sea,  and  south  and  southwest  of 
the  latter,  descended  to  the  sea  by  the  pass 
of  En-gedi,  and  after  defeating  the  Amor- 
ites  settled  there,  encountered  the  kings  of 
Sodom,  etc.,  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  defeat- 
ed them,  and  plundered  their  cities,  Gen. 
14:4-11.  Sodom  was  situated  in  the  fertile 
plain  or  "circle"  of  Jordan  in  which  Lot 
chose  to  dwell  after  surveying  it  with  Abra- 
ham from  a  mountain  east  of  Bethel,  Gen. 
13:10,  II.  Notwithstanding  the  bad  char- 
acter of  its  inhabitants  Lot  encamped  by 
Sodom,  ver.  12,  R.  V.,  and  finally  settled 
within  its  walls ;  he  was  one  of  the  captives 
taken  by  Chedorlaomer  and  rescued  by 
Abraham,  Gen.  14:12-16.  Lot  returned  to 
Sodom,  Gen.  19:9,  though  annoyed  by  its 
immorality,  2  Pet.  2:7,  8,  not  even  ten  right- 
eous men  being  found  there.  Gen.  18: 16-33. 
Urged  to  escape  by  two  angels,  he  left  the 
city  before  its  destruction,  Gen.  19:1-23, 
26.  See  Lot.  So  terrible  was  the  ruin  of 
Sodom  and  the  other  cities  and  so  utter 
and  perpetual  was  the  desolation  of  the 
once  fertile  region  in  which  they  had  stood, 
(ien.  19:24,  25,  that  the  catastrophe  is  often 


SOD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOD 


alluded  to  in  Scripture  as  a  warning  to 
wicked  men  and  nations  of  the  sure  ven- 
geance of  God,  Deut.  29:23;  Psa.  107:34; 
Isa.  1:9;  13:19;  Jer.  49:18;  50:40;  Lam. 
4:6;  Zeph.  2:9;  Luke  17:28-30;  2  Pet.  2:6- 
9 ;  Jude  4-7.  Tlie  name  of  Sodom  is  used 
as  a  synonym  for  outrageous  wickedness, 
and  is  applied  to  idolatrous  and  corrupt 
Judah  and  Jerusalem,  Isa.  1:10;  3:9;  Jer. 
23:14,  and  to  the  chief  city  of  Antichrist, 
Rev.  11:8.  Indeed  Judah  and  Jerusalem, 
in  despising  the  repeated  gracious  inter- 
ventions of  Jehovah,  are  declared  to  be 
more  guilty  than  Sodom,  Ezek.  16:46-52; 
■comp.  Lam.  4:6,  R.  V.;  and  the  Saviour 
teaches  that  those  who  in  the  light  of  his 
gospel  reject  him  will  in  the  day  of  judg- 
ment receive  a  heavier  punishment,  Matt. 
10:14,  15;  11:23,  24. 

Until  recently  Sodom  and  the  associated 
cities  were  universally  believed  to  have 
tstood  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea 
as  it  then  was ;  the  vale  of  Siddim,  con- 
taining or  adjoining  them,  being  supposed 
to  have  occupied  the  ground  now  covered 
by  the  southern  bay  of  the  sea,  and  to  have 
been  submerged,  wholly  or  in  part,  by  some 
convulsion  attending  the  destruction  of  the 
cities.  This  view  was  advocated  by  Dr. 
Robinson,  and  continues  to  be  held  by 
many  eminent  scholars,  who  urge  in  its 
favor  tradition  running  back  to  Jerome 
and  Josephus ;  the  traces  of  the  names  Sod- 
om and  Gomorrah  found  on  the  southwest 
shore  in  the  salt  ridge  Jebel  Usdum  and 
in  wady  Amrah ;  the  presence  of  bitumen 
sources — "slime-pits,"  Gen.  14:10 — at  the 
bottom  of  the  bay,  as  evidenced  by  the 
lumps  of  bitumen  floating  on  it  or  cast  on 
its  shores ;  and  the  fact  that  Abraham  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Hebron  saw  "  the 
smoke  of  the  country,"  Gen.  19:27,  28. 
The  northern  site  has  been  advocated  by 
De  Saulcy,  Tristram,  Merrill,  and  others, 
on  the  following  grounds:  that  the  "plain 
of  Jordan"  viewed  and  chosen  by  Lot 
must  have  been  at  the  north  end  of  the  Salt 
Sea,  for  its  south  end  is  not  visible  from 
any  height  near  Bethel,  being  shut  off  by 
the  promontory  of  Ain  Feshkah  ;  that  Abra- 
ham, near  Hebron,  could  have  seen  smoke 
rising  from  the  north  end  of  the  lake  as 
well  as  from  its  south  end ;  and  that  the 
northern  site  is  more  in  accord  with  the 
■details  of  Chedorlaomer's  attack  and  Abra- 
ham's pursuit.  The  "plain"  or  "circle" 
•of  Jordan  may,  however,  have  included 
the  whole  depression  or  ghor,  at  both  ends 
and  the  sides  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  it  is 
37 


not  said  that  Zoar  itself  was  visible  from 
the  height  east  of  Bethel,  Gen.  12:8;  13:3, 
10.  As  to  the  submergeJice  of  this  region, 
it  is  true  that  the  references  to  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  etc.,  in  both  Testaments  appear 
to  indicate  a  condition  of  the  region  where 
they  had  stood  answering  to  that  of  the 
sun-scorched,  salt-encrusted,  sulphur-bear- 
ing, and  desolate  shores  of  the  sea,  rather 
than  to  a  region  covered  with  water ;  the 
Apocrypha  speaks  of  "  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah, whose  land  lieth  in  clods  of  pitch  and 
heaps  of  ashes,"  2  Esdr.  2:9;  and  Jose- 
phus, after  describing  the  Dead  Sea,  speaks 
of  "Sodomites,"  or  the  land  of  Sodom,  as 
"bordering  upon  it,"  as  "all  burned  up," 
and  bearing  still  the  "  remainders  of  the  di- 
vine fire  "  which  had  destroyed  it ;  "  War," 
IV.  8,  4;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
evident  that  he  regards  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
which  he  speaks  of  as  close  to  Sodom,  as 
having  been  submerged  at  the  destruction 
of  the  city  and  forming  in  his  time  a  part 
of  the  sea;  "Ant.,"  I.  9;  comp.  Gen.  14:3. 
See  Gomorrah,  Sea,  III.,  Siddim,  Shit- 
TiM,  Zoar. 

SOD'OM,.VINE  OF,  Deut.  32:32.  This 
expression  may  be  used  metaphorically 
without  denoting  any  specific  plant.  Jose- 
phus, however,  speaks  of  certain  fruit; 
growing  in  the  region  where  Sodom  for- 
merly stood,  which  "  have  a  color  as  though 
they  were  fit  to  be  eaten,  but  if  plucked 
they  dissolve  into  smoke  and  ashes." 
Among  the  plants  suggested  as  meant  by 
these  "  apples  of  Sodom  "  is  the  osher  of 
the  Arabs,  the  Calotropis  procera  of  bota- 
nists, resembling  a  huge  milk-weed,  10  or 
12  feet  high,  exuding  from  the  punctured 
stalk  an  acrid  milky  fluid,  and  bearing  a 
yellow  fruit  as  larore  as  an  orange,  with  a 
slight  pod  running  throup-h  it,  whose  thin 
and  flat  seeds  are  winged  with  fine  silky 
filaments.  When  oressed  or  struck  it  ex- 
plodes with  a  uff,  .eavino^  only  shreds  in 
the  hand.  This  however  is  not  a  vine,  and 
many  regard  the  "  vine  of  Sodom  "  as  the 
colocynth,  a  kind  of  gourd  whose  leaves 
and  tendrils  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
the  vine  ;  its  fruit,  of  the  size  of  an  orange, 
with  a  hard  yellow  rind  marbled  with 
green  and  white,  is  nauseous  and  poison- 
ous ;  when  ripe  it  contains  only  seeds  and  a 
dry  powder,  and  bursts  on  being  pressed. 
It  is  found  near  Gilgal,  2  Kin.  4:38,  39,  and 
around  the  Dead  Sea. 

SOD'OMITES,  Deut.  23:17,  the  Biblical 
term  for  persons  who,  in  accordance  with 
a  widely-prevalent  heathen  custom,  prac- 
^  577 


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Used  as  a  religious  rite,  in  the  worship  of 
Ashtoreth,  etc.,  the  crime  to  which  the  men 
of  Sodom  were  addicted,  Gen.  19:4,  5.  The 
Hebrew  term,  kadesli,  means  "  consecra- 
ted," and  its  feminine  equivalent,  kade- 
sltah,  occurs  in  Gen.  38:21,  22  ;  Deut.  23: 17; 
Hos.  4:14.  Some  of  the  Israelites  adopted 
this  dreadful  "  consecration,"  though  it 
was  expressly  forbidden,  with  other  idola- 
trous practices,  I  Kin.  14:22-24.  Its  aboli- 
tion was  sought  among  the  reforms  institu- 
ted by  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  and  Josiah,  i  Kin. 
15:12;  22:46;  2  Kin.  23:7;  compare  Rom. 
1 :  22-27. 

SOL'OMON,  Heb.  Shelo'moh,  peaceful, 
die  successor  of  David,  and  one  of  his  4 
sons  by  Bath-sheba,  2  Sam.  5:14;  i  Chr. 
3:5;  14:4.  Besides  this  name,  chosen  be- 
fore his  birth,  i  Chr.  22:9,  and  first  given 
to  him,  2  Sam.  12:24,  God  directed  the 
prophet  Nathan  to  call  him  Jedidiah,  "  be- 
loved of  the  Lord,"  ver.  25.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  was  about  10  years  old  at  Absalom's 
rebellion,  and  fled  with  his  father  and  the 
household  to  Mahanaim,  2  Sam.  15:13-18, 
23,  30;  16:1,  5,  13;  17:22,  24,  and  returned 
with  them  to  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  19:15,  18, 
39,  40;  20:3.  Solomon  was  a  child  of  spe- 
cial promise,  2  Sam.  7:  [2-15,  and  was  be- 
fore his  birth  designated  by  God  to  succeed 
David,  I  Chr.  22:9,  10;  his  succession  was 
early  promised  to  Bath-sheba,  1  Kin.  1:13, 
17— a  purpose  perhaps  generally  suspected 
though  not  formally  announced,  ver.  10,  20. 
His  kingly  prospects  and  life  were  endan- 
gered by  the  attempted  usurpation  of  Ado- 
nijah,  i  Kin.  1:5-10,  24-27,  as  formerly  by 
that  of  Absalom,  ver.  12,  21 ;  comp.  2  Sam. 
19:5.  But  David,  at  the  instance  of  Nathan 
and  Bath-sheba,  promptly  interfered  and 
caused  Solomon  to  be  anointed  and  en- 
throned, 1  Kin.  1:32-53.  Before  David's 
death  Solomon  was  again  formally  and 
publicly  proclaimed  and  anointed  king,  and 
received  from  his  father  a  solemn  charge 
as  his  successor  and  as  the  builder  of  the 
temple  for  which  David  had  prepared, 
I  Chr.  28:1  to  -29:25;  comp.  i  Kin.  2:1-9. 
He  w.as  not  more  than  20  when  his  father's 
death  made  him  th^  sole  ruler,  i  Kin.  2:12; 
3:7;  2  Chr.  1:1.  One  of  his  first  acts  was 
to  offer,  in  presence  of  a  vast  assembly, 
sacrifices  at  Gibeon,  where  were  the  Mo- 
saic tabernacle  and  brazen  altar;  and  here, 
upon  God's  proposal  to  confer  on  him  what 
he  should  ask,  he  made  his  excellent  choice 
of  wisdom,  to  which  God  added  riches  and 
honor,  i  Kin.  3:4-15;  2  Chr.  1:1-13;  comp. 
Prov.  8:11-16;  Matt.  6:33.  His  unequalled 
578 


sagacity  and  great  learning  gradually  be- 
came renowned  throughout  the  East,  draw- 
ing to  his  court  representatives  of  other 
nations,  among  them  the  queen  of  Sheba. 

1  Kin.  4:29-34;  10:1-13;  2  Chr.  9: 1-12,  23. 
He  accomplished  David's  purpose  by  erect- 
ing a  temple,  which,  though  not  large,  was 
magnificent  in  its  construction  and  adorn- 
ment. It  was  begun  in  the  4th  year  of  his 
reign  and  completed  in  the  nth,  i  Kin.  6; 

2  Chr.  3 ;  4,  and  dedicated  with  great  so- 
lemnity, the  dedicatory  prayer  being  offered 
by  Solomon  himself,  1  Kin.  8;  2  Chr.  5:  i  to 
7:10.  See  Tkmple.  He  established  the 
regular  sacrifices  and  offerings  of  the  tem- 
ple according  to  the  Mosaic  law,  and  the 
courses  of  the  priests  and  Levites,  as  David 
had  directed,  i  Kin.  9:25;  2  Chr.  8:12-15. 
He  then  erected  a  splendid  palace  for  him- 
self and  a  palace  for  Pharaoh's  daughter, 
whom  he  had  married,  perhaps  from  po- 
litical motives,  i  Kin.  7:1-12;  9:24;  2  Chr. 
8:1,11.  In  the  construction  of  these  build- 
ings he  was  aided  by  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
who,  in  exchange  for  wheat  and  olive  oil, 
supplied  him  with  stones,  timber,  and 
skilled  workmen,  i  Kin.  5:1-12;  2  Chr. 
2:3-16;  but  the  larger  part  of  his  workmen 
were  his  own  subjects,  both  Israelites  and 
"  strangers,"  or  descendants  of  native  Ca- 
naanites,  proselytes  to  Judaism,  but  held 
in  servitude,  i  Kin.  5:13-18;  9:20,  21; 
2  Chr.  2:2,  17, 18;  8:7,  8.  He  also  construct- 
ed reservoirs  and  aqueducts,  Eccles.  2:4-6, 
and  rebuilt  and  fortified  cities,  i  Kin.  9:15- 
19;  2  Chr.  8:1-6,  in  various  parts  of  his 
kingdom,  whose  eastern  boundary  extend- 
ed from  Tiphsah  on  the  northern  Euphra- 
tes to  Elath  on  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red 
Sea,  1  Kin.  4:21,  24;  2  Chr.  9:26.  He  es- 
tablished a  lucrative  commerce  with  Tyre 
and  Egypt,  with  the  Phoenician  colony  of 
Tarshisii  in  Spain,  and  with  Arabia  and 
probablv  India,  i  Kin.  9:26-28;  10:22,  28, 
29;  2  Chr.  8:17,  18;  9:21,  28;  he  is  also 
supposed  to  have  carried  on  a  caravan 
trade  with  Babylon  and  the  East  by  the 
way  of  Tadmor.  By  the  fruits  of  this  com- 
merce, and  by  the  tributes  of  vassal  peo- 
ples and  the  presents  of  friendly  rulers, 
1  Kin.  10: 14,  15,  23-25,  Solomon  was  greatly 
enriched ;  he  took  great  pride  in  his  mag- 
nificent palaces,  his  gardens  and  vineyards,, 
his  body-guard  and  hosts  of  attendants, 
his  luxurious  table,  his  pomp  and  Oriental^ 
seraglio,  divinely  forbidden,  Deut.  17:16, 
17.  Yielding  to  the  temptations  connect- 
ed with  this  flood  of  prosperity,  the  king, 
though  solemnly  warned  by  God  in  a  2d 


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revelation,  i  Kin.  9:1-9;  2  Chr.  7:11-22, 
became  proud,  self-indulgent,  and  forgetful 
of  God ;  encouraged  and  finally  assisted 
his  numerous  alien  wives  in  their  abom- 
inable idolatries,  I  Kin.  11:1-8;  Neh. 13:26; 
and  forfeited  the  favor  of  God,  who  an- 
nounced to  him  the  division  of  his  king- 
dom under  his  son,  i  Kin.  11:9-13.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  by  divine  grace 
Solomon  was  afterwards  brought  to  repent- 
ance, and  that  we  have  proof  of  this  in  the 
book  of  Ecclesiastes ;  comp.  2  Sam.  7: 12-15. 

Solomon's  reign,  which  continued  40 
years,  B.  C.  1015-975,  was  generally  peace- 
ful, I  Kin.  4:24,  25,  with  the  exception  of 
some  disturbances  produced  by  Hadad, 
Rezon,  and  Jeroboam,  i  Kin.  11  :  14-43. 
While  the  extensive  internal  works  and 
active  foreign  commerce  conduced  largely 
to  the  prosperity  and  glory  of  the  nation  as 
well  as  of  its  monarch,  i  Kin.  4:20,  many 
of  the  people  felt  themselves  oppressed 
by  forced  service  and  excessive  taxation, 
which  they  openly  resented  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Rehoboam,  1  Kin.  12:3-20;  comp. 
5:13,14;  I  Sam.  8:10-18;  and  they  received 
far  graver  injury  from  the  corrupt  example 
and  influence  of  the  king. 

The  mental  capacities  and  acquirements 
of  Solomon  covered  a  wide  range :  he  was  a 
student  of  nature,  speaking  of  "  trees,  .  .  . 
of  beasts  and  of  fowl,  and  of  creeping 
things  and  of  fishes;"  a  poet,  whose  "songs 
were  1,005;"  a  philosopher  and  moralist, 
producing  "  3,000  proverbs,"  i  Kin.  4:32,  33. 

The  writings  which  bear  his  name  and 
are  included  among  the  inspired  Scriptures 
are  the  "Song  of  Songs,"  commonly  re- 
ferred to  the  earlier  or  middle  part  of  his 
reign;  comp.  Song  3:11;  6:8;  the  "Prov- 
erbs;" and  "Ecclesiastes,"  which  may 
probably  be  referred  to  the  close  of  his 
life,  summing  up  the  fruits  of  his  experi- 
ence, and  showing  the  weakness  of  human 
nature,  the  perils  of  prosperity,  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  all  possible  earthly  good  to  sat- 
isfy the  needs  of  man,  and  the  paramount 
importance  of  fearing  and  obeying  God. 
Besides  these.  Psalms  72  (except  ver.  20) 
and  127  are,  in  accordance  with  their  titles, 
attributed  to  Solomon,  and  in  their  con- 
tents reflect  his  reign;  while  the  former 
terminates  on  Christ,  the  greater  Son  of 
David,  and  the  blessings  of  His  universal 
dominion.  Psalm  45  is  also  ascribed  to 
the  time  of  Solomon ;  in  imagery  appa- 
rently derived  from  the  incidents  of  his 
reign,  it  describes  the  triumphs  of  the 
Messiah,  his   firm   and  eternal  rule,  and, 


like  the  Song  of  Songs,  the  conjugal  rela- 
tion between  him  and  his  people. 

The  Scripture  narrators  of  Solomon's 
reign  borrowed  from  several  contempora- 
neous records:  "the  book  of  the  acts  of 
Solomon,"  i  Kin.  11:41;  "the  book  of  Na- 
than the  prophet,  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah 
the  Shilonite,  the  visions  of  Iddo  the  seer," 
etc.,  2  Chr.  9:29. 

Solomon's  degeneracy  in  his  later  years 
does  not  detract  from  the  value  of  his  in- 
spired teachings,  but  is  itself  a  valuable 
illustration  and  warning  of  the  possibility 
of  falling  into  grievous  sin  from  the  heights 
of  spiritual  privilege. 

Solomon  was  in  many  respects  a  type  of 
Christ — who  was  the  divine  "  Son  of  Da- 
vid," Matt.  1:1,  "greater  than  Solomon," 
Matt.  12:42;  the  "Prince  of  peace,"  Isa. 
9:6,  7;  the  "  Beloved"  of  the  Father,  Matt. 
3:17;  the  chosen  Son;  comp.  i  Chr.  28:5; 
Psa.  45:7;  Heb.  1:5,  8,  9;  the  possessor  of 
"  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowl- 
edge," Luke  2:40,  52;  Col.  2:3;  the  ad- 
mired Teacher;  comp.  i  Kin.  4:29-31,  34; 
Luke  5:1,  15;  19:48;  the  Intercessor  for  his 
people;  compare  i  Kin.  8:22-53;  John  17; 
the  "King  of  kings,"  Rev.  17:14;  19:16; 
Phil.  2:10;  the  Husband  of  his  church; 
comp.  Song;  Eph. 5:23-32;  Rev.  19:7  ;  21 :2. 

SOLOMON'S  POOLS,  Eccl.  2:6.  Among 
these  may  be  included  the  ancient  struc- 
tures called  by  the  Arabs  el-Burak,  the 
pools,  about  3  miles  southwest  of  Bethle- 
hem, on  the  road  to  Hebron.  These  are  3 
large  reservoirs  lying  near  together  in  the 
narrow  valley  wady  Urtas  (see  Etam, 
whence,  according  to  the  Talmud,  the  tem- 
ple derived  water).  They  are  partly  hewn- 
out  of  the  rock  and  partly  mason-work, 
and  are  all  lined  with  cement,  are  formed' 
on  successive  levels,  rising  from  east  tO' 
west,  though  not  in  a  direct  line,  with  con- 
duits leading  from  the  upper  to  the  lower, 
and  flights  of  steps  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom of  each.  They  are  supplied  chiefly 
by  an  underground  aqueduct  from  a  sub- 
terranean fountain  some  distance  to  the 
northwest — perhaps  the  "spring  shut  up" 
of  Song  4:12;  in  the  rainy  season  they  also 
receive  a  large  quantity  of  water  from  the 
neighboring  hills.  An  aqueduct  from  the 
lower  pool  supplies  Bethlehem  and  the 
Urtas  gardens,  and  conveys  water  to  Jeru- 
salem. The  upper  and  westernmost  pool 
is  380  feet  long,  236  feet  broad  at  the  east, 
229  at  the  west,  29  feet  deep  at  the  east,  160 
feet  above  the  middle  pool.  This  pool  is 
423  feet  long,  250  feet  broad  at  the  east,  i6» 

579 


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SOLOMON'S    POOLS,  IN    WADV    IRl  AS. 


at  the  west,  39  feet  deep,  above  the  lower 
pool  248  feet.  The  lower  pool  is  5S2  feet 
long,  207  feet  broad  at  the  east,  148  at  the 
west,  50  feet  deep.  When  first  seen  by  Dr. 
Thomson  they  contained  but  a  few  feet  of 
water ;  but  on  another  occasion  he  found 
the  2  higher  pools  full  and  overflowing  into 
the  lowest  one.  North  of  the  western  pool 
is  an  old  square  fortification  called  Kal'at 
el-Burak,  fort  of  the  pools.  The  aqueduct 
from  the  pools  crosses  the  Hinnom  valley 
below  the  southwest  corner  of  the  city  wall, 
winds  south  around  Mount  Zion,  and  turns 
north  again  into  the  Tyropoeon  valley  into 
the  city  and  the  Haram  area.  A  high-level 
aqueduct,  from  a  spring  near  Bethlehem 
200  feet  above  the  temple  platform,  it  is 
thought,  conveyed  water  to  the  upper  pool 
of  Gihon,  and  to  "  Hezekiah's  pool  "  in  Je- 
rusalem near  the  Joppa  gate. 

SOL'OMON'S  PORCH.  I.  Two  among 
the  structures  erected  by  Solomon  for  his 
own  use  might  thus  be  designated,  viz., 
the  "porch  of  pillars,"  and  the  "  porch  of 
the  throne  "  or  "  porch  of  judgment,"  i  Kin. 
7:6,  7.    See  Shushan. 

II.  The  outer  eastern  portico  or  colon- 
nade of  the  temple  as  rebuilt  by  Herod, 
John  10:23;  Acts  3:11;  5:12.  It  adjoined 
exteriorly  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles  on  the 
east;  its  ceiling,  finished  with  cedar,  was 
40  feet  above  the  pavement,  and  rested  on 
a  double  row  of  white  marble  Corinthian 
columns.  See  Temple. 
580 


SOL'OMON'S  SERVANTS,  whose  de- 
scendants returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
captivity,  Ezra  2:55-58;  Neh.  7:57-60,  were 
probably  the  Canaanites  reduced  to  bond- 
service by  Solomon,  i  Kin.  9:20,  21 ;  2  Chr. 
2: 17,  18;  8:7,  8  ;  comp.  i  Chr.  22:2. 

SOL'OMON'S  SONG,  or  THE  SONG  OF 
SONGS,  ver.  i,  i.  c,  the  most  excellent  of 
songs;  sometimes  called  "  Canticles,"  from 
its  title  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  "  Canticus 
Canticorum."  It  has  always  held  a  place 
in  the  canonical  Scriptures,  appearing  in 
the  ancient  versions  from  the  Septuagint 
onward,  and  in  the  catalogues  from  that  of 
Melito,  about  A.  D.  160,  onward,  and  being 
highly  esteemed  by  Jews  and  Christians. 
There  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  for 
doubting  that  its  author  was  king  Solo- 
mon, at  some  period  during  the  former 
half  of  his  reign.  As  to  its  subject  and 
plan  very  different  opinions  have  been 
held — embraced  in  one  or  another  of  the 
following  3  classes : 

I.  The  allegorical  view.  Almost  all  Jew- 
ish writers  of  the  Christian  era  interpret 
this  beautiful  poem  as  an  allegory,  agree- 
ing usually  with  the  Targum,  the  Chaldee 
paraphrase,  which  explains  it  as  an  alle- 
goric and  prophetic  representation  of  the 
history  of  Israel  from  the  Exodus  to  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  and  the  building  of 
the  third  temple.  The  allegorical  mode  of 
interpretation  was  adopted  by  the  early 
Christian  writers,  who  regarded  the  Song 


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as  setting  forth  either  (i)  the  loving  com- 
munion between  Christ  and  the  soul  of 
the  individual  believer;  or  (2)  the  rela- 
tion between  Christ  and  the  church,  or  (3) 
both;  or  (4)  the  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  the  people  of  Israel,  the  Old  Testa- 
ment theocracy;  or  (5)  the  history  of  the 
church  in  both  Old  Testament  and  New 
Testament  periods.  The  allegorical  view 
in  some  form  has  continued  to  be  that  of 
the  majority  of  Christian  theologians  and 
believers  to  the  present  day. 

2.  Literal  view.  As  early  as  the  5th 
century  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia 
maintained  the  literal  sense  of  the  Song, 
as  celebrating  the  earthly  love  and  mar- 
riage of  Solomon  and  his  bride — Shelomoh 
and  Shulamith  ("the  Shulamite"),  sup- 
posed to  be  Pharaoh's  daughter.  This  lit- 
eral view  long  met  with  little  acceptance, 
but  in  the  last  and  present  centuries  has 
found  supporters,  chiefly  German  ration- 
alists, the  bride  being  sometimes  regarded 
as  an  Egyptian  princess,  sometimes  as  an 
Israelite  shepherdess  from  Shunem.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  bare  literal  view  fails  to 
account  for  the  place  which  the  Song  has 
always  had  in  the  inspired  Scriptures  and 
in  the  hearts  of  God's  people,  and  unwar- 
rantably ignores  the  typical  character  of 
Solomon  as  well  as  many  Scripture  repre- 
sentations of  the  relation  between  God 
and  his  people  drawn  from  the  marriage 
relation. 

3.  Typical  view.  Midway  between  the 
allegorical  and  the  literal  views  is  that 
which  accepts  the  Song  as  setting  forth  in 
its  primary  signification  the  loving  inter- 
course of  king  Solomon  and  his  bride,  and, 
by  virtue  of  the  representative  and  typical 
character  of  the  king,  as  the  vicegerent  of 
Jehovah  and  a  type  of  the  Messiah,  shadow- 
ing forth  the  tender  relation  between  Je- 
hovah and  his  chosen  people,  and  the  still 
more  loving  communion  between  Christ 
and  his  church.  Thus  understood,  the 
Song  harmonizes  with  the  divine  system 
of  actual,  historic,  and  personal  types  of 
Christ  in  his  various  aspects.  The  Song 
holds  an  important  place  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  idea  of  the  marriage  relation 
as  the  figure  of  that  existing  between  God, 
and  particularly  Christ,  and  his  people; 
and  was  thus  adapted  to  nourish  the  faith, 
love,  and  fidelity  of  Old  Testament  believ- 
ers, as  well  as  of  Christians  in  later  times. 
This  idea  is  involved  in  expressions  in  the 
writings  of  Moses,  Exod.  34:15,  16;  Num. 
15:39;  and  of  Asaph,  Psa.  73:27;  lies  in  the 


foundation  of  the  45th  Psalm,  by  a  writer 
contemporary  with  Solomon ;  is  enlarged 
upon  by  the  prophets  in  words  of  comfort 
and  rebuke,  Isa.  54:5;  62:5;  Jer.  3;  Ezek. 
16;  23;  Hos.  1-3;  and  adopted  by  John  the 
Baptist,  John  3:29,  and  by  our  Lord  and 
his  apostles.  Matt.  9: 15;  2  Cor.  11:2;  Eph. 
5:23-32;  Rev.  19:7-9;  21:2-9.  Comp.  also 
Song  8:12  and  Isa.  5:1;  Song  2:14  and 
Psa.  74 :  19 ;  Song  5 : 2  and  Rev.  3 :  20. 

In  form  the  Song  is  a  lyrical  drama  or 
dialogue,  the  speakers  being  Solomon,  the 
bride,  and  her  friends  the  maidens  of  Jeru- 
salem.   See  Solomon,  Shulamite. 

In  the  exposition  of  this  beautiful  poem 
we  must  remember  that  modern  conven- 
tional rules  and  notions  are  not  the  stand- 
ard to  which  its  plan,  its  images,  or  its 
phraseology  should  be  brought. 

Dr.  John  Brown  of  Haddington,  in  the 
introduction  to  his  admirable  paraphrase 
of  this  book,  says,  "  If  understood  of  the 
marriage  and  fellowship  between  Christ 
and  his  people,  it  will  appear  most  exalt- 
ed, instructive,  and  heart-warming.  Its 
majestic  style,  its  power  on  men's  con- 
science to  promote  holiness  and  purity, 
the  harmony  of  its  language  with  that  of 
Christ's  parables  and  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion, the  sincerity  of  the  bride  in  acknowl- 
edging her  faults,  and  its  general  recep- 
tion by  the  Jewish  and  Christian  church, 
sufficiently  prove  it  inspired  of  God.  To 
such  as  read  it  with  a  carnal  and  especially 
with  a  wanton  mind,  it  is  the  savor  of  death 
unto  death,  as  the  mind  and  conscience  of 
such  are  defiled  ;  but  to  such  as  have  expe- 
rienced much  fellowship  with  Christ  and 
read  it  with  a  heavenly  and  spiritual  tem- 
per of  mind,  it  will  be  the  savor  of  life  unto 
life.  The  speakers  in  it  are  Christ,  belie- 
vers, and  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem,"  or 
companions  and  friends  of  believers. 

SOME'TIME,  or  SOME'TIMES,  in  the 
A.  V.  should  read  "  aforetime,"  "once,"  or 
"in  times  past,"  Eph.  2: 13  ;  5:8;  Col.  i  :2i ; 
y-1\  Tit.  3:3;   I  Pet.  3:20. 

SON  is  used  in  a  variety  of  senses  in  the 
Scriptures:  sometimes  denoting  a  grand- 
son or  more  remote  descendant.  Gen.  29:5; 
Matt.  1:20;  one  occupying  a  relation  like 
that  of  a  son — by  adoption.  Gen.  48:5;  by 
law,  Ruth  4:17;  by  education,  i  Sam.  3:6; 
I  Kin.  20:35;  compare  Prov.  1:8,  etc.;  by 
conversion,  Tit.  1:4;  by  resemblance,  Isa. 
57:3;  Matt.  5:9,  45;  Acts  13:10.  By  a  fur- 
ther figure  of  speech,  persons,  to  express 
their  real  or  apparent  origin,  their  temper, 
or   their    destiny,    are    sometimes    called 

581 


SON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SON 


"  sons  "  of  localities,  qualities,  affections, 
or  conditions:  as  "sons  of  the  East,"  Judg. 
^■3>  33'-  "of  this  world,"  Luke  i6:8;  "of 
hell,"  Matt.  23:15,  R.  V.;  "of  Belial"  or 
worthlessness,  Judg.  19:22;  "  of  disobedi- 
ence," Eph.  2:2;  "of  death,"  i  Sam.  20:31, 
margin;  "of  perdition,"  John  17:12.  Even 
inanimate  objects  were  called  "sons"  of 
other  inanimate  objects,  as  in  a  sense  their 
offspring :  thus  an  arrow  is  a  "  son  of  the 
bow,"  Job  41:28,  R.  v.,  margin,  or  "of  the 
quiver,"  Lam.  3:13,  margin;  and  threshed 
grain  is  the  "son  of  the  threshing-floor," 
Isa.  21:  to,,  margin.  The  Hebrew  word 
BEN,  son,  occurs  in  composition  in  many 
personal,  tribal,  and  local  names,  as  Ben- 
jamin, Gen.  35  :  18,  margin ;  Bene-berak, 
sons  of  lig-htning,  ]osh.  19:45.  Bar,  Ara- 
maic and  poetic  Hebrew  for  son,  is  also 
found  in  the  New  Testament,  as  in  Bar- 
timaeus,  Mark  10:46. 

SON  OF  DAVID,  i  Chr.  29 :  22 ;  Matt,  i :  20 ; 
Luke  3:31.  This  title  became,  by  reason 
of  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  announ- 
cing the  firm  and  glorious  dominion  of  a 
descendant  of  David,  Isa.  9:7;  Jer.  23:5; 
Amos  9:11,  one  of  the  recognized  designa- 
tions of  the  Messiah,  Matt.  12:23:  22:41, 
42;  Mark  12:35;  John  7:42,  and  as  such  is 
repeatedly  appropriated  to  Jesus,  Matt.  1:1; 
■9:27;  15:22;  20:30,  31;  21:9,  15;  compare 
JLuke  1:32. 

SON  OF  GOD.  I.  Adam,  as  deriving  his 
origin  directly  from  God  and  endowed  with 
a  mental  and  moral  likeness  to  Him,  is  so 
called,  Luke  3:38;  compare  Gen.  1:26,  27. 
The  expression  occurs  first  in  the  plural, 
Gen.  6:2,  4,  where  the  best  interpretation 
regards  it  as  denoting,  not  angels,  Luke 
20:35,  36,  but  the  descendants  of  Seth,  of 
whose  line  were  the  pious  patriarchs  of 
Gen.  5;  comp.  Gen.  4:26,  and  the  "daugh- 
ters of  men  "  as  denoting  women  of  the 
race  of  Cain,  the  accursed  one,  Gen.  4:9- 
16.  The  term  "sons  of  God"  is  also  ap- 
plied to  angels,  Job  i :  6 ;  2:1;  38 : 7  ;  and  to 
kings  and  rulers,  2  Sam.  7: 14  ;  i  Chr.  28:6; 
comp.  Psa.  82:6;  as  well  as  to  the  worship- 
pers or  chosen  people  of  God — as,  beside 
the  Sethites,  Gen.  6:2,  4,  Israel,  E.xod.  4:22, 
23 ;  Deut.  14:1;  Isa.  45 : 1 1 ;  Jer.  3 :  ^  ;  31 :  20 : 
Hos.  I  :  10;  and  especially  believers  in 
Christ — as  adopted  by  his  Father,  born 
again  into  the  spiritual  family  of  God,  and 
having  wrought  in  them  a  new  nature,  di- 
vine in  origin  and  by  resemblance,  John 
1:12,13;  Rom. 8:14-17;  Phil.  2:13-15;  Heb. 
12:5-7;  2  Pet.  1:4.  See  Rkcicnkkation. 
Nebuchadnezzar  likens  the  superhuman 
582 


companion  of  Shadrach  and  his  friends  in 
the  fiery  furnace  to  "a  son  of  the  gods," 
Dan.  3:25,  R.  \.\  comp.  ver.  28;  in  the 
thought  of  the  heathen  king  there  was  prob- 
ably no  reference  to  "  the  Son  of  God,"  A. 
v.,  the  Messiah. 

II.  The  title  "  the  Son  of  God  "  belongs 
in  a  peculiar  and  always  distinguishable 
sense  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  expressing 
his  unique  and  eternal  relation  to  the 
Father,  as  "  the  only-begotten  Son,"  the 
revealer  of  the  Father,  his  agent  in  crea- 
tion and  redemption,  in  providence  and  in 
judgment,  John  i :  14,  18,  34 ;  3:16;  5 :  22,  23  ; 
Heb.  I ;  comp.  Psa.  2.  This  title  is  applied 
to  Christ  more  than  40  times  in  the  New 
Testament,  Matt.  3:17;  16:16,  17;  17:5; 
Rev.  2:18.  The  Jews  rightly  understood 
him  to  assert  equality  with  God  in  claim- 
ing it,  John  5:18,  R.  v.;  10:30-36.  The 
truth  that  the  Messiah  would  be  essentially 
divine  is  involved  in  declarations  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  Psa.  2;  Isa.  7:14,  R.  V., 
margin;  9:6;  Mic.  5:2;  which  were  so  far 
understood  that  the  title  "  Son  of  God  "  was 
one  of  the  recognized  names  of  the  Mes- 
siah, Matt.  26:63;  Mark  14:61;  John  1:49. 
But  the  vast  majority  of  the  Jews,  entan- 
gled in  earthly  conceptions  of  the  Messiah 
and  his  office,  failed  to  apprehend  the  full 
meaning  of  these  Scriptures,  stumbled  at 
the  poverty  and  unworldliness  of  Jesus, 
and  rejected  as  false  his  claim  to  be  the 
Messiah  and  as  blasphemy  his  announce- 
ment that  he  was  the  Son  of  God  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term.  Matt.  26:63-66; 
John  5:18;  8:58,  59;  19:7.  See  Trinity. 
God's  gift  of  his  own  Son  is  at  once  the 
greatest  proof  of  the  enormity  of  sin,  of  the 
strict  holiness  and  justice  of  God,  and  of 
his  gracious  love  for  sinners,  John  3:16; 
Rom.  3:25,  26;  8:3,32;   Heb.  10:28,29. 

SON  OF  MAN.  This  expression  is  often 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  as  an  equiva- 
lent for  "man;"  it  is  coupled  with  allu- 
sions to  human  weakness.  Num.  23: 19;  Job 
25:6;  Psa.  144:3;  146:3,  and  is  a  reminder 
to  humility,  Ezek.  2:  i,  3,  6,  8;  3:1,  etc.  It  is 
applied  to  Ezekiel's  contemporary,  Daniel, 
Dan.  8:17.  In  Daniel's  vision  of  the  suc- 
cessive world-kingdoms,  after  the  4  pre- 
figured under  bestial  forms,  Dan.  7:3-8,  he 
describes  the  ruler  of  the  final,  universal, 
eternal  kingdom  as  "  like  unto  a  son  of 
man,"  ver.  13,  14,  R.  V.;  of  human  aspect, 
yet  approaching  close  to  "the  Ancient  of 
Days,"  a  remarkable  prediction  of  the 
union  of  the  human  and  the  divine  in  the 
Messiah.     See  also  Dan.  10:16.     The  title 


soo 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOR 


"the  Son  of  Man,"  understood  by  the  Jews 
of  our  Lord's  time  as  a  designation  of  the 
Messiah,  John  12:34,  is  that  which  Christ 
most  frequently  applied  to  himself,  some- 
times interchanging  it  with  "the  Son  of 
God,"  John  1:49-51;  3:14-18;  and  appro- 
priating to  himself  the  prophecy  of  Daniel, 
Matt.  26:63,  64;  comp.  Rev.  1:13;  14:14, 
R.  V.  As  applied  to  Christ — more  than  80 
times  in  the  New  Testament — it  implies 
not  only  his  humiliation,  Matt.  8:20,  that 
he,  the  Son  of  God,  became  a  true  man, 
Rom.  8:3,  but  also  that  he  was  the  one  per- 
fect Man,  sinless,  and  complete  in  every 
human  virtue;  also  the  representative 
Man — personally,  as  elevated  above  indi- 
vidual, class,  and  national  prejudices,  and 
officially,  as  the  representative  of  the  hu- 
man race  in  his  life  and  death  for  man. 
As  Augustine  says,  "The  Son  of  God  be- 
came the  Son  of  Man,  that  you  who  were 
sons  of  men  might  be  made  sons  of  God." 
The  Son  of  God  is  still  also  the  Son  of 
Man,  in  his  exaltation  to  the  glory  of  the 
Father,  Luke  22:69;  Acts  7:55,  56;  comp. 
John  17:5;  and  as  such  has  perfect  sympa- 
thy with  men,  Heb.  4:15,  and  is  to  judge 
the  world,  Matt.  25:31;  John  5:26,  27; 
Rev.  5:9,  10. 

In  Acts  3: 13,  26  ;  4:27,  30,  the  word  "son  " 
in  the  A.  V.  is  "servant"  in  the  R.  V. 
Comp.  Isa.  42 : 1  ;  Matt.  12:18. 

SOOTH'SAYER,  i.  <?.,  truth-teller,  one 
claiming  to  foretell  coming  events,  the  Bi- 
ble translation  of  several  Hebrew  words  : 
in  Dan.  2:27,  etc..  a  divider,  one  who  pre- 
tended to  learn  secret  or  future  things  by 
dissecting  the  entrails  of  animals ;  comp. 
Ezek.  21:21.  In  Isa.  2:6,  where  the  people 
of  Israel  are  reproached  with  being  "  filled 
with  customs  from  the  East,"  R.  V.,  and 
with  being  "soothsayers  like  the  Philis- 
tines," the  word  may  mean  observers  of 
the  clouds,  or  practisers  of  secret  arts;  so 
also  in  Mic.  5:12.  Many  modes  of  divina- 
tion were  practised.  See  Divination, 
Magic,  Sorcerer. 

SOP,  John  13 :  26,  a  small  portion  of  bread 
dipped  in  sauce,  wine,  or  some  other  liquid 
at  table,  Ruth  2:14.  Modern  table  uten- 
sils were  unknown  or  little  used  by  the 
ancients.  The  food  was  conveyed  to  the 
mouth  by  the  thumb  and  fingers,  and  a 
choice  morsel  was  often  thus  bestowed  on 
a  favored  guest.  Similar  customs  still  pre- 
vail in  Palestine  and  other  Oriental  coun- 
tries. Jowett  says,  "  There  are  set  on  the 
table  2  or  3  messes  of  stewed  meat,  vege- 
tables, and  sour  milk.     To  me  the  privi- 


lege of  a  knife,  spoon,  and  plate  was  grant- 
ed ;  but  the  rest  helped  themselves  imme- 
diately from  the  dish,  in  which  5  Arab 
fingers  might  be  seen  at  once.  Their  bread, 
which  is  extremely  thin,  tearing  and  fold- 
ing up  like  a  sheet  of  paper,  is  used  for  roll- 
ing together  a  large  mouthful,  or  sopping 
up  the  fluid  and  vegetables.  When  the 
master  of  the  house  found  in  the  dish  any 
dainty  morsel,  he  took  it  out  with  his  fin- 
gers and  put  it  to  m\-  mouth." 

SOP'ATER,  a  fattier' s  detiverer,  a  Berce- 
an  Christian  who  accompanied  Paul  from 
Greece  or  Macedonia  to  Asia,  on  his  return 
from  his  3d  missionary  journey,  A.  D.  58. 
He  was  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  Acts  20:4,  R.  V. 
Comp.  Acts  17:10-12.  Some  would  iden- 
tify him  with  Sosipater. 

SOR'CERER,  E.xod.  7:11;  Jer.  27:9; 
Dan.  2:2,  and  SOR'CERESS,  Exod.  22:18, 
R.  v.,  a  man  or  woman  who  practised  sor- 
cery— often  by  the  use  of  incantations  to 
which  superhuman  power  was  ascribed. 
Such  a  person,  in  the  A.  V.  "  witch,"  was 
denounced  by  the  Mosaic  law,  Exod.  22: 18, 
R.  v.;  Deut.  iS:io.  Yet  sorcery  and  its 
kindred  arts,  all  of  which  flourished  among 
the  heathen,  were  more  or  less  practised 
by  the  Hebrews ;  and  the  encouragement 
of  it  was  one  of  the  sins  of  Manasseh,  king 
of  Judah,  2  Chr.  33:6,  R.  V.  One  of  the 
latest  denunciations  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  against  sorcerers,  Mai.  3:5.  In  New 
Testament  times  there  were  many  who 
pretended  to  foretell  the  destinies  of  men 
by  the  aspects  of  the  planets  and  stars,  and 
to  cure  diseases,  expel  demons,  and  per- 
form other  wonders  by  means  of  certain 
drugs,  incantations,  etc.  Simon  of  Sama- 
ria, Acts  8:9-11,  and  the  Jew  Bar-jesus  at 
Paphos,  Acts  13:6-11,  and  the  pythoness. 
Acts  16:16,  belonged  to  this  class,  which 
was  also  abundantly  represented  at  Ephe- 
sus.  Acts  19:13-19.  The  punishment  of 
sorcerers  is  foretold,  2  Thess.  2:9-12;  Rev. 
21:8;  22:15.  See  DiviN.ATiON,  Enchant- 
ments, Magic,  Necromancer,  Sooth- 
saver. 

SORE.  "  severe,"  2  Chr.  21:19;  Job  2:7; 
Psa.  2:5;  Heb.  10:29.  As  an  adverb, 
"greatly"  or  "grievously,"  Gen.  49:23; 
Isa.  23:5;  Matt.  17:15;  Luke  2:9;  Acts 
20:37. 

SO'REK,  clioice  vine,  the  valley  in  which 
Delilah  livecl,  Judg.  16:4,  near  Zorah,  Sam- 
son's birthplace,  Judg.  13:2.  Zorah  is  now 
traced  at  Surah,  14  miles  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem, on  a  hill  on  the  north  side  of  wady 
Surar,  a  part  of  which  was  probablv  called 

583 


SOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOU 


the  valley  of  Sorek.  It  is  a  wide  and  fer- 
tile valley,  flanked  by  low  hills  of  white 
limestone  well  adapted  for  vine-culture; 
the  bed  of  its  winter-torrent,  Judg.  16:4, 
margin,  white  and  shingly  in  the  dry  sea- 
son, runs  through  the  middle  of  the  valley. 
On  its  south  side,  nearly  2  miles  from  Surah, 
is  'Ain  Shems,  formerly  Beth-shemesh ;  and 
some  2  miles  southwest  from  'Ain  Shems 
is  Tibneh,  formerly  Timnah,  the  home  of 
the  Philistine  maiden  whom  Samson  mar- 
ried, Judg.  14:1.  Nearly  2  miles  east  by 
north  from  Surah  is  Eshua,  supposed  to  be 
the  ancient  Eshtaol,  Judg.  13:25;  16:31. 
From  Surah  the  valley  takes  a  northwest- 
erly course,  along  the  boundary  between 
Judah  and  Dan,  to  the  Mediterranean,  pass- 
ing 3  miles  south  of  Akir,  the  ancient  Ek- 
ron ;  and  it  may  have  been  the  route  taken 
by  the  Philistines'  kine  drawing  the  ark  of 
God  from  Ekron  to  Beth-shemesh,  i  Sam. 
5:10  to  6:13. 

Sorek  is  translated  "  choice  vine "  in 
Gen.  49:11;  Isa.  5:2;  Jer.  2:21,  and  the 
valley  may  have  derived  its  name  from  the 
cultivation  of  such  vines  on  its  slopes ;  the 
vineyards  of  Timnah  are  mentioned  in 
Judg.  14:5.  In  modern  Arabic  the  word 
denotes  a  highly-prized  variety  of  Syrian 
grape,  which  is  small,  purple,  and  sweet, 
with  few  and  small  seeds,  and  yielding  a 
red  wine. 

SOSIP'ATER,  a  father's  saviour,  a  kins- 
man of  Paul,  with  him  at  Corinth  when  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written,  A.  D. 
58,  Rom.  16:21.     See  Sopater. 

SOS'THENES,  preserver  of  the  nation  ? 
the  ruler  of  the  synagogue  at  Corinth  after 
the  conversion  of  Crispus,  and  probably 
leader  of  the  Jews  in  their  attempt  to  de- 
stroy Paul.  When  Gallic  refused  to  take 
cognizance  of  the  Jews'  complaint  against 
Paul,  A.  D.  53,  Sosthenes  was  publicly  beat- 
en by  the  Grecians ;  and  possiloly  Paul's  for- 
giving sympathy  won  him  to  Christianity, 
so  that  he  may  be  identical  with  the  "  Sos- 
thenes our  brother  "  who  was  with  Paul  at 
Ephesus  and  joined  him  in  writing  to  the 
Corinthians,  A.  D.  57,  i  Cor.  1:1  ;   16:8. 

SOUL.  In  the  English  Bible— with  the 
exception  of  Job  30: 15,  where  the  R.  \ . 
correctly  renders  the  Heb.  nedihah,  "  hon- 
or," and  Isa.  57:16,  where  the  original  is 
neshamah,  "  breath  "  or  "  spirit  " — soul  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Heb.  nephesh  and  its 
Gr.  equivalent  psnche ;  both  of  which  pri- 
marily.mean  "  breath,"  as  nephesh  is  trans- 
lated in  Job  41 :2i ;  hence  they  denote  the 
vital  spirit  or  principle,  and  both  are  often 
584 


translated  "life,"  Gen.  9:4;  Exod.  4:19; 
I  Sam.  25:29;  Matt.  2:20;  6:25,  of  which 
brutes  as  well  as  men,  Gen.  1:20,  30;  2:7, 
are  possessed.  Job  12:10.  This  animal  life 
is  in  Scripture,  as  well  as  by  the  discover- 
ies of  modern  science,  closely  allied  with 
the  blood,  which  \i  "  the  life  {nephesh)  of 
the  flesh,"  Gen.  9:4,  5;  Lev.  17:11-14,  R.  V. ; 
comp.  Isa.  53:7-12;  John  19:34.  Accord- 
ing to  the  American  Revisers  "  life  "  is  the 
better,  because  plainer,  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  word  in  Psa.  49:8,  where,  as  the 
context  shows,  the  reference  is  to  the  im- 
possibility of  purchasing  a  continuance  of 
bodily  existence;  comp.  Job  33:22-30. 

But  together  with  this  principle  of  life, 
which  is  common  to  men  and  brutes,  and 
which  in  brutes  perishes  with  the  body, 
there  is  in  man  a  spiritual,  reasonable,  and 
immortal  soul,  the  seat  of  our  thoughts, 
affections,  and  reasonings,  which  distin- 
guishes us  from  the  brute  creation,  and  in 
which  chiefly  consists  our  resemblance  to 
God,  Gen.  1:26.  This  must  be  spiritual, 
because  it  thinks;  it  must  be  immortal, 
because  it  is  spiritual.  Scripture  ascribes 
to  man  alone  understanding,  conscience, 
the  knowledge  of  God,  wisdom,  immortal- 
ity, and  the  hope  of  future  everlasting  hap- 
piness. It  threatens  men  only  with  pun- 
ishment in  another  life  and  with  the  pains 
of  hell. 

To  the  soul  of  man,  created  in  God's 
image,  Gen.  1:26,  is  ascribed  a  peculiar 
power,  and  from  it  is  demanded  a  peculiar 
activity,  viz.,  the  "seeking  of  the  Lord," 
Deut.  4:29;  II :  18;  30:2,  6,  10,  including  the 
exercise  towards  him  of  all  these  thoughts, 
feelings,  affections,  and  volitions,  with  their 
appropriate  resultant  actions,  which  His 
character  and  His  relations  towards  man 
should  produce,  Psa.  41:4;  42;  103.  Ir» 
correspondence  with  this  need  of  the  hu- 
man soul  is  its  privilege  of  having  Jehovah 
for  its  portion,  Lam.  3:24,  25,  and  of  find- 
ing rest  in  Christ,  Matt.  11:29;  comp.  Psa. 
107:9. 

In  some  places  the  Bible  seems  to  dis- 
tinguish soul  from  spirit,  i  Thess.  5:23; 
Heb.  4:12:  the  organ  of  our  sensations, 
appetites,  and  passions,  allied  to  the  body, 
from  that  nobler  portion  of  our  nature 
which  most  allies  man  to  God.  Yet  we 
are  to  conceive  of  them  as  one  indivisible 
and  spiritual  being,  called  also  the  mind 
and  the  heart,  spoken  of  variously  as  liv- 
ing, feeling,  understanding,  reasoning, 
willing,  etc.  Its  usual  designation  is  "the 
soul." 


sou 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOU 


The  immortality  of  the  human  soul  is  a 
fundamental  truth  of  revealed  religion  and 
a  prominent  doctrine  of  Christianity.  It  is 
implied  in  God's  styling  himself  "  the  God 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,"  etc.,  long  after  their 
earthly  lives  were  finished,  Exod.  3:6; 
Matt.  22:32.  In  the  Old  Testament  a  dis- 
tinction is  often  made  between  the  respec- 
tive destinies  of  the  body  and  the  soul  at 
death :  the  same  individual  is  spoken  of  as 
being  "  gathered  to  his  people,"  /.  e.,  trans- 
ferred to  some  already  populous  home  of 
his  still  living  ancestors,  and  as  being 
"  buried,"  sometimes  in  an  apparently  sol- 
itary grave,  as  Aaron  on  Mount  Hor,  Gen. 
25:8-10;  35:29;  49:29;  Num.  20:24;  I  Kin. 
2:10.  The  distinction  is  further  made  in 
the  use  of  a  specific  term  for  the  place  of 
departed  souls,  both  of  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked.  See  Sheol.  The  true  sense 
of  Sheol  is  often  obscured  in  the  A.  V.  by 
translating  it  "the  grave,"  "the  pit,"  or 
"hell;"  but  it  is  restored  in  the  R.  V.,  if 
not  in  the  text,  at  least  in  the  margin.  Gen. 
yT-l>2>,Z^;  Psa.9:i7;  30:3;  31:17;  Isa.  14:9- 
20;  comp.  I  Sam.  28:8-19.  And  though  the 
passage  into  that  unseen  world  is  tinged 
with  sadness  even  to  the  godly  man's  soul. 
Job  7:9;  Psa.  6:5;  89:48;  Isa.  38:10,  18, 
there  are  records  of  divine  assurances  to 
the  righteous  of  release  from  it  and  of  ac- 
cordant joyful  anticipations,  Psa.  16:10; 
49:15;  73:23-26;  Hos.  13:14.  The  faith 
and  obedience  of  God's  ancient  servants 
attest  their  hope  of  another  life,  Heb.  11 :  10, 
13-40.  It  was  however  reserved  for  Christ 
to  reveal  most  fully  the  soul's  immortality 
and  worth  and  the  blessedness  of  those 
who  die  "in  the  Lord,"  Matt.  10:28;  16:26; 
John  11:25,  26;  Heb.  12:22,  23;  Rev.  14:13. 
See  Im.mortality.  To  save  the  souls  of 
men  he  freely  devoted  himself  to  death ; 
and  how  does  it  become  his  redeemed  peo- 
ple to  spend  and  be  spent  to  promote  the 
great  work  for  which  he  suffered  and  died  ! 

In  the  Scriptures  the  words  rendered 
"  soul  "  are  used  concretely  to  denote  a  liv- 
ing being,  especially  a  human  being.  Gen. 
12:5;  Lev.  5;  Josh.  10:28,  etc.;  Acts  2:43; 
Rev.  16:3;  as  an  object  of  traffic,  a  slave. 
Rev.  18:13.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is 
also  used  to  denote  that  which  has  had  life, 
a  corpse.  Num.  9:6,  7,  10.  With  the  posses- 
sive pronouns,  "  soul  "  is  often  equivalent 
to  "  self,"  Jer.  37:9,  margin.  A  soul  is  as- 
cribed to  God,  Lev.  26:11,  30;  Judg.  10:16, 
by  the  same  figure  of  speech  which  im- 
putes to  him  an  "  arm  "  or  "  eyes." 

SOUTH.     I.  "The    South,"   "the   South 


country,"  or  "the  land  of  the  South,"  Heb. 
NEGEB,  dry.  This  is  the  name  of  a  large 
region  on  the  south  of  Canaan  (applied  to 
it  even  when  approaching  it  from  further 
south)  frequented  by  Abraham  and  Isaac, 
Gen.  12:9;  13:1,  3;  20:1;  24:62.  It  was 
crossed  by  the  spies  sent  by  Moses  from 
Kadesh,  and  was  at  that  time  a  seat  of  the 
Amalekites,  Num.  13:17,  22,  29.  It  is  men- 
tioned among  the  grand  divisions  con- 
quered by  the  Israelites,  Josh.  10:40;  comp. 
Num.  21 : 1-3,  and  formed  part  of  the  terri- 
tory allotted  to  Judah  and  afterwards  to 
Simeon,  Josh.  15:21-32;  19:1-8;  i  Chr. 
4:24-33.  In  this  region  the  family  of  Ca- 
leb the  Kenite,  and  the  Judahite  family  of 
Jerahmeelites  settled,  Judg.  i :  10-16;  i  Sam. 
27:10;  in  David's  time  part  of  it  was  held 
by  the  Philistines,  who  gave  Ziklag  to  him, 

1  Sam.  27:5-7;  30:1,  14-16;  comp.  2  Chr. 
28: 18.  The  mountains  on  the  southwest  of 
the  Dead  Sea  formed  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Negeb,  which  extended  westward  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Gaza  and  Gerar.  It 
consisted  of  a  high  plateau  intersected  by 
mountain  ranges  and  sloping  westward 
into  the  plain.  The  towns  assigned  to  it, 
from  Rimmon  on  the  north  to  Kadesh  on 
the  south.  Josh.  15:21-32,  indicate  a  length 
of  60  miles.  The  northern  part  of  this 
region  was  tolerably  fertile  and  cultiva- 
ted, but  the  southern  portion  partook  of 
the  character  of  the  wilderness  on  which 
it  bordered.  Its  wadys,  filled  with  water 
by  the  winter  rains,  Psa.  126:4,  soon  dry 
up,  and  it  suffers  from  the  hot  winds  from 
the  desert  in  their  season,  Isa.  21:1;  com- 
pare Luke  12:55.  There  are  many  ruins 
of  former  towns— wells,  aqueducts,  reser- 
voirs, terraces,  etc.— but  none  now  inhab- 
ited. Ambassadors  from  Judah  to  Egypt 
would  cross  it,  Isa.  30:1-6;  comp.  36:6. 
Jeremiah  predicts  a  Jewish  reoccupation 
of  its  cities  which  shared  in  the  desolation 
of  Judah  by  the  Babylonians,  Jer.  32:44; 
33:13;  comp.  Obad.  19,  20;  Zech.  J:-];  and 
the  fulfilment  of  this  prediction  is  record- 
ed, Neh.  11:25-30. 

By  Jeremiah,  in  Jehoiachin's  reign,  the 
term  negeb  seems  to  be  applied  to  the  en- 
tire land  of  Judah  approached  from  the 
north,  Jer.  13:19;  comp.  ver.  18,  R.  V.,  20; 

2  Kin.  24'  12,  and  a  few  years  later  by  Eze- 
kiel  prophesying  in  Babylon,  Ezek.  20:46, 
47;  21:1,  2  ;  comp.  Ezek.  i  :i-3  ;  20:  i.  Dan- 
iel, ch.  II,  applies  the  term  to  Egypt.  It 
sometimes  denotes  merely  relative  direc- 
tion, as  in  Exod.  26:18.  "the  south  side." 

As  a  distinct  geographical  term  the  R.  V. 


sou 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPA 


distinguishes  the  South  by  a  capital  ini- 
tial. 

II.  Darom,  a  word  applied  to  part  of  the 
territory  of  Naphtali,  Deut.  33:23,  and  also 
used  as  a  simple  relative  term,  Eccles.  1:6; 
Ezek.  20:46,  R.  v.;  40:24,  etc,;  and  poeti- 
cally for  the  south  wind.  Job  37: 17. 

III.  A  frequent  term  for  the  south  is  te- 
MAN,  the  riglU  hand,  i.  <?.,  of  one  facing  the 
east,  Exod.  ?6: 18,  "  southward,"  Josh.  15:  i ; 
Isa.  43 : 6.  It  is  also  used  for  the  south  wind, 
Song  4: 16.  In  Zech.  6:6  "  the  south  coun- 
try "  denotes  Egypt. 

IV.  Another  term  denoting  "  the  right 
hand,"  yamin,  is  used  for  the  south,  i  Sam. 
23:19,  24;  in  Psa.  89:12  evidently  in  the 
widest  sense. 

V.  In  Psa.  107:3  the  original  term,  liter- 
ally "  sea,"  A.  v.,  margin,  is  the  word 
translated  "west"  in  Ueut.  33:23;  Isa. 
49: 12,  and  "sea"  in  Amos  8: 12. 

VI.  The  south  is  designated  in  Psa.  75:6 
by  the  word  midbar,  unldcrness,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  character  of  Arabia  south  of 
Palestine. 

SOUTH,  QUEEN  OF  THE,  Matt.  12:42. 
See  S.A.BEANS,  II. 

SOUTH  RA'MOTH,  i  Sam.  30:27.  See 
Ramath  Negeb. 

SOWING,  Psa.  126:6;  Prov.  11:18;  Amos 
9:13;  Matt.  13:19-28;  2  Cor.  9:6.  Many 
Scriptures  present  the  analogy  between 
agricultural  and  spiritual  sowing,  and 
show  that  the  sure  resultant  harvests  from 
sowing  good  seed  or  evil  seed  are  not  arbi- 
trary judgments  from  God,  but  the  natural 
and  necessary  results  of  our  conduct,  Gal. 
6:7,8. 

SPAIN,  Rom.  15:24,  28,  the  peninsula  in 
the  southwest  of  Europe,  about  480  miles 
wide  and  600  long.  The  Phoenicians  had 
commercial  settlements  on  the  coast,  one 
of  which,  called  by  the  Greeks  Tartessus, 
was  probably  the  Tarshish  of  Hiram  and 
Solomon.  See  Tarshish.  Gades,  now 
Cadiz,  was  another  Pha?nician  settlement. 
The  earliest  inhabitants  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  were  the  Iberians, 
around  the  river  Iberus,  now  Ebro.  These 
were  afterwards  mingled  in  some  places 
with  invading  Celts.  The  name  Iberia 
was  e.xtended  by  the  Greeks  from  the  west 
coast,  where  they  had  settlements,  to  the 
whole  country.  In  B.  C.  238  the  Cartha- 
ginians invaded  Iberia  and  conquered  the 
southeast  portion,  but  were  expelled  by  the 
Romans  in  the  2d  Punic  war,  about  B.  C. 
206.  After  the  Roman  conquest  the  coun- 
try was  named  Hispania— a  name  traced 
586 


by  some  to  the  Shemitic  word  shaphan  > 
see  Coney  ;  by  others  to  the  Basque  word 
EzPANA,  the  edge-\-M\(^  of  Europe.  Spain 
was  famed  for  its  mineral  wealth  of  gold, 
silver,  etc.  The  Roman  conquest  was  not 
completed  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  B.  C. 
19,  who  divided  the  country  into  3  provin- 
ces, the  one  named  Lusltania  nearly  cor- 
responding to  Portugal.  Many  Romans 
settled  in  Spain,  and  their  language  and 
civilization  gradually  spread  through  the 
country ;  the  elder  Seneca  was  a  native  of 
Spain.  Probably  matiy  Hellenistic  Jews 
resided  there,  and  perhaps  there  were 
Christians  there  at  the  date  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  A.  D.  58,  when  Paul,  at 
Corinth  intended  to  visit  the  country,  Rom. 
15:24,  28— a  design  perhaps  accomplislied 
between  his  ist  and  2d  imprisonments  at 
Rome,  A.  U.  64-66.  See  Pacl.  On  the 
decay  of  the  Roman  Empire  Spain  suffered 
as  a  battle-ground  of  the  Teutonic  tribes. 
The  Goths  established  their  supremacy  in 
427,  and  exchanged  their  Arian  Christianity 
for  the  Roman-catholic  faith  in  587.  About 
713  the  Mauritanian  Arabs,  or  Moors,  con- 
quered Spain,  driving  the  Christians  into 
the  north,  and  retained  a  Mohammedan 
empire  there  until  deprived  of  their  last 
remaining  kingdom,  that  of  Granada,  in 
1482  by  p-erdinand  and  Isabella,  who  also 
expelled  the  Jews  from  Spain.  The  king- 
dom reached  its  height  of  prosperity  under 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  (I.  of  Spain),  Isa- 
bella's grandson ;  and  commenced  a  de- 
cline under  Philip  III.,  grandson  of  Charles. 
Previous  to  1868  the  teaching  of  Protestant 
doctrines  was  forbidden  by  law. 

SPAN,  Exod.  28:16;  I  Sam.  17:4;  Isa. 
40:12;  Ezek.  43:13,  the  distance  from  the 
extremity  of  the  thumb  to  that  of  the  little 
finger  when  spread  apart— 9  or  10  inches. 
The  Hebrew  word  rendered  "spanned  "  in 
Isa.  48:13  means  "spread  out,"  as  in  the 
R.  V.  From  the  same  verb  is  derived  the 
term  used  in  Lam.  2:20,  where  the  R.  V.  has 
children  that  are  "dandled  in  the  hands," 
instead  of  "a  span  long;"  comp.  ver.  22, 
where  the  same  verb  is  rendered  "dan- 
dled," instead  of  "swaddled,"  A.  V. 

SPAR'ROW,  Psa.  84  :  3  ;  102  :  7  ;  Prov. 
26:2.,  Heb.  TSiPPoR,  a  term  resembling  in 
sound  the  chirp  of  many  small  birds,  and 
one  of  wide  application.  It  occurs  more 
than  40  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  is 
usually  rendered  "bird,"  as  in  Gen.  7:14; 
15:10;  Job  41:5;  Eccles.  12:4,  or  "fowl," 
Deut.  4:17.  Like  the  still  oftener  occur- 
ring OPH,  ivingy  also  rendered  "  bird,"  Gen. 


SPA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPE 


40:17,  19,  and  "fowl,"  Gen.  1:20;  7:14, 
tsippor  is  sometimes  used  in  the  most  com- 
prehensive sense,  Deut.  4:17;  Psa.  148:10, 
including  carrion-eaters,  Ezek.  39:17, 
though  a  special  term  is  also  used  for 
these,  viz.,  ayit,  rendered  in  the  R.  V. 
"birds  of  prey"  and  "ravenous  birds," 
Gen.  15:11;  Job  28:7;  Isa.  18:6;  Jer.  12:9. 
In  Ezek.  39:4  ayit  is  used  with  tsippor,  and 
rendered  "ravenous."  But  the  chief  ap- 
plication of  tsippor  was  to  the  insectivo- 
rous and  frugivorous  small  birds,  account- 
€d  "clean,"  permitted  as  food,  Deut.  14:11, 
and  directed  to  be  used  in  the  ceremony 
for  the   cleansing  of  a  leper.   Lev.   14:4, 


etc.  Beside  sparrows,  there  were  inclu- 
ded finches,  thrushes,  larks,  and  many  oth- 
ers; comp.  also  Gen.  15:10  with  ver.  9. 
Wanton  destruction  of  such  birds  was 
guarded  against,  Deut.  22:6,  7.  Over  100 
species  of  passerine  or  sparrow-like  birds 
have  been  observed  in  Palestine,  inclu- 
ding the  common  English  sparrow,  Passer 
domesticus,  and  3  other  sparrows.  The 
English  tree -sparrow,  Passer  montanus, 
abounds  in  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  around 
the  mosque  on  the  site  of  the  temple,  whence 
they  acquire  a  sort  of  sacredness  in  the 
view  of  Mohammedans,  as  under  the  divine 
protection;  comp.  Psa.  84:3 — where  how- 
ever "  altars  "  cannot  be  understood  liter- 
ally, and  many  claim  that  birds  were  not 
allowed  within  the  sacred  precincts  at  all, 
and  that  the  Psalmist  only  asserts  that  as 
the  birds  find  anywhere  a  safe  nest,  so  his 
soul  found  rest  and  a  home  in  Jehovah. 
In  Psa.  102:7  the  reference  is  not  to  the 
lively  and  gregarious  sparrow,  but  to  the 
blue  thrush,  Petrocincla  cyanea,  often  seen 
perched  singly,  or  with  a  single  compan- 
ion, on  houses  in  the  villages  of  Palestine, 
uttering  from  time  to  time  its  plaintive  and 
monotonous   note.      Among   the   birds   to 


whose  notes  reference  is  made  in  Psa. 
104:12  we  niaj'  doubtless  number  the  Pal- 
estine bulbul,  Ixus  xanthopygius,  a  thrush- 
like bird,  closely  allied  to  the  nightingale 
of  Persia  and  India;  it  frequents  wooded 
districts,  especially  the  banks  of  the  Jor- 
dan, where  in  the  early  morning  it  pours 
forth  its  exquisite  song.  Small  birds  were 
no  doubt  anciently  used  as  a  common  food, 
Neh.  5:18,  and  were  so  abundant  in  mar- 
ket and  cheap  in  our  Lord's  time  as  to  fur- 
nish a  striking  illustration  of  God's  care 
over  his  people.  Matt.  10:29-31 ;  Luke  12:6, 
7 ;  long  strings  of  sparrows,  wagtails,  and 
larks  are  to-day  offered  in  the  streets  of 
Jerusalem.  The  Old  Testament  contains 
many  allusions  to  the  capture  of  birds, 
effected  by  snares  and  nets  of  various  sorts, 
Psa.  124:7;  Prov.7:23;  Eccles.  9:12;  Amos 
3:5,  sometimes  with  the  help  of  a  decoy 
bird,  Jer.  5:27.  See  Partridge.  Mussul- 
mans cut  the  throat  of  game  and  spill  the 
blood  on  the  ground,  as  Moses  bade  the 
Hebrews  to  do.  Lev.  17:13.  In  Isa.  31:5 
God's  tender  care  over  his  people  is  illus- 
trated by  that  of  a  mother-bird  flying  around 
or  near  her  young  in  time  of  danger.  The 
fugitive  habit  of  the  sparrows  illustrates 
the  failure  of  an  undeserved  curse  to  cling 
to  the  person  against  whom  it  is  aimed, 
Prov.  26:2;  comp.  Num.  23:8;  Deut.  23:5. 
The  Hebrew  term  occurs  as  the  name  of 
the  father  of  Balak,  Num.  22:2,  and  of  the 
Midianite  wife  of  Moses,  Exod.  2:21. 

SPEAR.  Several  different  kinds  seem 
to  be  intended  by  as  many  different  Heb. 
words.  I.  The  clianith  seems  to  have  been 
the  chief  weapon  of  this  sort,  i  Sam.  13:19, 
22 ;  one  of  great  size  and  weight  was  borne 
by  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17:7,  45,  and  by  other 
giants,  2  Sam.  21 :  19;  23:21  ;  i  Chr.  11 :23; 
it  was  the  habitual  companion  of  Saul, 
I  Sam.  22:6:  26:7-12,  16,  22;  2  Sam.  1:6, 
and  other  warriors,  2  Sam.  2:23;  23:18; 
I  Chr.  11: II,  20.  It  was  this,  and  not  a 
"javelin,"  that  Saul  hurled  at  David,  i  Sam. 
18:10,  11;  19:9,  10,  and  at  Jonathan,  i  .Sam. 
20:33,  R-  V.  Its  wooden  staff,  5  or  6  feet 
long,  bore  a  metal  head,  sharp-edged  and 
pointed,  i  Sam.  17:7;  its  butt  also  was 
sometimes  shod  with  metal  to  facilitate 
sticking  it  in  the  earth,  i  Sam.  26:7,  etc., 
and  with  this  end  a  fatal  blow  might  be 
struck,  2  Sam.  2:23.  Like  this  was  the 
Roman  spear  with  which  a  large  wound 
was  inflicted  in  the  side  of  Jesus,  John 
19:34;  20:27. 

II.  The  kidon  or  "javelin"  was  appar- 
ently a  lighter  weapon.     It  was  this  that 

587 


SPE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPI 


Joshua  stretched  out  as  a  signal  to  his  host 
in  ambush  to  assault  Ai,  Josh.  S :  18-26,  R.  V. 
One  of  brass  or  bronze  was  borne  by  (ioli- 
ath  on  his  shoulders  when  not  in  use,  i  Sam. 
17:6,45,  R.  v.,  called  in  the  A.  V.  "target" 
and  "shield."  It  is  associated  with  the 
spear  in  Job  39:23;  in  the  A.  V.  "shield." 

III.  Another  frequent  term  for  shield  is 
rowarA,  Num.25:7,  R.  V. ;  Judg.  5:8;  i  Kin. 
18:28,  in  the  R.  V.  "lances;"  i  Chr.  12:8, 
in  the  A.  V.  "buckler;"  2  Chr.  11:12;  14:8; 
25:5;  Neh.  4:13,  16,  21 ;   Ezek.  39:9. 

SPEAR'MEN,  Acts  23:23,  probably  light- 
armed  lancers,  in  distinction  from  the 
heavy-armed  legionaries,  "  soldiers,"  and 
the  cavalry.  The  words  rendered  "the 
company  of  spearmen  "  in  Psa.  68:30,  A.  V., 
are  translated  in  the  R.  V.  "  wild  beast  of 
the  reeds,"  meaning  probably  the  croco- 
dile, as  the  symbol  of  Egypt;  comp.  ver. 
31;  Psa.  74:14;  Ezek.  29:3. 

SPEED,  success,  Gen.  24  :  12.  "  God 
speed,"  2  John  10,  11,  good  health  and 
success;  in  R.  V.  "give  him  no  greet- 
ing." Sped,  Judg.  5:30,  succeeded;  R.  V., 
"  found." 

SPI'CERY,  Heb.  NEKOTH,  Gen.  37:25; 
43:  II,  R.  V. ;  either  the  storax,  an  odorous 
gum  valued  as  an  incense  and  for  its  med- 
ical properties — exuded  from  incisions  in 
the  Storax  officinalis,  a  low  tree  found  in 
Syria,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece ; 
or  as  some  think,  tragacanth,  a  gum  from 
the  Astragalus  tragacantha,  which  still 
grows  in  Palestine.  The  shrub  is  low  and 
wide -spreading,  with  small  leaves  and 
many  long  and  strong  thorns.  The  gum 
is  odorless  and  sweetish  in  taste,  and  has 
alvyays  been  prized  in  the  East,  being  mixed 
with  honey  for  medicinal  use.  Dissolved 
in  water  it  forms  a  fine  mucilage. 

SPI'CES  is  the  rendering  of  4  Heb.  words, 
one  of  which,  basam,  found  only  in  Song 
5:1,  may  perhaps  denote  the  precious  bal- 
sam obtained  from  the  gum  and  berries  of 
the  Amyris  opobalsamum,  Arabic  basham. 
See  Bal.m,  also  Song  5: 13  ;  6:2,  R.  V.,  mar- 
gin. In  the  other  passages  where  "  spi- 
ces "  are  mentioned  the  reference  is  prob- 
ably to  aromatic  substances  in  general, 
including  not  only  odorous  gums,  roots, 
woods,  and  barks,  but  also  fragrant  seeds 
and  the  perfumes  of  flowers.  Song  4:14,  16. 
Some  of  these  substances  were  used  in 
compounding  the  sacred  incense  and  an- 
ointing oil,  Exod.  25:6;  30:23-25,  34,  35; 
35:8,  28;  37:29.  Some  were  products  of 
Palestine,  others  were  obtained  from  Ara- 
bia, or  through  Arabia  from  India,  Persia, 
588 


East  Africa,  etc.;  comp.  i  Kin.  10:2,  10; 
Ezek.  27:22,  R.  V.  The  Greek  word  aro- 
viala,  rendered  "spices"  in  Mark  16:1; 
Luke  23:56;  24:1,  also  denotes  aromatic 
substances  in  general,  the  two  specified  in 
John  19:39,  40  being  a  gum  and  a  fragrant 
wood.  Josephus  mentions  the  attendance 
of  500  spice-bearers  at  the  funeral  of  Herod 
the  Great. 


SPI'DER,  a  well-known  little  creature 
belonging  to  a  family  of  the  order  Arach- 
nida,  of  which  manj^  kinds  are  found  in 
Palestine.  Most  of  them  spin  some  sort  of 
a  web  or  "house."  sufficiently  strong  to 
catch  and  hold  their  prey,  but  yet  exceed- 
ingly frail.  To  this  slender  structure  Bil- 
dad  compares  "  the  hope  of  the  godless 
man,"  Job.  8 :  14,  R.  V.  The  spider's  thread 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  thousands  of  mi- 
nute silky  threads,  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  issuing  from  its  spinneret  and  quickly 
hardening  in  the  air.  It  shows  marvellous 
ingenuity  in  forming  its  web,  great  cun- 
ning in  securing  its  prey,  and  ferocity  in 
seizing,  poisoning,  and  devouring  it.  Isa- 
iah shows  the  men  of  Judah  that  their  sim- 
ilar traits  and  works  can  as  little  cover  or 
protect  them  from  the  judgments  of  God, 
Isa.  59:5,  6.  In  Prov.  30:28  a  diffierent  He- 
brew word  is  used,  denoting,  according  to 
the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  R.  V., 
the  lizard ;  perhaps  the  gecko,  several  spe- 
cies of  which  are  common  among  ruins  in 
Palestine  and  Egypt;  with  its  fan-like  toes 
it  is  able  to  mount  perpendicular  walls,  and 
even  to  cling  to  ceilings.  Some  scholars, 
however,  with  the  A.  V.,  still  regard  the 
house  spider,  Aranea  domestica,  as  re- 
ferred to. 

SPIKE'NARD  (Heb.  7ierd,  derived  from 
the  Sanscrit  and  denoting  "  giving  an 
odor  "),  a  highly-valued  scented  oil  or  oint- 
ment, mentioned  as  perfuming  the  bride  in 
Song  1:12;  comp.  4:10,  and  sending  forth 
its  fragrance  "while  the  king  sat  at  his  ta- 
ble."    In  Song  4:13,  14,  the  king,  likening 


SPI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPI 


her  to  a  garden,  includes  spikenard  among 
its  precious  plants;  and  she  desires  that 
its   "spices"  or  odors  may  all  exhale  to 


THE  NARDOSTACHYS  JATAMANSI,  A  SINGLE  SPIKE. 

please  him,  ver.  i6.  In  harmony  with  Ori- 
ental custom,  the  bride's  ointment  may  be 
regarded  as  the  gift  of  the  king ;  compare 
Esth.  2:12;  and  these  pleasant  odors  may 
symbolize  the  spiritual  graces  of  the  church, 
derived  from  God  and  exercised  under  the 
influences  of  his  Spirit.  It  is  interesting  to 
trace  the  correspondence  between  these, 
the  only  Old  Testament  references  to  spike- 
nard, and  the  only  New  Testament  notices 
of  it.  A  few  days  before  the  crucifixion 
of  our  Lord,  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus 
brought  a  flask  of  ointment  of  spikenard, 
'  "  very  costly,"  broke  its  seal  or  its  slender 
neck,  and  anointed  him  with  the  ointment, 
whose  fragrance  filled  the  house ;  and  for 
this  manifestation  of  her  adoring  love  she 
received  the  high  commendation  of  the 
King  of  the  church,  Mark  14:3-9;  John 
12:1-8;  compare  Matt.  26:6-13;  Phil.  4:18. 
The  quantity  thus  expended  was  worth 
more  than  300  denarii,  nearly  $50.  See 
Alabaster,  Penny,  Spices.  Nard  is 
mentioned  by  many  Greek  and  Latin  wri- 
ters. It  is  an  East-Indian  plant,  having 
many  shaggy  spikes — Gr.  stachiis,  Lat. 
spica — from  one  root ;  whence  it  was  called 


nardostachus  or  spica  nardi,  Eng.  spike- 
nard. By  the  Hindoo  natives  it  is  called 
jatamansi  and  balchur;  it  belongs  to  the 
Valerian  family. 

SPIN,  SPIN'DLE.  Hebrew  women  oc- 
cupied much  of  their  time  in  spinning, 
Exod.  35:25,  26;  Prov.  31:19;  Matt.  6:28. 
Wool  and  flax  were  spun  for  woollen  and 
linen  cloth,  and  goats'  and  camels'  hair  for 
sackcloth — which  was  used  for  mourning 
garments  and  girdles,  and  for  tent-cover- 
ings; comp.  Zech.  13:4;  Matt.  3:4.  The 
different  fibres  were  drawn  out  and  twist- 
ed into  thread  by  means  of  a  distaff  or 
spindle,  Prov.  31 :  19.  The  process  of  spin- 
ning, with  the  spindle  suspended  from  one 
hand  while  the  other  draws  out  the  thread, 
is  exhibited  in  Egyptian  pictures  and  may 
still  be  seen  in  Palestine.  ' 

SPIR'IT,  a  word  answering  to  the  Heb. 
riiach  and  the  Gr.  pneurna,  primarily  de- 
noting "wind,"  Gen.  8:1;  Eccles.  11:4; 
John  3:8;  used  in  various  senses  in  Scrip- 
ture. 

I.  For  the  Deity,  especially  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  3d  person  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
who  inspired  the  prophets,  animates  good 
men,  pours  his  unction  into  our  hearts,  im- 
parts to  us  life  and  comfort,  and  in  whose 
name  we  are  baptized  and  blessed,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.  When 
the  adjective  Holy  is  applied  to  the  term 
Spirit  we  should  always  understand  it  as 
here  explained  ;  but  there  are  many  places 
where  it  must  be  taken  in  this  sense,  al- 
though the  term  Holy  is  omitted.  See 
Holy  Spirit. 

II.  Breath,  respiration;  or  the  princi- 
ple of  animal  life,  common  to  men  and  ani- 
mals; this  God  has  given,  and  this  he  re- 
calls when  he  takes  away  life,  Eccles.  3:21. 
See  Soul. 

III.  The  RATIONAL  SOUL  which  animates 
us  and  preserves  its  being  after  the  death 
of  the  body.  That  spiritual,  reasoning, 
and  choosing  substance  which  is  capable 
of  eternal  happiness  or  misery,  Luke  23 : 46 ; 
Acts  7:59;  I  Cor.  5:5;  Heb.  12:9,  23.  See 
Soul.  Sometimes  an  apparition  of  a  dis- 
embodied soul,  Luke  24:37,  39.  In  Matt. 
14:26;  Mark  6:49  another  Gr.woxA,  phan- 
tasnia,  is  used  to  express  a  similar  idea. 
See  R.  V. 

The  spirits  in  prison,"  i  Pet.  3:19,  seem, 
according  to  ver.  20,  to  denote  the  souls  of 
antediluvian  sinners  now  reserved  in  con- 
finement unto  the  judgment-day ;  compare 
2  Pet.  2:4,  9,  R.  V.  The  "preaching"  or 
proclamation   to  them  by  Christ  "in  the 

589 


SPI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPO 


spirit"  (R.  v.),  is  generally  understood 
as  performed  in  the  days  of  their  earthly 
life  through  Noah,  influenced  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  sometimes  called  "the  Spirit  of 
Christ."  Comp.  2  Pet.  2:5.  Thus  Christ 
preached  to  Gentiles  and  Jews  through  his 
inspired  apostles  and  ministers,  Eph.  2:17; 
comp.  Luke  24:46,  47.  Others  understand 
in  I  Pet.  3:19  some  proclamation  made  by 
Christ  personally  when  his  human  spirit, 
at  death,  entered  Hades;  comp.  Acts  2:31 ; 
such  a  proclamation,  however,  cannot  be 
understood  as  implying  any  change  in  the 
condition  of  souls  dying  impenitent;  comp. 
Luke  16:23-31. 

IV.  A  non-human  created  intelligence, 
an  angel;  either  holy,  Heb.  1:14,  or  fallen 
and  sinful.  Matt.  10:1.  The  existence  of 
angels  and  of  disembodied  human  spirits 
was  denied  by  the  Sadducees,  Acts  23:8. 

V.  The  DISPOSITION  of  the  mind.  Thus 
■we  read  of  a  spirit  of  jealousy,  a  spirit  of 
fornication,  a  spirit  of  prayer,  a  spirit  of 
wisdom  and  understanding,  a  spirit  of  fear 
of  the  Lord,  Hos.  4:12;  Zech.  12:10;  Isa. 
11:2.  In  Luke  13:11  "a  spirit  of  infirm- 
ity" refers  to  some  ill  condition  of  the 
body,  perhaps  as  in  some  way  produced  by 
the  permitted  agency  of  a  spiritual  being, 
Satan,  ver.  16. 

VI.  The  RENEWKD  NATURE  of  true  be- 
lievers, which  is  produced  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  conforms  the  soul  to  his  like- 
ness. Spirit  is  thus  the  opposite  of  flesh, 
John  3 : 6.  This  spirit  is  vitally  united  with, 
and  in  some  passages  can  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from,  the  "  Spirit  of  Christ," 
which  animates  true  Christians,  the  chil- 
dren of  God,  and  distinguishes  them  from 
the  children  of  darkness,  who  are  animated 
by  the  spirit  of  the  world,  Rom.  8:1-16. 
This  indwelling  Spirit  is  the  gift  of  grace, 
of  adoption— the  Holy  Spirit  poured  into 
our  hearts — which  emboldens  us  to  call 
God  "Abba,"  i.  e.  "Father."  Those  who  are 
influenced  by  this  Spirit  "have  crucified 
the  flesh,  with  its  affections  and  lusts,"  Gal. 
5:16-23. 

"  Distinguishing  or  discerning  of  spir- 
its "  consisted  in  discerning  whether  a  man 
was  really  inspired. by  the  Spirit  of  God, 
or  was  a  false  prophet,  an  impostor,  who 
only  followed  the  impulse  of  his  own  spirit 
or  of  Satan.  Paul  speaks,  i  Cor.  12:10,  of 
the  discerning  of  spirits  as  being  among 
the  miraculous  gifts  granted  by  God  to  the 
faithful  at  the  first  establishment  of  Christi- 
anity. 

To  "quench  the  Spirit,"  i  Thess.  5:19, 
590 


is  a  metaphorical  expression  easily  under- 
stood. The  Spirit  may  be  quenched  by 
forcing,  as  it  were,  that  divine  Agent  to 
withdraw  from  us  by  irregularity  of  life, 
frivolity,  avarice,  negligence,  or  other  sins 
contrary  to  charity,  truth,  peace,  and  his 
other  gifts  and  influences. 

We  "grieve"  the  Spirit  of  God,  Eph. 
4:30,  by  withstanding  his  holy  inspirations, 
the  impulses  of  his  grace,  or  by  living  in  a 
lukewarm  and  incautious  manner,  by  des- 
pising his  gifts  or  neglecting  them,  by 
abusing  his  favors,  either  out  of  vanity, 
curiosity,  or  indifference.  In  a  contrary 
sense,  2  Tim.  1:6.  we  "stir  up"  or  "stir 
into  flame"  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  of  God 
which  is  in  us  by  the  practice  of  virtue,  by 
compliance  with  his  inspirations,  by  fervor 
in  his  service,  by  renewing  our  gratitude, 
and  by  diligently  serving  Christ  and  doing 
the  works  of  the  Spirit. 

SPIR'IT,  FAMIL'IAR.      See   DIVINATION, 

Witchcraft. 

^  SPIR'ITUAL,  belonging  to  the  Holy  Spir- 
it, Rom.  i:ii  ;  Eph.  1:3;  communicated  by 
him,  I  Cor.  10:3,  4;  determined  and  influ- 
enced by  him,  i  Cor.  3:1;  Gal.  6:1;  Eph. 
5:19;  I  Pet.  2:5.     See  Spirit,  I.,  VI. 

SPIR'ITUAL  BODY,  I  Cor.  15:44,  the 
body  of  saints  after  resurrection,  immor- 
tal, incorruptible,  and  glorious,  a  fit  organ 
for  the  perfectly  sanctified  spirit ;  comp. 
ver.  ,^1-53  ;  Phil.  3:21. 

SPIR'ITUAL  GIFTS,  I  Cor.  12: 1,  the  mi- 
raculous endowments  conferred  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  primitive  believers  in 
Christ;  comp.  ver.  3-11. 

SPIR'ITUAL  WICK'EDNESS,  Eph.  6:12, 
rather,  "  the  spiritual  hosts  of  wickedness," 
as  in  the  R.  V.;  wicked  spirits.  See  Spir- 
it, IV. 

SPOIL,  booty  taken  in  war.  A  tenth  of 
all  thus  gained  was  devoted  to  God  for  the 
use  of  his  priest  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  14:20;  Heb.  7;  4.  After 
Israel's  victory  over  the  Midianites,  Moses,' 
by  God's  command,  ordered  the  spoil  of 
captives  and  cattle  to  be  halved  between 
the  12,000  warriors  engaged  and  the  mass  of 
the  Israelitish  non-combatants;  the  former 
being  commanded  to  devote  one  five-hun- 
dredth part  of  their  share  to  God  for  the 
priests,  and  the  latter  one  fiftieth  of  their 
part  for  the  Levites,  Num.  31:26-47.  A 
voluntary  thank-offering  to  the  Lord,  of 
gold,  was  also  given,  ver.  48-54.  All  this 
was  probably  intended  as  a  preceder^t  for 
future  occasions;  comp.  2  Sam.  8:6-12; 
I  Chr.  26:26,  27.     David  provided  that  the 


SPO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STA 


baggage-guard  should  share  equally  with 
the  fighters,  i  Sam.  30:21-25.  As  a  verb 
"spoil"  often  means  "to  plunder,"  Gen. 
34 :  27,  29 ;  I  Sam.  14 :  36  ;  2  Kin.  7:16;  2  Chr. 
14:14.  In  Exod.  3:22;  12:36  the  word  ren- 
dered "spoil"  and  "spoiled"  means  to 
recover  property  taken  away  by  violence ; 
comp.  I  Sam.  30:18,  22.  Christ  "spoiled  " 
principalities  and  powers  when  by  his  ato- 
ning work  he  deprived  Satan  and  his  hosts 
of  their  power  to  injure  his  people,  Col. 
2:15.  The  verb  means  "stripped,"  as  of 
clothing  or  armor ;  and  some  interpret  it  as 
meaning  that  "  having  put  off  Ms  body"  he 
made  a  show  of  principalities,  etc.  Paul 
warns  Christians  not  to  permit  the  votaries 
of  human  philosophy,  tradition,  etc.,  to 
"  spoil  "  them,  i.  e.,  to  carry  them  captive. 
Col.  2:8.    See  Philosophy. 

SPONGE,  a  submarine  substance  abun- 
dant in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, adhering  to  rocks,  and  obtained  by 
divers.  Homer,  about  B.  C.  850,  mentions 
sponges  as  in  use  among  the  Greeks  for 
washing  the  person  and  for  cleansing  ta- 
bles after  meals.  The  familiar  sponge  of 
commerce  consists  of  a  network  of  minute 
fibres  inclosed  by  their  membranes,  making 
a  highly  porous  and  elastic  mass,  fitted  to 
convey  drink  where  a  cup  could  not  be 
used.  Matt.  27:48;  Mark  15:36;  John  19:29. 
The  sponge  in  its  native  state  belongs  to 
the  lowest  order  of  animals,  called  Pori- 
fera,  from  the  pores  with  which  the  sub- 
stance abounds ;  this  being  clothed  and 
built  up  by  a  jelly-like  aggregation  of  sep- 
arate bodies,  some  of  which  are  furnished 
with  long  cilia  or  filaments.  These  by 
constant  vibrations  keep  up  a  current  of 
water,  which  enters  the  pores  of  the  sponge 
and  is  expelled  through  the  larger  open- 
ings, after  parting  with  such  of  the  solid 
particles  in  the  water  as  can  be  digested 
by  the  gelatinous  mass. 

SPRINK'LING,  BLOOD  OF,  Heb.  12:24. 
Once  every  year,  on  the  great  day  of  atone- 
ment, the  high-priest  went  into  the  holy  of 
holies,  carrying  blood,  which  he  sprinkled 
on  the  mercy-seat,  to  make  atonement  be- 
cause of  all  the  sins  of  the  children  of  Isra- 
el, Lev.  i6: 15,  16.  So  Christ,  after  his  sac- 
rifice of  himself,  entered  into  the  presence 
of  God  in  heaven,  Heb.  9:12,  24,  present- 
ing, as  the  great  High-priest,  his  own  blood 
as  an  atonement  for  sin.  By  virtue  of  this 
"  blood  of  sprinkling  "  the  penitent  sinner, 
believing  on  Christ,  may  draw  near  to  God 
and  find  a  gracious  welcome — the  blood  of 
Christ  not  calling  for  vengeance,  like  that 


of  Abel,  Gen.  4:10,  11,  but  speaking  of  par- 
don, peace  with  God,  and  eternal  life; 
comp.  Heb.  9:13-22;  10:19-22,  29;  Exod. 
24:6-8;  Lev.  8:30;  14:6,  7;  Num.  19:17-19; 
Isa.  52:15;  Rev.  1:5,  6. 

STA'CHYS,  ear  of  grain,  a  Christian 
friend  of  Paul  at  Rome,  Rom.  16:9.  The 
name  is  Greek. 

STAC'TE,  one  of  the  4  ingredients  of  the 
sacred  perfume  or  incense,  Exod.  30:34,  35. 
The  Heb.  word  nataph  and  the  Gr.  stacte 
(Sept.),  both  denote  a  drop,  e.  g.,  of  the 
gum  of  some  plant.  Greek  writers  de- 
scribe two  kinds  of  stacte.  One  is  the  gum 
of  the  myrrh-tree,  found  in  Arabia,  the 
Balsamodendron  opobalsamum.  Myrrh, 
however,  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  by  a 
distinct  name — mor  deror,  "pure"  or 
"  flowing  "  myrrh — as  an  ingredient  of  the 
sacred  ointment,  Exod.  30:23.  The  other 
substance  called  stacte  was  a  species  of 
storax-gum,  transparent  like  a  tear  and  re- 
sembling myrrh.  The  storax-tree  abounds 
in  the  lower  hills  of  Galilee,  attains  a  height 
of  15  or  20  feet,  has  dark  green  oval  leaves, 
whitish  underneath,  and  flowers  resembling 
orange-blossoms,  in  clusters  at  the  end  of 
the  twigs.  A  resinous  and  highly  fragrant 
gum  exudes  from  the  bark.  The  gum  from 
a  kindred  plant  in  Borneo,  the  Styrax  ben- 
zoin, is  burned  as  incense  in  Hindoo  tem- 
ples. 

STAFF,  Heb.  11:21.  The  statement  here 
found  concerning  Jacob  is  quoted  from  the 
Septuagint  translation  of  Gen.  47:31,  where 
the  Greek  translator  mistook  the  Hebrew 
word  denoting  a  bed,  viitiah,  which  occurs 
also  in  Gen.  48:2;  49:33,  for  the  similar 
word  denoting  a  staff,  matleh.  The  mean- 
ing is  simply  that  Jacob  assumed  a  rever- 
ential posture;  comp.  i  Kin.  1:47.  See 
Quotations.  In  Hos.  4:12  allusion  is 
made  to  some  use  of  a  staff"  in  divination. 
In  Isa.  30:32,  first  clause,  read,  "Every 
stroke  or  passing  of  the  destined  staff." 

STAIRS,  Song  2:14,  in  the  R.  V.  "steep 
place,"  as  in  Ezek.  38:20;  apparently  a 
natural  rocky  ascent.  63^  the  leaders  of 
the  Israelitish  army  at  Ramoth-gilead  Jehu 
was  informally  proclaimed  king  "  on  the 
top  of  the  stairs  " — or  "  on  the  bare  steps," 
R.  v.,  margin — seated  on  the  garments  of 
his  fellow-ofiicers,  2  Kin.  9:13.  This  was 
probably  where  the  stairs  from  the  main 
court  of  the  house  joined  the  flat  roof,  a 
conspicuous  place  for  thus  recognizing  the 
prophetic  anointing  of  Jehu,  ver.  1-12.  See 
House. 

STAND' ARD,  Num.  1 :52.     In  the  wilder- 

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ness  journeyings  the  12  tribes  were  grouped 
in  4  camps  of  3  tribes  each,  each  camp  hav- 
ing its  own  standard,  Num.  2:2,  3,  10,  17, 
iS,  25,  34.  Besides  these  grand-division 
standards,  other  "ensigns"  marked  the 
smaller  divisions  into  tribes,  and  perhaps 
sections  of  tribes,  ver.  2.  Ancient  stand- 
ards usually  consisted  of  long  spears  or 
poles  surmounted  by  figures  of  symbols  of 
various  sorts,  sometimes  of  animals,  men, 
or  deities ;  an  eagle  surmounted  the  stand- 
ard of  a  Roman  legion.  See  Abomination. 
One  of  the  Heb.  words  rendered  "  stand- 
ard," as  in  Jer.  4:6,  21,  is  often  translated 
"ensign,"  and  denotes  a  rallying  sign  or 
signal ;  such  were  planted  on  some  con- 
spicuous spot,  as  a  bare  hill,  Isa.  13:2,  R. 
v.;  30:17.  The  attractive  power  of  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  is  signified  in  Isa- 
iah's prediction  that  to  "the  Root  of  Jes- 
se," raised  "  for  an  ensign  of  the  peoples," 
"  the  nations  shall  seek,"  Isa.  11 :  10,  R.  V. ; 
comp.  5:16;  11:12;  49:22;  Rev.  5:9.  In 
Isa.  59: 19,  last  clause,  the  R.  V.  reads,  "  for 
he  shall  come  like  a  rushing  stream,  which 
the  breath  of  the  Lord  driveth."  In  Isa. 
10:18,  "a  standard-bearer  fainteth,"  some 
read,  "  a  sick  man  pineth  away." 

STAR.  Under  the  term  stars  the  He- 
brews included  all  the  heavenly  luminaries 
except  the  sun  and  moon — planets,  mete- 
ors, comets,  and  stars.  Gen.  i :  16.  They  use 
the  stars "  and  the  seashore  "  sands  "  to 
express  uncounted  multitudes.  Gen.  15:5; 
22:17;  26:4;  Deut.  1:10,  etc.  To  exalt  the 
power  and  omniscience  of  God,  the  Psalm- 
ist says,  "  He  telleth  the  number  of  the 
stars,"  etc.,  Psa.  147:4,  like  a  king  review- 
ing his  army  and  knowing  every  soldier's 
name;  comp.  Isa.  40:26.  Similarly  the 
stars  are  called  "  the  host "  or  army  "  of 
heaven,"  and  God  is  "the  Lord  of  hosts," 
Deut.  4:19;  2  Kin.  17:  i6;  Psa.  24:10;  33:6; 
148:2,  3.  No  part  of  the  visible  creation 
exhibits  the  Creator's  glory  more  illustri- 
ously than  the  starry  heavens,  Psa.  8:3; 
19: 1.  The  stars  were  anciently,  as  at  pres- 
ent in  the  East,  believed  to  influence  the 
destinj'  of  men,  Judg.  5:20.  Their  value 
as  guides  to  the  mariner  is  alluded  to  in 
Acts  27:20. 

In  astronomical  knowledge  the  Hebrews 
were  surpassed  by  the  Eg^'ptians,  Phoeni- 
cians, and  Chaldieans;  but  the  science  of 
these  nations  was  mingled  with  supersti- 
tion and  idolatry;  comp.  Isa.  47:1,  13.  The 
beauty  and  splendor  of  the  stars — which 
are  especially  brilliant  in  the  pure  dry  at- 
mosphere of  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Pales- 
592 


tine — and  the  benefits  ascribed  to  them, 
early  led  to  the  conception  of  them  as  pos- 
sessing life,  intelligence,  and  power.  The 
religions  of  the  East  consisted  more  or  less 
of  star-worship ;  and  omens,  favorable  or 
hostile,  were  drawn  from  the  aspects  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  Against  such  idolatry  and 
superstition  the  Israelites  were  warned, 
Deut.  4:19;  17:3;  Jer.  10:2;  but  they  often 
disregarded  the  prohibition,  2  Kin.  17:16; 
21:3.5;  23:4,  5;  Jer.  8:2;  19:13;  Amos 
5:26;  Zeph.  1:5;  Acts  7:42,  43;  comp.  Rom. 
1 :  18-21,  25. 

The  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  un- 
aided eye,  and  even  the  countless  myriads 
revealed  by  the  telescope,  are  probably  but 
a  fraction  of  the  entire  number  called  into 
being  by  God;  comp.  Job  25:3;  26:13,  i4- 
So  distant  are  the  fixed  stars  that  the 
strongest  telescope  shows  them  only  as 
glittering  points.  It  is  calculated  that  the 
nearest  of  them  is  at  least  19  trillions  of 
miles  from  the  earth,  and  that  its  light 
takes  nearly  4  years  to  reach  us,  while  for 
others  thousands  of  years  are  required. 
Human  fancy  early  grouped  them  in  con- 
stellations, and  the  Scriptures  allude  to  sev- 
eral of  these  under  their  Shemitic  names, 
which  in  English  are  exchanged  for  the 
names  given  by  the  Greeks,  Job  9:9;  38:31, 
32;  Amos  5:8;  see  R.  V. 

Under  the  term  stars  are  sometimes  met- 
aphorically designated  earthly  rulers  and 
illustrious  men,  Isa.  14:4,  12,  13,  R.  V.; 
Dan.  8:10;  also  pastors.  Rev.  1:16,  20; 
probably  angels,  Job  38:7;  David  and  his 
antitype  the  Messiah,  Num.  24:17.  Times 
of  public  calamity  involving  the  governing 
powers  of  nations,  may  in  part  be  typified 
in  Matt.  24:29  ;  Rev.  6:13.  False  teachers 
are  termed  "  wandering  stars "  or  mete- 
ors, Jude  13.  Christ  is  called  "the  bright, 
the  Morning  Star,"  as  outshining  in  his 
revelations  his  servants  the  prophets,  and 
ushering  in  the  gospel  day,  Rev.  22:16; 
comp.  2  Pet.  1 :  19. 

The  famous  Jewish  false  Messiah,  Bar- 
cocheba,  son  of  a  star,  who  in  Hadrian's 
reign  headed  an  insurrection  which  lasted 
3  years,  A.  D.  132-135,  and  who  was  de- 
stroyed with  many  of  his  followers,  assumed 
his  title  in  allusion  to  Num.  24:17. 

STAR  OF  THE  WISE  MEN,  Matt.  2:i-12, 
apparently  a  supernatural  star  or  meteor, 
which  attracted  the  attention  of  the  magi 
in  their  country  east  of  Palestine,  probably 
Chaldtea  or  Persia,  and  miraculously  gui- 
ded them  first  to  Jerusalem  the  capital  of 
Judaea  and  thence  to  Bethlehem  and  the 


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spot  where  Jesus  was  born.  This  view, 
most  readily  deducible  from  the  gospel 
narrative,  harmonizes  with  the  occurrence 
of  other  miracles  at  this  momentous  epoch, 
the  incarnation  and  birth  of  the  Son  of 
God. 

Another  view,  first  suggested  by  Kepler 
on  observing  a  conjunction  of  Jupiter,  Sat- 
urn, and  Mars  in  1604,  and  adopted  by 
many  interpreters,  especially  by  those  who 
seek  to  eliminate  from  the  Gospels  all  that 
is  supernatural,  explains  the  "star"  by  a 
like  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  in 
May,  B.  C.  7,  and  again  in  December  of  the 
same  year  with  the  addition  of  Mars.  The 
wise  men  may  very  probably  have  observed 
with  deep  interest  these  conjunctions,  and 
may,  as  astrologers,  have  associated  them 
with  the  Messianic  hopes  of  the  Hebrews, 
with  the  prediction  from  the  mouth  of  Ba- 
laam, an  Eastern  soothsayer,  Num.  24:17, 
and  that  of  Daniel,  well  known  in  the  East 
as  prince  of  the  Magi,  Dan.  4:9;  5:11; 
9:24,25.  But  these  conjunctions  occurred 
several  years  before  the  accepted  date  of 
Christ's  birth ;  the  two  planets  were  at  no 
time  nearer  each  other  than  twice  the  sun's 
diameter,  and  could  not  be  described  by 
the  evangelist  as  "  His  star;"  nor  does  it 
appear  how  they  could  guide  the  magi 
west,  to  Jerusalem,  then  reappearing,  south 
and  southeast  up  to  Bethlehem,  and  be- 
come stationary  over  the  spot  where  Jesus 
was  born.  Whatever  note,  therefore,  thej' 
took  of  the  conjunctions,  they  were  proba- 
bly impelled  to  their  journey  by  a  divine 
influence  and  guided  by  a  heavenly  sign. 

STEEL.  Where  "  steel  "  appears  in  the 
A.  v.,  2  Sam.  22:35;  Job  20:24;  Psa.  18:34, 
and  Jer.  15:12,  the  true  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  is  copper,  or  "  brass,"  as  in  the 
R.  V.  and  in  all  other  passages  in  the  A.  V. 
That  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  acquaint- 
ed with  steel  is  inferred  from  representa- 
tions of  weapons  in  ancient  tombs,  some 
being  painted  blue  like  steel,  others  red 
like  bronze.  See  Iron.  In  Nahum  2:3 
the  R.  V.  has  "  flash  with  steel "  instead  of 
"flaming  torches,"  referring  apparently  to 
steel  ornaments,  or  possibly  scythes,  flash- 
ing in  the  chariots  arrayed  against  Nine- 
veh.   See  Nineveh. 

STEM,  the  stock  or  trunk  of  a  tree ;  the 
stump  remaining  in  the  earth  after  the  tree 
is  cut  down,  Isa.  11 :  i  ;  comp.  Job  14:8,  9. 

STEPH'ANAS,  a  Christian  at  Corinth, 
whose  family,  afterwards  mentioned,  Rom. 
16:5,  as  "the  first-fruits"  or  earliest  con- 
verts "of  Achaia,"  in  the  R.  V.  "Asia," 
38 


and  as  distinguished  for  their  services  to 
Christian  brethren,  Paul  baptized,  A.  D. 
52.  Stephanas  visited  Paul  at  Ephesus  in 
the  spring  of  59,  i  Cor.  i :  16  ;   16: 15-1S. 

STE'PHEN,  crown,  one  of  the  7  men  ap- 
pointed by  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  aid 
the  apostles  by  minislcring  to  the  poor. 
Acts  6: 1-6;  whence  the  title  "  deacons,"  Gr. 
diakonoi,  ministers  or  servants,  has  been 
given  to  them,  though  not  directly  applied 
to  them  in  the  Bible.  Stephen  was  distin- 
guished among  the  seven  as  "full  of  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  Like  his  associ- 
ates, except  the  proselyte  Nicolas,  he  seems 
from  his  Greek  name  to  have  been  a  Hel- 
lenistic Jew.  See  Greece.  His  mighty 
works  excited  the  jealousy  and  hostility  of 
the  Jews,  especially  those  of  the  Hellenistic 
synagogues,  with  whom  he  probably  came 
most  in  contact;  and  his  unanswerable  ar- 
guments still  further  embittered  them,  ver. 
S-io.  He  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  blas- 
phemy and  heresy,  and  brought  before  the 
Sanhedrin  for  trial,  ver.  11  to  7:  i.  His  de- 
fence, including  a  summary  of  the  history 
of  Israel,  proves,  against  the  charges  of  the 
false  witnesses,  Acts  6: 11, 13,  his  reverence 
towards  God  and  his  respect  for  the  great 
lawgiver  of  Israel;  but  at  the  same  time  he 
shows  that  the  divine  presence  and  favor 
had  not  been  rigidly  confined  to  a  particu- 
lar land  or  sanctuary ;  that  Moses  himself 
had  taught  that  he  was  to  have  an  illustri- 
ous successor  ;  that  a  rebellious  spirit  had 
always  been  characteristic  of  Israel;  and 
that  they  who  had  lately  slain  Christ  and 
were  now  opposing  his  gospel,  were  the 
true  children  and  imitators  of  their  fathers 
who  in  all  ages  had  opposed  true  religion. 
Stephen  seems  to  have  spoken  calmly  till 
near  the  close  of  his  address,  when,  noting 
the  gathering  malice  of  his  judges,  he  be- 
came their  just  and  vehement  accuser.  Acts 
7'5i~53-  Then,  turning  from  the  threaten- 
ing storm  of  human  passion,  he  raised  his 
eyes  upward  and  spoke  of  what  he  saw: 
the  heavens  parted,  the  glory  of  God,  and 
Jesus  at  His  right  hand,  as  if  just  risen  from 
his  throne  to  receive  his  servant,  ver.  54-56. 
His  description  of  this  vision  of  the  exalta- 
tion of  "the  Son  of  man,"  the  prediction 
of  which  by  Christ  himself  had  before  so 
enraged  a  similar  assembly.  Matt.  26:64- 
68;  Luke  22:69-71,  excited  his  judges  be- 
yond all  pretence  of  obedience  to  the  law 
of  their  Roman  masters,  John  18:31,  and 
they  at  once  hurried  Stephen  out  of  the  city 
and  stoned  him.  Acts  7:57-60.  According 
to  the  Mosaic  law,  Deut.  17:7,  the  witnesses 

593 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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took  the  lead,  Acts  6:13;  their  outer  gar- 
ments, laid  off  for  convenience,  were  put 
in  charge  of  Saul,  probably  one  of  the  chief 
accusers  of  Stephen.  The  faithful  Chris- 
tian manifested  his  Christlike  spirit  by 
praying  for  the  pardon  of  his  murderers. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  "  witnesses,"  Gr. 
marlures,  of  Jesus,  Luke  24:48;  Acts  22:20, 
R.  v.,  actually  put  to  death  ;  hence — when 
the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  "  martur,"  which 
primarily  denoted  any  witness,  comp.  Acts 
6:13;  7:58,  had  become  restricted  to  denote 
especially  those  who  witnessed  for  Jesus 
by  submitting  to  death  for  his  sake— the 
application  to  Stephen  of  the  title  of  "first 
martyr."  See  Martyr.  His  death  was 
the  prelude  to  a  general  persecution  in  Je- 
rusalem. This,  however,  by  scattering  the 
Christians  and  the  gospel.  Matt.  10 :  23, 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  believers. 
Acts  8:1-4;  11:19-21,  "the  blood  of  the 
martyrs"  thus  becoming,  as  Tertullian 
(A.  D.  160-220)  remarks,  "  the  seed  of  the 
church."  The  custodian  of  the  witnesses' 
clothes,  who  may  have  been  one  of  Ste- 
phen's Cilician  opponents,  Acts  6:9;  22:3, 
seems  to  have  been  at  first  stirred  to  a 
fiercer  bigotry.  Acts  8:3;  9:1,  2;  but  though 
he  had  doubtless  felt  the  force  of  Stephen's 
arguments  and  testimony,  nothing  availed 
for  his  conversion  till  he  saw  the  Saviour 
himself,  Acts  9:4-6.  Yet  there  is  doubtless 
a  degree  of  truth  in  the  saying  of  Augus- 
tine (A.  D.  354-430),  that  the  church  owes 
the  conversion  and  ministry  of  Paul  to 
Stephen's  prayer.  Years  afterward,  when 
Paul  was  himself  in  similar  circumstances, 
he  bewailed  his  presence  and  consent  at 
the  martyr's  death,  Acts  22:20 — that  tri- 
umph of  Christian  faith  and  love  which  has 
taught  so  many  martyrs  and  Christians 
how  to  die.  Comp.  Psa.  109:31.  A  strong 
argument  for  the  divinity  of  Christ  is  found 
in  the  prayers  addressed  to  him  by  Ste- 
phen, Acts  7:59,  60;  comp.  Luke  23:34,  46. 

Stephen's  death  occurred  probably  about 
A.  D.  2,7-  Early  tradition  located  the  event 
on  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  Damas- 
cus gate,  which  in  the  12th  century  bore  the 
name  of  St.  Stephen's  gate,  from  a  neigh- 
boring church  built  in  memory  of  the  mar- 
tyr. A  later  tradition  placed  the  martyr- 
dom near  the  present  St.  Stephen's  gate, 
on  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  just  north  of  the 
Haram  area. 

The  slight  variations  of  Stephen's  de- 
fence from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  may  be 
accounted  for  partly  by  the  influence  of  the 
Septuagint  version,  and  partly  perhaps  by 

594 


his  use  of  traditionary  additions,  or  possi- 
bly of  particulars  taught  him  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament 
history,  if  not  always  the  e.xact  letter,  is 
faithfully  represented. 

STEWARD,  the  chief  overseer  and  man- 
ager of  a  household  in  behalf  of  the  mas- 
ter. Gen.  43:16  (R.  V.),  19;  44:1,  4.  Jo- 
seph filled  this  position  in  Potiphar's  house, 
Gen.  39:5.  In  Gen.  15:2  a  different  He- 
brew e.xpression  is  used,  denoting  "  the 
son  of  acquisition,"  i.  e.,  according  to  the 
R.  V.  "he  that  shall  be  possessor,"  etc., 
the  presumptive  heir,  ver.  3.  Eliezer,  who 
is  thus  designated,  probably  was  Abra- 
ham's steward,  and  is  commonly  identified 
with  the  "  servant,  the  elder  of  his  house," 
mentioned  in  Gen.  24:2,  R.  V.  To  this 
important  officer,  whose  responsibilities 
were  so  great  and  in  whom  faithfulness 
was  so  essential,  there  are  several  allusions 
in  the  parables  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  20:8; 
Luke  12:42-48.  In  the  parable  of  the  un- 
righteous steward,  Luke  16:1-9,  "ot  the 
dishonesty,  but  the  prudent  policy  of  his 
course  is  commended  to  the  "children  of 
light;"  comp.  Luke  12:33.  Ministers,  Luke 
12:42 ;  I  Cor.  4:1,  2;  Tit.  1:7,  and  all  Chris- 
tians, I  Pet.  4:10,  are  called  stewards,  as 
being  entrusted  by  God  with  all  they  have, 
I  Cor.  4:7,  and  responsible  to  him  for  the 
use  of  all.  Every  human  being  is  thus  a 
steward  of  God. 

STOCK,  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  Job  14:8,  a 
contemptuous  term  for  an  idol  carved  out 
of  wood,  Isa.  44:19;  Jer.  2:27;  10:8;  Hos. 
4:12. 

STOCKS,  Job  13:27;  33:  II,  an  instrument 
for  confining  the  feet.  In  Jer.  20:2,  3, 
"  stocks,"  in  which  Jeremiah  was  kept  all 
night,  is  the  rendering  of  a  different  He- 
brew word,  which  some  suppose  to  mean 
the  common  stocks,  a  frame  with  holes  for 
confining  the  ankles;  others,  a  pillory,  or 
frame  with  holes  for  the  neck  and  wrists  ; 
and  others,  a  frame  with  5  holes,  in  which 
the  neck,  wrists,  and  ankles  were  placed, 
the  body  being  bent.  Whatever  its  precise 
form,  it  seems  to  have  been  in  frequent 
use;  it  is  mentioned  again  in  Jer.  29:26 
R.  V.  (A.  V.  "prison");  and  in  2  Chr. 
16:10;  see  R.  v.,  margin,  "the  house  of 
the  stocks."  The  stocks  which  made  fast 
Paul  and  Silas,  Acts  16:24,  seem  to  have 
confined  their  ankles  only,  and  probably 
resembled  the  instrument  in  use  until  re- 
cent times  in  Europe  and  America,  the 
upper  beam  being  movable.  Stocks  and 
pillories  were  frequently  placed  in  public 


STO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STO 


places,    that   the    insults   of  the    populace 
might  be  added  to  the  pain  of  confinement, 


Jer.  20:2.  Still  another  word  is  translated 
"stocks"  in  the  A.  V.  of  Jer.  29:26,  repre- 
sented in  R.  V.  by  the  more  general  term 
"  shackles."  The  word  rendered  "  stocks  " 
in  Prov.  7:22,  A.  V.,  is  better  translated 
"  fetters"  in  the  R.  V.,  the  same  word  be- 
ing represented  by  "anklets"  in  Isa.  3:18, 
R.  V. ;  in  the  A.  V.  "tinkling  ornaments." 
STO'ICS,  a  sect  of  fatalistic  heathen  phi- 
losophers, so  named  because  its  founder, 
Zeno,  a  native  of  Citium  in  Cyprus,  held 
his  school  at  Athens,  in  the  3d  century 
B.  C,  in  a  public  portico  or  colonnade 
called  the  Stoa  Pcecile,  Painted  Portico. 
The  Stoics  were  pantheists,  believing  that 
the  deity  was  not  the  creator  of  the  uni- 
verse, but  its  reason  and  soul,  pervading 
and  organizing  all  matter;  that  not  only 
man,  but  the  deity  himself,  was  subject  to 
inevitable  destiny;  and  tliat  the  present 
universe,  having  developed  out  of  God, 
would  in  time  be  resumed  into  him,  and  be 
succeeded  by  a  fresh  development.  While 
the  Stoics  taught  the  unity  of  God,  they 
allowed  polytheism,  regarding  the  many 
gods  of  heathen  mythology  as  minor  de- 
velopments of  the  great  World-god.  The 
soul  of  man  they  considered  a  material 
emanation  from  the  deity,  to  be  burned  at 
death  or  reabsorbed  into  him.  They  ex- 
pressed a  disregard  of  pleasure  and  pain, 
placed  man's  supreme  good  and  happiness 
in  living  virtuously,  agreeably  to  nature 
and  reason,  and  held  that  a  man  thus  liv- 
ing was  perfect  and  self-sufficient.  In  their 
affected  austerity  and  apathy  and  professed 


indifference  to  outward  circumstances  they 
resembled  the  Pharisees.  They  maintained 
the  natural  equality  of  all  men.  Suicide 
they  esteemed  a  proper  escape  from  the 
evils  of  life  when  they  became  too  great. 
Thus  many  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Sto- 
icism were  in  direct  antagonism  to  Christi- 
anity, and  especially  to  the  truths  which 
Paul  preached  concerning  the  personal 
God  and  Saviour,  the  resurrection,  and  the 
necessity  for  humble  faith  in  Jesus,  Acts 
17:18-20;  comp.  ver.  22-33. 

At  the  time  of  Paul's  visit  to  Athens, 
A.  D.  51,  and  for  about  two  centuries  after- 
wards, the  Stoic  philosophy  was  popular 
and  influential  not  only  in  Greece,  but 
throughout  the  Roman  Empire.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  school  were 
Cleanthes,  Zeno's  immediate  successor,  au- 
thor of  a  hymn  to  "Jove  of  many  names;" 
Caesar's  contemporaries  Cato  and  Brutus ; 
Seneca;  the  freedman  Epictetus,  who  died, 
about  A.  D.  115;  and  iVIarcus  Aurelius,  Ro- 
man emperor,  A.  D.  161-180. 

STOM' ACHER,  Isa.  3 :  24,  perhaps  a  broad 
plaited  girdle.  According  to  the  Septua- 
gint,  a  tunic  with  purple  stripes. 

STONE  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  as 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  For 
most  public  buildings  hewn  stones  were 
used,  as  for  the  temple  erected  by  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  5:17,  and  for  city  walls.  The 
size  of  the  stones  thus  used  was  remarka- 
ble. See  Heliopolis,  II.,  and  Walls. 
The  Phoenicians  were  very  skilful  in  stone- 
cutting,  2  Sam.  5:11;  I  Kin.  5:18.  Houses 
of  the  rich  were  also  built  of  hewn  stone, 
Amos  5:11.  Altars,  according  to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  were  to  be  built  of  unhewn  stone, 
Exod.  20:25;  Josh.  8:31.  Different  kinds 
of  stone  used  in  building  and  decorating 
are  mentioned  in  i  Chr.  29:2,  where  in- 
stead of  "glistering  stones"  the  R.  V. 
reads  "stones  for  inlaid  work;"  compare 
2  Chr.  3:6.  Stones  were  used  for  pave- 
ments, 2  Kin.  16:17;  compare  Esth.  1:6. 
Large  stones  were  employed  for  closing 
the  entrance  of  caves.  Josh.  10:18;  Dan. 
6:17;  sepulchres,  Matt.  27:60;  John  11:38; 
and  wells.  Gen.  29:2.  Flint-stone  knives 
were  anciently  used,  Exod.  4:25;  Josh.  5:2, 
3,  R.  v.,  and  were  employed  by  the  Egyp- 
tian embalmers.  Stones  were  used  as 
weapons  for  individual  defence  and  in  reg- 
ular warfare,  being  discharged  from  slings, 
I  Sam.  17:40,  49,  and  catapults,  2  Chr. 
26:14,  15,  R.  V.  They  served  as  boundary 
marks,  Deut.  19:14;  comp.  Josh.  15:6,  and 
as  millstones,  2  Sam.  11  :2i;  and  the  He- 

595 


STO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STO 


brew  "  weights  "  were  called  "  stones,"  Lev. 
19:36,  margin.  Large  stones  were  set  up 
to  commemorate  remarkable  events,  Gen. 
28:18;  31:45;  35:14;  Josh.  4:9;  I  Sam.  7: 12; 
and  were  sometimes  consecrated  by  an- 
ointing, as  by  Jacob  at  Bethel, Gen.  28:18; 
35:14.  Worship  of  idols  and  pillars  of  stone 
was  practised  by  the  Canaanite  nations  and 
expressly  forbidden  to  Israel,  Lev.  26:1, 
R.  v.;  Num.  33:52,  R.  V.;  comp.  Isa.  57:6; 
Hab.  2: 19.  Stones  were  heaped  up  in  com- 
memoration of  a  treaty,  Gen.  31:46,  or  on 
the  graves  of  notorious  offenders,  Josh. 
7:26;  8:29;  2  Sam.  19:17.  This  custom 
still  exists  among  the  Arabs,  each  passer- 
by adding  a  stone  to  such  a  heap.  Stones 
were  used  as  tablets  for  inscriptions,  Exod. 
24:12;  Josh.  8:32;  Job  19:24.  As  hurtful 
to  husbandry,  stones  were  cast  on  an  ene- 
my's ground,  2  Kin.  3:19,  25,  and  were  re- 
moved from  land  previous  to  cultivation, 
Isa.  5:2;  comp.  Ecclus.  3:5. 

Metaphorically,  stones  denote  hardness 
or  insensibility,  I  Sam.  25:37;  Ezek.  11:19; 
also  firmness  or  strength:  in  Gen.  49:24 
"the  stone  of  Israel  "  seems  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  "the  Rock  of  Israel,"  a  title  often 
applied  to  God,  2  Sam.  23:3;  Isa.  30:29, 
R.  V.  In  accordance  with  the  conception 
of  the  church  of  God  as  a  temple,  Chris- 
tians are  called  "living  stones,"  Christ 
himself  being  "the  chief  corner-stone," 
the  great  "living  stone  "  and  source  of  life 
to  those  built  upon  him,  Eph.  2:20-22; 
1  Pet.  2:4-8.     See  Corner-stone. 

STONES,  PRE'CIOUS.  Mention  is  made 
in  the  Bible  of  about  20  different  names  of 
precious  stones,  many  of  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  identify  certainly  with  modern 
gems.  Ancient  mineralogy  was  far  from 
exact,  the  same  term  being  often  applied 
to  different  substances  having  in  common 
some  property  indicated  by  the  term.  Thus 
in  Greek  usage  the  term  adamant,  uncon- 
querable, was  applied  to  steel  and  to  sev- 
eral extremely  hard  stones ;  and  the  He- 
brew "  kerach  "  denotes  either  "  ice,"  Job 
6:16,  or  rock-crystal,  Ezek.  1:22.  See  Sap- 
phire. Precious  stones,  however,  were 
early  known  and  valued,  Gen.  2:12.  The 
art  of  cutting  and  engraving  them  was  prac- 
tised ;  engraved  signets  of  several  kinds 
of  precious  stones  were  in  common  use 
among  the  ancient  Babylonians  and  Egyp- 
tians, and  also,  it  is  probable,  among  the 
neighboring  nations ;  one  was  carried  by 
Judah,  Gen.  38:18,  25.  See  Seal.  The 
Hebrew  high-priest's  shoulder-stones  and 
the  12  stones  of  his  breastplate  were  en- 
596 


graved  with  tYie  names  of  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  Exod.  28:9-12,  17-21.  The  identifi- 
cation of  some  of  these  stones  is  still  a  mat- 
ter of  controversy,  as  appears  from  alter- 
native renderings  of  the  R.  V.  Some  crit- 
ics would  exclude  from  the  breastplate  the 
diamond,  sapphire,  ruby,  emerald,  and  to- 
paz, on  the  assumed  ground  that  the  art  of 
cutting  the  harder  gems  was  unknown  at 
the  time  of  Moses.  Precious  stones  were 
collected  by  David  for  the  temple,  i  Chr. 
29:2.  Tyre  traded  in  them  and  used  them 
extensively,  Ezek.  27:16,  22;  28:11-13,  ob- 
taining them  from  Syria  <ind  Arabia,  and 
more  remotely  from  India.  In  figurative 
language  precious  stones  denote  peculiar 
brilliancy,  beauty,  value,  durability,  etc., 
Song  5: 14;  Isa.  54:  u,  12;  Lam.  4:7;  Ezek. 
1:22;  Rev.  4:3;  21:10-20. 

STONE-SQUAR'ERS,  I  Kin.  5:18,  in  the 
R.  V.  "  Gebalites,"  the  men  of  Gebal.  See 
Gebal,  II.  Their  skill  is  attested  by  the 
great  stones  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
citadel,  which  in  size  and  workmanship 
resemble  those  in  the  temple  wall  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

STONE,  WHITE,  Rev.  2:17.  The  Greek 
word  pscplios,  rendered  "stone,"  denotes 
a  round  pebble  or  a  polished  gem ;  and 
the  qualifying  adjective  may  mean  zi'hite 
or  brilliant.  The  allusion  in  our  Saviour's 
promise  "  to  him  that  overcometh  "  may  be 
to  an  ancient  Greek  mode  of  voting  with 
black  and  white  pebbles  for  the  condem- 
nation or  acquittal  of  an  accused  person; 
or  to  the  Greek  mode  of  election  to  office 
by  lot,  the  candidates'  names  being  in- 
scribed on  tokens,  and  the  person  w  hose 
name  was  first  drawn  being  elected  ;  or  to 
a  Greek  practice  of  giving  the  victor  at 
public  games  a  token  bearing  his  name 
and  conferring  some  privilege  ;  or  to  a  cus- 
tom of  Roman  emperors  at  games,  throw- 
ing among  the  populace  tokens  inscribed 
"  bread,"  "  clothing,"  etc.,  the  person  se- 
curing a  token  being  entitled  to  receive 
what  was  written  on  it.  Trench  rejects 
these  explanations  from  heathen  customs, 
and  suggests  that  the  "stone"  may  refer 
to  the  Urim  and  Thummim  within  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate,  inscribed  with  the  sa- 
cred name  vhvh,  Jehovah  or  Yahveh,  and 
the  "  new  name  "  being  that  of  Christ.  More 
frequently,  however,  the  "  new  name  "  is 
regarded  as  that  of  the  recipient  himself, 
as  a  testimonial  of  his  adoption  into  the 
family  of  God,  and  signifying  his  new 
blessings  and  privileges,  known  in  their 
personal   adaptation   and   fulness  only  to 


STO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STO 


the  individual  soul.  Whatever  the  partic- 
ular allusion  may  be,  the  "  white  stone  "  is 
emblematic  of  favor  and  prosperity,  and 
symbolizes  the  Redeemer's  assurance  of 
his  unchanging  approbation  and  love  and 
of  eternal  blessedness.  Comp.  Isa.  62:2; 
1  Cor.  2:12;  I  John  5:20. 

STO'NING  was  prescribed  by  the  Mosaic 
law  as  the  mode  of  punishment  for  most 
offences  accounted  worthy  of  death,  and 
was  probably  intended  when  no  particular 
mode  of  execution  was  specified,  as  in  Lev. 
20:10;  comp.  John  8:5.  The  crimes  pun- 
ishable by  stoning  were  idolatry,  Lev.  20:2; 
Deut.  17:2-5;  blasphemy,  Lev.  24:10-16; 
in  one  case  Sabbath-breaking,  Num.  15:32- 
36;  witchcraft.  Lev.  20:27;  false  claim  to 
the  prophetic  office  and  enticement  to  idol- 
atry, Deut.  13:1-11;  appropriation  of  a 
"devoted"  thing.  Josh.  6:17-19;  7:1,  11-25, 
R.  v.;  comp.  Lev.  27:28;  stubborn  diso- 
bedience to  parents,  Deut.  21:18-21;  and 
impurity  of  various  kinds.  The  place  of 
e.xecution  was  outside  of  the  camp  or  city. 
Lev.  24:14;  I  Kin.  21:9-13;  Acts  7:58;  the 
criminal,  according  ^o  the  Rabbinical  wri- 
ters, was  exhorted  to  confess  his  crime; 
comp.  Josh.  7:19;  then  one  of  the  witnesses 
cast  a  large  stone  upon  his  chest,  and  if 
this  did  not  prove  fatal,  the  other  witnesses, 
and  if  necessary  the  bystanders,  completed 
the  execution,  Deut.  17:7,  laying  off  their 
outer  garments  for  freer  action.  Acts  7:58. 
Sometimes  the  offender  was  first  precipita- 
ted from  a  height  by  one  of  the  witnesses. 
Stoning  was  a  frequent  resort  of  an  angry 
mob  of  any  nationality,  Exod.  8:26;  17:4; 
I  Sam.  30:6;  2  Chr.  24:21 ;  Luke  20:6;  John 
8:59;  10:31;  Acts  5:26;  14:5,  19;  2  Cor. 
11:25.  Christ  would  have  been  put  to 
death  by  stoning,  on  the  false  charge  of 
blasphemy.  Matt.  26:57-66,  if  the  Jewish 
Sanhedrin  had  not  been  deprived  by  the 
Romans  of  the  death-power ;  see  Sanhe- 
drin; but  as  blasphemy  against  Jehovah 
was  a  charge  which  the  Roman  governor 
would  not  entertain,  comp.  Acts  18:14-16, 
it  was  necessary  before  the  Roman  tribunal 
to  substitute  the  equally  false  charge  of 
insurrection  and  treason.  Matt.  27:11-24; 
Luke  23:1-5,  13-15,  R.  v.,  20-22;  John 
18:28-32,  thus,  by  the  cowardice  of  Pilate 
under  the  compulsion  of  the  Jewish  mob, 
securing  for  the  Righteous  One  the  pre- 
dicted death  by  crucifixion.  Matt.  20:19; 
John  12:32,  33. 

STOOL,  2  Kin.  4:10,  the  seat  provided 
by  the  rich  and  pious  woman  of  Shunem 
for  the  prophet  Elisha's  room.     The  Heb. 


word  kisse  is  the  same  usually  rendered 
"throne,"  as  in  Gen.  41:40;  i  Kin.  10:18; 
2  Chr.  9:17, 18;  Isa.  6:1,  and  "  seat  "jn  sev- 
eral passages  where  persons  of  high  rank 
are  mentioned,  as  king  Eglon,  Judg.  3:20; 
the  high-priest  Eli,  i  Sam.  1:9;  4:13,  18; 
king  Solomon's  mother,  i  Kin.  2:19  (R.  V. 
"throne");  and  Haman,  Esth.  3:1.  In 
the  East,  anciently  as  now,  a  separate  ele- 
vated seat  was  an  honor  reserved  for  but 
few,  most  persons  sitting  on  the  ground  or 
on  carpets,  Judg.  5: 10,  R.  V. ;  comp.  Judith 
12:15,  where  "soft  skins"  are  spoken  of 
for  this  use,  or  upon  divans.  From  these 
facts,  and  from  Elisha's  recognition  of  the 
reverential  care  bestowed  upon  him,  2  Kin. 
4: 13,  R.  v.,  margin,  it  appears  that  the  seat 
is  not  fairly  represented  by  our  word 
"  stool,"  even  as  the  "  candlestick  "  of  ver. 
10  conveys  a  wrong  idea  of  the  Oriental 
lamp-stand,  on  which  oil  was  burned  ;  com- 
pare Exod.  39:37.     See  Se.^t. 

STOOLS,  Exod.  1 :  16,  in  the  R.  V.  "  birth- 
stools;"  perhaps,  as  Gesenius  suggests,  a 
seat  resembling  a  potter's  wheel,  2  disks 
connected  by  an  upright  stem,  the  same 
Hebrew  word  being  so  rendered  in  Jer. 
18:3. 

STORE,  Deut.  28 : 5,  17,  "  kneading- 
trough,"  as  in  the  R.  V.  and  in  E.xod. 
8:3;  12:34.  The  passages  in  Deut^eronomy 
teach  that  no  detail  of  daily  life  is  too  triv- 
ial to  be  noticed  with  approval  or  condem- 
nation by  Him  who  watches  over  individ- 
uals as  well  as  over  nations ;  comp.  Matt. 
10:29. 

STORE-CIT'IES,  I  Kin.  9:19;  2  Chr.  8:4, 
6;  16:4;  17:12,  places  of  deposit  for  mer- 
chandise. Such  entrepots  were  built  by 
the  enslaved  Israelites  in  Egypt,  Exod. 
1:11,  R.  V. 

STORE-HOU'SES.     See  next  page. 


STORK,  a  well-known  bird  of  passage, 
belonging   to   the  order  of  Waders,  and 

597 


STO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STR 


classed  as  "  unclean  "  in  the  Mosaic  law. 
Lev.  11:19;  Deut.  14:18,  as  it  feeds  not 
only  op  snakes,  toads,  lizards,  field-mice, 
etc.,  but  also  on  offal  and  garbage,  whence 
its  flesh  is  coarse  and  uninviting.  Its  He- 
brew name,  chastddli,  is  from  the  same  root 
as  a  noun  often  translated  "  mercy  "  and 
"  lovingkindness."  In  all  ages  it  has  been 
regarded  as  a  type  of  parental  and  filial 
love;  the  Romans  called  it 
avis  plus,  and  its  English 
name  is  by  some  traced 
to  the  Greek  word  slorge, 
meaning  "  natural  affec- 
tion." In  the  great  fire  in 
Delft,  Holland,  a  stork, 
unsuccessful  in  its  efforts 
to  save  its  young  from  the 
burning  nest,  itself  per- 
ished with  them.  The  old 
popular  belief  that  parent 
birds  are  cared  for  in 
their  decrepitude  by  their 
young  is  probably  without 
foundation. 

The  common  white 
stork,  Ciconiaalba,  stands 
nearly  4  feet  high.  Its  plumage  is  white, 
except  the  feathers  of  the  lower  half  of 
the  wings,  which  are  black.  Its  long  bill 
and  legs'  are  scarlet ;  its  toes  are  partially 
webbed.  It  is  found  all  over  Europe  from 
March  to  October,  when  it  migrates  in 
vast  flocks  to  Africa.  It  is  exceedingly 
regular  in  the  time  of  its  migration,  and  its 
flight  is  performed  at  a  great  height  in  the 
air,  Jer.  8:7.  Its  wings  measure  when  ex- 
panded nearly  7  feet,  and  are  very  strong, 
enabling  it  to  fly  with  surprising  rapidity, 
Zech.  5:9.  The  stork  has  no  vocal  organs, 
but  makes  a  castanet-like  noise  by  clapping 
its  bill.  The  white  stork  seeks  the  society 
of  man ;  in  cities  it  makes  its  nest  on  the 
roofs  or  chimneys  of  houses;  amid  ruins, 
on  the  top  of  columns,  towers,  or  arches ; 
and  elsewhere,  on  the  top  of  some  tall 
tree,  as  the  fir,  Psa.  104:17,  binding  the  up- 
per branches  together  with  twigs,  etc.,  and 
covering  the  surface  with  straw,  moss,  and 
feathers ;  it  usually  lays  4  eggs.  Year  after 
year  the  same  pair  of  storks  repair  and 
reoccupy  the  same  nest.  In  Palestine  both 
the  white  stork  and  the  smaller  black  stork, 
Ciconia  nigra,  abound;  the  black  being 
found  in  secluded  marshy  districts,  in  large 
flocks,  shunning  men  and  building  on  lofty 
trees.  Around  the  Sea  of  Galilee  tiie  white 
stork  also  is  gregarious  and  builds  on  trees. 
The  white  stork  was  protected  by  the 
598 


ancients  for  its  usefulness  and  out  of  re- 
spect for  family  attachments  with  which  it 
was  credited.  It  stalks  unharmed  in  the 
streets  of  Holland  and  Denmark  and  in  the 
bazaars  of  Syria  and  Northern  Africa.  In 
Job  39:13,  margin,  the  R.  V.  brings  out  a 
possible  contrast  of  the  apparently  unnat- 
ural conduct  of  the  ostrich  with  the  paren- 
tal devotion  of  the  stork. 


STORE-HOU'SES,  Deut.  28:8,  in  the  R.  V. 
"barns,"  as  in  Prov.  3:10.  At  present,  as 
doubtless  in  ancient  times,  in  Palestine  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  are  often  stored  in  deep 
pits  dug  in  the  ground,  sealed  with  plas- 
ter, and  covered  with  earth ;  comp.  Jer. 
41:8.  The  form  of  an  ancient  Egyptian 
granary.  Gen.  41:48,  49,  is  e.xhibited  in  a 
painting  in  a  nobleman's  tomb  at  Beni- 
Hassan.  It  consists  of  a  double  range  of 
brick  structures  resembling  ovens,  each 
having  an  opening  at  the  top  and  a  shutter 
in  the  side.  A  ladder  leads  to  the  top, 
where  the  grain,  after  being  measured  and 
noted  by  a  scribe,  was  poured  in,  to  be 
drawn  out  when  needed  by  opening  the 
shutter  below. 

STO'RY,  2  Chr.  13:22;  24:27,  an  histori- 
cal statement  or  "  commentary,"  as  in  the 
R.  V.  "Stories,"  Amos  9:6,  in  the  R.  V. 
"chambers." 

STRAIGHT'WAY,  Gr.  eiitlieos,  also  trans- 
lated "  immediately,"  "  anon,"  and  "  forth- 
with," Mark  1:30;  5:13;  10:52.  The  word 
occurs  40  times  in  the  Gospel  by  Mark.  It 
affords  a  cheering  suggestion  of  the  will- 
ing instantaneousness  of  our  Lord's  acts  in 
healing  the  bodies  and  saving  the  souls  of 
men,  Mark  5:29,  42;  comp.  John  9:4. 

STRAIN  AT,  Matt.  23:24,  should  be 
"strain  out,"  i.  e.,  from  wines,  etc..  as  in 
the  R.  V. 


STR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STR 


STRAIT,  Matt.  7:13,  14,  "  narrow,"  as  in 
the  R.  V.  So  in  2  Kin.  6:1;  Job  36: 16;  Isa. 
49:20.  The  word  must  not  be  confounded 
with  "  straight."  To  be  "  in  a  strait  "  is  to 
have  one's  way  beset  with  doubts  or  diffi- 
culties, to  be  at  a  loss,  i  Sam.  13:6;  2  Sam. 
24:14;  Phil.  1:23. 

STRAIT'LY,  Gen.  43:7;  Josh.  6:1 ;  Mark 
1:43,  strictly,  closely.  Strait'est,  Acts 
26:5,  strictest.  Strait'ness,  Deut.  28:53, 
55.  57;  Jot)  36:16;  Jer.  19:9,  scarcity  and 
•distress. 

STRANGE,  E.\-od.  21:8;  Psa.  114:1;  Acts 
7:6,  foreign.  Joseph  acted  like  a  foreigner 
to  his  brethren,  Gen.  42:7.  "Strange  wo- 
men "  denotes  foreigners,  Ezra  10;  Neh. 
13:27,  and  in  many  passages  harlots,  Prov. 
2:16;  5:3,  20. 

STRAN'GER,  a  foreigner,  in  many  cases 
tetter  rendered  "sojourner,"  as  in  Exod. 
2:22;  18:3,  R.  v.,  where  in  naming  his  son 
Gershom  Moses  recognizes  that  he  is  a 
sojourner,  Heb.  ger,  in  a  foreign  land, 
Coptic  shorn.  So  in  i  Pet.  1:1,  R.  V.,  the 
apostle  addresses  "  the  sojourners  of  the 
Dispersion,"  i.  e.,  Christian  Jews  residing 
out  of  Palestine.  The  word  "  stranger  " 
denotes  not  only  one  residing  out  of  his 
native  land,  Gen.  23:4,  or  in  a  land  where 
he  has  no  permanent  claim.  Gen.  15: 13,  but 
one  of  non-Israelite  origin,  Exod.  20:10; 
Isa.  14:1;  Luke  17:18;  comp.  ver.  16;  one 
of  another  family  or  household  from  that 
mentioned,  Exod.  29:33;  comp.  ver.  32; 
Num.  3:10;  16:40;  I  Kin.  3:18;  Matt.  17:25, 
26;  and  one  unknown  or  disregarded.  Job 
19:15- 

Among  the  Israelites,  "strangers"  or 
"sojourners,"  /.  e.,  resident  foreigners, 
permanently  more  or  less  identified  with 
Israel,  formed  a  large  class,  for  which  spe- 
cial regulations  were  prescribed.  It  was 
composed  of  the  "  mixed  multitude  "  that 
accompanied  Israel  out  of  Egypt,  Exod. 
12:38,  and  their  descendants,  also  of  the 
subdued  remnants  of  the  Canaanite  peo- 
ples, I  Kin.  9:20,  21;  I  Chr.  22:2;  2  Chr. 
2:17;  and  of  war-captives,  refugees,  hired 
servants,  merchants,  etc.  They  are  distin- 
guished both  from  home-born  Israelites, 
Exod.  12:49,  and  from  visiting  aliens,  ver. 
43,  R.  v.,  foreigners  not  identified  with 
Israel.  The  Mosaic  law  dealt  liberally 
with  such  "sojourners"  in  its  enactments 
relative  to  their  religious,  political,  and 
social  standing.  They  were  subject  to  the 
laws  of  Israel,  Exod.  12:19;  20:10;  Lev. 
17:10,  15;  18:26;  20:2;  22:18:  24:16,  22; 
2  Sam.  1:13,  14.     If  bondmen,  circumcision 


was  obligatory,  Exod.  12:44;  comp.  Gen. 
17:12,  27;  if  independent,  it  was  optional, 
but  without  it  they  could  not  partake  of 
the  passover  or  become  full  citizens,' Exod. 
12:48,  while  with  it  they  were  admitted  to 
all  religious  privileges,  and  if  free,  to  most 
of  the  civil  rights  of  native  Israelites,  ver. 
49;  Num.  9:14;  15:14,  16,  26,  29,  30;  19:  lo; 
35:15;  2  Chr.  30:25.  They  were  not  eligi- 
ble to  the  throne,  Deut.  17:15,  and  perhaps 
could  not  hold  land  in  perpetuity,  as  may 
be  inferred  from  the  contrary  privilege 
granted  in  the  prophetic  vision  in  Ezek. 
47  :  22,  23.  Uncircumcised  "  strangers  " 
were  less  restricted  in  food  than  Israel- 
ites, Lev.  17:12,  15,  R.  v.;  Deut.  14:21. 
Judges  were  warned  against  partiality 
where  "strangers  "  were  concerned,  Deut. 
1:16;  24:17,  i8.  Israelites  were  admon- 
ished to  treat  them  as  brothers,  remember- 
ing their  own  condition  when  in  Egypt, 
Lev.  19:34;  Deut.  10:19;  and  many  special 
injunctions  in  their  favor  were  given.  Lev. 
19:10;  23:22;  Deut.  16:10-14;  14:20,  etc.; 
comp.  Jer.  22:3;  Zech.  7:10.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  "  proselyte  "  represents  the 
Old  Testament  "  stranger  "  in  this  respect. 

There  are  also  in  the  Old  Testament 
many  references  to  "  strangers  "  in  the  dif- 
ferent sense  of  unnaturalized  foreigners, 
I  Kin.  8:41,  43,  unreconciled  "aliens," 
Exod.  12:43,  R.  v.;  Lev.  22:25,  R.V.;  Deut. 
23  :  20,  R.  V. ;  29 :  22,  R.  V. ;  i  Kin.  11:1,8; 
Ezra  10:2;  Ezek.  44:7,  9;  often  avowed 
enemies  to  the  Israelites,  as  in  2  Sam. 
22:45 ;  Isa.  1:7;  Jer.  2:25;  5:19;  Lam.  5:2; 
Joel  3:17;  Obad.  11.  The  Hebrew  word 
here  used  means  unknown,  foreigner,  or 
alien.  In  many  cases  the  R.  V.  makes  the 
distinction  visible.  Yet  even  to  such  the 
offer  of  acceptance  by  Israel's  God  is  made, 
Isa.  56:3,  6;  and  their  gathering  into  his 
church  is  predicted,  Isa.  60 :  10.  Such 
"  strangers  "  are  represented  in  the  New 
Testament  by  the  "  Gentiles  "  or  "heath- 
en," Eph.  2:11,  12.  The  Moabite  Ruth  was 
such  a  "stranger"  admitted  to  the  privi- 
leges of  ancient  Israel,  Ruth  2:10;  comp. 
1:16. 

Hospitality  towards  needy  foreigners  or 
travellers.  Job  31:32,  is  commended  and 
enjoine^  in  the  New  Testament,  Matt. 
25:35,  43;  Heb.  13:2.  In  Eph.  2:12,  19  the 
word  denotes  an  alien  foreigner  as  opposed 
to  native  citizens. 

In  an  important  sense  not  only  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob  in  Canaan,  Gen. 
23:4;  Heb.  11:9,  13,  and  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  Exod.  22:21,  but  the  tribes  in  the 

599 


STR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STR 


Promised  Land,  were  "strangers"  or  "so- 
journers," as  life-residents  in  a  land  of 
which  Jehovah  was  the  absolute  and  per- 
manent owner,  Lev.  25:23;  Psa.  39:12; 
119: 19;  and  Christians  are  to  regard  them- 
selves in  like  manner,  i  Pet.  2:11. 

STRAN'GLED  animals,  as  not  properly 
drained  of  blood — a  forbidden  article  of 
food  under  the  universal  Noachic  cove- 
nant, Gen.  9:16,  as  well  as  in  the  Mosaic 
law  for  Israel,  Lev.  3:17 — were  prohibited 
to  Gentile  converts  by  the  apostles  and 
brethren  in  council  at  Jerusalem,  Acts 
15:20.  It  is  alleged  that  in  the  great 
slaughter-houses  in  New  York  city  animals 
are  now  slaughtered  by  the  Jewish  meth- 
od, so  that  the  carcasses  are  thoroughly 
drained;  the  blood,  after  being  dried  into 
a  powder,  is  used  as  a  fertilizer— its  ulti- 
mate destination  thus  being,  singularly 
enough,  to  be  "  poured  out  on  the  earth," 
Lev.  17:13. 

STRAW.  Wheat  and  barley  straw,  called 
also  "stubble"  in  Job  21:18,  and  "chaff" 
in  Jer.  23:28,  was  used  as  fodder  for  horses, 
cattle,  and  camels.  Gen.  24:25,  32;  i  Kin. 
4 :  28 ;  Isa.  11:7;  65  :  25.  Chopped  straw 
was  often  mixed  with  barley,  beans,  etc., 
as  provender.  Its  use  in  making  brick  is 
mentioned  in  Exod.  5:7-18.  The  "stub- 
ble" spoken  of  in  Exod.  5:12;  15:7;  Isa. 
5:24;  47: 14;  Joel  2:5;  Obad.  18;  Nah.  i  :io, 
was  the  refuse  left  in  the  fields  after  the 
best  part  of  the  straw  had  been  gathered. 

STREAM,  Num.  21:15;  Jot)  6:15,  etc. 
The  word  represents  9  different  Hebrew 
words  and  i  Greek.  See  River  and  Val- 
ley. 

STREETS  and  LANES,  Luke  14:21.  One 
Heb.  and  one  Gr.  word  translated  street 
denote  a  wide  public  way,  Gen.  19:2  ;  Judg. 
19:15;  2  Sam.  21:12;  Luke  13:26,  and  often 
a  broad  open  space  near  a  city  gate  or  be- 
fore a  public  building,  Deut.  13:16;  Ezra 
10:9;  Neh.  8:1,  3,  16;  Esth.  4:6.  Here, 
and  especially  at  the  prominent  points  and 
corners,  men  loved,  as  the  Turks  do  now, 
to  spread  their  rugs  or  pieces  of  carpet  and 
sit,  I  Sam.  4:13;  Job  29 : 7 ;  and  here,  at  the 
hour  of  prayer,  they  performed  their  devo- 
tions, Matt.  6:5.  But  most  of  the  streets  in 
the  best  Oriental  cities  are  now,  as  in  an- 
cient times,  narrow,  to  give  shade  from  the 
hot  sun;  ill-graded,  on  account  of  the  un- 
evenness  of  their  sites  and  the  little  use  of 
wheel  carriages ;  and  gloomy,  being  un- 
lighted  at  night,  and  the  walls  of  the  houses 
being  almost  windowless  on  the  street  side, 
Jer.  5:1 :  Lam.  2:19;  Mic.  7:10;  Acts  12: 10. 
600 


Josephus  says  that  the  streets  of  Jerusalem 
were  paved,  as  are  those  of  the  prophetic 
Jerusalem,  Rev.  21 :2i.     Streets  were  often 


A  STREET   IN  CAIRO. 

named,  like  ours,  and  some  of  them  resem- 
bled the  bazaars  of  modern  Eastern  cities, 
the  shops  of  the  same  kind  being  in  the 
same  street  and  giving  it  its  name,  Neh. 
3:31,  32,  as  "  the  bakers'  street,"  Jer.  37:21, 
and  the  "valley  of  tiie  cheesemongers;" 
and  streets  were  "  made  "  for  merchants, 
I  Kin.  20:34.  In  modern  cities  the  streets 
have  gates,  which  are  locked  and  guarded 
at  night  as  in  former  times,  Song  2' 3-  The 
street  in  Damascus  called  "Straight,"  Acts 
9:11,  appears  to  have  been  narrow  in  an- 
cient times,  as  it  is  now,  but  in  the  Roman 
age  it  was  wide,  and  was  divided  by  colon- 
nades into  3  avenues,  a  mile  long,  running 
through  the  city.     See  House. 

STRENGTH,  in  Isa.  63:6,  is  ''life-blood" 
in  tlie  R.  V. 

STRINGED  IN'STRUMENTS.  See  Mu- 
sic. 

STRIPES,  Deut.  25:1-3;  2  Cor.  11:24. 
See  Punishments  and  Scourge. 

STRONG  DRINK.    See  Wine. 


mwM 


'm 


VIA  DOLOROSA:  JERUSALEM. 


STU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SUP 


STUB'BLE.     See  Straw. 

STUFF,  Gen.  31:37;  45:20;  i  Sam.  10:22; 
Luke  17:31,  household  vessels  and  furni- 
ture, or  "baggage,"  as  in  i  Sam.  17:22; 
Isa.  10:28,  called  "  carriage  "  in  the  A.  V. 

STUM'BLING- BLOCK,  anything  over 
which  one  is  liable  to  trip,  Lev.  19:14; 
I  John  2:10;  used  of  an  idol  as  a  tempta- 
tion to  idolatry,  Zeph.  1:3-5.  Obstructions 
were  sometimes  placed  in  narrow  roads 
by  robbers  to  confuse  and  delay  travellers 
and  facilitate  plundering  them.  Compare 
Jer.  6:21;  Ezek.  3:20;  Rev.  2:14.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  cross — that  we  are  sinners, 
justly  perishing,  and  to  be  saved  only  by 
the  atoning  grace  of  Christ — is  offensive  to 
the  unrenewed  heart,  Rom.  9:32,  33;  i  Cor. 
1:23;  I  Pet.  2:6-8.    See  Offence. 

SUB'STANCE  sometimes  means  prop- 
erty or  possessions,  as  in  Gen.  13:6;  Job 
1:3,  10;  Heb.  10:34.  In  Psa.  139:15  an 
embryo ;  in  Isa.  6: 13  the  stock  of  a  tree. 

SUC'COTH,  booths.  I.  A  spot  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan  and  near  the  Jabbok, 
between  Penuel  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
Shechem  on  the  west,  where  Jacob  erected 
a  house  for  himself  and  booths  for  his  cat- 
tle, in  preparation  for  a  considerable  stay, 
on  his  return  from  Mesopotamia,  Gen. 
33:17.  Joshua  assigned  the  city  subse- 
quently built  here  to  the  tribe  of  Gad, 
Josh.  13:27.  Gideon  tore  the  flesh  of  77 
principal  men  of  Succoth  with  thorns  and 
briars  because  they  haughtily  refused  to 
aid  him  when  pursuing  the  Midianites, 
Judg.  8:5-16.  It  seems  to  have  lain  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Jordan,  3  miles  from  the 
river,  in  the  latitude  of  Shechem,  but  may 
possibly  have  been  on  the  west  side,  at  the 
place  now  called  'Ain  es-Sakfit,  10  miles 
south  by  east  of  Beth-shean.  Comp.  i  Kin. 
7:46;  Psa.  60:6. 

II.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  their  way  out  of  Egypt,  Exod.  12:37; 
13 :  20 ;  Num.  33 : 5,  6.  Their  starting-place', 
Rameses,  lay  at  the  west  end  of  wady  et- 
Tumeilat,  and  Succoth  has  recently  been 
confidently  identified  with  ruins  20  miles 
east  in  the  same  wady,  also  called  Pithom, 
which  see. 

SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH,  ienis  of  the  daugh- 
ters, 2  Kin.  17:30,  an  object  of  idolatrous 
worship  among  the  Babylonians;  appa- 
rently the  name  of  an  idol,  like  Nergal  and 
Ashima  in  the  same  verse,  or  perhaps  with 
reference  to  booths,  in  which  the  Babylo- 
nian females  prostituted  themselves  in 
honor  of  Mylitta,  the  Assyrian  Venus. 

SUD'DENLY,  I  Tim.  5:22,  hastily,  rashly. 


SUF'FER  often  means  to  permit,  as  in 
Psa.  105:14;  Eccl.  5:12;  Matt.  8:21. 

SUK'KIIM,  booth-dwellers,  allies  of  Shi- 
shak  in  his  invasion  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  12:3; 
probably  from  regions  southeast  of  Egypt. 

SUM'MER.     See  CANAAN. 

SUN,  the  "  greater  light  "  of  Gen.  i :  14-16, 
the  great  luminary  of  day,  which  furnishes 
so  many  similitudes  to  the  Hebrew  poets, 
as  well  as  those  of  all  nations,  Judg.  5:31 ; 
Psa.  84 : 1 1 ;  Prov.  4:18;  Luke  i :  78,  79 ;  John 
8: 12.  It  was  set  not  only  "  for  seasons  and 
for  days  and  for  years,"  but  for  "signs," 
such  as  eclipses — which  were  tokens  of  di- 
vine power  and  wisdom,  and  symbols  of 
wonderful  providences,  Joel  2:  31;  Matt. 
24:29;  Rev.  6:12;  8:12,  and  were  regarded 
by  the  heathen  with  superstitious  dread, 
Jer.  10:2.  The  sun  "ruled  the  day"  by 
furnishing  light,  heat,  and  vivifying  influ- 
ences, also  the  means  of  measuring  its 
parts — there  being  between  sunrise  and 
sunset  3  chief  points :  9  A.  m.,  when  the  sun 
became  hot,  i  Sam.  11:9;  Neh.  ".3;  noon, 
or  "the  double  light,"  Gen.  43:16;  2  Sam. 
4:5;  and  the  "cool  of  the  day,"  just  before 
sunset.  Gen.  3:8.  The  rising  sun  marked 
the  east,  and  the  setting  sun  the  west, 
which  were  also  intended  by  the  words 
"before"  and  "behind,"  and  the  north 
and  south  points  by  the  "left  hand"  and 
"the  right."  Comp.  Job  23:8,  9.  Scrip- 
ture speaks  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
sun,  as  all  people  do  in  common  speech, 
as  if  it  were  a  reality,  Josh.  10:13,  27; 
2  Kin.  20:11 ;  Psa.  19:5,  6;  50:1;  Eccl.  1:5; 
Hab.  3:11.  The  "  wings  "  of  the  sun  beto- 
ken the  darting  swiftness  of  its  rays,  Psa. 
139:9;  Mai.  4:2.  Spots  on  the  sun  are  said 
to  be  mentioned  in  Assyrian  tablets,  which 
implies  the  use  of  telescopes;  and  Layard 
found  a  cr\'stal  lens  in  the  Nineveh  ruins. 

The  Assyrians  seem  to  have  worshipped 
the  sun  directly,  without  an  intervening 
idol,  Job  31:26,  27.  The  Egyptians,  PhcE- 
nicians,  Persians,  Ammonites,  Assyrians, 
and  other  ancient  nations  had  sun-idols, 
and  the  Hebrews  often  followed  their  ex- 
ample, 2  Kin.  21:3,  5;  23:5,  II,  12;  Jer. 
19:13;  Ezek.  8:16,  17;  Zeph.  1:5.  See 
Baal,  Molech,  and  Heliopolis,  I.  God's 
law  is  like  the  sun,  Psa.  19:4-7;  and  Christ 
is  "the  Sun  of  righteousness,"  Mai.  4:2; 
Rev.  1:16. 

SUPERSTI'TION  and  SUPERSTI'TIOUS, 
Acts  17:22  and  19:25,  are  not  to  be  under- 
stood offensively.  Paul  found  the  Athe- 
nians "  much  addicted  to  devotion,"  such 
as  it  was ;  perhaps  "  religion  "  and  "  reli- 

601 


SUP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SVVI 


giously  inclined"  may  better  express  the 
sense  of  the  original.  The  Hebrews  were 
preserved  by  their  knowledge  of  the  true 
God,  the  Maker  and  Ruler  of  all  things, 
from  many  of  the  superstitions  then  prev- 
alent among  their  neighbors,  as  they  are 
among  the  heathen  now. 

SUPH,  sca-iveed.  In  Deut.  i :  i,  for  "  the 
plain  over  against  the  Red  Sea,"  the  R.  V. 
reads,  "the  Arabah  over  against  Suph." 
See  Arabah  and  Zephath.  Usually,  how- 
ever, Suph,  with  the  addition  of  Yam,  sea, 
is  the  Hebrew  word  clearly  denoting  the 
Red  Sea,  E.\od.  lo:  19;  13: 18,  etc.  In  Num. 
21:14,  for  "What  he  did  in  the  Red  Sea," 
A.  v.,  the  R.  V.  reads,  "  Vaheb  in  Suphah.  ' 
Yet  no  place  named  Suph  or  Suphah  has 
as  yet  been  found. 

SUP'PER.  See  Eating,  Cup,  and  Lord's 
Supper.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in 
Paul's  account  of  the  institution  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  i  Cor.  11:23-29,  the  bread 
is  thrice  called  "  bread,"  ver.  26-28,  and 
the  wine  is  still  called  by  our  Saviour  the 
"  fruit  of  the  vine,"  Matt.  26:29,  after  both 
had  been  blessed  and  given  to  the  disci- 
ples. Consecration  had  made  no  change 
in  either  of  the  elements.  For  the  suppers 
or  love-feasts  which  used  to  accompany 
the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  see 
Feasts. 

SURE'TY,  one  who  makes  himself  per- 
sonally responsible  for  the  safe  appear- 
ing of  another,  Gen.  43:9  and  44:32,33, 
or  for  the  full  payment  of  his  debts,  etc., 
Prov.  22:26.  This  was  often  sealed  by 
hand-shaking.  Job  17:3,  and  was  apt  to 
prove  an  ill-advised  act,  Prov.  6:1;  11:15; 
17:18;  20:16;  22:26.  God  is  the  perfect 
surety,  or  "  undertakes,"  for  his  people, 
Psa.  119:122;  Isa.  38:14;  and  Christ  is  the 
"surety of  a  better  testament;"  that  is,  in 
the  glorious  and  complete  covenant  of 
grace  he  engages  to  meet  all  the  claims  of 
the  divine  law  against  his  people,  that  they 
may  be  absolved  and  enriched  with  all 
covenant  blessings,  Heb.  7:22;  9:11-15. 
Hence  his  obedience  unto  death,  Isa.  53:5, 
12. 

SUSAN'NA,  a  lily,  Luke  8:3,  one  of  the 
women  who  ministered  to  Christ  with  their 
means. 

SWAD'DLE,  to  swathe  an  infant's  ten- 
der body  with  protecting  cloths,  as  is  still 
customary  in  the  East,  Ezek.  16:4;  Luke 
2:7.  In    Lam.  2:22 read,  bear  on  the  palm. 

SWAL'LOW,  in  the  A.  V.  put  for  two 
Hebrew  words:  i,  deror,  szm/tvess,  Psa. 
84:3,  believed  to  mean  the  swift,  Cypselus 
602 


apus,  a  bird  resembling  the  swallow,  very 
common  in  Palestine  and  swarmmg  in  the 
streets  and  around  the  sacred  buildings  of 


L3^^/i//Z^ 


Jerusalem — a  bird  of  passage  noted  for  its 
rapid  flight  and  its  harsh,  incessant  cry; 
and  2,  agur,  twitterer,  the  crane,  Isa. 
38:14;  Jer.  8:7.  See  Crane.  In  Prov. 
26:2  the  R.  V.  reads,  "As  the  sparrow  in 
her  wandering,  as  the  swallow  in  her  fly- 
ing, so  the  curse  that  is  causeless  lighteth 
not."  Balaam  and  Shimei  might  curse,  but 
God  blessed,  Deut.  23:5;  2  Sam.  16:5-12; 
Psa.  109:28. 

SWAN,  Heb.  TINSHEMETH  mentioned  as 
unclean  in  Lev.  11:18;  Deut.  14:16.  The 
true  swan  is  not  found  in  Palestine,  and  the 
sacred  Egyptian  ibis  may  be  intended,  or 
more  probably  the  purple  hen  or  gallinule, 
with  dark  blue  plumage,  red  beak  and 
legs,  and  long  claws. 

SWEAR'ING.  See  Oath.  To  "hear  the 
voice  of  swearing,"  Lev.  5:1,  is  to  be  put 
under  oath  to  testify  the  truth,  or  "  bear  the 
iniquity  "  of  perjury  as  a  sin  against  both 
God  and  man. 

SWEAT,  Gen.  3:19;  Ezek.  44:18,  a  token 
of  a  life  of  toil.  The  blood  suffusing  the 
perspiration  of  Christ  in  Gethsemane,  Luke 
22:44,  was  an  evidence  of  the  dreadful 
agony  he  endured.  The  phenomenon  is 
exceedingly  rare,  but  is  known  to  have 
occurred  in  several  instances. 

SWIM'MING.  The  mode  depicted  on 
Assyrian  sculptures  is  hand  over  hand, 
bringing  down  each  forcibly,  Isa.  25:11. 

SWINE,  Prov.  11:22,  a  well-known  ani- 
mal, forbidden  as  food  to  the  Hebrews, 
who  held  its  flesh  in  such  detestation  that 
they  would  not  so  much  as  pronounce  its 
name.  Lev.  II  :7;  Deut.  14:8.  It  divides  the 
hoof,  but  does  not  chew  the  cud ;  and  as  it 
was  also  useless  while  living,  the  raising 


swo 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYE 


of  swine  was  not  practised  by  the  He- 
brews, nor  is  it  by  modern  Jews  or  Moham- 
medans. The  eating  of  swine's  flesh  was 
among  the  most  odious  of  the  idolatrous 
abominations  charged  upon  some  of  the 
Jews,  Isa.  65:4;  66:3,  17.  The  herd  of 
swine  destroj^ed  by  evil  spirits  in  the  Sea 
of  Gennesaret,  Matt.  8:32;  Mark  5:13,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  kept  by  Jews  for 
sale  to  the  Gentiles  around  them,  in  defi- 
ance of  the  law.  The  beautiful  and  affect- 
ing parable  of  the  prodigal  son  shows  that 
the  tending  of  swine  was  considered  an  em- 
ployment of  the  most  despicable  character, 
Luke  15:14-16.  The  irreclairaably  filthy 
habits  of  this  animal  illustrate  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  reformation  without  regeneration, 
2  Pet.  2:22;  as  its  treading  in  the  mire  any 
precious  thing  which  it  cannot  eat  illus- 
trates the  treatment  which  some  profligates 
give  to  the  gospel.  Matt.  7:6.     See  Boar. 

SWORD.  The  Hebrew  words  translated 
sword  have  a  wide  latitude  of  meaning;  in 
Josh.  5:2;  Ezek.  5:1,  2,  "sharp  knives." 
Some  swords  had  2  edges,  Psa.  149:6  ;  they 
often  had  richly-decorated  hilts,  were  car- 
ried in  sheaths,  i  Sam.  17:51 ;  2  Sam.  20:8, 
slung  by  the  girdle,  i  Sam.  25:13,  resting 
on  the  thigh,  Judg.  3:16;  Psa.  45:3.  Gird- 
ing them  on  was  a  prelude  to  hostilities 
and  a  symbol  of  war,  Isa.  34:5;  Rev.  19:17, 
21,  of  power,  Rom.  13:4,  and  of  divine  judg- 
ments, Deut.  32:41 ;  Psa.  17:13.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  sword  was  usually  a  broad, 
straight,  two-edged  blade,  rather  short. 

SYCAMINE,  Luke  17:6,  the  Morus  nigra 
or  black  mulberry-tree,  still  called  syca- 
minea  in  Greece,  a  lofty  deep-rooted  tree, 
furnishing  a  highly -prized  berry  and  a 
grateful  shade.  Both  the  black  and  white 
mulberry  are  now  common  in  Palestine. 
The  sycamore  is  a  different  tree. 


SYCAMORE,  fig -mulberry,  the  Ficus 
sycomorus,  a  tree  which  seems  to  partake 
of  the  nature  of  both  the  mulberry  and  the 


fig,  the  former  in  its  leaf  and  the  latter  in 
its  fruit.  It  was  a  tree  of  this  sort  that 
Zacchseus  climbed  to  see  our  Saviour  pass- 
ing through  Jericho,  Luke  19:4.  Tristram 
found  aged  specimens  near  the  outlet  of 
wady  Kelt  and  the  site  of  ancient  Jericho. 
The  sycamore  is  of  the  height  of  a  beech 
or  walnut,  with  a  large  trunk  breaking 
into  stout  branches  not  many  feet  above 
the  ground.  Its  leaves  are  heart-shaped, 
downy  underneath,  and  fragrant.  The 
fruit  is  borne  on  short  sprigs  growing  di- 
rectly from  the  trunk  and  branches,  and  is 
produced  through  a  long  season.  It  has 
the  figure  and  smell  of  real  figs,  but  is  in- 
ferior to  them  in  taste,  Amos  7:14;  it  is 
yellowish  on  the  outside,  and  darker,  with 
yellow  spots,  within.  It  is  much  used  in 
Egypt  as  food.  From  i  Kin.  10:27;  i  Chr. 
27:28;  2  Chr.  1:15;  9:27;  Psa.  78:47,  it  is 
evident  that  the  tree  was  common  in  Pal- 
estine, and  was  as  much  valued  in  ancient 
times  as  now.  Its  timber,  though  porous, 
was  extremely  durable,  being  used  in  build- 
ings, Isa.  9:10,  and  the  sycamore  mummy- 
chests  and  bo.xes  in  Egyptian  tombs  re- 
main uncorrupted  after  3,000  years. 

SY'CHAR,  falseliood,  or  drunken,  John 
4:5,  6,  or  SY'CHEM,  Acts  7:16.  See  She- 
CHEM.  The  village  of  Sychar  may  have 
been  nearer  to  Jacob's  well  than  the  an- 
cient Shechem  and  the  modern  Nablfis; 
and  Lieut.  Conder  and  others  favor  the 
present  village  'Aschar  as  occupying  its 
site,  on  the  side  of  Mount  Ebal,  more  than 
a  mile  from  Nablus.  In  Sychem,  Stephen 
seems  to  affirm,  other  patriarchs  as  well  as 
Jacob  were  buried,  Acts  7:15,  16. 

SYE'NE,  Heb.  Seveneh,  opening  or  key, 
a  city  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Egypt, 
towards  Ethiopia,  between  Thebes  and  the 
cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  now  called  Es- 
suan  or  Aswan.  Pliny  says  it  stood  in  a 
peninsula  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Nile, 
that  it  was  a  mile  in  circumference,  and 
had  a  Roman  garrison.  "  From  Migdol," 
the  tower,  "  unto  Syene,"  denotes  the  whole 
length  of  Egypt  from  north  to  south,  Ezek. 
29:10;  30:6.  Few  remains  of  the  ancient 
city  are  now  extant.  Its  Hebrew  name  is 
very  appropriate  for  its  position,  just  be- 
low the  first  cataract,  where  the  Nile  breaks 
through  the  mountains  into  the  open  plain 
of  Egypt.  Its  Egyptian  name  was  Sun. 
The  modern  town  lies  north  of  the  ancient 
site.  In  its  vicinity  are  quarries  of  the 
Egyptian  granite  called  Syenite,  which  fur- 
nished the  material  for  numerous  obelisks 
and  colossal  statues. 

603 


SYN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYN 


SYN'AGOGUE,  ati  assembly,  like  the  word 
church,  applied  to  the  buildings  in  which 
the  ordinary  Jewish  assemblies  for  the 
worship  of  God  were  convened.  From  the 
silence  of  the  Old  Testament  with  refer- 
ence to  these  places  of  worship,  many  are  of 
opinion  that  they  were  not  in  use  till  after 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  and  that  before 
that  time  the  Jews  held  their  social  meet- 
ings for  religious  worship,  Isa.  1:13,  either 
in  the  open  air  or  in  the  houses  of  the 
prophets.  See  2  Kin.  4:23;  Psa.  107:32; 
Ezek.  33:31.  In  Psa.  74:8  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  the  Hebrew  word  rendered 
synagogues  refers  to  synagogue-buildings 
such  as  e.xisted  after  the  Captivity.  In  the 
later  Hebrew  books  allusions  to  stated 
meetings  for  worship  are  more  frequent, 
Ezra  8:15,  21;  10:1-9;  Neh.  8:1-3;  9:1-3; 
13:1-3;  Zech.  7:5;  and  in  our  Saviour's 
time  they  abounded,  Acts  15:21.  Benjamin 
of  Tudela,  a  traveller  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
claims  to  have  seen  the  synagogues  built 
by  Moses,  David,  Obadiah,  Nahum,  and 
Ezra.  Synagogues  could  only  be  erected 
in  those  places  where  ten  men  of  age,  learn- 
ing, piety,  and  easy  circumstances  could 
be  found  to  attend  them.  Large  towns  had 
several  synagogues,  and  they  became  the 
parish  churches  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Their 
number  appears  to  have  been  very  consid- 
erable ;  and  when  the  erection  of  a  syna- 
gogue was  considered  a  mark  of  piety, 
Luke  7:5,  or  a  passport  to  heaven,  we  need 
not  be  surprised  to  hear  that  they  were 
multiplied  beyond  all  necessity,  so  that  in 
Jerusalem  alone  there  were  said  to  be  not 
fewer  than  460  or  4S0.  They  were  gener- 
ally built  on  the  most  elevated  ground,  and 
consisted  of  2  parts.  The  westerly  part 
contained  the  ark  or  chest  in  which  the 
book  of  the  law  and  the  sections  of  the 
prophets  were  deposited,  with  the  syna- 
gogical  robes  of  the  officials,  and  was  called 
the  temple  by  way  of  eminence.  The  other, 
in  which  the  congregation  assembled,  was 
termed  the  body  of  the  synagogue.  The 
people  sat  with  their  faces  towards  the  tem- 
ple, comp.  I  Kin.  8:29;  Psa.  28:2,  and  the 
elders  on  a  platform  opposite  and  facing 
the  people,  with  the  pulpit  or  reading-desk 
on  its  front.  Their  seats  are  often  referred 
to  as  "the  chief  seats  in  the  synagogues," 
Matt.  23:6;  Mark  12:39;  Luke  11:43;  Jas. 
2:2,  3.  The  women  sat  by  themselves,  at 
first  shut  oflf  by  a  partition  5  or  6  feet  high, 
and  afterwards  in  a  gallery  secluded  by 
lattice-work.  The  apartment  was  lighted 
by  an  ever-burning  lamp. 
604 


The  stated  office-bearers  in  every  syna- 
gogue formed  6  distinct  classes:  first  the 
Archisynagogos,  or  "  chief  ruler  of  the  syn- 
agogue," who  regulated  all  its  concerns 
and  granted  permission  to  address  the  as- 
sembly. Acts  18:8.  Of  these  there  were  5 
in  each  synagogue.  Dr.  Lightfoot  believes 
them  to  have  possessed  a  civil  power  and 
to  have  constituted  the  lowest  civil  tribu- 
nal, commonly  known  as  "  the  council  of 
three,"  whose  office  it  was  to  judge  minor 
ofiences  against  religion,  and  also  to  de- 
cide the  differences  that  arose  between  any 
members  of  the  synagogue  as  to  money 
matters,  thefts,  losses,  etc.  To  these  offi- 
cers there  is  perhaps  an  allusion  in  i  Cor. 
6:5.  See  also  Judgment.  The  2d  office- 
bearer was  "  the  angel  of  the  synagogue," 
or  minister  of  the  congregation,  Luke  4:20, 
who  prayed  and  preached.  In  allusion  to 
these,  the  pastors  of  the  Asiatic  churches 
are  called  "  angels,"  Rev.  2;  3.  Other  offi- 
cers were  the  almoners,  a  legate  or  leader, 
an  interpreter,  to  translate  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  the  vernacular,  and  the  ten 
"  men  of  leisure,"  including  perhaps  these 
just  named,  who  were  relied  upon  to  war- 
rant the  forming  of  a  sj-nagogue  and  secure 
a  regular  congregation. 

The  service  of  the  synagogue  was  as  fol- 
lows :  The  people  being  seated,  the  "  angel 
of  the  synagogue"  ascended  the  pulpit  and 
offered  up  the  public  prayers,  the  people 
rising  from  their  seats  and  standing  in  a 
posture  of  deep  devotion,  Matt.  6:5;  Mark 
11:25;  Luke  18:11,  13.  The  prayers  were 
19  in  number,  and  were  closed  by  reading 
the  e.xecration.  The  next  thing  was  the 
repetition  of  their  phylacteries ;  after  which 
came  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  proph- 
ets. The  former  was  divided  into  54  sec- 
tions, with  which  were  united  correspond- 
ing portions  from  the  prophets;  see  Acts 
13:15,  27;  15:21;  and  these  were  read 
through  once  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
After  the  return  from  the  Captivity  an  in- 
terpreter was  employed  in  reading  the  law 
and  the  prophets,  Neh.  8:2-8,  who  inter- 
preted them  into  the  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect, 
which  was  then  spoken  by  the  people.  The 
last  part  of  the  service  was  the  expounding 
of  the  Scriptures  and  preaching  from  them 
to  the  people.  This  was  done  either  by 
one  of  the  officers  or  by  some  distinguished 
person  who  happened  to  be  present.  The 
Saviour  often  availed  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity thus  afforded  to  address  his  coun- 
trymen, Luke  4:16-20;  and  there  are  sev- 
eral instances  recorded  of  himself  and  his 


SYN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYR 


disciples  teaching  in  the  synagogues.  See 
Matt.  13:54;  Mark  6:2;  John  18:20;  Acts 
.13:5.15.44;  14:1;  17:2-4,10,17;  18:4,26; 
19:8.  The  whole  service  was  conchided 
with  a  short  prayer  or  benediction. 

The  Jewish  synagogues  were  used  not 
only  for  the  purposes  of  divine  worship, 
but  also  for  courts  of  judicature  in  such 
matters  as  fell  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
Council  of  Three  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken.  On  such  occasions  the  sentence 
given  against  the  offender  was  sometimes, 
after  the  manner  of  prompt  punishment 
still  prevalent  in  the  East,  carried  into 
effect  in  the  place  where  the  council  was 
assembled.  Hence  we  read  of  persons  be- 
ing beaten  in  the  synagogue  and  scourged 
in  the  synagogue,  Matt.  10:17;  23:34;  Mark 
13:9;  Luke2i:i2;  Acts 22:19;  26:11;  2  Cor. 
11:24.  To  be  "  put  out  of  the  synagogue," 
or  excommunicated  from  the  Jewish  Church 
and  deprived  of  the  national  privileges, 
was  a  punishment  much  dreaded,  John 
9:22;  12:42;  16:2.  The  name  of  synagogue 
was  long  retained  as  that  of  a  place  of 
worship,  Jas.  2:2;  Rev.  2:9.  In  our  own 
day  the  Jews  erect  synagogues  wherever 
they  are  sufficiently  numerous,  and  assem- 
ble on  their  Sabbath  for  worship,  the  read- 
ing or  chanting  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
of  prayers  being  conducted  in  the  original 
Hebrew,  though  it  is  a  dead  language  spo- 
ken by  few  amon^  them.  Among  the  syn- 
agogues of  Jerusalem,  now  8  or  10  in  num- 
ber, are  some  for  Jews  of  Spanish  origin, 
and  others  for  German  Jews,  etc.,  as  in  the 
time  of  Paul  there  were  separate  syna- 
gogues for  the  Libertines,  Cyrenians,  Alex- 
andrians, etc.,  Acts  6:9. 

SYN'TYCHE,  with  fortune,  and  EUOD'IA, 
good  journey,  Phil.  4:2,  3,  women  eminent 
for  virtue  and  good  works,  perhaps  dea- 
conesses in  the  church  at  Philippi.  Paul 
exhorts  them  to  act  harmoniously  together 
in  their  Christian  labors,  as  all  should  do 
who  are  "  in  the  Lord." 

SYR'ACUSE,  now  Siracusa,  a  large  and 
celebrated  city,  occupying  a  peninsula  and 
the  adjacent  shore,  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Sicily,  with  a  capacious  and  excellent  har- 
bor. It  was  founded  by  Corinthians  734 
B.  C,  was  opulent  and  powerful,  and  was 
divided  into  4  or  5  quarters  or  districts, 
which  were  of  themselves  separate  cities. 
The  whole  circumference  is  stated  by  Stra- 
bo  to  have  been  about  22  miles.  Syracuse 
is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  birthplace 
and  residence  of  Archimedes,  whose  inge- 
nious mechanical  contrivances  during  its 


siege  by  the  Romans,  215  B.  C,  long  de- 
layed its  capture.  After  its  destruction  by 
Marcellus,  B.  C.  212,  Augustus  rebuilt  the 
city  in  part,  and  it  recovered  much  of  its 
former  greatness  and  power ;  it  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens  A.  D.  675,  and  retaken  by 
Roger,  Duke  of  Apulia,  A.  D.  1090.  The 
peninsula  is  now  an  island,  called  Ortygia. 
Paul  passed  3  days  here,  on  his  way  from 
Melita  to  Rome,  in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  63, 
waiting  for  a  favorable  wind,  Acts  28 :  12-14. 
Population  anciently  200,000;  now  11,000. 

SYR'IA,  a  Greek  name  possibly  derived 
from  the  Heb.  Tsur,  or  Tyre;  in  Heb. 
A'RAM;  Num.  23:7;  Judg.  10:6,  translated 
Mesopotamia  in  Judg.  3: 10;  a  large  district 
of  Asia,  lying,  in  the  widest  acceptation 
of  the  name,  between  the  Mediterranean, 
Mount  Taurus,  and  the  Tigris,  and  thus 
including  Mesopotamia,  or  Syria  of  the  2 
rivers.  It  was  about  240  miles  long  and 
from  120  to  150  miles  wide,  and  contained 
5  or  6  principalities  :  i.  Aram-Dammesek, 
or  Syria  of  Damascus  ;  2.  Aram-Maachah  ; 
3.  Aram-Beth-rehob,  i  Kin.  10:29;  2  Kin. 
7:6;  4.  Aram-Zobah;  5.  Aram-naharaim, 
Syria  of  the  2  rivers,  or  Padan-aram,  usu- 
ally Mesopotamia  in  the  A.  V.  See  Aram, 
II.  Of  these  portions  of  Syria  the  bounds 
often  varied.  Syria  of  Damascus  was  the 
most  noted  in  Hebrew  history.  See  the 
cities  above  named;  also  Antioch,  Ba.a.l- 
BEK,  Gebal,  Hamath,  Tadmor.  In  the 
New  Testament  Syria  may  be  considered 
as  bounded  west  and  northwest  by  the 
Mediterranean  and  by  Mount  Taurus, 
which  separates  it  from  Cilicia  and  Catao- 
nia  in  Asia  Minor,  east  by  the  Euphrates, 
and  south  by  Arabia  Deserta  and  Judaea, 
including  the  northern  part  of  Palestine, 
Matt.  4:24;  Luke  2:2;  comp.  2  Kin.  5:20; 
Acts  15:41;  comp.  Gal.  1:21;  Acts  18:18; 
20:3. 

The  physical  geography  of  Syria  is 
marked  by,  i.  a  narrow  belt  of  low  land 
along  the  Mediterranean,  with  occasional 
heights  projecting  into  the  sea ;  2.  the  moun- 
tain range  of  Lebanon  on  the  south,  the 
Bargylus  range  midway,  4,000  feet  high, 
terminating  in  Mount  Casius  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes,  5,700  feet  high,  and 
Mount  Amanus  on  the  north,  6,000  feet 
high ;  3.  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria,  between 
the  Lebanon  and  Anti  -  Lebanon  ranges, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Orontes  on  the  north — 
230  miles  long;  4.  the  Anti-Lebanon  range, 
and  its  prolongation  northwards ;  5.  the 
high  desert  plateau  extending  to  the  Eu- 
phrates, in  which  lies  the  remarkable  oasis 

605 


SYR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


of  Palmyra.  See  Tadmor.  The  Ccele- 
Syria  valley  is  about  loo  miles  long  and 
from  6  to  20  wide,  and  nearly  as  level  as 
the  sea. 

Syria  was  in  early  ages  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  Hittite  kingdom,  the  Khatti  of 
Assyrian  monuments.  Joshua  disputed 
their  sway  in  Northern  Palestine,  Josh. 
11 :2-i8.  David  claimed  the  country  to  the 
Euphrates,  Gen.  15:18,  defeated  the  king 
of  Zobah  in  a  great  battle,  2  Sam.  8:3,  4, 
12;  10:6-19,  ^"d  the  Syrians  of  Damas- 
cus, 2  Sam.  8:5,  6;  and  Solomon  ruled  al- 
most all  Syria  to  the  end  of  his  da3's,  i  Kin. 
4:21;  11:23.  It  was  in  frequent  conflict 
with  Judah  and  Israel,  i  Kin.  15:18-20; 
20;  2  Kin.  10:33;  13:22;  14:25,  28,  and  was 
at  length  subjugated  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
and  ruled  by  the  Babylonians  and  the  Per- 
sians. Alexander  the  Great  conquered  it 
B-  C.  233,  and  after  his  death  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator  formed  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria  a 
powerful  kingdom,  with  a  line  of  16  princes 
named  Seleucidse.  Subsequently  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Parthians  under  Ti- 
granes,  and  B.  C.  64  of  the  Romans  under 
Pompey.  Christianity  was  early  planted 
in  Syria  both  by  Paul,  Gal.  1:21,  and  by 
the  refugees  from  Jewish  persecution,  Acts 
11:19,  and  the  Syrian  churches  became 
large  and  prosperous,  Acts  13:1 ;  15:23,  35, 
41.  In  A.  D.  634  the  Mohammedans  con- 
quered the  country,  and  have  since  held  it, 
except  for  2  centuries  of  the  Crusades.  It 
was  subdued  by  the  Turks  under  Selim  I. 
in  A.  D.  1517,  and  in  modern  times  was 
held  for  a  short  period  by  the  Egyptians 
under  Ibrahim.  It  now  falls  under  3  Turk- 
ish Pashalics — Aleppo,  Damascus  and  Si- 
don.  Its  better  portions  have  been  thickly 
populated  from  a  very  early  period,  and 
travellers  find  traces  of  numerous  cities 
wholly  unknown  to  history.  Its  present 
population  is  less  than  2,000,000,  more  than 
%  of  whom  are  Mohammedans,  the  rest 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Maronite  Christians, 
Druses,  Yezidees,  and  Jews.  Notwith- 
standing the  nominal  protection  of  Great 
Britain,  the  non-Mohammedan  population 
is  ruinously  oppressed.  The  prevailing 
language  is  the  Arabic.  There  are  70  or 
80  Christian  mission  stations  in  Syria,  Bei- 
rflt  being  a  chief  missionary  centre ;  the 
communicants  in  Protestant  churches  num- 
ber 700,  and  there  are  175  schools. 

SYR'IAC  LAN'GUAGE,  Dan.  2:4,  prop- 
erly the  Aramaic,  the  western  dialect  of 
that  branch  of  the  Shemitic  languages 
called  the  Aramaean,  very  nearly  the  same, 
606 


when  spoken,  as  the  eastern  dialect,  the 
Chaldee,  and  closely  allied  to  the  Hebrew. 
It  is  now  a  dead  language,  but  is  rich  in  2 
ancient  versions  of  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures,  which  greatly  aid  in  the  right 
interpretation  of  the  Hebrew:  one  made 
from  the  Hebrew,  and  called  the  Peshito, 
simple,  and  the  other  from  the  Greek  Hex- 
apla,  in  the  6th  century.  The  book  of 
Daniel,  from  ch.  2:4  to  the  end  of  ch.  7,  is 
in  Aramaic. 

SY'RO  PHCENI'CIA,  the  name  of  Phoe- 
nicia proper  during  the  period  of  its  sub- 
jection to  Syria ;  hence  the  name  given  in 
Mark  7:26  to  the  woman  who  is  also  called 
a  "  Greek,"  i.  e.,  a  Gentile,  and  a  "  Ca- 
naanite,"  Matt.  15:22 — that  country  having 
been  settled  by  Zidon,  the  eldest  son  of 
Canaan,  Gen.  10:15.     See  Phcenicia. 

SYR'TIS,  in  the  R.  V.  Acts  27:17;  in  the 
A.  V.  "  quicksands,"  which  see. 

T. 

TA'ANACH,  satidy  ox  fortified,  a  Canaan- 
ite  royal  city,  one  of  31  conquered  by  Josh- 
ua, Josh.  12:21,  in  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
but  assigned  to  Manasseh,  Josh.  17:11; 
21:25;  I  Chr.  7:29.  In  the  war  between 
the  Canaanites  under  Sisera  and  Israel  it 
was  a  strong  post  of  the  Canaanites,  Judg. 
5:19,  many  of  whom  remained  there  as 
tributaries.  Josh.  17:11-18;  Judg.  1:27.  It 
was  one  of  Solomon's  supply  districts, 
I  Kin.  4:12.  The  modern  village  Tannuk 
lies  among  ruins  on  a  hill  on  the  south- 
west border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  6 
miles  southeast  of  Megiddo. 

TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH,  the  coming  of  or 
to  Sliiloh,  Josh.  16:6,  now  T'ana,  a  place  7 
miles  southeast  of  Nablfls,  where  are  large 
cisterns. 

TABBA'OTH,  rings  or  spots,  Ezra  2:43; 
Neh.  7:46. 

TAB 'BATH,  celebrated,  a  place  to  which 
Gideon  drove  the  Midianite  host,  Judg. 
7:22;  found  at  Tubukhat-Fahil,  terrace  of 
Fahil,  a  mound  600  feet  high,  overlooking 
the  Jordan  from  the  east,  in  the  latitude  of 
Beth-shean. 

TA'BEAL,  or  TA'BEEL,  God  is  good, 
I.,  a  Syrian  whose  son — unnamed — Rezin 
king  of  Syria  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel 
proposed,  with  the  aid  of  a  party  in  Jerusa- 
lem, to  substitute  for  Ahaz  as  king  of  Ju- 
dah, Isa.  7:6  ;  8:6,9,  12. 

II.  A  Persian  officer  in  Samaria  under 
king  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  4:7,  B.  C.  519. 

TA'BER,   to    beat   the    tabret,  a   small 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


drum  or  tambourine,  Psa.  68:25.  The 
word  is  used  in  Nah.  2:7  of  women  beat- 
ing their  breasts  in  sign  of  grief. 

TABE'RAH,  burning,  so  named  on  ac- 
count of  the  fire  which  fell  upon  the  Israel- 


ites for  their  murmurings  while  encamped- 
here,  Num.  11:1-3;  Deut.  9:22.  Conjec- 
turally  located  in  Wady  es-Saal,  25  or  30 
miles  northeast  of  Sinai,  near  Erweis  el- 
Ebeirig. 


TAB'ERNACLE,  a  tent,  booth,  pavilion, 
or  temporary  dwelling,  Exod.  33*:  7-1 1. 
For  its  general  meaning  and  uses,  see 
Tent.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  place  of  religious 
worship  of  the  Hebrews  before  the  build- 
ing of  the  temple.  Several  other  names 
are  also  applied  to  it  in  English,  answer- 
ing to  several  Hebrew  names,  mishkan, 
meaning  the  inner  dwelling,  E.\od.  25:9; 
26;  38;  40;  Num.  I ;  3;  9;  OHEL,  the  outer 
tent,  Exod.  33;  kodesh  or  mikdash,  sanc- 
tuary, Exod.  25:8;  Lev.  4:6;  Num.  4:12; 
and  HEYKAL,  temple  or  palace,  i  Sam.  1:9; 
2):2)-  The  tabernacle  par  excellence  was 
that  erected  by  Moses,  Bezaleel,  and  Aho- 
liab  in  the  wilderness  by  divine  direction, 
on  the  ist  day  of  the  2d  year  out  of  Egypt. 

This  tabernacle  was  of  an  oblong  rec- 
tangular form,  30  cubits  long,  10  broad, 
and  10  in  height,  Exod.  26:15-30;  36:20-30; 
that  is,  about  55  feet  long,  18  broad,  and  18 
high.  The  two  sides  and  the  western  end 
were  formed  of  planks  of  shittim  wood, 
overlaid  with  thin  plates  of  gold,  and  fixed, 
each  by  2  tenons,  in  solid  sockets,  made 
of  pure  silver.  Above,  they  were  secured 
by  bars  of  the  same  wood  overlaid  with 
gold,  passing  through  rings  of  gold  which 


were  fixed  to  the  boards.  On  the  east  end, 
which  was  the  entrance,  there  were  no 
boards,  but  only  5  pillars  of  shittim  wood, 
whose  chapiters  and  fillets  were  overlaid 
with  gold,  and  their  hooks  of  gold,  stand- 
ing is  5  sockets  of  brass.  It  was  closed 
with  a  richly  embroidered  curtain  suspend- 
ed from  these  pillars,  Exod.  27:16.  The 
tabernacle  thus  erected  seems  to  have  been 
inclosed  by  a  large  tent  with  sloping  sides, 
covered  with  4  different  kinds  of  hangings 
or  curtains.  The  first  and  inner  curtain 
was  composed  of  fine  linen,  magnificently 
embroidered  with  figures  of  cherubim,  in 
shades  of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet ;  this 
formed  the  beautiful  ceiling.  The  next 
covering  was  made  of  fine  goats'  hair;  the 
third  of  rams'  skins  or  morocco  dyed  red, 
and  tachash  skins.  See  Badger.  Exod. 
26:1-30. 

Such  was  the  external  appearance  of  the 
sacred  tent,  which  was  divided  into  2  apart- 
ments by  means  of  4  pillars  of  shittim  wood 
overlaid  with  gold,  like  the  pillars  before 
described,  2^  cubits  distant  from  each 
other,  only  they  stood  in  sockets  of  silver 
instead  of  brass,  Exod.  26:32;  36:36;  and 
on  these  pillars  was  hung  a  veil  formed  of 
the  same  materials  as  the  one  placed  at  the 

607 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


east  end,  Exod.  26:31-33;  36:35;  Heb.  9:3. 
The  interior  of  the  tabernacle  was  thus  di- 
vided, it  is  generally  supposed,  in  the  same 
proportions  as  the  temple  afterwards  built 
according  t6  its  model,  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  length  being  allotted  to  the  first 
room,  or  the  Holy  Place,  and  one-third  to 
the  second,  or  Most  Holy  Place.  Thus  the 
former  would  be  20  cubits  long,  10  wide, 
and  10  high,  and  the  latter  10  cubits  every 
way.  It  is  observable  that  neither  the 
Holy  nor  the  Most  Holy  Place  had  any  win- 
dow. Hence  the  need  of  the  candlestick 
in  the  one  for  the  service  that  was  per- 
formed therein,  the  Most  Holy  Place  being 
illuminated  by  the  Shechinah  only. 


1 


OLAV£K 


n 


The  tabernacle  thus  described  stood  in 
an  oblong  court,  100  cubits  in  length  and 
50  in  breadth,  situated  due  east  and  west, 
Exod.  27:18.  This  court,  open  to  the  sky, 
was  surrounded  with  60  pillars  of  brass, 
with  silver  capitals,  and  placed  at  the  dis- 
tance of  5  cubits  from  each  other,  20  on 
each  side  and  10  on  each  end.  Their  sock- 
ets were  of  brass,  and  were  fastened  to  the 
earth  with  pins  of  the  same  metal,  Exod. 
38: 10,  17,  20.  Their  height  was  probably  3 
608 


cubits,  that  being  the  length  of  the  curtains 
that  were  suspended  on  them,  Exod.  38: 18. 
These  curtains,  which  formed  an  inclosure 
round  the  court,  were  of  fine  twined  white 
linen  yarn,  Exod.  27:^;  38:9,  16,  except 
that  at  the  entrance  on  the  east  end,  which 
was  of  blue  and  purple  and  scarlet  and  fine 
white  twined  linen,  with  cords  to  draw  it 
either  up  or  aside  when  the  priests  entered 
the  court,  Exod.  27:16;  38:18.  Within  this 
area  stood  the  altar  of  burnt-oflTering  and 
the  laver  with  its  foot  or  base.  This  altar 
was  placed  in  a  line  between  the  door  of 
the  court  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
but  nearer  the  former,  Exod.  40:6,  29;  the 
laver  stood  between  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
Exod.  38:8.  In  this  court  all  the  Israel- 
ites presented  their  offerings,  vows,  and 
prayers. 

But  although  the  tabernacle  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  court,  there  is  no  reason  to 
think  that  it  stood  in  the  centre  of  it.  It 
is  more  probable  that  the  area  at  the  east 
end  was  50  cubits  square;  and  indeed  a 
less  space  than  that  could  hardly  suffice 
for  the  work  that  was  to  be  done  there  and 
for  the  persons  who  were  immediately  to 
attend  the  service.  We  now  proceed  to 
notice  the  furniture  which  the  tabernacle 
contained. 

In  the  Holy  Place,  to  which  none  but 
priests  were  admitted,  Heb.  9:6,  were  3 
objects  worthy  of  notice  :  namely,  the  altar 
of  incense,  the  table  for  the  show-bread, 
and  the  candlestick  for  the  lights,  all  of 
which  have  been  described  in  their  re- 
spective places.  The  altar  of  incense  was 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  sanctuary,  be- 
fore the  veil,  Exod.  30:6-10;  40:26,  27;  and 
on  it  the  incense  was  burned  morning  and 
evening,  Exod.  30:7,  8.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  altar  of  incense,  that  is,  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  priest  as  he  entered,  stood  the 
table  for  the  show-bread,  Exod.  26  :  35 ; 
40:22,  23;  and  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Holy  Place  the  golden  candlestick,  Exod. 
25:31-39.  In  the  Most  Holy  Place,  into 
which  only  the  high-priest  entered  once  a 
year,  Heb.  9:7,  was  the  ark,  covered  by 
the  mercy-seat  and  the  cherubim. 

The  gold  and  silver  employed  in  deco- 
rating the  tabernacle  are  estimated  at 
not  less  than  $1,000,000.  The  remarkable 
and  costly  structure  thus  described  was 
erected  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  on  the 
ist  day  of  the  ist  month  of  the  2d  year 
after  the  Israelites  left  Egypt,  Exod.  40:17; 
and  when  erected  was  anointed,  together 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


■with  its  furniture,  with  holy  oil,  ver.  9-1 1, 
and  sanctified  by  blood,  Exod.  24:6-8;  Heb. 
9:21.  The  altar  of  burnt  -  offering  espe- 
cially was  sanctified  by  sacrifices  during  7 
■days,  Exod.  29:37;  while  rich  donations 
were  given  by  the  princes  of  the  tribes  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary.  Num.  7. 

We  should  not  omit  to  observe  that  the 
tabernacle  was  so  constructed  as  to  be 
taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again,  as 
•occasion  required.  This  was  indispensa- 
ble, it  being  designed  to  accompany  the 
Israelites  during  their  travels  in  the  wil- 
derness. Over  it  moved  and  rested  the 
symbolic  pillar  of  fire  and  cloud.  As  often 
as  Israel  removed  the  tabernacle  was  ta- 
ken to  pieces  by  the  priests,  closely  cov- 
ered, and  borne  in  regular  order  by  the 
Levites,  Num.  2;  4.  Wherever  they  en- 
camped it  was  pitched  in  the  midst  of  their 
tents,  which  were  set  up  in  a  quadrangular 
form,  under  their  respective  standards,  at 
a  distance  from  the  tabernacle  of  2,000 
cubits;  while  Moses  and  Aaron,  with  the 
priests  and  Levites,  occupied  a  place  be- 
tween them. 

The  tabernacle  conveyed  the  great  truth 
of  a  living,  ever-present  God,  dwelling 
among  his  people  to  protect,  rule,  judge, 
guide,  and  bless  them.  It  was  God's  house, 
Exod.  25:8;  29:45.  From  it  he  revealed 
his  will  to  his  people.  Num.  11:24,  25; 
12:4-10;  16:19,  42;  20:6;  27:2-5;  Deut. 
31 :  14,  15.  The  separation  of  the  outer  and 
inner  courts  denoted  the  separation  of  the 
unconverted  world  from  God  and  his  peo- 
ple. The  altar  of  burnt -offering,  in  the 
court  without  the  sanctuary,  indicated  the 
necessity  for  an  atonement  in  approach- 
ing him.  The  altar  of  incense  stood  in  the 
Holy  Place,  and  its  incense  of  grateful  ado- 
ration perfumed  the  atoning  blood  which 
the  high-priest  bore  into  the  Holy  of  holies, 
where  the  mercy-seat  over  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  witnessed  an  atonement  perfect- 
ed and  accepted  there — as  the  one  great 
sacrifice  of  the  Redeemer  is  presented  by 
him  in  heaven,  Heb.  9: 10, 11,  24.  How  long 
the  tabernacle  existed  we  do  not  know. 
During  the  conquest  it  remained  at  Gilgal, 
Josh.  4:19;  10:43.  After  the  conquest  it 
was  stationed  for  many  years  at  Shiloh, 
Josh.  18:1;  19:51;  22:12;  I  Sam.  1:9,  24; 
3  :  3,  15.  It  was  somewhat  shorn  of  its 
glory  when  the  ark,  captured  by  the  Philis- 
tines and  miraculously  restored,  rested  at 
Kirjath-jearim  and  in  the  house  of  Obed- 
€dom,  I  Chr.  13:6,  14;  2  Sam.  6:11,  12. 
Meanwhile  the  tabernacle,  with  the  altar  of 
39 


burnt  -  offering,  was  stationed  at  Gibeon, 
I  Chr.  16:39,40;  21:29,  and  remained  there 
till  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  sacrificed  be- 
fore it,  2  Chr.  1 :3,  13. 

Another  tabernacle  was  prepared  for  the 
ark  by  David  at  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6:17; 
I  Chr.  15:1,  and  this  appears  to  have  been 
brought  from  Zion,  2  Chr.  1:4;  5:2,  into 
the  temple,  i  Kin.  8:1-4;  2  Chr.  5:5.  See 
Ark,  Cherub,  Mercy-seat. 

Many  commeniators  regard  the  "  taber- 
nacle of  the  congregation,"  translated  in 
the  R.  V.  "  tent  of  meeting,"  Exod.  33 : 7-1 1 ; 
Num.  1:1,  etc.,  as  a  large  secular  tent  for 
the  special  purposes  indicated,  distinct 
from  the  sacred  tent  apparently  afterwards 
constructed,  Exod.  35-40.  In  Amos  5:26 
booths  for  idols  are  intended. 

Feast  of  Tabernacles.  This  festival 
derives  its  name  from  the  booths  in  which 
the  people  dwelt  during  its  continuance, 
which  were  constructed  of  the  branches 
and  leaves  of  trees,  on  the  roofs  of  their 
houses,  in  the  courts,  the  temple  court,  and 
also  in  the  streets.  Nehemiah  describes 
the  gathering  of  palm -branches,  olive- 
branches,  myrtle-branches,  etc.,  for  this 
occasion  from  the  Mount  of  Olives.  It 
was  one  of  the  3  great  festivals  of  the  year, 
at  which  all  the  men  of  Israel  were  re- 
quired to  be  present  at  Jerusalem,  Deut. 
16: 13-16.  It  was  celebrated  during  8  days, 
commencing  on  the  15th  day  of  the  month 
Tishri,  that  is,  15  days  after  the  new  moon 
in  October ;  and  the  first  and  last  days  were 
particularly  distinguished.  Lev.  23:34-43; 
Neh.  8:14-18.  This  festival  was  instituted 
in  memory  of  the  40  years'  wanderings  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  Lev.  23:42,  43, 
and  also  as  a  season  of  gratitude  and 
thanksgiving  for  the  gathering  in  of  the 
harvest ;  whence  it  is  also  called  the  Feast 
of  Ingathering,  Exod.  23:16;  34:22.  The 
season  was  an  occasion  of  rejoicing  and 
feasting.  The  public  sacrifices  consisted 
of  2  rams  and  14  lambs  on  each  of  the 
first  7  days,  together  with  13  bullocks  on 
the  first  day,  12  on  the  second,  11  on  the 
third,  lo  on  the  fourth,  9  on  the  fifth,  8  on 
the  6th,  and  7  on  the  seventh  ;  while  on  the 
eighth  day  i  bullock,  i  ram,  and  7  lambs 
were  offered,  with  the  appropriate  meat 
and  drink-offerings,  Num.  15:2-11;  28:12- 
14;  29:12-39.  On  every  7th  year  the  law 
of  Moses  was  also  read  in  public,  in  the 
presence  of  all  the  people,  Deut.  31:10-13; 
Neh.  8:18.  To  these  ceremonies  the  later 
Jews  added  a  libation  of  water  mingled 
with   wine,  which    was   poured   upon  the 

609 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


morning  sacrifice  of  each  day.  The  priests, 
having  filled  a  vessel  of  water  from  the 
fountain  of  Siloam,  bore  it  through  the  wa- 
ter-gate to  the  temple,  and  there,  while  the 
trumpets  and  horns  were  sounding,  poured 
it  upon  the  sacrifice  arranged  upon  the 
altar.  This  was  probably  done  as  a  me- 
morial of  the  abundant  supply  of  water 
which  God  afforded  to  the  Israelites  dur- 
ing their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  and 
perhaps  with  reference  to  purification  from 
sin,  I  Sam.  7:6.  This  was  accompanied 
with  the  singing  of  Isa.  12:3,  "With  joy 
shall  ye  draw  water  from  the  wells  of  sal- 


vation," and  may  naturally  have  suggested 
our  Saviour's  announcement  while  attend- 
ing this  festival,  "  If  any  man  thirst,  let 
him  come  unto  me  and  drink,"  John  7:2, 
37,  38.  The  ist  and  8th  days  of  the  festival 
were  sabbaths  to  the  Lord,  in  which  there 
was  a  holy  convocation  and  all  unnecessary 
labor  was  prohibited.  Lev.  23:39;  Num. 
29:12,  35:  and  as  the  8th  was  the  last  festi- 
val day  celebrated  in  the  course  of  each 
year,  it  appears  to  have  been  esteemed  as 
peculiarly  important  and  sacred. 

TAB'ITHA.      See   DoRCAS.      Comp.   Job 
31 :  19,  20  ;   Prov.  31 :  19,  20. 


TA'BLE.  The  people  of  the  East  an- 
ciently often  sat  at  their  meals  on  mats 
upon  the  ground,  around  a  circular  leather 
on  which  a  few  dishes  were  placed ;  at 
times  this  was  replaced  by  a  very  low  and 
small  table.  The  triclinium  shown  on  p. 
143  with  the  couches  around  it  was  bor- 
rowed from  Persia  and  Rome.  See  Bread 
and  Eating. 

In  Mark  7:4,  A.  V.,  the  "  tables,"  omitted 
in  the  R.  V.,  mean  "couches." 

In  Prov.  3:3;  Isa.  30:8;  Hab.  2:2;  Luke 
1:63;  2  Cor.  3:3,  A.' v.,  "table"  means  a 
tablet  for  writing — in  some  cases  a  frame 
coated  with  wax,  and  often  a  flat  stone,  as 
those  on  which  the  Law  was  inscribed  by 
the  divine  hand,  Exod.  24: 12 ;  31:18;  34:  i, 
4;  Deut.  9:9,  15-17. 

TAB'LET,  Isa.  3:20,  A.  v.,  a  perfume- 
box;  in  E.xod.  35: 22  read  armlet  or  locket. 
610 


TA'BOR,  height  or  mound,  I.,  an  isolated 
mountain  of  Galilee,  on  the  northeastern 
side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  an  arm  of 
which  extends  beyond  the  mountain  in  the 
same  direction.  It  is  of  limestone  forma- 
tion, conical  in  form  and  well  wooded, 
especially  on  the  north  side,  with  fine  oaks 
and  other  trees  and  odoriferous  plants. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  the  pasturage  fine,  and 
small  game  of  various  kinds  abounds.  It 
rises  1,353  feet  above  the  plain  at  its  base, 
which  is  400  feet  above  the  Mediterranean, 
and  by  a  winding  path  on  the  northwest 
side  one  may  ride  to  its  summit  in  an  hour. 
There  is  a  small  oblong  plain  on  the  sum- 
mit, surrounded  by  a  larger  but  less  regu- 
lar tract,  a  mile  or  more  in  circumference. 
The  prospect  from  Mount  Tabor  is  exten- 
sive and  beautiful.  Dr.  Robinson  and 
many  others  speak  of  it  as  one  of  the  finest 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


in  Palestine;  and  Lord  Nugent  declared  it 
the  most  splendid  he  could  recollect  hav- 
ing ever  seen  from  any  natural  height. 
See  Jer.  46:18.  Its  general  features  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  view  from  the 
heights  of  Nazareth,  5  miles  to  the  west. 
See  Nazareth.  Glimpses  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean appear  over  the  high  grounds  which 


intervene.  In  the  plain  at  the  southern 
base  of  the  mountain  are  the  sources  of  the 
brook  Kishon,  and  the  villages  En-dor  and 
Nain,  famous  in  Bible  history.  Besides  the 
fertile  expanse  of  Esdraelon  and  Mounts 
Carmel,  Gilboa,  etc.,  on  its  borders,  the 
view  embraces  a  portion  of  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee, II  miles  north  of  east,  and  towards 

611 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAD 


the  north  the  mountains  of  Galilee,  with 
the  town  of  Safed  crowning  the  highest  of 
them  all,  recalling  the  proverb  which  it  is 
said  to  have  first  suggested,  "  A  city  that 
is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid."  Still  far- 
ther to  the  north  and  east  the  snow-crowned 
head  of  Hermon  overlooks  the  50  miles 
which  intervene,  Psa.  89:12. 

On  the  summit  of  Tabor  a  fortified  town 
anciently  stood,  probably  of  the  same  name, 
I  Chr.  6:77;  perhaps  at  the  time  of  Joshua, 
when  it  fell  in  the  bounds  of  Issachar,  Josh. 
19:22.  It  was  strengthened  by  Josephus 
and  garrisoned  by  the  Romans  in  the  time 
of  Christ,  which  conflicts  with  the  tradition 
that  makes  Tabor  the  scene  of  the  trans- 
figuration. See  Transfiguration.  Ruins 
of  ancient  walls  inclose  the  area  on  the 
summit;  and  at  various  points  there  are 
remains  of  fortifications  and  dwellings, 
some  of  which  are  of  the  age  of  the  Cru- 
sades, and  others  of  more  ancient  date. 
Tabor  lay  on  the  borders  of  Issachar  and 
Zebulun,  Josh.  19:12,  22.  The  host  of  Ba- 
rak encamped  upon  it  before  the  battle 
with  Sisera,  Judg.  4:6,  12,  14,  15.  Here 
Gideon's  brothers  were  slain  by  Zebah 
and  Zalmunna,  Judg.  8:18,  19.  At  a  later 
day  it  appears  to  have  been  desecrated  by 
idolatry,  Hos.  5:1.  The  Latin  Christians 
perform  a  yearly  mass  at  an  altar  on  the 
summit,  and  the  Greeks  have  a  chapel  for 
various  services.  A  convent  stands  on  the 
northeast  part  of  the  summit. 

II.  A  town,  I  Chr.  6:77,  possibly  Chis- 
loth-tabor.  Josh.  19: 12,  or  Aznoth-tabor,  on 
the  mountain.    See  Tabor,  I. 

III.  "  Plain  of  Tabor,"  A.  V.,  i  Sam.  10:3, 
rather  the  "  oak  of  Tabor,"  a  point  visited 
by  Saul  after  his  anointing,  between  Ra- 
chel's sepulchre  and  Zelzah,  apparently 
between  Bethlehem  and  Bethel. 

TAB'RET,  Heb.  toph  or  t6pheth.  Gen. 
31:27;  I  Sam.  18:6;  Job  17:6;  Isa.  j:i2; 
Ezek.  28:13,  c  small  drum  or  tambourine, 
played  on  as  an  accom;;5animent  to  sing- 
ing.    See  Ti..:  JREL. 

TAB'RIMON,  good  c's  Rimmon,  i  Ilin. 
15:18,  the  father  of  Ben-hadad  I.,  king  of 
Syria. 

TACH'ES,  golden  and  brazen  hooks  or 
clasps,  uniting  the  ceparate  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle,  50  for  each  set,  Exod.  26:6,  11, 

3.3;  36:18;  39:33- 

TACH'MONITE,  2  Sam.  23:8,  or  Hach- 
monite,  Jashobeam,  son  of  Hachmoni,  i  Chr. 
ii:ii.     See  Hachmonite. 

TACK'LING,  in  Isa.  33:23,  A.  V.,  the 
mast-ropes  of  a  vessel;  in  Acts  27:19  the 
612 


loose  spars,  ropes,  chains,  etc.,  of  a  ship's 
equipment. 


TAD'MOR,  or  Ta'mar,  a  palm-tree,  i  Kin. 
9:18,  a  city  founded  by  Solomon  in  the 
desert  of  Syria,  on  the  borders  of  Arabia 
Deserta,  towards  the  Euphrates,  2  Chr. 
8:4.  It  was  remote  from  human  habita- 
tions, on  an  oasis  in  the  midst  of  a  dreary 
wilderness ;  and  it  is  probable  that  Solo- 
mon built  it  as  a  frontier  town  to  facilitate 
and  protect  his  caravan  traflSc  with  the 
East,  as  it  afforded  a  supply  of  water,  a 
thing  of  the  utmost  importance  in  an  Ara- 
bian desert.  It  was  about  120  miles  north- 
east of  Damascus,  more  than  half  the  dis- 
tance to  the  Euphrates.  The  original  name 
was  preserved  till  the  time  of  Alexander, 
w'ho  extended  his  conquests  to  this  city, 
which  then  exchanged  its  name  Tadmor 
for  that  of  Palmyra,  palm-city.  The  com- 
merce of  India  and  Persia  with  Syria,  Ara- 
bia, and  Egypt,  passing  through  Palmyra, 
made  it  famous  for  wealth  and  luxury.  It 
submitted  to  the  Romans  about  the  year 
130,  and  continued  in  alliance  with  them 
during  a  period  of  150  years,  and  was  beau- 
tified by  the  emperor  Hadrian.  In  the  3d 
century  the  famous  queen  Zenobia  reigned 
here  over  all  the  adjacent  countries,  Egypt, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Mesopotamia,  till 
A.  D.  272,  when  she  was  conquered  and 
carried  captive  to  Rome  by  Aurelian. 
When  the  Saracens  triumphed  in  the  East 
they  early  acquired  possession  of  this  city 
and  restored  its  ancient  name.  It  is  still 
called  Thadmor.  Of  the  time  of  its  ruin 
there    is   no   authentic    record ;    but    it   is 


TAH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAL 


thought,  with  some  probability,  that  its 
destruction  occurred  during  the  period  in 
which  it  was  occupied  by  the  Saracens. 

The  present  village  of  Thadmor  is  only 
a  group  of  Arab  peasants'  huts  amid  the 
remains  of  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun,  of 
which  some  20  columns  are  standing,  in  a 
court  inclosed  by  a  double  row  of  columns, 
390  in  number,  of  which  some  60  are  stand- 
ing. The  whole  was  surrounded  by  a  high 
outer  wall.  The  ruins  cover  a  vast  area, 
above  the  level  of  the  desert,  and  are  very 
imposing;  on  the  lower  heights  are  con- 
spicuous numerous  solitary  square  towers, 
and  the  plain  is  crossed  from  the  temple 
by  an  avenue  lined  by  hundreds  of  Corin- 
thian columns  of  white  marble,  some  of 
which  are  still  erect.  The  necropolis,  in  a 
valley  northwest  of  the  temple,  is  rich  in 
monumental  towers  several  stories  high. 
Volney  observes,  "  On  which  side  soever 
we  look  the  earth  is  strowed  with  vast 
stones  half  buried,  with  broken  entabla- 
tures, mutilated  friezes,  disfigured  reliefs, 
effaced  sculptures,  violated  tombs,  and  al- 
tars defiled  by  the  dust."  Most  of  the  edifi- 
ces the  ruins  of  which  are  above  described 
date  from  the  first  3  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  while  shapeless  mounds  of  rub- 
bish, covered  with  soil  and  herbage,  con- 
tain the  only  memorials  of  the  Tadmor  of 
Solomon.  The  city  was  situated  under 
and  east  of  a  ridge  of  barren  hills,  and  its 
other  sides  were  separated  only  by  a  wall 
from  the  open  desert.  It  was  originally 
about  10  miles  in  circumference  ;  but  such 
have  been  the  destructions  effected  by  time 
that  the  boundaries  are  with  difficulty  tra- 
ced and  determined. 

TAHAP' ANES,  Jer.  2 :  16,  or  Tahpan'hes, 
Jer.  43:7,  9,  or  Tehaph'nehes,  Ezek.  30:18, 
A.  v.,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  city,  for 
which  the  Seventy  put  Taphne,  and  the 
(ireek  historians  Daphne.  It  lay  southwest 
of  Pelusium,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile.  It  was  a  head- 
city  of  Egypt,  Ezek.  30:18,  and  is  men- 
tioned with  Memphis,  Jer.  2: 16;  46:14.  To 
this  city  Johanan  and  many  of  the  Jews 
retired  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
taking  with  them  Jeremiah  and  king  Zed- 
ekiah's  daughters,  Jer.  43.  It  is  identified 
with  Tell  Defenneh,  a  mound  30  miles 
south-southwest  of  Port  Said,  in  which  the 
ruins  of  "  Pharaoh's  house  " — still  called 
Kasr  el  Bint  el  Yahudi,  castle  of  the  king's 
daiighter—haxQ  recently  been  unearthed, 
and  the  paved  area  before  it  on  which  Neb- 
uchadnezzar spread  his  pavilion.     Accord- 


ing to  some,  Hanes,  in  Isa.  30:4,  is  an  ab- 
breviated name  of  the  same  city. 

TA'HATH,  beneath,  I.,  the  25th  station  of 
the  Israelites  after  leaving  Egypt,  Num. 
33:26,  27. 

II.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:24,  T)!- 

III.  and  IV.  An  Ephraimite  and  his 
grandson,  i  Chr.  7:20. 

TAH'PENES,  the  wife  of  the  Pharaoh 
who  hospitably  received  Hadad  the  Edom- 
ite,  and  gave  him  her  sister  in  marriage, 
I  Kin.  11:18-20,  probably  of  the  Tanitic 
line,  the  more  powerful  of  several  then 
ruling  Egypt. 

TAH'TIM-HOD'SHI,  2  Sam.  24:6,  appa- 
rently a  section  of  the  upper  Jordan  val- 
ley, the  Ard  el-H(ileh,  visited  by  Joab  in 
taking  the  census.  The  Assyrian  monu- 
ments seem  to  identify  it  with  a  northern 
Kadesh,  a  chief  city  of  the  ancient  Hittite 
kingdom. 

TALE  sometimes  means  a  tally,  a  num- 
ber verified  by  counting,  Exod.  5:8,  18 ; 
I  Sam.  18:27;  I  Chr.  9:28. 

TAL'ENT,  Heb.  KIKKAR,  a  circle,  the 
largest  weight  among  Jews,  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, and  Babylonians  ;  used  in  Scripture 
to  indicate  the  weight  of  gold,  i  Kin.  9:14; 
10  :  10 ;  silver,  2  Kin.  5  :  22 ;  lead,  Zech. 
5:7;  bronze,  Exod.  38:29;  and  iron,  i  Chr. 
29:7.  A  king's  crown  is  mentioned  weigh- 
ing a  talent  of  gold,  2  Sam.  12:30.  For  2 
talents  of  silver  the  site  of  a  town  was 
bought,  I  Kin.  16:24.  Many  talents  of  gold 
and  silver  furnished  utensils  for  the  house 
of  God,  Exod.  25:39;  38:24,  25,  27;  I  Kin. 
9:14;  and  vast  amounts  were  given  for 
foreign  favor,  2  Kin.  15:19;  18:14;  23:33. 
The  common  Attic  talent  was  equal,  on  the 
usual  estimate,  to  about  82  lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois. In  the  New  Testament  a  iale?it  is  a 
value  which  was  anciently  reckoned  by 
weight,  and  the  amount  of  which  varied 
in  different  countries  in  proportion  to  the 
different  weights  of  the  talent.  The  Jew- 
ish talent  appears  from  Exod.  38:25,  26  to 
have  been  equal  to  3,000  shekels;  and  as 
the  shekel  is  estimated  at  about  50  cents, 
the  value  of  the  talent  would  be  about 
$1,500.  The  Attic  talent  is  usually  reck- 
oned at  about  ^225  sterling,  or  |i,ooo, 
though  others  make  it  only  about  $860. 
The  talent  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  probably  the  Jewish,  and  is  used 
only  of  an  indefinitely  large  sum,  Matt. 
18:24.  In  the  parable  Matt.  25:14-30  the 
talent  is  put  for  any  gift  of  God^of  time, 
ability,  position,  influence,  means,  or  op- 
portunity— to  be  used  for  his  glory  and  to 

613 


TAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAR 


the  best  purpose.  The  right  use  of  one's 
talents  tends  to  promote  their  growth  and 
to  increase  his  facility  and  happiness  in 
their  exercise.  See  Measure.  The  Bible 
states  that  Hezekiah  paid  Sennacherib  30 
talents  of  gold  and  300  of  silver,  while  the 
Assyrian  records  say  there  were  800  of  sil- 
ver ;  but  the  accounts  agree,  for  3  western 
talents  were  equal  to  8  eastern. 

TALI'THA  CU'MI,  damsel,  arise,  two  Ara- 
maic words  spoken  by  our  Lord  to  Jairus' 
daughter,  Mark  5:41. 

TAL'MAI,  bold  or  furrowed,  I.,  One  of 
the  3  huge  "sons  of  Anak "  in  Hebron, 
Num.  13:22,  expelled  by  Caleb,  Josh.  15:14, 
and  slain  by  men  of  Judah,  Jiidg.  1:10. 
The  image  of  a  powerful  man  on  an  Egyp- 
tian monument  bears  a  similar  name. 

II.  King  of  Geshur,  on  the  borders  of 
Palestine  and  Syria.  David  married  Maa- 
chah  his  daughter,  the  mother  of  Tamar 
and  Absalom.  The  latter  avenged  the 
wrongs  of  his  sister  Tamar  by  the  murder 
of  Amnon,  and  then  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  his  grandfather,  where  he  remain- 
ed 3  years,  2  Sam.  y.T,;  13  and  14;  i  Chr. 
3:2. 

TAL'MON,  oppressed,  a  parent  of  temple 
gate-keepers,  i  Chr.  9:17;  Neh.  11:19,  some 
of  whom  returned  from  the  Captivit}-,  Ezra 
2:42  ;  Neh.  7:45  ;  12:25. 

TA'MAH,  or  THA'MAH,  laughter,  Ezra 
2:53;  Neh.  7:55. 

Tfii.'MAR,apalm-lree,  I.,  a  place  in  South- 
eastern Judal;,  Ezek.  47:19;  48:28,  proba- 
bly at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

II.  The  wife  of  Er  and  then  of  Onan, 
Judah's  sons,  whose  death  by  the  judgment 
of  God  deterred  Judah  from  marrying  her 
to  his  3d  son  Shelah,  as  the  custom  re- 
quired, Deut.  25:5;  Matt.  22:24.  She  felt 
justified  in  enticing  Judah  to  incest,  and 
became  the  mother  of  twin  sons,  Pharez 
and  Zarah,  Gen.  38,  saving  from  extinction 
the  royal  family  from  which  David  sprang, 
Ruth  4:12,  22. 

III.  The  beautiful  but  unhappy  daughter 
of  David  and  Maachah.     See  T.\lm.\i. 

IV.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  14:27 ; 
mother  of  Maachah  and  grandmother  of 
king  Abijah,  2  Chr.  11:20-22. 

TAM'MUZ,  melting  or  sprouting,  I.,  a 
Syrian  idol,  mentioned  as  seen  in  vision  as 
at  Jerusalem  by  Ezekiel  in  captivity,  Ezek. 
8:14;  the  women  are  represented  as  weep- 
ing for  it  instead  of  exercising  their  fine 
sensibilities  in  the  service  of  fiod,  comp. 
John  20:11-16.  J.erome  identified  it  with 
614 


Adonis  or  the  Phoenician  sun-god.  The 
fabled  death  and  restoration  of  Adonis, 
sujjijosed  to  symbolize  the  departure  and 
return  of  the  sun,  were  celebrated  7  days 
at  the  summer  solstice,  first  with  lamenta- 
tion, and  then  with  rejoicings  and  obscene 
revels. 

II.  The  month.  Tammuz  or  Thammuz 
was  the  4th  sacred  and  the  loth  civil  month, 
a  majority  of  its  days  sometimes  coming 
before,  but  usually  after,  our  ist  of  July. 
It  was  on  the  14th  day  of  Tammuz,  and 
during  the  riotous  revels  above  mentioned, 
that  the  city  of  Babylon  was  captured 
"  without  fighting,"  as  the  account  by  Cy- 
rus recently  exhumed  states  ;  thus  remark- 
ably confirming  the  Scripture  narrative, 
Dan.  5:1-3,  23,  30,  31. 

TANHU'METH,(;-<9«io/a/70«,  2  Kin.  25:23; 
Jer.  40:8,  a  Netophatliite  in  the  time  of 
Gedaliah,  B.  C.  588. 

TAN'NER.  Acts  9:43  ;  10:6,  32,  the  trade 
of  Simon  at  Joppa,  where  there  are  still 
tanneries  on  the  shore  south  of  the  city. 

TAP'ESTRY,  cloth  for  hangings  and  bed- 
covers, covered  with  ornamental  needle- 
work, Prov.  7:16;  31:22. 

TA'PHATH,  a  drop,  a  daughter  of  Solo- 
mon, I  Kin.  4:11. 

TAPPU'AH,  an  apple,  I.,  a  city  of  Judah 
on  the  slope  to  the  lowland,  between  En- 
gannim  and  Enam,  Josh,  15:34.  Conjec- 
tured to  be  at  Kh,  Bir  el-Leimfln,  17  miles 
west  by  south  from  Jerusalem. 

II.  En-Tappuah,  a  town  in  Ephraim,  with 
an  adjacent  region  in  Manasseh  called  "  the 
land  of  Tappuah,"  Josh.  16:8;  17:8;  per- 
haps 'Atfif,  1 1  miles  northeast  by  east  from 
Nablus. 

III.  A  son  of  Hebron,  of  the  family  of 
Caleb,  I  Chr.  2:43. 

TA'RAH,  delay,  26th  station  of  the  Isra- 
elites, Num.  33:27;  perhaps  in  wady  el- 
Jerafeh,  west  of  the  Arabah,  where  the 
Tawarah  Arabs  now  live.  t 

TAR'ALAH,  reeling,  Josh.  18:27,  a  town 
in  Western  Benjamin. 

TARES,  a  noxious  plant  of  the  grass  fam- 
ily, supposed  to  mean  the  darnel,  the  "  in- 
felix  lolium  "  of  Virgil,  Gr.  zizanion,  now 
called  Si  wan  or  Zowan  by  the  Arabs.  It 
grows  among  the  wheat  everywhere  in  Pal- 
estine, and  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  it 
while  growing,  so  much  so  that  before  they 
head  out  the  2  plants  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished. The  grains  are  found  2  or  3  to- 
gether in  a  dozen  small  husks  scattered  on 
a  rather  long  head.  The  Arabs  do  not 
separate  the  darnel  from  the  wheat,  unless 


TAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAR 


by  means  of  a  fan  or  sieve  after  threshing, 
Matt.  13:25-30.     If  left  to  mingle  with  the 


bread  it  occasions  dizziness,  and  often  acts 
as  an  emetic. 

TAR'GET,  a  buckler  or  shield,  i  Kin. 
10:16;  2  Chr.  9: 15  ;  14:8.  In  I  Sam.  17:6, 
A.  v.,  read,  rather,  spear,  as  in  Josh.  8:18; 
Job  41: 29.     See  Arms. 

TAR'PELITES,  colonists  from  Assyria 
planted  in  Samaria,  Ezra  4:9. 

TAR'SHISH,  or  THAR'SHISH,  subdued, 
I.,  a  son  of  Javan,  Gen.  10:4;  i  Chr.  1:7; 
perhaps  the  founder  of  Tartessus. 

II.  Gr. -grandson  of  Benjamin,  i  Chr.  7:10. 

III.  A  prince  of  Ahasuerus,  Esth.  1:14. 
As  a  Persian  name  it  is  akin  to  Teresh  and 
Tirshatha,  .r/r/c/,  Neh.  8:9;  Esth.  2:21;  6:2. 

IV.  Psa.  48:7,  probably  Tartessus,  an 
ancient  city  between  2  mouths  of  the  Gua- 
dalquiver,  in  the  south  of  Spain  and  the 
adjacent  region.  It  was  a  Phoenician  colo- 
ny, and  was  the  most  celebrated  emporium 
in  the  West  at  which  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Phoenicians  traded.  That  Tarshish  was 
situated  in  the  west  is  evident  from  Gen. 
10:4,  where  it  is  joined  with  Elisha,  Kittim, 
and  Dodanim;  see  also  Psa.  72:10.  Ac- 
cording to  Ezek.  38:13,  it  was  an  impor- 
tant place  of  trade;  according  to  Jer.  10:9, 
it  exported  silver,  and  according  to  Ezek. 
27:11,  12,  25,  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead  to 
the  Tyrian  markets.  They  embarked  for 
this  place  from  Joppa,  Jonah  1:3;  4:2.  In 
Isa.  23:1,  6,  10  it  is  evidently  represented 
as  an  important  Phoenician  colony.  It  is 
Jiamed  among  other  distant  states  in  Isa. 


66:19,  arid  in  Psa.  72: 10  with  "the  isles  of 
the  sea."  A  mine  recently  reopened  near 
Huelva  in  Spain  has  long  borne  the  name 
of  Tharsis,  and  many  traces  of  Phoenician 
occupation  in  that  vicinity  are  found.  All 
these  notices  agree  with  Tartessus.  In 
Exod.28:2o;  39:13;  Song  5: 14;  Ezek.  1:16; 
10:9;  28:13;  Dan.  10:6,  the  "  beryl  "  or  to- 
paz is  tarshish  in  Hebrew. 

V.  In  some  of  these  passages,  however, 
Tarshish  may  be  used  as  a  general  expres- 
sion, applicable  to  all  the  distant  shores  of 
Europe ;  and  thus  the  custom  may  have 
arisen  of  designating  as  "  ships  of  Tar- 
shish "  any  large  merchant  ships  bound  on 
long  voyages  in  any  direction.  The  Eng- 
lish term  Indiaman  is  very  similarly  used. 
Whether  the  ships  fitted  out  by  Solomon  at 
Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea  sailed  around 
Africa  to  Tarshish  in  Spain,  or  gave  the 
name  of  Tarshish  to  some  place  in  India 
or  Ethiopia,  as  the  discoverers  of  America 
called  it  and  its  inhabitants  India  and  In- 
dians, cannot  now  be  determined,  i  Kin. 
10:22;  22:48,  49;  2  Chr.  9:21;  20:36;  Isa. 
23: 1,  14 ;  60:9. 

TAR'SUS,  winged,  the  name  of  a  celebra- 
ted city,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia,  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  situated 
near  the  Mediterranean,  in  a  fertile  plain 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  which 
flowed  through  and  divided  it  into  2  parts. 
It  was  a  large  city  in  Xenophon's  day. 
Alexander  the  Great  nearly  lost  his  life 
by  a  fever  caught  by  bathing  in  the  waters 
of  the  C.vdnus,  flowing  from  the  cold  heights 
of  the  Taurus  range  in  the  rear  of  the  city. 
Tarsus  was  distinguished  for  the  culture  of 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy,  so  that  at 
one  time,  in  its  schools  and  in  the  number 
of  its  learned  men,  it  was  the  rival  of  Ath- 
ens and  Alexandria.  In  reward  for  its  ex- 
ertions and  sacrifices  during  the  civil  wars 
of  Rome,  Tarsus  was  made  a  free  city  by 
Augustus.  Such  cities  were  governed  by 
their  own  laws  and  magistrates,  and  were 
not  subjected  to  tribute,  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  a  Roman  governor,  or  to  the  power  of 
a  Roman  garrison,  although  they  acknowl- 
edged the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, and  were  bound  to  aid  them  against 
their  enemies.  That  the  freedom  of  Tar- 
sus, however,  was  not  equivalent  to  being 
a  Roman  citizen  appears  from  this,  that 
the  tribune,  although  he  knew  Paul  to  be  a 
citizen  of  Tarsus,  Acts  21:39,  Y^t  ordered 
him  to  be  scourged,  22:24,  but  desisted 
from  his  purpose  when  he  learned  that 
Paul  was   a  Roman  citizen,  22:27.      It  is 

615 


TAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEE 


therefore  probable  that  the  ancestors  of 
Paul  had  obtained  the  privilege  of  Roman 
citizenship  in  some  other  way,  Acts  9:  i,  30; 
11:25;  22:3.  It  is  now  called  Tarsfls,  and 
though  much  decayed  and  full  of  ruins,  is 
estimated  to  contain  a  population  in  sum- 
mer of  7,000  and  in  winter  of  30,000,  chiefly 
Turks.  It  is  now  12  miles  from  the  sea, 
the  mouth  of  the  river  being  extended  and 
obstructed  by  sandy  deposits.  During  the 
excessive  heat  of  summer  a  large  part  of 
the  people  repair  to  the  high  lands  of  the 
interior. 

TAR'TAK,  hero  of  darkness,  an  idol  in- 
troduced by  the  Avites  into  Samaria,  2  Kin. 
17:31 ;  worshipped,  according  to  the  rab- 
bins, in  the  form  of  an  ass.  Believed  to 
be  the  Accadian  idol  called  Turtak,  guar- 
dian of  the  Tigris. 

TAR'TAN,  star-form,  probably  not  the 
name  but  the  official  title  of  an  Assyrian 
general  sent  by  Sennacherib,  with  a  chief 
eunuch  or  cup-bearer,  on  an  embassy  to 
Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  18:17;  and  of  another, 
sent  by  Sargon  against  Ashdod,  Isa.  20:1. 

TAT'NAI,  gift,  a  Persian  pasha,  who  suc- 
ceeded Rehum  as  governor  of  Samaria,  in 
the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis  and  Zerub- 
babel.  His  administration  was  character- 
ized by  great  justice  and  moderation  to- 
wards the  Jews.  He  visited  Jerusalem  to 
investigate  the  facts,  recognized  the  author- 
ization of  the  king,  and  ordered  his  decree 
to  be  executed.     Ezra  5  and  6,  B.  C.  519. 

TAX'ES  in  some  form  are  essential  for 
every  organized  government,  to  sustain 
both  the  civil  and  military  administration. 
In  the  period  of  the  Hebrew  wanderings 
the  taxes  were  largely  voluntary,  though 
the  half-shekel  atonement-money  was  re- 
quired, Exod.  30:13.  On  the  settlement  in 
Canaan  a  regular  system  of  tithes  and 
offerings  was  established,  partaking  of  the 
religious  character  of  the  Theocracy,  and 
devoted  largely  to  religious  uses.  See 
Tithes.  Under  the  kings  taxation  greatly 
increased,  including  a  tithe  of  the  produce 
of  the  land  and  stock,  i  Sam.  8:15,  17; 
Amos  7:1,  military  service,  i  Kin.  9:22; 
I  Chr.  27 :  I,  enforced  presents,  i  Sam. 
10:27;  16:20;  17:18,  duties  on  imports, 
I  Kin.  10:15,  and  the  monopoly  of  various 
lines  of  commerce,  i  Kin.  9:28;  10:28,  29; 
22:48.  The  severity  of  the  taxation  under 
Rehoboam  led  to  the  secession  of  Israel, 
I  Kin.  12:4,  18.  The  foreign  nations  which 
at  times  subdued  the  Hebrews  oppressed 
them  with  heavy  taxes — as  the  Persians, 
Egyptians,  Syrians,  and  Romans.  Comp. 
616 


2  Kin.  15:20;  17:4;  18:14;  23:35;  Neh. 
5:1-11,  14,  15;  9:37. 

TAX'ING,  Luke  2  : 1-3,  enrolment,  as  in 
the  R.  v.,  or  registration.  The  same  Greek 
word  is  used  in  Heb.  12:23,  "enrolled  in 
heaven."  Being  "  of  the  house  and  lineage 
of  David,"  Joseph  and  Mary  went  to  Da- 
vid's city,  Bethlehem,  to  be  registered  for 
a  Roman  tax  but  by  Hebrew  methods, 
which  shows  that  the  tribal  laws  and  rec- 
ords were  maintained.  This  registration 
was  by  order  of  Augustus,  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  Cyrenius,  or  Publius  Sulpieius 
Quirinius,  who  is  believed  to  have  been 
twice  the  governor  of  Syria.  According 
to  Josephus,  Quirinius  finished  his  census 
A.  D.  6  or  7.  See  Cyrenius.  A  2d  regis- 
tration is  referred  to  in  Gamaliel's  speech. 
Acts  5:37,  and  they  were  frequent  in  the 
time  of  Augustus. 

TEACH,  in  Matt.  28:19;  Acts  14:21, 
"make  disciples  of"  all  nations.  They 
that  are  "taught  of  God,"  Isa.  54:13,  hav- 
ing "  learned  of  the  Father,"  come  to 
Christ,  John  6:45;  and  it  is  a  chief  duty  of 
the  believer  to  impart  "  to  every  creature," 
so  far  as  possible,"  this  saving  knowledge 
of  Christ.  There  was  a  class  of  men,  called 
"teachers"  in  Eph.  4:11,  perhaps  private 
expounders  of  Christian  doctrines  and  du- 
ties, occupying  the  place  in  the  Christian 
Church  of  the  learned  Rabbis  of  the  Jew- 
ish Church,  Rom.  12:7. 

TEARS.  Small  urns  or  lachrymatories  of 
thin  glass  or  simple  pottery,  and  supposed 
to  contain  the  tears  of  mourners  at  funer- 
als, used  to  be  placed  in  the  sepulchres  of 
the  dead,  where  they  are  found  in  great 
numbers  on  opening  ancient  tombs.  This 
custom  may  perhaps  illustrate  Psa.  56:8, 
which  shows  that  God  is  ever  mindful  of 
the  sorrows  of  his  people;  though  many 
think  these  vases  were  receptacles  for  per- 
fumes or  for  flowers,  not  for  tears.  In  Rev. 
7:17  God  is  represented  as  tenderly  wiping 
all  tears  from  their  eyes,  or  removing  for 
ever  all  their  griefs,  especially  death,  one 
of  the  chief  sources  of  sorrow,  Isa.  25:8; 
Jer.  22:10;  31:15,  16,  and  the  bitterness  of 
repentance,  Joel  2:12;  Matt.  26:75.  In  an- 
cient times  public  weeping  at  funerals  and 
in  national  calamities  was  more  frequent 
than  now.  Num.  14:1;  Eccl.  12:5. 

TE'BETH,  winter,  Esth.  2:16,  the  loth 
month  of  the  Hebrew  sacred  year,  com- 
mencing with  the  new  moon  in  January  or 
late  in  December.  The  8th,  9th,  and  loth 
were  fast  days. 

TEETH.     The   Scripture   references    ta 


TEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


"  gnashing  the  teeth,"  as  expressing  rage 
and  anguish,  Matt. 8: 12;  24:51;  Luke  13. 28, 
to  "  cleanness  of  teeth "  through  starva- 
tion, Amos  4:6,  and  to  being  deprived  of  a 
tooth  for  having  caused  the  loss  of  a  tooth 
to  another,  Lev.  24:20,  are  readily  under- 
stood ;  also  the  close  connection  between 
parents  and  children  in  guilt  and  punish- 
ment quaintly  expressed  in  Ezek.  18:2-13. 
TEHAPH'NEHES,  Ezek.  30: 18.     See  Ta- 

HAPANES. 

TEHJN'NAH,  supplication,  a  Judahite, 
probably  a  kinsman  of  David  and  founder 
of  the  "  city  of  Nahash,"  i  Chr.  412. 

TEIL'-TREE,  Isa.  6: 13,  A.  V.,  Heb.  Elah, 
translated  "  elm  "  in  Hos  4: 13,  and  usually 
"  oak,"  and  meaning  the  terebinth.  See 
Oak.  The  turpentine-tree,  Pistachia  tere- 
binthus,  Arabic  "  butm,"  is  now  found  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  Palestine,  often  stand- 
ing solitary  in  ravines,  20  feet  high  and  up- 
wards. It  is  not  an  evergreen  ;  its  leaves 
are  lanceolate,  of  a  dark  reddish  green, 
and  it  yields  from  the  trunk  a  small  quan- 
tity of  pure  turpentine. 

TE'KEL,  weighed,  Dan.  5 :  25.    See  Mene. 

TEKO'A,  or  TEKO'AH,  a  stockade,  a.  city 
of  Judah,  founded  by  Ashur,  i  Chr.  2:24; 
4 : 5,  and  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr .  11:6. 
It  was  the  home  of  the  wise  woman  whom 
Joab  hired  to  intercede  for  Absalom,  2  Sam. 
14:2,  of  Ira,  one  of  David's  valiant  men, 
2  Sam.  23:26,  and  also  of  Amos  the  proph- 
et, Amos  1:1.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  signal- 
post,  Jer.  6:1,  and  as  aiding  to  rebuild  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:5,  27.  It  was 
inhabited  by  Christians  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusades.  It  is  found  in  the  modern  Te- 
ku'a,  9V2  miles  northeast  of  Hebron,  with 
extensive  ruins  on  the  broad  top  of  a  hill. 
Near  by  on  the  northeast  is  a  large  laby- 
rinthine cavern  called  Khureitiin,  able  to 
shelter  and  conceal  hundreds. 

TEL-A'BIB,  hilt  0/  grass,  a  place  on  the 
river  Chebar  in  Middle  Mesopotamia,  where 
a  colony  of  captive  Jews  was  located,  Ezek. 
3:15- 

TELA'IM,  lambs,  i  Sam.  15:4,  the  mar- 
shalling-place  of  Saul's  forces  before  his 
war  with  Amalek.     See  Telem. 

TELAS'SAR,  Assyrian  hill?  2  Kin.  19: 12  ; 
Isa.  37:12,  a  place  won  from  the  "children 
of  Eden  "  by  the  Assyrians ;  comp.  Ezek. 
27 :  23 ;  in  the  hill  country  north  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

TE'LEM,  Oppression,  I.,  a  town  on  the 
far  south  border  of  Judah,  towards  Edom, 
Josh.  15:24,  possibly  Telaim. 

II.  A  temple  doorkeeper,  Ezra  10:24. 


TEL-HAR'SA,  Ezra  2:59,  or  TEL-HAR'- 
ESHA,  Neh.  7:61 ;  R.  V.,  Tel-har'sha,  hill 
of  the  wood,  and  TEL-ME'LAH,  salt-hill, 
Babylonian  towns  from  which  Jews  re- 
turned after  the  Captivity ;  perhaps  in  the 
low  salt  land  near  the  Persian  Gulf. 

TELL,  in  the  A.  V.,  Gen.  15:5;  2  Kin. 
12:10;  Psa.  22: 17,  to  count.     See  Tale. 

TE'MA,  a  desert,  I.,  the  9th  son  of  Ish- 
mael.  Gen.  25: 15;  i  Chr.  1:30. 

II.  Descendants  of  the  above,  and  their 
home  in  Northern  Arabia,  famous  for  its 
caravans,  Job  6:19,  associated  with  Dedan, 
Isa.  21:13,  14;  Jer.  25:23.  It  is  traced  in 
the  modern  town  Teima',  on  the  Haj  route 
south  of  Damascus. 

TE'MAN,  the  right  ox  south.  I.  The  first 
son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of  Esau,  Gen. 
36:11,  a  duke  of  Edom. 

II.  The  country  settled  by  his  posterity, 
Gen.  36:34,  a  stronghold  of  Idumaean  pow- 
er, Ezek.  25:13;  associated  with  Bozrah, 
Amos  1:12,  on  the  south  or  southeast  side 
of  Edom,  north  or  northeast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba.  The  Temanites  were  bold  and 
wise.  Job  2:11;  22:1 ;  Jer.  49:7,  20;  Obad. 
8,9. 

TEM'PERATE,  in  Tit,  2:2  discreet;  in 
other  passages  self-restrained,  under  self- 
control.  Acts  24:25;  I  Cor.  7:9;  9:25;  Gal. 
5:23;  Tit.  1:8;  2  Pet.  1:6.  In  the  Bible 
sense,  the  temperate  man  holds  all  his  ap- 
petites and  passions  in  subjection  to  con- 
science and  God's  Word,  so  that  he  can 
and  does  deny  himself  any  indulgence 
which  they  forbid.  This  virtue  is  divinely 
enjoined,  Prov.  23:1-3;  Luke  21:34;  Phil. 
4:5,  is  conducive  to  health  of  body  and 
mind,  and  is  a  safeguard  against  many 
evils  from  without. 

TEM'PLE,  a  building  hallowed  by  the 
special  presence  of  God  and  consecrated 
to  his  worship.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called 
"  the  palace  of  Jehovah,"  "  the  sanctuary," 
and  "  the  house  of  God."  In  Greek,  lepm 
is  a  general  term,  including  all  the  sacred 
grounds,  John  10:23;  Acts  5:20,  and  vaoq 
denotes  the  sanctuary  itself,  surrounded 
by  other  sacred  precincts,  Matt.  23:35; 
Luke  11:51.  The  distinctive  idea  of  a  tem- 
ple, contrasted  with  all  other  buildings,  is 
that  it  is  the  dwelling-place  of  a  deity;  and 
every  heathen  temple  had  its  idol,  but  the 
true  and  living  God  dwelt  "  between  the 
cherubim  "  in  the  Holy  of  Holies  at  Jeru- 
salem. Hence,  figuratively  applied,  a  tem- 
ple denotes  the  church  of  Christ,  2  Thess. 
2:4;  Rev.  3:12;  heaven,  Psa.  11:4;  Rev. 
7:15;  and  the  soul  of  the  believer,  in  which 

617 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


the  Holy  Spirit  dwells,  i  Cor.  3:16,  17; 
6:19,  2  Cor.  6:16. 

After  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  the 
promised  land  and  the  Lord  had  instructed 
David  that  Jerusalem  was  the  place  he  had 
chosen  in  which  tb  fix  his  dwelling,  that 
pious  prince  began  to  realize  his  design  of 
preparing  a  temple  for  the  Lord  that  might 
be  something  appropriate  to  His  divine 
majesty.  But  the  honor  was  reserved  for 
Solomon  his  son  and  successor,  who  was 
to  be  a  peaceful  prince,  and  not  like  David, 
who  had  shed  much  blood  in  war,  2  Sam. 
7:1-13;  I  Chr.  17:1-12;  28:2-10;  29:1-9. 
David,  however,  applied  himself  to  collect 
great  quantities  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  iron, 
and  other  materials  for  this  undertaking, 
I  Kin.  5;  1  Chr.  22;  29.  The  value  of  the 
gold  and  silver  thus  provided  was  more 
than  $2,000,000,000.  The  erection  of  the 
temple  was  commenced  4  years  after  his 
death,  i  Kin.  6:1. 

The  place  chosen  for  erecting  this  mag- 
nificent structure  was  Mount  Moriah,  Gen. 
22:2,  14,  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  the 
Jebusite,  2  Sam.  24:18-25;  i  Chr.  21:18-30; 
22:1;  2  Chr.  3:1.  It  occupied  a  central  po- 
sition, on  the  boundary  line  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  representing  the  southern 
and  northern  tribes.  The  summit  origi- 
nally was  unequal  and  its  sides  irregular ; 
but  it  was  a  favorite  object  of  the  Jews  to 
level  and  extend  it.  The  plan  and  the 
whole  model  of  this  structure  were  laid  by 
the  same  divine  architect  who  planned  the 
tabernacle,  namely,  God  himself,  i  Chr. 
28:11,  12,  19;  and  it  was  built  much  in  the 
same  form  as  the  tabernacle,  but  was  of 
double  dimensions.  The  utensils  for  the 
sacred  service  were  also  the  same  as  those 
used  in  the  tabernacle,  only  several  of 
them  were  larger,  in  proportion  to  the  more 
spacious  edifice  to  which  they  belonged. 
The  foundations  of  this  magnificent  edifice 
were  laid  by  Solomon  in  the  year  B.  C. 
loii,  about  480  years  after  the  exodus  and 
the  building  of  the  tabernacle  ;  and  it  was 
finished  B.  C.  1004,  having  occupied  7  years 
and  6  months  in  the  building.  Besides  the 
30,000  Hebrews  employed,  Solomon  en- 
gaged the  services  of  153,000  people  of 
Lebanon,  subjects  of  Hiram  king  of  Tyre, 
who  brought  immense  quantities  of  timber 
and  hewn  stone,  i  Kin.  5;  6;  7,  and  re- 
ceived in  return  liberal  supplies  of  wheat 
and  a  cession  of  territory.  See  C.\bul.  It 
was  dedicated  with  peculiar  solemnity  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  who  condescended 
to  make  it  the  place  for  the  special  mani- 
618 


festation  of  his  glory,  2  Chr.  5-7.  The 
front  or  entrance  to  the  temple  was  on  the 
eastern  side,  and  consequently  facing  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  which  commanded  a  no- 
ble prospect  of  the  building.  Matt.  21:1. 
The  temple  itself,  strictly  so  called,  which 
comprised  the  Porch,  the  Sanctuary,  and 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  formed  only  a  small 
part  of  the  sacred  precincts,  being  sur- 
rounded by  spacious  courts,  chambers,  and 
other  apartments,  which  were  much  more 
extensive  than  the  temple  itself.  These 
"many  mansions"  illustrate  our  Saviour's 
words  about  heaven  in  John  14:2.  It  should 
be  observed  that  the  word  temple  does  not 
always  denote  the  central  edifice  itself,  but 
in  many  passages  some  of  the  outer  courts 
are  intended. 

The  following  account  may  give  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  building: 

The  Temple  itself  was  70  cubits  long: 
the  Porch  being  10  cubits,  i  Kin.  6:3,  the 
Holy  Place  40  cubits,  ver.  17,  and  the  Most 
Holy  Plage,  20  cubits,  2  Chr.  3:8.  The 
width  of  the  Porch,  Holy,  and  Most  Holy 
Places  was  20  cubits,  2  Chr.  ^.s,  and  the 
height  over  the  Holy  and  Most  Holy  Places 
was  30  cubits,  i  Kin.  6:2  ;  but  the  height  of 
the  porch  was  much  greater,  being  no  less 
than  120  cubits,  2  Chr.  3:4,  or  4  times  the 
height  of  the  rest  of  the  building,  unless 
there  is  here  an  error  in  transcription.  The 
oracle  or  Most  Holy  Place  was  separated 
from  the  Sanctuary  by  an  impervious  veil, 
Luke  23:45,  and  was  wholly  dark,  i  Kin. 
8:12,  but  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord  which 
filled  it.  It  contained  only  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  which  see.  To  the  north  and 
south  sides  and  the  west  end  of  the  Holy 
and  Most  Holy  Places,  or  all  around  the 
edifice,  from  the  back  of  the  porch  on  one 
side  to  the  back  of  the  porch  on  the  other 
side,  certain  buildings  were  attached. 
These  were  called  side  chambers,  and  con- 
sisted of  3  stories,  each  5  cubits  high,  i  Kin. 
6:10,  and  joined  to  the  wall  of  the  temple 
without.  The  material  was  white  stone; 
the  wood-work  of  cedar,  overlaid  with  fine 
gold  ;  the  floor  of  cedar,  with  planks  of  fir, 

1  Kin.  6:15. 

Solomon's  temple  appears  to  have  been 
surrounded  by  2  main  courts:  the  inner 
court,  that  "of  the  Priests,"  i  Kin.  6:36; 

2  Chr.  4:9;  and  the  outer  court,  that  "of 
Israel;"  these  were  separated  by  a  middle 
wall  of  partition,  with  lodges  for  priests 
and  Levites,  for  wood,  oil,  etc.,  i  Chr.  28: 12. 

The  ensuing  description  is  applicable  to 
the  temple  courts  in  the  time  of  our  Lord : 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


The  whole  temple  area  was  largely  built 
up  from  a  great  depth  by  walls  and  but- 
tresses, and  filled  in  to  make  a  large  level 
area,  around  a  central  prominence  of  na- 
tive rock ;  and  the  whole  was  inclosed  by 
massive  walls  about  900  feet  long  and  600 
from  east  to  west.  The  bed  of  the  Kidron 
was  then  40  feet  below  its  present  level  and 
much  nearer  the  temple  walls;  and  from 
the  pinnacle  of  the  temple  surmounting 
these  walls  at  the  southeast  corner  to  the 
bed  of  the  valley  must  have  been  a  descent 
of  250  feet. 

The  "  Court  of  the  Gentiles  "  was  so  called 
because  it  might  be  entered  by  persons  of 
all  nations.  The  chief  entrance  to  it  was 
by  the  east  or  Shushan  gate,  which  was  the 
principal  gate  of  the  temple.  It  was  the 
exterior  court  and  by  far  the  largest  of  all 
the  courts  belonging  to  the  temple,  and  is 
said  to  have  covered  a  space  of  more  than 
14  acres.  It  entirely  surrounded  the  other 
courts  and  the  temple  itself;  and  in  going 
up  to  the  temple  from  its  east  or  outer  gate 
one  would  cross  first  this  court,  then  the 
Court  of  the  Women,  then  that  of  Israel, 
and  lastly  that  of  the  Priests.  The  "Court 
of  the  Gentiles  "  had  a  beautiful  pavement 
of  variegated  marble,  and  was  surrounded 
on  all  4  of  its  side.s  by  double  cloisters  or 
porticos  15  cubits  wide,  with  Corinthian 
columns  of  marble  nearly  6  feet  in  diame- 
ter supporting  a  platform  or  gallery.  These 
"  porches "  on  the  east,  west,  and  north 
sides  were  of  the  same  dimensions.  That 
on  the  east  was  called  "  Solomon's  Porch," 
John  10:23;  Acts  3:11;  that  on  the  south, 
called  "the  Royal  Porch,"  was  triple,  the 
middle  aisle  being  45  feet  wide  and  the 
other  two  30  feet  each.  From  this  Court  of 
the  Gentiles  our  Saviour  drove  the  men 
who  had  established  a  cattle-market  in  it 
for  the  supply  of  sacrificial  animals  and 
ta.x-money  to  those  who  came  from  a  dis- 
tance. Matt.  21:12,  13.  It  was  separated 
from  the  ne.xt  interior  court,  the  "Court 
of  the  Women,"  by  a  wall  of  lattice-work 
3  cubits  high,  having  inscriptions  on  its 
pillars  forbidding  Gentiles  and  unclean 
persons  to  pass  beyond  it  on  pain  of  death. 
It  extended  along  the  east  side  only  of  the 
ne.xt  interior  court,  "the  Court  of  Israel," 
and  is  named  in  Scripture  "  the  new  court," 
2  Chr.  20:5,  and  the  "outer  court,"  Ezek. 
46:21.  It  was  called  the  court  of  the  wo- 
men because  it  was  their  appointed  place 
of  worship,  beyond  which  they  might  not 
go,  unless  when  they  brought  a  sacrifice,  in 
which  case  they  went  forward  to  the  court 


of  Israel.  The  gate  which  led  into  this 
court  from  that  of  the  Gentiles  was  "  the 
Beautiful  gate  "  of  the  temple,  mentioned 
in  Acts  3:2,  10;  so  called  because  the  fold- 
ing-doors, lintel,  and  side-posts  were  all 
overlaid  with  Corinthian  brass.  The  wor- 
shipper ascended  to  its  level  by  a  broad 
flight  of  steps.  It  was  in  this  court  of  the 
women,  called  the  "  treasury,"  that  our  Sa- 
viour delivered  his  striking  discourse  to  the 
Jews,  related  in  John  8:1-20.  It  was  into 
this  court  also  that  the  Pharisee  and  the 
publican  went  to  pray,  Luke  18:10-13,  and 
hither  the  lame  man  followed  Peter  and 
John  after  he  was  cured — the  court  of  the 
women  being  the  ordinary  place  of  worship 
for  those  who  brought  no  sacrifice,  Acts 
3:8.  From  thence,  after  prayers,  he  went 
back  with  them  through  the  "  Beautiful 
gate  "  of  the  temple  where  he  had  been 
lying,  and  through  the  sacred  fence,  into 
the  Court  of  the  Gentiles,  where,  under  the 
eastern  piazza,  or  Solomon's  Porch,  Peter 
preached  Christ  crucified.  It  was  in  the 
same  court  of  the  women  that  the  Jews  laid 
hold  of  Paul  when  they  judged  him  a  vio- 
later  of  the  temple  by  taking  Gentiles 
within  the  sacred  fence.  Acts  21:26-29. 

The  "  Court  of  Israel "  was  separated 
from  the  court  of  the  women  by  a  wall  32^ 
cubits  high  on  the  outside,  but  on  the  in- 
side only  25.  The  reason  of  this  differ- 
ence was  that  as  the  rock  on  which  the 
temple  stood  became  higher  on  advancing 
westward,  the  several  courts  naturally  be- 
came elevated  in  proportion.  The  ascent 
into  this  court  from  the  east  was  by  a  flight 
of  15  steps  of  a  semicircular  form  and  the 
magnificent  gate  Nicanor.  On  these  steps 
the  Levites  stood  in  singing  the  15  "  songs 
of  degrees,"  Psa.  120-134.  The  whole  length 
of  the  court  from  east  to  west  was  1S7  cu- 
bits, and  the  breadth  from  north  to  south 
135  cubits.  In  this  court  and  the  piazza 
which  surrounded  it  the  Israelites  stood  in 
solemn  and  reverent  silence  while  their 
sacrifices  were  burning  in  the  inner  court 
and  while  the  services  of  the  sanctuary 
were  performed,  Luke  1:8-11,  21,  22. 

Within  this  court  and  surrounded  by  it 
was  the  "Court  of  the  Priests,"  165  cubits 
long  and  119  cubits  wide,  and  raised  2^/2 
cubits  above  the  surrounding  court,  from 
which  it  was  separated  by  pillars  and  a 
railing.  Within  this  court  stood  the  bra- 
zen altar  on  which  the  sacrifices  were  con- 
sumed, the  molten  sea  in  which  the  priests 
washed,  and  the  10  brazen  lavers  for  wash- 
ing the  sacrifices ;  also  the  various  utensils 

619 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


and  instruments  for  sacrificing,  which  are 
enumerated  in  2  Chr.  4.  It  is  necessary  to 
observe  here  that  although  the  Court  of 


the  Priests  was  not  accessible  to  all  Israel- 
ites, as  that  of  Israel  was  to  all  the  priests, 
yet  they  might  enter  it  for  3  several  pur- 


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PLAN   OF   THE   TEMPLE    IN    THp;   TIME   OF  CHRIST. 


A.  The  Holy  of  Holies. 

B.  The  Holy  Place. 

C.  The  Altar  of  Burnt-offerings. 

D.  The  Brazen  Laver. 

E.  The  Court  of  the  Priests. 

F.  The  Court  of  Israel. 

G.  The  Gate  Nicanor. 

H.  The  Court  of  the  Women. 

poses:  to  lay  their  hands  on  the  animals 
which  they  offered,  or  to  kill  them,  or  to 
wave  some  part  of  them. 

From  the  Court  of  the  Priests  the  ascent 
to  the  temple  was  by  a  flight  of  12  steps, 
each  half  a  cubit  in  height,  which  led  into 
the  sacred  porch.  Of  the  dimensions  of 
this  in  Solomon's  temple,  as  also  of  the 
Sanctuary  and  Holy  of  Holies,  we  have 
already  spoken.  It  was  within  the  door  of 
the  porch,  and  in  the  sight  of  those  who 
stood  in  the  courts  immediately  before  it, 
620 


I.     The  Gate  Beautiful. 

J.     The  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

K.    The  Eastern  or  Shushan  Gate. 

L.   Solomon's  Porch,  or  Colonnade. 

M.  The  Royal  Porch. 

N.  The  outer  Wall. 

O.  Apartments  for  various  uses. 


that  the  2  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  were 
placed,  2  Chr.  3:17;  Ezek.  40:49. 

The  temple  of  Solomon  retained  its  pris- 
tine splendor  but  3^,  years,  when  it  was 
plundered  by  Shishak  icing  of  Egypt,  i  Kin. 
14:25,  26;  2  Chr.  12:9.  After  this  period  it 
underwent  sundry  profanations  and  pilla- 
ges from  Hazael,  Tiglath-pileser,  Sennach- 
erib, etc.,  2  Kin.  12;  14;  16;  18;  24;  and 
was  at  length  utterly  destroyed  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar king  of  Babylon,  B.  C.  588, 
after    having    stood,  according    to   Usher, 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


424  years,  3  months,  and  8  days,  2   Kin. 

25:9-17- 

After  lying  in  ruins  for  52  years,  the 
foundations  of  the  2d  temple  were  laid  by 
Zerubbabel  and  the  Jews  who  had  availed 
themselves  of  the  privilege  granted  by  Cy- 
rus and  returned  to  Jerusalem,  Ezra  1:1- 
4;  2:1;  3:8-10.  After  various  hindrances, 
through  the  malice  of  the  Samaritans,  who 
obtained  a  decree  from  Babylon  forbidding 
the  work,  it  was  resumed  B.  C.  520,  and 
was  finished  and  dedicated  21  years  after 
it  was  begun,  B.  C.  515,  Ezra  6: 15,  16.  The 
dimensions  of  this  temple  in  breadth  and 
height  were  double  those  of  Solomon's. 
The  weeping  of  the  people  at  the  laying  of 
the  foundation,  therefore,  Ezra  3  :  12,  13, 
and  the  disparaging  manner  in  which  they 


spoke  of  it  when  compared  with  the  first 
one.  Hag.  2:3,  were  occasioned  by  its  infe- 
riority, not  in  size,  but  in  glory.  It  wanted 
the  5  principal  things  which  could  invest 
it  with  this :  namely,  the  ark  and  mercy- 
seat,  the  divine  presence  or  visible  glory, 
the  holy  fire  on  the  altar,  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  and  the  Spirit  of  prophecy.  In 
the  year  B.  C.  168  this  temple  was  plun- 
dered and  profaned  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  who  ordered  the  discontinuance  of  the 
daily  sacrifice,  offered  swine's  flesh  upon 
the  altar,  and  completely  suspended  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  i  Mac.  1:46,  47,  etc. 
Thus  it  continued  for  3  years,  when  it  was 
repaired  and  purified  by  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
who  restored  the  divine  worship  and  dedi- 
cated  it    anew.     Still   later,    Pompey   as- 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  THE   TEMPLE,    IN  PART  AFTER   DR.   BARCLAY. 

In  this  profile  view  of  the  Temple  and  its  precincts  from  the  south,  «  « is  the  outer  southern  wall 
of  the  temple  area;  a  is  a  part  of  the  royal  buildings  on  Mount  Zion  ;  b  is  the  Tyropoeon  bridge,  con- 
necting Zion  with  the  south  portico  of  the  temple ;  o  and  p  are  gates  leading  subterraneously  to  the 
area  above ;  ^  is  a  gate  to  the  substructions ;  I  is  the  tower  Ophel ;  and  m  is  the  Red-heifer  bridge 
over  the  Kidron. 

Within,  towards  the  north,  is  shown  a  section  of  the  temple  area;  c  representing  the  western 
cloister ;  d  the  hil  or  sacred  fence ;  e  the  high  wall  in  the  rear  of  the  temple ;  /  the  Holy  House ; 
g  the  great  Altar  of  Burnt-offerings;  h  a  covered  colonnade  in  the  Court  of  the  Priests;  i  the  Gate 
Nicanor  in  front  of  the  Court  of  Israel;  /the  Gate  Beautiful  in  front  of  the  Court  of  the  Women  ;  and 
k  the  Eastern  Cloister,  or  Solomon's  Porch. 


saulted  the  temple  and  entered  the  Holy 
of  Holies. 

Herod,  having  slain  all  the  Sanhedrin 
except  two,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign, 
B.  C.  2>7>  and  having  a  taste  for  architec- 
ture, resolved  to  seek  the  favor  of  the  Jews 
by  rebuilding  and  beautifying  the  temple. 
This  he  was  the  more  inclined  to  do  both 
from  the  peace  which  he  enjoyed  and  the 
decayed  state  of  the  edifice.  After  employ- 
ing 2  years  in  preparing  the  materials  for 
the  work,  the  temple  of  Zerubbabel  was 
pulled  down,  B.  C.  20,  and  46  years  before 
the  first  Passover  of  Christ's  ministry.  Al- 
though this  temple  was  fit  for  divine  ser- 
vice in  9^  years,  yet  a  great  number  of 
laborers  and  artificers  were  still  employed 
in  carrying  on  the  outbuildings  all  the 
time  of  our  Saviour's  abode  on  earth.    His 


presence  fulfilled  the  predictions  in  Hag. 
2:9;  Mai.  3:1.  The  temple  of  Herod  was 
considerably  larger  than  that  of  Zerubba- 
bel, as  that  of  Zerubbabel  was  larger  than 
Solomon's.  For  whereas  the  2d  temple 
was  70  cubits  long,  60  broad,  and  60  high, 
this  was  100  cubits  long,  70  broad,  and  100 
high.  The  porch  was  raised  to  the  height 
of  100  cubits,  and  was  extended  15  cubits 
beyond  each  side  of  the  rest  of  the  build- 
ing. All  the  Jewish  writers  praise  this 
temple  exceedingly  for  its  beauty  and  the 
costliness  of  its  workmanship.  It  was  built 
of  white  marble,  exquisitely  wrought,  and 
with  stones  of  large  dimensions,  some  of 
them  25  cubits  long,  8  cubits  high,  and  12 
cubits  thick.  To  these  there  is  no  doubt  a 
reference  in  Mark  13:1;  Luke  21:5:  "And 
as  he  went  out  of  the  temple,  one  of  his 

621 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


disciples  saith  unto  him,  Master,  see  what 
manner  of  stones  and  what  buildings  are 
here!"  Luke  says,  "goodly  stones."  See 
a  description  of  the  ornaments  of  one  of 
its  gates  under  Vine. 

This  splendid  building,  which  rose  like 
a  mount  of  gold  and  of  snow,  and  was  once 
the  admiration  and  envy  of  the  world,  has 
for  ever  passed  away.  According  to  our 
blessed  Lord's  prediction,  that  "there 
should  not  be  left  one  stone  upon  another 
that  should  not  be  thrown  down,"  Mark 
13:2,  the  whole  structure  above  ground 
was  completely  demolished  by  the  Roman 
soldiers  under  Titus,  A.  D.  70.  The  sacred 
utensils  and  many  of  the  captives  were 
carried  to  Rome  and  graced  his  triumphal 
procession,  and  the  golden  table  for  show- 
bread,  the  sacred  candlestick,  and  the  book 
of  the  law  are  still  to  be  traced  in  bold  re- 
lief on  the  Arch  of  Titus  in  that  ancient 
city.  The  emperor  Julian  undertook  to 
rebuild  the  temple,  A.  D.  363,  but  was  re- 
pulsed, we  are  told,  by  repeated  and  ter- 
rific explosions  and  outbursts  of  flames. 
The  temple  area  is  now  occupied  by  two 
Turkish  mosques,  into  which,  until  recent- 
ly, neither  Jew  nor  Christian  was  permit- 
ted to  enter.  The  Mosque  of  Omar  prob- 
ably occupies  the  very  site  of  the  Holy 
House,  and  its  great  and  venerated  rock 
is  supposed  to  have  once  supported  the 
altar  of  burnt-offerings.  Travellers  are 
now  admitted  at  times  to  the  Haram  area 
under  close  watch.  It  includes  the  former 
site  of  the  Castle  of  Antonia,  which  occu- 
pied the  whole  northern  end  and  had  a  tur- 
ret at  each  of  its  4  corners.  The  area  is 
now  922  feet  at  its  south  side,  and  averages 
1,540  feet  from  north  to  south.  On  the  west 
side  there  were  4  gates:  Sur,  2  Kin.  11:6, 
Parbar,  i  Chr.  26:18,  the  2  gates  of  Asup- 
pim,  I  Chr.  26: 17,  with  the  "  house  of  Asup- 
pim  "  between  them.  On  the  north  was 
one  gate  named  Tedi,  on  the  east  Shushan, 
on  the  south  the  double  gate  Huldah.  In 
the  foundation  wall  on  the  west  side,  39 
feet  from  the  southwest  corner,  certain 
huge  stones  mark  the  beginning  of  an  arch 
of  45  feet  span,  one  of  7  arches  and  piers 
once  supporting  a  stately  viaduct  over  the 
Tyropceon  valley,  leading  from  the  ist  gate 
of  the  temple  area  to  the  king's  palace  on 
Zion.  It  was  first  built  by  Solomon,  i  Kin. 
10:5;  2  Chr.  9:4.  A  little  north  of  this  is 
the  celebrated  wailing-place  of  the  Jews. 
See  Wall. 

At  the  southeast  corner  of  the  area  the 
wall  is  now  77  feet  high.  Recent  excava- 
622 


tions  and  shafts  on  the  outside  have  reach- 
ed the  native  rock  at  a  depth  of  80  feet 
from  the  surface  and  uncovered  the  an- 
cient foundation  stones,  as  finely  cut  and 
polished  as  the  stones  now  above  ground. 
Similar  explorations  90  feet  east  of  the 
southwest  corner  reached  the  well-worn 
pavement  of  an  ancient  street  at  the  depth 
of  12  feet,  and  at  80  feet  depth  an  aque- 
duct 4  feet  high,  running  south,  and  appa- 
rently marking  the  former  bed  of  the  Tyro- 
pceon. Among  recent  discoveries  of  great 
interest  is  a  stone  tablet  found  by  Ganneau, 
apparently  once  a  part  of  the  balustrade 
between  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  and  that 
of  the  Israelites,  with  an  inscription  for- 
bidding foreigners  to  pass  it.  Acts  21:28, 
29;  Eph.  2:14.  Beneath  the  vast  area  of 
el-Haram  still  exist  immense  arched  ways 
and  vaults  of  unknown  date  ;  also  a  large 
and  deep  well,  and  other  indications  that 
the  temple  always  possessed  a  copious  and 
perennial  supply  of  water,  derived  perhaps 
in  part  from  Gihon  by  Hezekiah's  aque- 
duct and  in  part  from  Solomon's  pools,  and 


RliMAlNS    Ol-     IHK    TVROWKON   ARCH. 

flowing  off  through  the  fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin and  the  pool  of  Siloam. 

In  the  time  of  the  kings  a  regular  guard 
of  Levites  was  always  on  duty  at  the  tem- 
ple, I  Chr.  26;  2  Chr.  23:19.  During  the 
supremacy  of  the  Romans  there  was  a  Ro- 
man garrison  in  the  strong  tower  of  Anto- 
nia, which  was  connected  with  the  temple 
by  passages  both  above  and  under  ground, 
John  18:12;  Acts  4:1;  5:26;  21:31-40. 

The  utmost  veneration  and  love  were 
always  cherished  towards  the  temple  by 
pious  Jews,  Psa.  84.  All  the  people  also, 
from  various  motives,  gloried  in  it,  many 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEN 


with  a  bigoted  and  idolatrous  regard. 
Hence  the  charge  of  blaspheming  the  tem- 
ple, which  was  found  the  most  effectual 
means  of  enraging  the  populace  against 
Christ  and  his  followers,  Matt.  26:61 ;  27:40; 
John  2:19,20;  Acts  6:13;  21:27-30. 

TEMPT,  sometimes  simply  to  try  or  put 
to  the  test,  Acts  20:19;  i  Cor.  10:13;  Heb. 
3:9;  2  Pet.  2:9,  as  God  proved  Abraham, 
Gen.  22:1,  to  exhibit  the  power  of  faith, 
and  as  he  tested  the  children  of  Israel, 
Exod.  16:4,  and  as  the  queen  of  Sheba  tried 
the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  i  Kin.  10:1 ;  2  Chr. 
9:1.  In  other  passages  it  has  the  more 
familiar  sense  of  presenting  inducements 
to  sin.  Satan  is  the  great  tempter,  seek- 
ing thus  most  effectually  to  destroy  men's 
souls,  I  Chr.  21:1;  Job  i  and  2;  Matt.  4:1, 
3;  I  Cor.  7:5;  I  Thess.  3:5,  and  hence  is 
called  "the  old  serpent,"  his  temptation  of 
our  first  parents  being  a  type  of  subsequent 
assaults,  Gen.  3:1-15;  John  8:44;  2  Cor. 
11:3;  I  John  3:8;  Rev.  12:9.  He  tempted 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Acts  5:3.  Men  are 
also  led  into  sin  by  their  own  evil  inclina- 
tions and  by  other  men,  Jas.  i :  14,  15.  God 
being  holy  and  desirous  of  men's  holiness, 
does  not  thus  tempt  them,  Jas.  1:13;  but 
he  makes  trial  of  them  to  prove,  exercise, 
and  establish  their  graces.  Gen.  22:1  ;  Jas. 
1:2,  3.  Christ  stands  ready  to  support 
his  people  under  any  possible  temptation, 
I  Cor.  10:13;  Heb.  2:18;  4:15;  2  Pet.  2:19. 
Yet  they  are  not  to  rush  into  temptation 
unbidden,  Luke  11:4.  Men  tempt  God  by 
presumptuously  experimenting  on  his  prov- 
idence or  his  grace,  or  by  distrusting  him, 
E.xod.  17:2,  7;  Num.  14:22;  Psa.  78:18,  41, 
56;  Isa.  7:12;  Matt.  4:7;  Luke  10:25;  Acts 
5:9;  15:10.  The  Jews  tempted  Christ,  ho- 
ping to  ensnare  him  into  some  error  or  sin, 
Matt.  16:1;  19:3;  22:18.  Sore  afflictions 
are  often  called  temptations  or  trials,  as 
they  are  frequently  the  occasions  of  sin, 
Deut.  4:34;  Matt.  6:13;  Luke  8:13;  22:28; 
Jas.  1:12;  I  Pet.  1:6,  7. 

Christ,  at  the  outset  of  his  public  minis- 
try, was  violently  assailed  by  the  tempter, 
who  thus  displayed  his  effrontery  and  his 
blindness,  hoping  perhaps  that  the  human 
soul  of  the  Redeemer  would  be  left  unaided 
by  his  divinity.  Matt.  4;  Mark  1:12,  13. 
The  temptations  are  to  be  understood  as 
real  transactions,  and  not  as  visions.  The 
first  was  addresed  to  hunger,  a  pressing 
natural  human  want.  Christ  quotes  the 
words  of  Moses  in  Deut.  8:3;  and  the  les- 
son is,  to  remember  our  dependence  on 
God  for  all  things,  and  to  obey  him  and 


trust  him  for  the  results.  At  the  2d  Christ 
stood  on  the  brink  of  the  lofty  colonnade 
at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  temple  wall, 
overlooking  the  deep  valley  of  the  Kidron. 
He  was  urged  to  prove  his  claims  by  pre- 
sumptuously forcing  God  to  work  a  mira- 
cle, and  answered  by  quoting  Deut.  6:16. 
At  the  3d  he  stood  on  some  lofty  mountain, 
the  wide  view  before  him  being  perhaps 
enhanced  by  optical  illusions  and  showing 
to  the  mind's  eye  the  world's  glory,  and 
was  offered  an  easy  way  to  remove  the 
world's  opposition  and  transfer  to  himself 
the  dominion  of  mankind.  His  reply  was 
that  Jehovah  only  is  the  rightful  object  of 
adoration.  The  tempter  was  baffled,  and 
left  him  for  a  season,  to  meet  a  like  rebuff 
on  every  future  assault,  Luke  4:1-13; 
22 :  53  ;  John  14 : 30.  The  Saviour  triumphed 
and  paradise  was  regained. 

TEN.     See  Numbers  and  Tithes. 

TEN  COMMAND'MENTS.  See  DECA- 
LOGUE. 

TENT.  Dwelling  in  tents  was  very  gen- 
eral in  ancient  times  among  Eastern  na- 
tions, Gen.  4:20;  their  way  of  life  being 
pastoral,  locomotion  became  necessary  for 
fresh  pasturage,  and  dwellings  adapted  for 
such  a  life  became  indispensable.  Gen. 
26:12;  Isa.  38:12.  The  patriarchs  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt  in  tents,  Gen.  18:1 ; 
Heb.  ii:y;  and  on  the  exodus  of  the  Isra- 
elites from  Egypt,  throughout  their  pere- 
grinations until  they  obtained  the  promised 
land,  and  to  some  extent  afterwards,  they 
adopted  the  same  kind  of  habitation,  Exod. 
16:6;  Josh.  7:24;  22:8.  Hence  the  expres- 
sion, "  Every  man  to  his  tents,  O  Israel," 
etc.,  Judg.  7:8;  2  Sam. 20: 1,  22;  i  Kin. 12:16. 
Indeed,  the  people  of  the  East,  men,  wo- 
men, and  children,  lived  very  much  in  the 
open  air,  as  is  obvious  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament narratives.  Paul  and  Aquila  were 
tent-makers.  Acts  18:3.  And  the  same  is 
true  at  the  present  day.  The  Midianites, 
the  Philistines,  the  Syrians,  the  descend- 
ants of  Ham,  the  Hagarites,  and  the  Cush- 
anites  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  living 
in  tents.  But  the  people  most  remarkable 
for  this  unsettled  and  wandering  mode  of 
life  are  the  Arabs,  who  from  the  time  of 
Ishmael  to  the  present  have  continued  the 
custom  of  dwelling  in  tents.  Amid  the 
revolutions  which  have  transferred  king- 
doms from  one  possessor  to  another  these 
wandering  tribes  still  dwell  in  tents,  un- 
subdued and  wild  as  was  their  progenitor. 
This  kind  of  dwelling  is  not,  however,  con- 
fined to  the  Arabs,  but  is  used  throughout 

623 


TEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TER 


the  continent  of  Asia.  Tents  are  distin- 
guished from  huts  or  booths,  Gen.  33:17; 
Job  29:18;  Isa.  1:8;  24:20.  See  Booth 
and  Hazerim.  The  word  tent  is  formed 
from  the  Latin,  "to  stretch,"  tents  being 


usually  made  of  canvas,  goats'  hair,  or 
camels'  hair  cloth,  stretched  out  and  sus- 
tained by  poles  with  cords  secured  to  pegs 
driven  into  the  ground,  Isa.  54:2;  Jer. 
10:20.    The  "  nail  of  the  tent"  with  which 


ARABS   PITCHING   A   TENT. 


Jael  pierced  the  head  of  Sisera  was  such  a 
tent-pin,  Judg.  4:21.  See  also  Isa.  33:2c; 
40:22.  The  house  of  God  and  heaven  are 
spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  the  tent  or  tab- 
ernacle of  Jehovah,  Psa.  15:1;  61:4;  84:1; 
Isa.  40:22;  Heb.  8:2;  9:11;  and  the  body 
as  the  tabernacle  of  the  soul,  taken  down 
by  death,  2  Cor.  5:  i ;  2  Pet.  i :  13,  14.  Says 
Lord  Lindsay,  "There  is  something  very 
melancholy  in  our  morning  flittings.  The 
tent-pins  are  plucked  up,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  a  dozen  holes,  a  heap  or  two  of 
ashes,  and  the  marks  of  the  camels'  knees 
in  the  sand,  soon  to  be  obliterated,  are  the 
only  traces  left  of  what  has  been  for  a 
while  our  home,"  Isa.  38:12.  "Often,"  saj's 
M'Cheyne,  "  we  found  ourselves  shelter- 
less before  being  fully  dressed.  What  a 
type  of  the  tent  of  our  body!  Ah,  how 
often  is  it  taken  down  before  the  soul  is 
made  meet  for  the  inheritance  of  the  saints 
in  light."  A  tent  is  also  put  for  its  inmates, 
Hab.  3:7;  Zech.  12:7. 

Tents  are  of  various  colors :  black,  as 
the  tents  of  Kedar,  Psa.  120:5;  Song  1:5; 
red,  as  of  scarlet  cloth ;  yellow,  as  of  gold 
shining  brilliantly;  white,  as  of  canvas. 
They  are  also  of  various  shapes  ;  some  cir- 
cular, others  of  an  oblo-ng  figure,  not  un- 
like the  bottom  of  a  ship  turned  upside 
down.  In  Syria  the  tents  are  now  gener- 
624 


ally  made  of  cloth  of  goats'  hair,  woven  by 
women,  Exod.  35:26.  Those  of  the  Arabs 
are  of  black  goats'  hair.  Some  other  na- 
tions adopt  the  same  kind,  but  it  is  not 
common.  An  Arab  sheikh  will  have  a 
number  of  tents,  for  himself,  his  family, 
servants,  and  visitors,  as  in  patriarchal 
times  Jacob  had  separate  tents  for  himself, 
for  Leah,  Rachel,  and  their  maids.  Gen. 
24:67;  31:33;  Judg.  4:17.  Usually,  how- 
ever, one  tent  suffices  for  a  family;  being 
divided,  if  large,  into  several  apartments 
by  curtains.  The  portion  intended  for  fe- 
males is  called  the  harem.  Some  tents  are 
so  built  as  to  house  a  flock  at  night. 

TENTH-DEAL,  that  is,  te7ith  part,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Hebrew  assaron,  or  the 
loth  part  of  an  ephah.  It  would  thus  be 
the  same  as  the  omer,  about  5  pints,  Exod. 
29:40;  Lev.  14:10;  23:17;  Num.  15;  28;  29. 
See  Measure. 

TE'RAH,  a  station,  the  son  of  Nahor  and 
father  of  Haran,  Nahor,  and  Abraham, 
Gen.  11:24-32,  and  ancestor  of  the  Israel- 
ites, Ishmaelites,  Midianites,  Moabites,  and 
Ammonites.  He  begat  Abraham  at  the 
age  of  130  years,  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldasans. 
Upon  Abraham's  first  call  to  remove  into 
the  land  of  promise,  Terah  and  all  his  fam- 
ily went  with  him  as  far  as  Haran  in  Meso- 
potamia, about  B.  C.  1918,  Gen.  11:31,32. 


TER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TET 


He  died  there  the  same  year,  aged  205 
years.  Scripture  intimates  that  Terah  had 
fallen  into  idolatry,  or  had  for  a  time  min- 
gled some  idolatrous  practices  with  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  Josh.  24:2,  14; 
comp.  Gen.  31:30;  and  some  think  that 
Abraham  himself  at  first  did  the  same 
thing;  but  that  afterwards  God,  being  gra- 
cious to  him,  convinced  him  of  the  vanity 
of  this  worship,  and  that  he  undeceived 
his  fatiier  Terah. 


TER'APHIM  or  TERA'PHIM,  noiirisfiers, 
Judg.  17:5;  18:14-20,  translated  "idolatry" 
and  "idols"  in  i  Sam.  15:23;  Zech.  10:2, 
and  "  images  "  in  Gen.  31 :  19,  30-35 ;  i  Sam. 
19:13-16;  2  Kin.  23:24;  Ezek.  21:21,  and 
apparently  the  "  strange  gods  "  which  Ja- 
cob buried  under  the  oak  at  Shechem,  Gen. 
35:2-4.  Rachel's  images  and  those  of  Mi- 
cah  seem  to  have  been  small  household 
divinities  or  talismans ;  one  was  found  in 
David's  family  resembling  the  human  form 
or  bust  in  shape  and  size,  i  .Sam.  19:13-16; 
and  in  Hos.  3:4,  5  teraphim  are  spoken  of 
as  even  accessory  to  the  worship  of  God, 
like  the  Urim  and  Thummim :  an  illustra- 
tion, among  many  in  Hebrew  history,  of 
the  great  difficulty  of  maintaining  in  the 
midst  of  idolaters  a  pure  and  spiritual 
worship. 

TE'RESH,  strictness,  one  of  the  2  eu- 
nuchs, doorkeepers  of  Ahasuerus,  whose 
plot  to  murder  him  was  discovered  by 
Mordecai,  and  they  were  hanged,  Esth. 
2:21 ;  6:2. 

TER'RACE,  2  Chr.  9:11,  a  staircase  of 
algum-wood  in  Solomon's  palace  ;  in  many 
other  passages  the  Heb.  word  is  transla- 
ted "highway,"  Num.  20:19;  Judg.  20:31; 
I  Sam.  6:12;  Isa.  t.^. 

TER'TIUS,  third,  a  Christian  whom  Paul 
at  Corinth  employed  as  his  amanuensis  in 
writing  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Rom. 
40 


16:22.  He  sends  a  personal  greeting,  ver. 
23,  and  was  probably  a  Roman. 

TERTUL'LUS,  third,  a  Roman  orator  or 
advocate,  whom  the  high-priest  and  San- 
hedrin  employed  to  bring  forward  their 
accusation  against  Paul,  before  the  Roman 
procurator  at  Caesarea,  probably  because 
they  were  themselves  unacquainted  with 
the  language  and  modes  of  proceeding  in 
the  Roman  courts,  Acts  24:1,  2.  His  ora- 
tion began  with  falsehood  and  flattery ;  we 
probably  have  only  an  abstract  of  it. 

TES'TAMENT,  in  common  usage  a  man's 
last  will,  but  in  the  New  Testament  the 
Greek  diatheke,  answering  to  the  Hebrew 
berith,  denotes  a  covenant,  E.\od.  2 :  24 ; 
24:8;  Heb.  7:22;  9:15-20;  Rev.  11:19.  It 
is  often  used  with  the  epithet  "  new,"  Matt. 
26:28,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  former  cov- 
enant, Gal.  4:24,  made  with  Abraham  and 
his  believing  seed,  Gen.  15:1-18;  17:1-19; 
Luke  1 :  72,  73 ;  Acts  3 :  25 ;  7:8,  and  renewed 
under  Moses,  E.xod.  24:3-12;  Heb.  9:4,  15; 
Rev.  11:19,  with  Heb.  8:5.  It  is  the  gos- 
pel dispensation,  sealed  by  the  blood  of 
Christ,  Mark  14:24;  Luke  22:20;  i  Cor. 
11:25;  2  Cor.  3:6;  Heb.  8:8,  and  is  some- 
times translated  "  covenant "  in  the  A.  V., 
Heb.  8:6-10;  10:16,  29;  12:24;  13:20.  In 
Heb.  9:15-17  in  the  A.  V.  the  idea  of  the 
last  will  and  death  of  the  testator  seems 
implied  ;  but  if  the  simple  Biblical  sense  of 
"covenant"  is  retained,  the  death  of  the 
attesting  victim  would  be  the  customary 
and  necessary  seal  of  the  covenant.  The 
titles  "  New  Testament,"  given  to  the 
Christian  Scriptures,"  and  "  Old  Testa- 
ment," given  to  the  ante-Christian  Scrip- 
tures, are  retained  even  in  the  R.  V.  See 
Bible  and  Coven.'Vnt. 

TES'TIMONY,  the  whole  revelation  of 
God,  testifying  to  man  what  he  is  to  believe, 
do,  and  hope,  including  both  the  law  and 
the  gospel,  Psa.  19:7;  119:88,99;  i  Cor.  1:6; 
Rev.  1:2.  The  two  stone  tables  of  the  law 
were  a  visible  "testimony"  or  witness  of 
God's  covenant  with  his  people  ;  and  hence 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  called  some- 
times the  testimony,  or  the  ark  of  the  tes- 
timony, Exod.  25:16,  22;  34:29.     See  Ark. 

TE'TRARCH,  ruler  of  the  fourth  part  of 
a  state  or  province,  first  used  after  Thes- 
saly  was  divided  into  4  parts;  in  the  New 
Testament  a  general  title  applied  to  those 
who  governed  any  part  of  a  kingdom  or 
province  with  an  authority  subject  only  to 
that  of  the  Roman  emperor.  Thus  Herod 
the  Great  and  his  brother  were  at  one  time 
in  early  life  constituted  tetrarchs  of  Judaea 

625 


THA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THE 


by  Antony.  At  the  death  of  Herod  the 
Great  he  left  half  his  kingdom  to  Arche- 
laus,  with  the  title  of  ethnarch ;  while  the 
other  half  was  divided  between  2  of  his 
other  sons,  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip,  with 
the  title  of  tetrarchs,  the  former  over  Gali- 
lee and  Peraea,  and  the  latter  over  Ituraea 
and  Trachonitis,  Luke  3:1.  See  Herod, 
IV.  and  V.  In  the  same  manner  Lysanias 
is  also  said  to  have  been  tetrarch  of  Abi- 
lene, Luke  3:1.  It  is  Herod  Antipas  who 
is  called  the  tetrarch  in  Matt.  14:1 ;  Luke 
3:1,  19;  9:7;  Acts  13:1.  As  the  authority 
of  the  tetrarch  was  similar  to  that  of  the 
king,  so  the  general  term  king  is  also 
applied  to  Herod,  Matt.  14:9;  Mark  6:14- 
28. 

THADD/E'US,  breast,  a  surname  of  the 
apostle  Jude,  Mark  3:18.  In  Matt.  10:3 
some  of  the  most  ancient  MSS.  have  "Thad- 
daeus ;"  one  has  "  Lebbaeus ;"  and  one,  fol- 
lowed by  the  A.  V.,  "  Lebbaeus,  whose  sur- 
name was  Thaddaeus."  In  the  R.  V.  only 
Thaddaeus  is  retained.  Luke  calls  him 
Judas  in  both  his  catalogues,  Luke  6:16; 
Acts  1:13.    See  Judas,  III. 

THA'HASH,  or  TA'CHASH,  badger,  Gen. 
22:24,  son  of  Nahor  and  Reumah. 

THA'MAH,  laughter,  one  of  the  Nethi- 
nim  whose  sons  returned  from  Babylon, 
Ezra  2:53;  called  Tamah  in  Neh.  7:55, 
A.  V. 

THA'MAR,   A.  v.,  Matt.  1:3.     See  Ta- 

MAR. 

THAM'MUZ.     See  Tammuz. 

THANK'- OFFERING.       See    OFFERING, 

Sacrifice. 

THANKS'GIVING,  the  due  expression  of 
gratitude  to  God  for  all  his  favors  and  mer- 
cies, temporal  and  eternal,  material  and 
spiritual.  It  implies  a  just  appreciation  of 
all  his  kindnesses  and  of  our  un worthiness 
of  them,  bearing  them  in  remembrance, 
loving  him  for  them,  making  public  ac- 
knowledgment of  them,  and  ni?king  suita- 
ble returns  of  obedience  and  service.  In- 
gratitude evinces  the  baseness  and  aliena- 
tion of  the  human  heart  from  God.  Under 
the  Old  Dispensation  thank-offerings  were 
required  to  be  offered  both  statedly  and 
on  special  occasions,  Lev.  7:12,  15;  Psa. 
107:22-31;  116:17;  with  the  voice  of  joy 
and  praise,  Neh.  11  :  17;  Isa.  51  =3;  Rev. 
7:12;  and  with  prayer,  Neh.  11:17;  Phil. 
4:6:  I  Tim.  2:1-3.    See  Offering. 

THA'RA,  Luke  3:34,  A.  V.    See  Terah. 

THAR'SHISH.     See  Tarshish. 

THE'ATRE.     See  next  column. 

THEBES.    See  Amon. 
626 


THE'BEZ,  brightness,  an  Ephraimite 
town,  at  the  siege  of  which  Abimelech  was 
killed,  Judg.  9:50-55.  The  story  was  re- 
called by  David  as  well  known,  2  Sam. 
11:21.  The  site  of  Thebez  is  at  the  mod- 
ern village  Tubas,  9  miles  northwest  from 
Nablus,  on  the  road  to  Beth-shean,  on  a 
hillside  north  of  a  plain  among  hills. 

THEFT,  Exod.  20:15;  Prov.  22:22,  under 
the  Mosaic  law,  was  punished  by  exacting 
a  full  restitution,  which  was  secured  if 
necessarj-  bj'  the  sale  of  the  goods  or  ser- 
vices of  the  thief  to  the  requisite  amount, 
Prov.  6:31.  Restitution  was  2-fold  if  the 
living  animal  stolen  was  returned,  Exod. 
22:3-8;  if  it  was  sold  or  spoiled  it  must  be 
repaid  4-fold  in  case  it  was  a  sheep  or  goat, 
5-fDld  if  horned  cattle,  Exod.  22:1;  2  Sam. 
12:6;  Luke  19:8.  Silver  or  gold  stolen  was 
to  be  restored  with  one-fifth  added.  If 
unable  to  make  restitution  the  thief  might 
be  sold  into  temporary  servitude  with  his 
wife  and  children.  Gen.  44:17;  2  Kin.  4:1. 
A  night-robber  might  lawfully  be  slain  in 
the  act,  and  a  man-stealer  was  to  be  pun- 
ished by  death,  Exod.  21:16;  22:2;  Deut. 
24:7. 

THELA'SAR,  2  Kin.  19:12.     See  Tel.\s- 

SAR. 

THEOPH'ILUS, /r/>«rf  0/  God,  an  hon- 
orable person  to  whom  the  evangelist  Luke 
addressed  his  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  Luke  1:3;  Acts  1:1.  He  was 
perhaps  a  convert  from  paganism  under 
Paul's  preaching  at  Rome,  and  his  title 
"  most  excellent "  suggests  that  he  was  a 
magistrate  or  high  official ;  compare  Acts 
23:26;  24:3;  26:25. 

THE'ATRE,  a  place  built  for  dramatic 
representations,  Acts  19:29,  or  the  scene 
or  "  spectacle  "  there  exhibited,  i  Cor.  4:9. 
It  was  in  the  theatre  at  Caesarea,  used 
for  large  public  assemblages,  that  Herod 
Agrippa  was  struck  with  death.  Acts  12:21- 
23,  and  in  the  theatre  at  Ephesus  a  tumul- 
tuous crowd  were  stirred  up  against  Paul, 
Acts  19:29.  Its  walls  still  remain,  though 
its  marble  seats  are  gone,  and  it  is  a  work 
of  immense  grandeur,  in  full  view  of  the 
temple  of  Diana.  See  Ephesus  and  Rome. 
Ancient  theatres  were  usually  semicircular 
in  form,  open  to  the  air  unless  covered  at 
times  by  an  awning,  the  seats  in  concentric 
rows  rising  in  tiers  one  above  another; 
they  were  often  very  large.  A  theatrical 
"spectacle"  was  sometimes  shown,  where 
criminals  or  slaves  "  fought  with  wild 
beasts,"  and  were  "made  a  gazing-stock " 
to  50,000  or  more  spectators,  Heb.  10:33. 


THE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THE 


THE   ANCIKNT   THEATRE   AT    EPHESUS. 


In  Heb.  12:1  the  "cloud  of  witnesses" 
means  those  who  watch  the  Christian  race, 
as  crowds  of  spectators  watched  the  Gre- 
cian games. 

THESSALO'NIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  I. 
and  II.  These  were  the  earliest  of  Paul's 
epistles,  and  were  written  from  Corinth  in 
A.  D.  52  and  53.  The  subscription  at  the 
end  of  the  epistles  is  not  a  part  of  them, 
and  in  this  case  is  wrong.  These  are  the 
only  letters  of  Paul  extant  written  during 
his  2d  missionary  tour,  in  company  with 
Silas  and  Timothy.  See  Thessalonica. 
After  being  driven  from  Thessalonica  he 
went  to  Beroea,  Athens,  and  Corinth,  Acts 
17:1  to  18:18;  and  various  circumstances 
indicate  the  lapse  of  several  years  before 
he   returned   to  Jerusalem    and  Antioch, 


I  Thess.  2:9;  3:1-7;  4:13-18;  5:14;  Phil. 
4 :  16.  He  greatly  desired  to  revisit  the 
Thessalonians,  but  being  hindered,  sent 
Timothy  to  learn  their  state.  Timothy's 
good  report  of  their  faith,  brought  to  the 
apostle  at  Corinth,  greatly  cheered  him, 
and  in  his  first  epistle  he  expresses  his 
joy,  and  confirms  them  against  the  perse- 
cutions and  temptations  they  would  meet, 
by  discussing  the  miraculous  testimony  of 
God  to  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  1:5-10;  the 
character  of  its  preachers,  2:1  to  3:13;  the 
holiness  of  its  precepts,  4:1-12;  and  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  and  his  people,  4:13 
to  5 : 1  r.  The  remainder  of  the  epistle  con- 
sists of  practical  exhortations  to  constancy. 
His  tender  and  loving  watch -care  over 
every  convert  in  that  church  appears  in 

627 


THE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THI 


this  epistle,  ch.  1:3;  2:7-11;  3:6-10,  and  he 
warns  them  not  to  neglect  the  duties  of  life 
in  visionary  anticipations  of  Christ's  2d 
coming,  ch.  4:11 ;  comp.  2  Thess.  3:10-12; 
and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  blessing. 

In  the  second  epistle,  written  some  6 
months  after  the  first,  he  commends  their 
faith  and  patience  in  tribulation,  ch.  i :  1-12, 
and  corrects  certain  errors  into  which  they 
were  falling  particularly  respecting  the  2d 
coming  of  Christ.  This,  he  shows,  must 
be  preceded  by  a  great  apostasy  and  by 
the  career  of  "the  man  of  sin,"  "the  son 
of  perdition,"  "  whose  coming  is  after  the 
working  of  Satan,  with  all  power  and 
signs  and  lying  wonders;"  who  usurps  di- 
vine authority  over  the  church  and  "  oppo- 
seth  and  exalteth  himself  above  all  that  is 
called  God."  These  predictions  probably 
still  await  their  full  realization,  but  their  re- 
markable fulfilment  thus  far  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  at  first  so  contrary  to  human  anti- 
cipations, proves  that  the  apostle  wrote  by 
inspiration.  In  ch.  2:1,  2  he  alludes  to 
some  letter  falsely  ascribed  to  him,  but 
teaching  an  opposite  doctrine,  or  some  per- 
version of  his  own  words ;  and  with  his 
closing  benedictions  adds  his  own  sign- 
manual  to  the  writing  of  his  amanuensis. 

THESSALONI'CA,  conquest  of  TItessaly, 
a  city  and  seaport  of  the  2d  part  of  Mace- 
donia at  the  head  of  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  so 
called  from  the  city's  ancient  name,  Ther- 
ma,  and  the  hol-springs  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. It  lay  27  miles  from  Pella  and  67 
from  Amphipolis,  Acts  17:1,  and  had  a 
good  harbor  and  was  well  situated  for 
commerce,  being  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  which 
connected  Rome  with  the  whole  region 
north  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  thus  it  was 
well  situated  for  diffusing  the  gospel  by 
land  and  sea.  In  the  conversion  of  the 
Slavonians  and  Bulgarians  it  was  largely 
instrumental.  It  was  rebuilt  about  B.  C. 
315  by  Cassander,  son  of  Antipater,  who 
named  it  Thessalonica  after  his  wife,  sister 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  When  .Emilius 
Paulus,  after  his  conquest  of  Macedonia, 
divided  the  country  into  4  districts,  this 
city  was  made  the  capital  of  the  2d  divis- 
ion, and  was  the  station  of  a  Roman  gov- 
ernor and  questor.  It  was  inhabited  by 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews,  from  among 
whom  Paul  gathered  a  numerous  church. 
There  was  a  large  number  of  Jews  resident 
in  this  city,  where  they  had  a  synagogue, 
in  which  Paul,  after  his  expulsion  from 
Philippion  his  2d  missionary  tour,  preached 
to  them  on  3  successive  Sabbaths.  Some 
628 


of  the  Jews  and  many  of  the  Gentiles  em- 
braced the  gospel ;  but  the  rest  of  the  Jews- 
determined  \o  maltreat  the  apostle,  and 
surrounded  the  house  in  which  they  be- 
lieved he  was  lodging.  The  brethren,  how- 
ever, secretly  led  Paul  and  Silas  out  of  the 
city  towards  Beroea,  45  miles  west,  and  they 
escaped  from  their  enemies.  Acts  17.  This 
inspired  history  is  singularly  confirmed  by 
several  undesigned  coincidences  with  facts 
otherwise  known.  The  magistrates  men- 
tioned Acts  17:6  are  called  polilarclis,  a 
name  unusual  in  ancient  literature,  but 
found  on  a  local  monument — which  also- 
bears  the  names  of  Sosipater,  Secundus, 
and  Gains.  The  free  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple before  which  Paul  and  Silas  were  sum- 
moned was  characteristic  of  a  "  free  city."' 
Paul  was  afterwards  there,  both  going  and 
returning,  on  his  3d  tour,  Acts  20:1-4,  and 
probably  after  his  1st  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  I  Tim.  1:3:2  Tim.  4:13;  Tit.  3:12. 
Among  the  early  Christians  there  were  Ja- 
son, Demas,  and  Gaius,  Acts  19:29;  27:2; 
Col.  4:10;  Phile.  24,  also  Secundus  and 
Aristarchus  whom  Paul  took  with  him.  Acts 
20:4.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Saracens, 
A.  D.  904,  by  the  Sicilian  Normans  in  1185, 
and  by  the  Turks  in  1430.  During  all  these 
changes  many  Jews  seem  to  have  lived 
there.  The  modern  Saloniki  abounds  in 
broken  columns  and  sculptured  fragments,, 
and  though  a  wretched  town  has  a  popula- 
tion of  70,000,  one-third  of  whom  are  Jews- 
Many  of  the  mosques  were  formerly  Chris- 
tian churches. 

When  Paul  left  Macedonia  for  Athens- 
and  Corinth,  he  left  behind  him  Timothy 
and  Silas  at  Thessalonica,  that  they  might 
confirm  those  in  the  faith  who  had  been 
converted  under  his  ministry.  He  after- 
wards wrote  to  the  church  at  Thessalonica. 
two  epistles.     See  Paul. 

THEU'DAS,  praise,  or  God-given,  an  in- 
surgent Jew,  mentioned  by  Gamaliel,  A.  D. 
29,  as  of  the  preceding  generation.  Acts 
5:36,  ?n^  ^"d  therefore  not  to  be  confound- 
ed w'ithTheudas  of  A.  D.  40,  mentioned  by- 
Josephus.  The  period  following  the  death 
of  Herod  the  Great  was  full  of  revolts. 
Theudas  was  also  a  common  name,  an- 
swering to  the  Hebrew  Matthias,  under 
which  name  Josephus  speaks  of  an  unsuc- 
cessful reformer  who  was  burned  in  the 
latter  part  of  Herod's  reign. 

THIEF,  rather  "  robber"  in  Matt.  21:13; 
26:55;  27:38,44;  Mark  11:17;  14:48;  15:27; 
Luke  10:30,  36;  19:46;  22:52;  23:39-43- 
The   "penitent  thief"  showed  a  faith  a& 


THI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THO 


Temarkable  as  his  penitence,  recognizing 
Christ  even  on  the  cross  as  the  divine  King 
and  Saviour.  His  turning  to  Christ,  possi- 
bly after  joining  the  other  thief  in  mocking 
Him,  seems  to  have  been  sudden,  in  view 
•of  the  Redeemer's  godlike  bearing,  looks, 
and  words  and  the  attesting  signs  and  cir- 
■cumstances. 

THIGH.  The  mode  of  taking  an  oath 
alluded  to  in  Gen.  24:2-9;  47:29-31  was 
significant  of  the  swearer's  obligation  to 
obedience  or  to  fidelity  as  under  the  cove- 
nant of  circumcision.  Jacob's  thigh  was 
disabled  by  the  Angel,  to  show  the  patri- 
arch that  his  prevalence  was  through  his 
faith  and  prayer,  not  through  force,  Gen. 
32:25-31.  The  ischiatic  nerve  is  still  e.x- 
tracted  from  the  hinder  limbs  of  beeves  by 
the  Jews  in  England.  Smiting  the  thigh 
was  a  gesture  of  self-condemnation  and 
grief,  Jer.  31:19;  Ezek.  21:12.  Warriors 
wore  their  swords  upon  the  left  thigh,  un- 
less left-handed,  in  readiness  foruse,Judg. 
^:  15-21;  Psa.  45:3;  Song  3:8;  so  too  they 
may  have  borne  their  names  and  titles,  not 
only  on  their  shields,  but  on  their  swords, 
•or  on  the  robe  or  mailed  coat  covering  the 
thigh,  Rev.  19:16.  "Hip  and  thigh,"  Judg. 
15:8,  seems  to  mean  utterly  and  irrevoca- 
bly. In  Isa.  47:2  "  thigh  "  should  be  trans- 
lated "leg;"  and  in  Song  7:1  "the  joints 
of  thy  thighs  "  some  render  "  the  cincture 
■of  thy  loins,"  ?'.  <?.,  the  drawers. 

THIMNA'THAH,  Josh.  19:43.  SeeTlM- 
N.\TH.\H. 

THIS'TLES  and  THORNS.  Under  these 
terms,  together  with  brambles,  briers,  and 
nettles,  the  translations  of  22  Heb.  and  Gr. 
terms,  are  included  numerous  troublesome 
plants,  many  of  them  with  thorns,  well 
fitted  to  try  the  husbandman's  patience. 
Gen.  3:18.  They  were  very  abundant  in 
Palestine;  among  them  were  the  Acacia, 
the  Acanthus  spinosa,  the  Solanum,  Tribu- 
lus,  Urtica,  etc. ;  some  bearing  true  thorns, 
growing  from  the  wood  of  the  plant,  others 
only  those  from  the  bark.  They  were  much 
used  for  fuel,  and  the  flame  of  a  dry  thorn- 
bush  is  quick  to  rise  and  quick  to  expire, 
Psa.  58:9;  118:12;  Eccl.  7:6;  Isa.  33:12. 
They  formed  durable  and  impenetrable 
hedges,  Prov.  15:19;  Hos.  2:6,  the  thorns 
being  sharp  as  needles,  Num.  33:55;  Prov. 
26:9;  2  Cor.  12:7.  Plants  of  this  class 
were  a  symbol  of  desolation,  Prov.  24:31. 
A  petty  village  on  the  plain  of  Jericho  is 
now  protected  against  Arab  horsemen  by 
a.  hedge  of  thorny  Nubk  branches.  Dr. 
Eli  Smith,  visiting  the  plain  where  Gideon 


once  threatened  to  tear  the  flesh  of  the 
princes  of  Succoth  with  thorns  and  briers, 
noticed  such  plants  there  of  remarkable 
size,  some  of  them  rising  above  his  head  on 
horseback,  Judg.  8:7.  Some  have  thorns 
curved  like  hooks,  as  the  Heb.  word  sig- 
nifies which  occurs  in  Eccl.  7:6 ;  Isa.  34:13; 
Hos.  2:6;  Nah.  1 :  10.  Many  of  the  heights 
and  ruins  of  Palestine  are  covered  with 
thorn-bushes  which  tear  the  clothing  of 
travellers  or  turn  them  aside  in  despair, 
Isa.  7:23, 24;  32:13;  Hos.  9:6;  comp.  2  Sam. 
23:6,  7.  Tristram  says  of  the  nubk,  "No 
one  can  approach  it  with  impunity  unless 
clad  in  leather.  In  3  days  the  whole  party 
were  in  rags  from  passing  through  the 
thickets."  Few  of  the  Hebrew  terms  can 
now  be  afliixed  with  certainty  to  particular 
varieties  among  the  many  found  in  Syria. 
The  plant  of  which  the  thorny  crown  of 


THORN-TREE. 

the  Saviour  was  made,  with  the  design  to 
mock  as  well  as  to  torture  him,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  Zizyphus  Spina  Christi, 
the  nubk  or  dhom  of  the  Arabs,  a  very 
common  bush  or  tree,  growing  from  6  to  30 
feet  high,  with  dark  and  glossy  leaves,  hav- 
ing many  small  and  sharp  spines  on  its 
round  and  pliant  branches.  Matt.  27:29; 
John  19:2,  3.  Paul's  "thorn  in  the  flesh," 
2  Cor.  12:7-10,  may  have  been  some  pain- 
ful and  mortifying  bodily  infirmity,  unfa- 
vorable to  the  success  of  his  public  minis- 
trations. Some  have  thought  it  an  affec- 
tion of  the  eyes,  a  memento  of  his  tempo- 
rary blindness  at  Damascus,  Acts  9:3,  8, 
18.  Comp.  2  Cor.  10:10;  Gal.  4:13,  14; 
6:11,  17.  In  2  Chr.  33:11,  for  "  among  the 
thorns,"  the  R.  V.  reads,  "with  hooks"  or 
"  in  chains." 
THOM'AS,  the  apostle.  Matt.  10:3,  in 
629 


THO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


THR 


Gr.  Didymus,  both  meaning  a  twin,  John 
20:24,  was  probably  a  Galilean  as  well  as 
the  other  apostles;  but  the  place  of  his 
birth  and  the  circumstances  of  his  calling 
are  unknown,  Luke  6:13-15.  He  appears 
to  have  been  of  an  impulsive  yet  far  from 
sanguine  temperament,  ardently  devoted 
to  Christ,  John  11:  i6;  14:5,  6,  ready  to  act 
upon  his  convictions,  and  yet  slow  to  be 
convinced,  as  he  at  first  doubted  our  Lord's 
resurrection,  John  20:19-29.  Several  of  the 
Fathers  say  that  he  preached  in  the  Indies ; 
others  in  Parthia. 

THORNS.     See  Thistles. 

THOUGHT,  I  Sam.  9:5;  Matt.  6:25,  34; 
Luke  12:11,  undue  care  or  solicitude. 

THOU'SAND  YEARS,  or  MILLEN'NIUM, 
Rev.  20: 1-7.  As  to  this  happy  period,  fore- 
told in  many  Scripture  passages,  a  great 
diversity  of  views  has  prevailed  in  all  ages 
of  the  Christian  Church,  according  as  a  lit- 
eral or  a  figurative  interpretation  has  been 
given  to  these  passages.  One  class  of  in- 
terpreters place  it  after  the  2d  advent  of 
Christ  and  before  the  general  resurrec- 
tion and  judgment;  others  before  all  these 
events.  According  to  some,  Christ's  2d 
coming  or  presetice,  in  Greek  parousia,  has 
already  begun. 

The  general  view  of  the  first  class  seems 
to  be  that  Christ  will  visibly  come  to  the 
earth,  suddenly,  and  perhaps  very  soon,  to 
destroy  the  wicked,  restore  the  converted 
Jews  to  Palestine,  raise  his  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs from  the  dead,  and  personally  reign 
on  the  earth  1,000  years  or  more — a  period 
of  peace  and  happiness,  Isa.  2:4;  lios.  2:18; 
Zech.  9 :  10,  when  Satan  shall  be  confined 
and  even  savage  beasts  tamed,  Isa.  1 1 :6-9 ; 
65:25;  after  which  period  will  follow  the 
2d  resurrection  and  the  general  judgment. 
They  so  interpret  with  endless  variations 
the  prophetic  Scriptures  and  such  passages 
as  Matt.  19:28;  Luke  20:35;  22:18;  Phil. 
3:10;  2  Tim.  2:12. 

Most  Christians,  however,  now  regard 
the  promised  millennium  as  a  period  of 
spiritual  ascendency  of  Christianity,  prece- 
ding Christ's  2d  coming;  and  found  their 
views  not  only  on  their  interpretation  of 
the  special  predictions  of  Scripture,  but  on 
parables  like  those  of  the  leaven,  the  mus- 
tard-seed, the  husbandman,  the  growing 
and  ripening  corn,  the  light  dawning  in- 
to perfect  day;  on  the  stone  in  Daniel's 
vision,  which  filled  the  whole  earth ;  on 
Christ's  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  better 
than  his  own  visible  presence,  and  his  last 
commission  to  his  followers  to  preach  the 
630 


gospel  to  every  creature ;  also  on  the  har- 
mony of  this  view  with  the  genius  of  Chris- 
tianity as  uhfolded  in  the  Bible  and  by 
providence,  looking  to  the  triumph  of  the 
gospel  by  moral  means  and  the  power  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  on  the  simultaneous  res- 
urrection of  the  righteous  and  wicked  at 
Christ's  coming,  and  on  the  one  day  of 
judgment  for  all. 

In  the  midst  of  these  conflicting  views- 
the  Christian  student  may  well  bear  in 
mind  that  prophecy  is  meant  to  be  ex- 
pounded chiefly  by  its  actual  fulfilment; 
that  "  secret  things  belong  unto  God," 
while  our  part  is  "to  do  all  the  words  of 
this  law,"  Deut.  29:29;  that  it  is  not  for 
us  "to  know  the  times  and  the  seasons," 
but  to  be  "  witnesses  "  for  Christ  "  to  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,"  Acts  1:6-8; 
and  that  an}'  zeal  in  the  study  of  prophecy, 
or  any  conclusion  formed  that  lessens  our 
fidelity  to  these  duties,  cannot  be  pleasing 
to  Christ. 

THREE.  See  Ncmbers.  The  phrase 
"  three  days  and  three  nights,"  Matt.  12:40, 
was  equivalent  in  Hebrew  to  the  English 
"three  days;"  the  Jews  employing  the  ex- 
pression "  a  day  and  a  night "  to  denote 
our  "day"  of  24  hours.  Nor  did  "three 
days,"  I  Sam.  30:13,  literally  "this  third 
day,"  necessarily  include  the  whole  of  3 
days,  but  a  part  of  3  days,  a  continuous- 
period  including  one  whole  day  of  24  hours 
and  a  portion  of  the  day  preceding  it  and 
the  daN*  following  it.  Comp.  Gen.  7:12,  17; 
I  Sam.  30:12,  13;  2  Chr.  10:5,  12. 

THREE  TAVERNS,  Acts  28:15,  a  place 
on  the  famous  Appian  Way,  traversed  by 
Paul  going  from  Puteoli  to  Rome  :  near  the 
modern  Cisterna,  32  miles  from  Rome. 

THRESH'ING  was  anciently  and  is  still 
performed  in  the  East,  sometimes  with  a 
flail,  Ruth  2:17;  Isa.  28:27,  sometimes  by 
treading  out  the  grain  with  unmuzzled  ox- 
en, Deut.  25: 4,  but  more  generally  by  means 
of  oxen  dragging  an  uncouth  instrument 
over  the  sheaves  of  grain.  See  Corn.  The 
instrument  most  used  in  Palestine  at  this 
time  is  simply  2  short  planks  fastened  side 
by  side  and  turned  up  in  front,  like  our 
common  stone-sledge,  having  sharp  flints 
or  irons  projecting  from  tha  under  side, 
Isa.  28:27;  41:15;  Amos  1:3.  The  Egyp- 
tian mode  is  thus  described  by  Niebuhr : 
"They  use  oxen,  as  the  ancients  did,  to- 
beat  out  their  corn,  by  trampling  upon  the 
sheaves  and  dragging  after  them  a  clumsy 
machine.  This  machine  is  not,  as  in  Ara- 
bia,   a   stone   cylinder,   or   a   plank    with 


THR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THU 


sharp  stones,  as  in  Syria,  but  a  sort  of 
sledge,  consisting  of  3  rollers  fitted  with 
irons,  which  turn  upon  axles.  A  farmer 
chooses  out  a  level  spot  in  his  fields,  and 


has  his  corn  carried  thither  in  sheaves 
upon  asses  or  dromedaries.  Two  oxen 
are  then  yoked  to  a  sledge  ;  a  driver  gets 
upon  it  and  drives  them  backward  and  for- 


\fts»;^ 


ward  upon  the  sheaves ;  and  fresh  oxen 
succeed  in  the  yoke  from  time  to  time." 
By  this  operation  the  straw  is  gradually 
chopped  fine  and  the  grain  released.  Mean- 
while the  whole  is  repeatedly  turned  over 
by  wooden  pitchforks  with  3  or  more 
prongs,  and  in  due  time  thrown  into  a  heap 
in  the  centre  of  the  floor.  The  machine 
thus  described  is  called  a  noreg,  and  an- 
swers to  the  Hebrew  morag  mentioned  in 
2  Sam.  24:22;  I  Chr.  21:23. 

When  the  grain  is  well  loosened  from 
the  straw  the  whole  heap  is  next  thrown 
with  forks  several  yards  against  the  wind, 
which,  blowing  away  the  chaff,  the  grain 
falls  into  a  heap  by  itself,  2  Kin.  13:7 ;  and 
if  necessary  the  process  is  repeated.  For 
this  purpose  the  threshing-floors  are  in  the 
open  air,  Judg.  6:37,  and  often  on  high 
ground,  like  that  of  Araunah  on  Mount 
Moriah,  i  Chr.  21:15,  that  the  wind  may 
aid  more  effectually  in  winnowing  the 
grain,  Jer.  4:11,  12,  which  is  afterwards 
sometimes  passed  through  a  sieve  for  fur- 
ther cleansing.  The  ground  is  prepared  for 
use  as  a  threshing-floor  by  being  smoothed 
oft"  and  beaten  down  hard.  Boaz  was  wont 
to  sleep  on  his  threshing-floor,  probably  to 
guard  it  against  thieves,  Ruth  y-2,^7-  While 
the  wheat  was  carefully  garnered  the  straw 
and  chaff'were  gathered  up  for  fuel ;  a  most 


instructive  illustration  of  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. Matt.  3:12. 

THRONE,  an  established  emblem  of 
kingly  dignity  and  power,  used  by  sove- 
reigns on  all  state  occasions,  i  Kin.  2:19; 
22:10;  Esth.  5:1;  Prov.  20:8.  The  same 
term  is  sometimes  given  to  the  seat  of 
judges  and  princes,  i  Sam.  1:9;  Psa.  122:5; 
Jer.  1:15.  Solomon's  throne  was  of  ivory 
overlaid  with  gold,  having  arms,  a  circular 
back,  and  6  broad  steps,  every  one  guard- 
ed by  a  gilded  lion  at  each  end,  i  Kin. 
10:18-20.  Heaven  is  called  God's  throne 
and  the  earth  his  footstool,  Isa.  66:1.  His 
throne,  "high  and  lifted  up,"  is  also  sub- 
limely described  as  everlasting  and  as  built 
upon  justice  and  equity,  Psa.  45:6;  97:2. 
See  also  Isa.  6:2-4;  Ezek.  1:26.  Christ  is 
on  the  throne  for  ever  as  the  King  of  heav- 
en, Psa.  iio:i;  Heb.  1:8;  Rev.  3:21;  and 
his  faithful  disciples  will  partake  of  his 
kingly  glory,  Luke  22:30;  Rev.  4:4;  5:10. 
He  forbade  men  lightly  to  swear  by  heav- 
en or  its  throne,  as  they  were  thus  irrev- 
erent to  God,  Matt.  5:34;  23:22.  In  Neh. 
y-"]  ^'  throne  "  means  the  governor's  palace ; 
and  in  Col.  i :  16  "  thrones  "  designates  an 
order  of  celestial  beings. 

THUM'MIM.     See  Urim. 

THUN'DER  and  lightning  are  significant 
manifestations  of  the  power  of  God  and 

631 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIB 


emblems  of  his  presence  and  his  anger 
against  sin,  as  at  the  giving  of  the  law, 
Exod.  19:16;  I  Sam.  2:10;  2  Sam.  22:14; 
Job  28:26;  Psa.  18:13;  81:7.  Thunder  is 
poetically  called  "the  voice  of  the  Lord" 
in  the  sublime  description  of  a  thunder- 
storm in  Psalm  29: 

"  The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  upon  the  waters ; 
The  God  of  glory  thundereth; 
The  Lord  is  upon  many  waters. 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  powerful ; 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  full  of  majesty. 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  ; 
Yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  of  Leba- 
non," etc. 

See  also  i  Sam.  7:10;  Job  37:1-5;  40:9; 
Jer.  10 :  13 ;  and  John's  sublime  visions. 
Rev.  4:5;  11:19;  16:18;  19:6;  20:9.  In 
illustration  of  Psa.  29:9,  Moffat,  while  de- 
scribing the  thunder-storms  of  South  Africa, 


says  that  the  antelopes  flee  in  consterna- 
tion, and  thai  he  has  observed  the  Bechua- 
nas  starting  off  early  on  the  morning  fol- 
lowing such  a  storm  in  quest  of  young 
antelopes  prematurely  born.  In  Psa.  78:48 
"  hot  thunderbolts "  means  lightning. 
Thunder,  as  well  as  rain,  is  extremely  rare 
in  Palestine  in  all  the  summer  months, 
Prov.  26:1,  and  the  instance  mentioned  in 
1  Sam.  12:17,  18  was  signally  miraculous. 
In  Job  39:19  "thunder"  should  rather  be 
"a  waving  mane."  In  Job  26: 14  a  whisper 
of  God,  a  "  little  portion,"  is  sublimely 
contrasted  with  "  the  thunder  of  his  pow- 
er." The  solemn  voice  from  heaven  attest- 
ing Christ's  mission,  John  12:28,  29,  was 
called  thunder  by  some  who  stood  by. 
Those  best  understand  all  divine  revela- 
tions whose  hearts  listen  for  them.  Acts 

22:9.       See  BOANKRGES. 


THYATI'RA,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  a  Macedonian  colony  founded  by 
Seleucus  Nicator  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
der  the  Great ;  anciently  called  Pelopia 
and  Euhippia,  now  Ak-hissar.  It  was  sit- 
uated on  the  confines  of  Lydia  and  Mysia, 
near  the  river  Lycus,  between  Sardis  and 
Pergamos.  It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  "  the 
7  churches,"  Rev.  i:ii;  2:18,  24.  The  art 
of  dyeing  purple  was  particularly  cultiva- 
ted at  Thyatira,  as  appears  from  an  inscrip- 
tion recently  found  there;  and  it  still  sends 
to  Smyrna,  60  miles  southwest,  large  quan- 
tities of  scarlet  cloth,  perpetuating  Lydia's 
business.  Acts  16:14.  Ak-hissar,  the  while 
castle,  is  a  thriving  town  of  17,000  inhab- 
632 


itants,  largely  Turks,  with  extensive  ruins 
around  it. 

THY'INE-WOOD,  Rev.  18: 12,  the  wood 
of  the  Thyia  or  Thuja  Articulata  of  Lin- 
naeus, an  aromatic  evergreen-tree  resem- 
bling the  arbor-vit£E-tree,  15  to  25 feet  high, 
and  found  in  Libya,  near  Mount  Atlas. 
The  wood  was  used  in  burning  incense, 
and  under  the  name  of  citron-wood  was 
highly  prized  by  the  Romans  for  orna- 
mental wood-work.  It  yields  the  sanda- 
rach  resin  of  commerce. 

TIBE'RIAS,  a  city  of  Galilee,  founded  by 
Herod  Antipas  and  named  by  him  in  hon- 
or of  the  em])eror  Tiberius.  At  first  it  was 
the  capital  of  Galilee;   many  Greeks  and 


l^■^v^^\\^^;v.^- 


TIBERIAS,  SEEN  FROM  THE  NORTHWEST. 


TIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIB 


Romans  resided  there,  and  Herod  erected  a 
stadium  and  a  palace.  A  more  ancient  and 
greater  city,  perhaps  Chinnereth  or  Rak- 
kath,  Josh.  19:35,  seems  previously  to  have 
flourished  and  gone  to  ruin  near  the  same 
site,  on  the  south.  Tiberias  was  situated 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret,  about  two  hours'  ride,  or  5V2  miles, 
from  the  place  where  the  Jordan  issues 
from  the  lake.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city, 
south,  were  hot  springs,  which  were  much 
celebrated.  The  lake  is  also  sometimes 
called,  from  the  city,  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
John  6: 1, -23;  21:1.  See  Sea,  IV.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  only  the  last  of  the  evange- 
lists gives  it  this  name,  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  having  written  before  the  name  had 
become  generally  adopted.  After  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  Tiberias  was  cele- 
brated as  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  school  of 
Jewish  learning,  and  the  Jewish  Mishna 
was  here  compiled,  A.  D.  190,  and  the  Ma- 
sorah  or  body  of  traditions  as  to  the  Old 
Testament  text,  etc.  It  was  the  4th  of  the 
Jewish  sacred  cities,  only  Jerusalem,  He- 
bron, and  Safed  ranking  above  it.  The 
Crusaders  held  it  several  times,  and  erect- 
ed a  church,  in  which  the  Arabs  have  since 
housed  their  cattle.  It  was  in  possession  in 
turn  of  Persians,  Arabs,  and  Turks.  Mod- 
ern Tubariyeh  lies  on  a  narrow  undulating 
j)lain  2  miles  long  and  a  fourth  of  a  mile 


wide,  between  the  high  table-land  and  the 
sea.  It  was  half  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1837,  and  has  a  population  of  3,000 
souls,  about  one-half  of  whom  are  Jews. 
The  walls  are  little  more  than  heaps  of 
ruins,  the  castle  is  much  shattered,  and  the 
place  has  an  aspect  of  extreme  wretched- 
ness and  filth.  As  the  Arabs  say,  "  The 
king  of  the  fleas  holds  his  court  at  Tubari- 
yeh." South  of  the  town  are  numerous 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  or  cities,  ex- 
tending for  1%  miles,  nearly  to  the  hot 
springs.  The  waters  of  these  springs  are 
nauseous  and  salt,  and  too  hot  for  imme- 
diate use,  136°  to  144°;  but  the  baths  are 
much  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  rheumatic 
diseases,  etc.  No  mention  is  made  of  any 
visit  to  Tiberias  by  our  Lord,  and  he  may 
have  avoided  it  because  it  was  a  favorite 
residence  of  the  crafty  and  unscrupulous 
Herod  Antipas,  who  only  saw  him  shortly 
before  his  crucifixion,  Luke  13:32;  23:8. 

TIBE'RIUS,  Clau'dius  Ne'ro,  the  2d 
emperor  of  Rome,  was  the  son  of  Claudius 
Nero  and  Livia,  and  stepson  of  Augustus; 
and  being  adopted  by  that  emperor  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his  throne,  A.  D.  14,  being  joint 
emperor  with  him  2  years.  He  was  at  first 
moderate  and  just,  but  soon  became  infa- 
mous for  his  vices  and  crimes,  and  died 
A.  D.  2,7,  after  a  cruel  reign  of  22^  years. 
It  was  in  the  15th  year  of  his  reign  that 

633 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIM 


John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  ministry, 
Luke  3:1,  and  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  took 
place  in  the  3d  or  4th  jear  after.  Tacitus, 
the  Roman  historian,  Annal.  15,  44,  couples 
this  event  with  the  reign  of  Tiberius  and 
the  procuratorship  of  Pontius  Pilate.  This 
emperor  is  several  times  casually  men- 
tioned under  the  title  of  Caesar,  Matt.  22: 17; 
Luke  20:22-25;  23:2;  John  19:12.  His 
subjects  were  commanded  to  pay  divine 
worship  to  his  images. 

TIB'HATH,  extension,  a  city  of  Hadade- 
zer  kingof  Zobah,  i  Chr.  18:8;  called  Betah 
in  2  Sam.  8:8.  Probably  northeast  of  Anti- 
Lebanon. 

TIB'NI,  edifying,  an  unsuccessful  com- 
petitor with  Omri  the  general  for  the 
throne  of  Israel  during  3  years  after  the 
death  of  Elah  and  the  suicide  of  Zimri, 
I  Kin.  16: 18-23. 

TIDAL,  reverence,  the  king  of  several 
allied  tribes  apparently  near  the  Euphra- 
tes, with  whom  he  joined  Chedorlaomer  in 
the  invasion  of  the  vale  of  Siddim,  Mount 
Seir,  etc.,  and  was  defeated  by  Abraham, 
Gen.  14: 1-16. 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER  II.,  called  TIL'- 
GATH-PILNE'SER  in  I  Chr.  5:26;  2  Chr. 
28:20,  king  of  Assyria  in  the  time  of  king 
Ahaz,  B.  C.  747-729,  Tiglath-pileser  I.  hav- 
ing begun  to  reign  about  B.  C.  1130,  but 
not  being  named  in  Scripture.  The  later 
king  early  in  his  reign,  about  B.  C.  741, 
made  a  campaign  against  Pekah  king  of 
Israel,  overran  all  the  northern  part  of  his 
kingdom,  carried  captive  the  inhabitants 
of  many  of  the  cities,  and  placed  them  in 
various  parts  of  his  own  kingdom,  2  Kin. 
15:29.  Some  years  later  the  allied  kings 
of  Israel  and  Syria,  Pekah  and  Rezin,  hav- 
ing made  war  against  Judah  and  threaten- 
ing to  place  "  the  son  of  Tabeal  "  on  the 
throne,  2  Kin.  15:37;  16:5;  2  Chr.  28:6-15, 
king  Ahaz  foolishly  applied  to  Tiglath- 
pileser  for  assistance.  The  Assyrian  army 
first  attacked  and  captured  Damascus,  ra- 
zed it  to  the  ground  as  his  monuments 
claim,  and  slew  Rezin,  2  Kin.  16:9;  they 
then  ravaged  Israel  chiefly  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  carried  off  many  captives,  uncon- 
sciously fulfilling  Isaiah's  predictions,  ch. 
7:18;  8:4;  but  at  the  same  time  he  e.xacted 
a  heavy  tribute  from  Ahaz  and  greatly  dis- 
tressed him,  I  Chr.  5:26;  2  Chr.  28:16-21; 
Isa.  9:1.  As  he  makes  on  his  monumental 
records  no  mention  of  his  ancestors,  it  is 
inferred  that  he  usurped  the  throne.  His 
reign  was  probably  19  years  long,  and  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalmaneser  IV. 
634 


The  Nineveh  tablets  record  his  capture  of 
Damascus,"  Samaria,  and  Tyre,  and  his  e.x- 
acting  tribute  from  a  king  of  Judah,  Yahu- 
khazi,  evidently  Ahaz.  Some  recent  au- 
thorities confound  Tiglath-pileser  with  Pul. 

TI'GRIS.     See  Hiddkkel. 

TILE,  a  broad  and  thin  brick,  usually 
made  of  fine  clay  and  hard^ied  in  the  fire. 
Such  tiles  were  very  common  in  the  region 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (see  Babylon), 
and  offered  to  the  exiled  prophet  Ezekiel 
the  most  natural  and  obvious  means  of  de- 
picting the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  Ezek.  4:1. 
Great  numbers  of  similar  rude  sketches  of 
places  as  well  as  of  animals  and  men  are 
found  on  the  tiles  recently  exhumed  from 
the  ancient  mounds  of  Assyria  and  Babylo- 
nia, interspersed  among  the  wedge-shaped 
inscriptions  with  which  one  side  of  the  tile 
is  usually  crowded.  At  Nineveh  Layard 
found  a  large  chamber  stored  full  of  such 
inscribed  tiles,  like  a  collection  of  histori- 
cal archives,  Ezra  6:1.  They  are  usually 
about  a  foot  square  and  3  inches  thick. 
The  inscriptions  were  made  with  a  sharp 
stylus  on  the  clay  while  moist  and  in  a 
mould,  and  it  was  then  baked  and  some- 
times glazed.  Besides  the  tiles  many  clay 
cylinders,  similarly  inscribed  and  depos- 
ited in  the  corners  of  royal  edifices,  have 
been  found  and  are  legible  after  2,000  or 
3,000  years. 

TI'LING,  Luke  5:19,  literally  "tiles,"  of 
earthenware,  apparently  roofing  the  border 
of  the  court  in  the  centre  of  the  house,  the 
roof  being  reached  by  outside  stairs  or 
from  an  adjoining  house.     See  House. 

TIM'BREL,  an  instrument  of  music,  early 
and  often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  Gen. 
31:27;  Job  21:12.  The  Hebrews  called  it 
toph,  under  which  name  they  comprehend- 
ed all  kinds  of  drums,  tabrets,  tabors,  and 
tambourines.  We  do  not  find  that  they 
used  it  in  war,  but  only  at  public  rejoicings 
and  festive  occasions,  Isa.  5:12;  24:8;  Jer. 
31 :4.  It  was  commonly  played  by  women,, 
I  Sam.  18:6;  Psa.  68:25,  but  was  used  by 
the  young  prophets  in  Samuel's  day,  i  Sam. 
10:5;  I  Chr.  13:8;  comp.  Psa.  81:2;  149:3. 
It  consisted,  and  still  consists,  of  a  small 
circular  rim  or  hoop,  over  which  a  skin  is. 
drawn.  The  rim  is  also  hung  with  small 
bells.  The  timbrel  is  used  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  lively  music,  being  shaken  and 
beaten  with  the  knuckles  in  time.  After 
the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  Miriam,  sis- 
ter of  Moses,  took  a  timbrel  and  began  to 
play  and  dance  with  the  women,  Exod. 
15:20.     The  daughter  of  Jephthah  came  to 


TIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIM 


meet  her  father  with  timbrels  and  other 
musical  instruments,  Judg.  11:34.  See 
Music. 

TIME.  Besides  the  ordinary  uses  of  this 
word,  the  Bible  sometimes  employs  it  to 
denote  a  year,  as  in  Dan.  4:16;  or  a  pro- 
phetic year,  consisting  of  360  natural  years, 
a  day  being  taken  for  a  year.  Thus  in 
Dan.  7 :  25 ;  12:7,  the  phrase  "  a  time,  times, 
and  the  dividing  of  a  time  "  is  supposed 
to  mean  35^  prophetic  years,  or  1,260  natu- 
ral years.  This  period  is  elsewhere  par- 
alleled by  the  expression,  "forty -two 
months,"  each  month  including  30  years. 
Rev.  11:2,  3;  12:6,  14;  13:5.  See  Day, 
Hour,  "Month,  Week,  Year.  In  Eph. 
5:16;  Col.  4:5,  "redeeming  the  time" 
means  "  buying  "  or  improving  "  the  op- 
portunity," as  the  same  word  is  translated 
in  Gal.  6:10;  Heb.  11:15.  To  "observe 
times"  in  Lev.  19:26  means  to  "practise 
augury."  In  Num.  23:23  "according  to 
this  time  "  means  "  now." 

TIM'NA,  reslrainl,  I.,  a  secondary  wife 
of  Eliphaz  the  son  of  Esau,  sister  of  Lotan 
the  Horite  Seir's  son,  and  mother  of  Ama- 
lek,  Gen.  36:12,  22;  i  Chr.  1:39. 

II.  Son  of  Eliphaz  and  a  duke  or  sheikh 
of  Edom,  Gen.  36:40;  i  Chr.  1:36,  51. 

TIM'NAH,  portion,  I.,  a  town  in  the 
mountain  region  of  Judah,  associated  with 
Maon,  Ziph,  and  Carmel,  Josh.  15:57;  per- 
haps el-Amod,  on  a  low  hill  west  of  the 
road  from  Ziph  to  Carmel,  south  of  He- 
bron. Probably  the  Timn.\th  of  the  A.  V., 
mentioned  in  Gen.  38:12-14. 

II.  A  city  near  the  northwest  border  of 
Judah,  between  Beth-shemesh  and  Ekron, 
Josh.  15:10.  It  was  long  subject  to  the 
Philistines,  and  Samson's  wife  was  a  Tim- 
nite,  Judg.  14:1-5;  2  Chr.  28:18.  In  later 
times  it  was  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance; now  a  deserted  village  called 
Tibneh,  2  miles  west  of  'Ain-Shems,  or 
Beth-shemesh. 

TIMNA'THAH,  in  the  A.  V.  Thimnathah, 
a  town  in  Dan,  Josh.  19:43;  now  Tibneh, 
17  or  18  miles  southwest  of  Nablus. 

TIM'NATH-SE'RAH,  portion  of  Serah,  or 
abunda7ice,  according  to  the  Jews  a  name 
changed  to  Tim'nath-he'res,  portion  of 
the  sun,  in  memory  of  Joshua's  miracle. 
Josh.  10:12-14.  It  was  a  town  "in  Mount 
Ephraim,  on  the  north  side  of  the  hill  Ga- 
ash,"  and  furnished  the  Hebrew  leader  a 
home,  an  income,  and  a  burial-place,  Josh. 
19:50;  24:30;  Judg.  2:9.  It  is  now  traced 
at  Kefr  Haris,  9  miles  southwest  of  Nab- 
lus ;  but  Dr.   Eli  Smith  suggests  Tibneh, 


8  or  9  miles  farther  in  the  same  direction. 

See  TlMNATH.\H. 

TI'MON,  honoring,  Acts  6:5,  one  of  the  7 
first  deacons. 

TIM'OTHY,  in  Latinized-Greek  TIMO'- 
THEUS,  honoring  God— this  form  of  the 
name  being  often  used  in  the  A.  V.,  and 
Timothy  alone  in  the  R.  V. — the  disciple 
and  companion  of  Paul.  He  was  a  native 
of  Lystra,  or  perhaps  Derbe,  both  cities  of 
Lycaonia,  his  father  being  a  Greek,  i.  e.y 
Gentile,  and  his  mother  a  Jewess,  Acts 
16:1.  The  instructions  and  prayers  of  his 
pious  mother,  Eunice,  and  grandmother, 
Lois,  2  Tim.  1:5;  3:15,  and  the  preaching 
of  Paul  during  his  first  visit  to  Lystra, 
A.  D.  48,  Acts  14:6,  resulted  in  the  conver- 
sion of  Timothy  and  his  introdu^on  to 
the  ministry  which  he  so  adorneff!  He 
had  witnessed  the  sufferings  of  Paul  and 
loved  him  as  his  father  in  Christ,  i  Tim. 
1:2;  2  Tim.  3:10,  II.  When  the  apostle 
returned  to  Lystra,  about  A.  D.  51,  the 
brethren  spoke  highly  of  the  merit  and 
good  disposition  of  Timothy,  and  the  apos- 
tle determined  to  take  him  along  with  him, 
for  which  purpose  he  circumcised  him  at 
Lystra,  Acts  16:3,  to  disarm  the  prejudices, 
of  the  Jews,  and  he  was  set  apart  to  the 
ministry  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
the  elders,  i  Tim.  4:14;  2  Tim.  1:6;  4:5, 
probably  at  Iconium.  Timothy  applied 
himself  to  labor  in  the  gospel,  and  did  Paul 
very  important  services  through  the  whole 
course  of  his  preaching.  Paul  calls  him 
not  only  his  dearly  beloved  son,  but  also 
his  brother,  the  companion  of  his  labors, 
and  a  man  of  God,  observing  that  none 
was  more  united  with  him  in  heart  and 
mind  than  Timothy,  Rom.  .16:21;  i  Cor. 
4:17;  2  Cor.  1:1;  I  Tim.  1:2,  18.  Indeed, 
he  was  selected  by  Paul  as  his  chosen  com- 
panion in  his  journeys,  and  accompanied 
him  on  his  Macedonian  tour,  labored  zeal- 
ously at  Philippi,  Acts  16:12;  Phil.  2:22, 
and  perhaps  bore  the  alms  of  the  church 
to  Paul,  Phil.  4:15;  he  was  with  Paul  at  Be- 
roea,  and  remained  there  alone  for  a  time, 
rejoining  him  at  Athens,  Acts  17:14,  15* 
I  Thess.  3:2.  Thence  he  went  to  Thessa- 
lonica  and  to  Corinth,  Acts  18:1,  5,  as  ap- 
pears from  Paul's  letters  written  there, 
I  Thess.  1:1:  2  Thess.  1:1.  He  was  an 
advance-courier  of  Paul  in  his  3d  tour 
through  Galatia  and  Phrj-gia  to  Ephesus, 
and  after  2  years  there,  to  Macedonia  an(J 
Corinth,  Acts  19:22;  i  Cor.  4:17;  and  was 
with  him  at  Philippi  on  his  5th  and  last 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  20:3-6.     He  shared 

635 


TIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIR 


for  a  time  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
Phil.  i:i;  2:19;  Phile.  i;  Heb.  13:23,  and 
labored  much  at  Ephesus,  i  Tim.  1.3; 
3:14.  The  last  mention  we  have  of  him 
is  in  Paul's  request  that  l.j  would  go  to 
him  at  Rome  during  his  2d  imprisonment, 
2  Tim.  4:9,  13,  21.  He  appears  to  have 
possessed  in  a  very  high  degree  the  confi- 
dence and  affection  of  Paul,  and  is  often 
mentioned  by  him  in  terms  of  warm  com- 
mendation. The  cautions  and  encourage- 
ments he  gave  to  this  ardent  and  beloved 
young  disciple  should  be  well  pondered  by 
all  young  ministers.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
and  imitation  that  he  abstained  from  wine, 
though  it  was  a  customary  beverage  of  the 
time,  and  only  used  "a  little,"  if  at  all, 
when  lyescribed  as  a  medicine  by  an  in- 
spired apostle,  I  Tim.  5:23.  He  was  appar- 
ently not  robust  in  health,  and  required 
strengthening  rather  than  restraint,  i  Cor. 
16:10,  II  ;  2  Tim.  1 : 7,  8;  2:3. 

Epistles  to  Timothy.  The  ist  of  these 
Paul  seems  to  have  written  subsequently 
to  his  1st  imprisonment  at  Rome  and  while 
he  was  in  Macedonia,  having  left  Timothy 
at  Ephesus,  i  Tim.  1.3,  A.  D.  64.  The  2d 
ai^pears  to  have  been  addressed  to  Timo- 
thy in  Northwestern  Asia  Minor  during 
Paul's  2d  imprisonment  at  Rome  and  in 
anticipation  of  martyrdom,  A.  D.  67.  This 
dying  charge  of  the  faithful  apostle  to  his 
beloved  son  in  the  gospel,  the  latest  fruit 
of  his  love  for  him  and  for  the  church,  we 
study  with  deep  emotions.  Both  epistles 
are  most  valuable  and  instructive  docu- 
ments for  the  direction  and  admonition  of 
every  Christian,  and  more  especially  of 
church  officers  and  ministers  of  the  gospel. 
With  the  epistle  to  Titus  they  form  the  3 
"pastoral  epistles." 

TIN,  a  metal  known  and  used  at  an  early 
period,  e.  g.,  by  Midianites,  Num.  31:22, 
and  brought  by  the  Tyrians  from  Tarshish, 
Ezek.  27:12.  In  Isa.  1:25;  Ezek.  22:18,  20, 
it  means  the  alloy  of  lead,  tin,  and  other 
base  admi.x-tures  in  silver  ore,  sei^arated 
from  the  pure  silver  by  smelting.  Comp. 
Jer.  6:29,  30.  It  was  used  for  plummets, 
Zech.  4:10,  but  chiefly  with  copper  in  the 
manufacture  of  bronze.  It  was  not  found 
in  Palestine,  but  may  "have  come  from  Mid- 
ian,  from  the  Spanish  peninsula,  or  even 
from  Devonshire,  England,  in  Pho.'nician 
vessels. 

.  TIPH'SAH,  a  ford,  I.,  the  ancient  Thap- 
sacus,  an  important  city  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  which  constituted 
the  northeastern  extremitv  of  Solomon's 
636 


dominions,  i  Kin.  4:24.  The  ford  at  this 
place  being  the  last  one  on  the  Euphrates 
towards  the  south,  its  jjossession  was  im- 
portant to  Solomon  in  his  design  to  attract 
the  trade  of  the  East  to  Palestine ;  hence, 
too,  the  building  of  Tadmor  on  the  desert 
route.  It  was  also  a  depot  for  the  transfer 
of  goods  between  caravans  and  vessels 
plying  up  and  down  the  river.  The  lowest 
ford  on  the  Euphrates  is  now  at  Suriyeh, 
where  the  river  turns  from  a  southerly  to 
an  easterly  course  and  is  800  yards  wide. 
A  bridge  of  boats  was  used  when  the  water 
was  high. 

II.  Some  writers  think  the  above  city  is 
intended  in  2  Kin.  15:16,  as  a  place  smit- 
ten by  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  who  after- 
wards suffered  from  the  Assyrian  arms. 
Others  identify  it  with  the  place  now  called 
Tapsali,  anciently  En-tappuah,  6  miles 
southwest  of  Shechem. 

TI'RAS,  Gen.  10:2,  the  yomigest  son  of 
Japheth,  supposed  to  have  been  the  fore- 
father of  the  ancient  Thracians  and  the 
early  occupants  of  Northern  and  Central 
Asia  Minor. 

TIRED,  2  Kin.  9:30,  attired  or  dressed. 

TIRES,  or  "  little  moons,"  apparently 
pendent  disks,  like  modern  coins  on 
strings  for  the  neck,  worn  by  women,  Isa. 
3:18,  and  even  on  the  necks  of  camels, 
Judg.  8:21,  26,  where  the  same  word  is 
translated  "  ornaments  "  in  the  A.  V.  The 
tire  in  Ezek.  24:17,  23  was  an  ornamental 
headdress  or  tiara,  called  "beauty"  and 
"ornaments"  in  Isa.  61:3,  10. 

TIRHA'KAH.  king  of  Ethiopia  or  Cush, 
and  apparently  having  Egvpt  tributary, 
for  he  marched  through  it  with  a  powerful 
army — probably  composed,  like  those  of 
Shishak,  Zerah,  and  Pharaoh -necho,  of 
Lubim,  Sukkiim,  and  other  tribes  south 
and  west  of  Egypt,  2  Chr.  12:3;  16:8;  Jer. 
46:9 — to  relieve  king  Hezekiah  when  at- 
tacked by  Sennacherib  on  his  way  to  Egypt, 
2  Kin.  19:9;  but  the  AssjTian  army  was 
demolished  before  his  arrival,  and  he  can 
only  have  gathered  their  spoils,  ver.  35 ; 
Isa.  37:9.  B.  C.  712.  He  was  undoubtedly 
the  Taracus  of  Manetho  and  the  Tearchon 
of  Strabo,  the  3d  and  last  king  of  the  25th 
or  Ethiopian  dynasty.  It  is  supposed  that 
he  is  the  Pharaoh  intended  in  Isa.  30:2; 
and  that  Isa.  19  depicts  the  anarchy  which 
succeeded  his  reign.  He  was  a  powerful 
monarch,  ruling  both  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt,  and  extending  his  conquests  far 
into  Asia  and  towards  the  "  pillars  of  Her- 
cules "  in  the  West.     His  name  and  victo- 


TIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIT 


ries  are  recorded  on  an  ancient  temple  at 
Medinet    Abou,  in  Upper   Egypt;    whence 


also  the  representation  above  given  of  his 
head  was  copied  by  Rosselini. 

TIRSHA'THA,  the  misiere  or  aiignsl,  a 
title  of  honor  borne  by  Zerubbabel  and 
Nehemiah  as  Persian  governors  of  Judaea, 
Ezra  2:63;  Neh.  7:65,  70;  8:9;  10:1.  In 
Neh.  12:26  Nehemiah  is  called  "the  gov- 
ernor." 

TIR'ZAH,  delight,  I.,  one  of  the  5  daugh- 
ters of  Zelophehad ;  which  see. 

II.  A  city  of  the  Canaanites,  Josh.  12:24, 
and  afterwards  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
and  the  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  Israel 
from  Jeroboam  to  Omri,  who  built  the  city 
of  Samaria,  which  then  became  the  capital 
of  this  kingdom,  i  Kin.  15:21,  2)Z\  16:6,  8, 
9,  15,  23,  24,  29.  It  reappears  as  the  place 
where  Menahem  conspired  against  Shal- 
lum,  2  Kin.  15:14,  16.  It  was  famed  for  its 
beauty.  Song  6:4;  and  is  now  represented 
by  Teiasir,  some  12  miles  northeast  of 
Shechem,  once  a  place  of  importance,  as 
its  ruins  indicate. 

TISH'BITE,  the  usual  designation  of  the 
prophet  Elijah,  i  Kin.  21:17,  28;  2  Kin. 
I-3)  8;  9:36;  probably  denoting  his  birth- 
place Thisbe,  in  Naphtali,  now  Teitaba, 
12  miles  north  of  northwest  from  the  Sea 
of  Galilee.  Elijah  seems  to  have  made  his 
home  in  Gilead,  i  Kin.  17:1. 


TISH'RI,  or  TIS'RI,  the  ist  month  of  the 
Jewish  civil  year,  and  the  7th  of  the  eccle- 
siastical; called,  in  i  Kin.  8:2,  Ethanini, 
which  see;  and  answering  nearly  to  our 
October.  On  the  ist  day  of  Tishri  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets  occurred,  Lev.  23:24; 
Num.  29:1,  2;  on  the  loth  the  great  Day  of 
Expiation,  Lev.  23:27;  Num.  29:7;  and  on 
the  15th  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  com- 
menced, Lev.  23:34. 

TITHE,  a  tenth,  the  proportion  of  a  man's 
income  devoted  to  sacred  purposes  from 
time  immemorial.  Gen.  14:20;  28:22.  This 
was  prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  law.  Num. 
31:32.  A  twofold  tithe  was  required  of 
each  Jewish  citizen.  'Yh.G;  first  consisted  of 
one-tenth  of  the  produce  of  his  fields,  trees, 
flocks,  and  herds,  to  be  given  to  God  as  the 
sovereign  Proprietor  of  all  things  and  as 
the  King  of  the  Jews,  Lev.  27 :  30-32 ;  i  Sam. 
8:15,  17.  The  proceeds  of  this  ta.x  were 
devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Levites 
in  their  respective  cities.  Num.  18:21-24. 
A  person  might  pay  this  tax  in  money, 
adding  one-fifth  to  its  estimated  value. 
The  Levites  paid  a  loth  part  of  what  they 
received  to  the  priests.  Num.  18:26-28. 
The  second  tithe  required  of  each  land- 
holder was  one-tenth  of  the  9  parts  of  his 
produce  remaining  after  the  ist  tithe,  to  be 
expended  at  the  tabernacle  or  temple  in 
entertaining  the  Levites,  his  own  family, 
etc.,  changing  it  first  into  money,  if  on  ac- 
count of  his  remoteness  he  chose  to  do  so, 
Deut.  12:17-19,  22-29;  14:22-27.  Every  3d 
year  a  special  provision  was  made  for  the 
poor,  either  out  of  this  2d  tithe  or  in  addi- 
tion to  it,  Deut.  14:28,  29;  26:12-15.  These 
tithes  were  not  burdensome ;  but  the  pious 
Israelite  found  himself  the  richer  for  their 
payment,  though  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  enforced  by  any  legal  penalties.  See 
the  promises  to  the  obedient  in  Deut.  28:1- 
13.  The  system  of  tithes  was  renewed 
both  before  and  after  the  captivity,  2  Chr. 
31:5,  6,  12;  Neh.  10:37,  38;  12:44;  13:5,  12; 
but  they  were  not  always  regularly  paid, 
and  hence  the  divine  blessing  was  with- 
held, Mai.  3:8-12.  At  a  later  period  the 
tithe  was  apparently  divided  into  3  por- 
tions, one  of  which  was  given  to  the  priests 
and  Levites,  one  to  the  temple  storehouse, 
and  one  to  the  needy  at  Jerusalem.  The 
Pharisees  were  scrupulously  exemplary  in 
paying  their  tithes,  but  neglected  the  more 
important  duties  of  love  to  God  and  man. 
Matt.  23:23. 

The  principle  of  the  ancient  tithes,  name- 
ly, that  ministers  of  the  gospel  and  objects 

637 


TIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TOC 


of  benevolence  should  be  provided  for  by 
the  whole  people  of  God,  according  to  their 
means,  is  fully  recognized  in  Scripture  as 
applicable  to  the  followers  of  Christ.  He 
sent  his  servants  forth  two  and  two,  with- 
out provisions  or  purses,  to  receive  their 
support  from  the  people,  since  "  the  laborer 
is  worthy  of  his  hire,"  Matt.  10:9-14;  Luke 
10:4-8,  16.  Paul  also  reasons  in  the  same 
way,  I  Cor.  9:13,  14;  Gal.  6:6.  For  pur- 
poses of  piety  and  beneficence  he  directed 
the  Corinthians,  and  virtually  all  Chris- 
tians, to  lay  aside  from  their  income  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week  as  the  Lord  had  pros- 
pered them,  I  Cor.  16:2.  There  is  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  the  early  Christians  gave 
more  freely  of  their  substance  than  did  the 
ancient  Jews,  Acts  4:34-37;  2  Cor.  8:1-4. 

TI'TLE,  2  Kin.  23:17,  a  pillar  set  up  as  a 
sepulchral  monument;  the  Heb.  word  is 
translated  "  waymark  "  in  Jer.  31:21,  and 
"sign  "  in  Ezek.  39:15.  In  John  19:19,  20 
an  inscription  on  a  tablet. 

TIT'TLE,  a  very  small  particle;  Greek, 
"a  small  horn,''  the  minute  tip  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  some  Hebrew  letters.  Matt.  5:18. 
In  transcribing  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the 
Jews  exacted  the  utmost  accuracy.  Every 
page  and  every  line  must  contain  just  so 
much ;  and  the  most  trivial  defect  vitiated 
the  whole  roll  and  compelled  the  scribe 
to  begin  his  task  anew.  Yet  this  extreme 
care  for  the  perfect  integrity  of  the  letter 
of  God's  Word  is  but  a  feeble  illustration 
of  the  Saviour's  care  for  the  same  Word — 
every  truth,  every  threatening,  and  every 
promise  has  the  most  perfect  guarantee 
possible:  "  It  is  easier  for  heaven  and  earth 
to  pass  than  one  tittle  of  the  law  to  fail," 
Luke  16: 17. 

TI'TUS,  a  distinguished  Christian  minis- 
ter of  Greek  origin.  Gal.  2:3 ;  converted  un- 
der the  preaching  of  Paul,  Tit.  1:4,  whose 
companion  and  fellow-laborer  he  became, 
2  Cor.  8:23.  He  joined  Paul  and  Barnabas 
in  the  mission  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem— 
without  submitting  to  circumcision  like 
Timothy,  Acts  16:3,  since  neither  of  his 
parents  was  of  Jewish  birth,  Acts  15:1,2; 
Gal.  2:1-5 — and  subsequently  was  sent  to 
Corinth  and  labored  with  success,  2  Cor. 
8:6;  12:18.  He  did  not  rejoin  the  apostle 
at  Troas,  as  was  expected,  but  at  Philippi, 
2  Cor.  2:12,  13;  7:6,  7,  13-15;  and  soon 
after  resumed  his  labors  at  Corinth  in  con- 
nection with  a  general  effort  for  the  relief 
of  poor  Christians  in  Judasa,  taking  with 
him  Paul's  2d  epistle,  2  Cor.  8:6,  16,  17. 
Some  8  or  10  years  later  we  find  him  left 
638 


by  the  apostle  at  Crete  to  establish  and 
regulate  the  churches  of  that  island.  Tit. 
1:5.  Here  he  received  the  Epistle  to 
Titus  from  Paul,  then  at  Ephesus,  inviting 
him  to  Nicopolis,  Tit.  3:12;  whence  he  went 
into  the  neighboring  Dalmatia,  before  Paul 
was  finally  imprisoned  at  Rome,  2  Tim. 
4: 10.  Tradition  makes  him  labor  for  many 
years  in  Crete,  and  die  there  at  an  ad- 
vanced age.  A  ruined  church  on  the  site 
of  Gortyna  in  Crete  bears  his  name,  and  it 
was  the  watchword  of  the  Cretans  when 
invaded  by  the  Venetians.  His  character 
seems  to  have  been  marked  by  integrity, 
discretion,  and  a  glowing  zeal.  He  was 
trusted  and  beloved  by  Paul,  whose  epistle 
to  him  is  similar  in  its  contents  to  the  first 
epistle  to  Timothy,  and  was  probably  writ- 
ten not  long  after  it,  while  Paul  was  on  his 
way  to  Nicopolis,  A.  D.  66.  He  may  have 
been  the  Christian  with  whom  Paul  lodged 
at  Corinth,  Acts  18:7,  called  Titus  Justus 
in  the  R.  V. 

TOB,  good,  a  region  northeast  of  Gilead 
where  Jephthah,  when  banished  by  his  rel- 
atives, took  refuge  and  gathered  a  band  of 
warriors,  Judg.  11:3,5.  The  "men  of  Tob," 
Heb.  "  Ish-tob,"  assisted  the  Ammonites 
against  David,  2  Sam.  10:6,  8.  There  is  a 
ruined  site  of  a  similar  name  south  of  the 
Lejah. 

TOBl'AH,  Heb.  Tobi'yah,  goodness  of 
Jehovah.  I.  A  family  which  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  captivity,  but  lost  the 
proofs  that  they  were  of  Israelite  descent, 
Ezra  2:59,  60;  Neh.  7:62. 

II.  A  Levite,  called  Tobijah  in  the  A.  V., 
Heb.  Tobiya'hu  ;  commissioned  by  Jehosh- 
aphat  to  teach  Judah  the  law,  2  Chr.  17:8. 

III.  A  low-born  ("  servant "  or  slave) 
Ammonite,  in  league  with  Sanballat  and 
the  Samaritans  against  the  pious  Jews  who 
were  rebuilding  the  ruined  temple,  Neh. 
2  :  10;  4:3,  B.  C.  442.  His  threats  and 
treachery  were  employed  in  vain.  During 
Nehemiah's  absence  Tobiah  was  unlawful- 
ly established  by  some  of  the  chief  men  of 
Judah,  his  relatives,  in  a  fine  apartment  of 
the  new  temple,  but  was  ignominiously  ex- 
pelled on  the  governor's  return,  Neh.  6:17- 
19;  13:1-9. 

IV.  A  representative  Jewish  captive  de- 
puted to  place  a  symbolic  crown  on  the 
head  of  the  high-priest  Joshua,  Zech.  6:9- 
15,  as  a  type  of  the  Messiah,  King  and 
Priest,  Eph.  2: 13-17.  « 

TOBI'JAH.    See  Tobiah,  III.  and  IV. 
TO'CHEN,  a  lask,  i  Chr.  4:32,  probably 
Telem. 


TOG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TOR 


TOGAR'MAH,  1  Chr.  i:6,  a  descendant 
of  Japheth,  Gen.  10:3,  supposed  to  have 
given  his  name  to  the  region  of  Asia  after- 
wards called  Armenia,  Ezek.  38:15,  16.  It 
was  celebrated  for  its  horses  and  mules ; 
and  the  men  of  Togarmah,  like  the  modern 
Armenians,  were  an  industrious,  peacea- 
ble, and  trafficking  people,  Ezek.  27:14. 

TO'I  and  TO'U,  erring,  a  king  of  Hamath, 
on  the  Orontes  in  Syria,  who  sent  his  son, 
laden  with  appeasing  gifts,  to  congratulate 
David  on  his  defeat  of  Hadadezer  king  of 
Zobah,  2  Sam.  8:9-11  ;  i  Chr.  18:9,  10. 

TO'LA,  a  worm,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Issa- 
char,  head  of  a  family  which  furnished 
22,600  soldiers  for  David,  Gen.  46: 13 ;  Num. 
26:23;  I  Chr.  7:2. 

II.  Of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  judge  of 
Israel,  at  Shamir  in  Mount  Ephraim,  for  23 
years  after  the  death  of  Abimelech,  Judg. 
10:1,  2. 

10"L,KT>,  fatherhood,  1  Chr.  4:29;  called 
Eltolad  in  Josh.  15:30;  19:4,  a  town  of 
Simeon,  in  the  Negeb  or  South,  perhaps  in 
wady  el- Thoula,  40  miles  south  of  Beer- 
sheba. 

TOMB.     See  Sepulchre. 

TONGUE,  often  used  for  speech  itself,  as 
a  chief  expression  of  thought  and  character, 
Job  6:30;  as  a  soft  tongue,  Prov.  25:15,  a 
froward  tongue,  Prov.  10:31,  an  evil  tongue, 
Psa.  57:4,  a  wise  and  wholesome  tongue, 
Prov.  10:20;  12:18;  15:4.  A  "stammering 
tongue,"  in  Isa.  33:19,  was  that  of  one 
speaking  a  foreign  language.  The  power 
of  the  tongue  for  good  and  for  evil  is  well 
described  in  Jas.  3. 

Confusion  of  Tongues.  It  is  a  Bible 
truth,  confirmed  more  and  more  as  the 
sciences  of  ethnology  and  philology  ad- 
vance, that  the  whole  human  race  was  one 
in  origin,  and  at  first  one  in  language, 
Gen.  II  :i;  Mai.  2:10;  Acts  17:26,  which 
was  preserved  by  Noah  and  his  family 
after  the  flood.  To  frustrate  the  ambitious 
design  of  the  multitudes  who  repeopled  the 
earth  to  concentrate  around  a  lofty  metrop- 
olis,   God  "confounded   their  tongues" 

apparently  by  miraculously  hastening  the 
process  by  which  in  the  lapse  of  time  new 
dialects  and  languages  are  formed  in  iso- 
lated communities ;  and  as  each  band  who 
understood  each  other  went  off  in  a  differ- 
ent direction,  his  plan  for  peopling  the 
earth  was  thus  fulfilled. 

Among  the  Borsippa  inscriptions  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar the  confusion  of  tongues  is 
thus  referred  to:  "A  former  king  built  it," 
the  Borsippa  monument,  "  but  he  did  not 


complete  its  head.  Since  a  remote  time 
people  had  abandoned  it,  without  order 
expressing  their  words." 

The  Gift  of  Tongues,  foretold  by  Joel, 
2:28,  and  by  Christ,  Mark  16:17;  compare 
Matt.  10:19,  20;  Mark  13:11,  seems  to  have 
been  of  two  kinds,  both  intended  for  the 
infancy  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  first 
gift  was  the  power  to  "  declare  the  wonder- 
ful works  of  God  "  in  languages  ordinarily 
unknown  to  the  speakers,  for  the  benefit  of 
foreign  hearers.  Acts  2:4-11.  This  served 
the  double  purpose  of  attesting  the  divine 
origin  of  the  gospel  and  promoting  its  dif- 
fusion, and  may  have  been  limited  to  those 
Pentecostal  days.  The  other  form  of  the 
gift  of  tongues  is  thought  to  have  been  an 
ecstatic  form  of  worship,  chiefly  praise,  dis- 
tinct from  "  prophesying  "  or  preaching, 
and  unintelligible  except  to  those  who  had 
the  gift  of  interpretation.  Acts  10:46;  i  Cor. 
12:30.  It  may  have  been  marked  by  a 
musical  intonation,  as  when  the  sons  of 
Asaph  prophesied  with  harps  and  psalter- 
ies, I  Chr.  25:1.  It  should  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  interpreters  are  not  agreed  in 
this  view  of  a  difficult  subject,  and  that 
some  arrange  all  the  passages  under  the 
first  head,  and  some  exclude  the  first  and 
assign  all  the  passages  to  the  second  head. 
TOP,  in  Judg.  15:8,  II ;  Isa.  2:21,  cleft.] 
TO'PAZ,  a  precious  stone  of  wine-yellow 
color,  with  occasional  pale  tinges  of  green 
or  red.  It  was  the  second  of  the  12  gems  in 
the  high-priest's  breastplate,  Exod.  28:17; 
39:10,  and  the  9th  stone  in  the  foundation 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  Rev.  21:20.  The 
king  of  Tyre  wore  it,  Ezek.  28: 13,  and  Job, 
28:19,  mentions  it  as  a  highly-prized  pro- 
duct of  Cush.  Smith  regards  it  as  the  mod- 
ern chrysolite,  a  softer  stone  than  the  topaz, 
and  of  a  greenish  tinge. 

TO'PHEL,  lime,  Deut.  1:1,  a  town  on  the 
Israelites'  route,  east  of  the  Arabah;  found 
at  Tuf  ileh,  a  large  village  in  a  well-watered 
and  fruitful  valley,  17  miles  south-southeast 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

TO'PHET,  or  TO'PHETH,  2  Kin.  23:10; 
Isa. 30:33;  Jer.  7:31,32;  19:2,6,  11-14;  per- 
haps from  TOPH,  a  tambourine,  and  mean- 
ing music-grove,  but  otherwise  interpreted 
burning,  or  filth.  It  lay  at  the  southeast 
end  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  adjoining  the 
"  king's  gardens."     See  Hinnom. 

TORCH'ES,  FLA'MING,  Nah.  2:3,  in  the 
R.  v.,  "flash  with  steel." 

TORMENT'ORS,  men  who  had  charge  of 
instruments  of  torture  by  which  unwilling 
witnesses  were  compelled  to  testify,  Acts 

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22:24,  a  practice  which  the  humane  Mosaic 
code  did  not  authorize.  The  same  men 
were  keepers  of  prisons,  and  it  is  probably 
with  reference  only  to  their  office  as  jailers 
that  the  word  is  used  in  Matt.  18:34. 

TOR'TOISE,  an  unclean  reptile  accord- 
ing to  the  Mosaic  code,  Lev.  11:29.  Sev- 
eral species  of  land  and  water  tortoise  are 
found  in  Palestine  and  its  vicinity.  The 
Hebrew  word  is  translated  "  covered " 
(wagons)  in  Num.  7:3,  and  "litters"  in 
Isa.  66:20,  suggesting  the  shelly  covering 
of  this  animal.  Some,  however,  think  the 
dhab  or  Arabian  lizard  is  meant,  a  very 
common  animal,  sometimes  2  feet  long, 
with  a  formidable  tail  covered  with  scales 
or  spines. 

TO'U,  I  Chr.  18:9,  10.    See  Toi. 

TOW,  Judg.  16:9;  Isa.  1:31.  In  Isa. 
43: 17,  linen. 

TOWARD,  Psa.  5:7,  at. 


TOWERS  were  erected  on  the  outer  walls 
of  cities,  especially  at  the  corners  and  over 
the  gates,  2  Chr.  26:9,  15;  32:5;  Neh.  3:11 ; 
12:38 ;  Jer.  31 :38,  and  sentries  were  posted 
on  them,  2  Kin.  9:17.  Elevations  within 
the  city  were  also  occupied  by  towers  or 
forts,  Judg.  9 :  47-49,  and  commanding 
heights  along  the  frontiers  of  a  country, 
where  the  approach  of  an  enemy  could  be 
descried  at  a  distance,  Isa.  21:6-9;  Ezek. 
33:2-6.  A  tower  afforded  a  refuge  to  the 
surrounding  inhabitants  in  case  of  inva- 
sion ;  and  often,  when  most  of  a  city  was 
subdued,  the  tower  or  citadel  remained 
impregnable.  So  God  is  a  strong  and  safe 
protector  of  his  people,  Psa.  18:2;  61:3; 
Prov.  18:10.  Many  isolated  towers  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture:  as  "the  tower  of 
Edar "  or  "the  flock,"  Gen.  35:21;  Mic. 
4:8,  8  miles  southwest  of  Bethlehem;  the 
tower  of  David  and  of  Lebanon,  Song  4:4; 
640 


7:4;  that  of  Siloam,  Luke  13:4;  and  of 
Ophel,  Neh.  3:26.  A  structure  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  keeper  of  a  vineyard  or  flock 
was  often  built,  sometimes  slight,  but  often 
of  stone  and  large  enough  to  house  the 
whole  family  during  the  vintage,  2  Chr. 
26  :  10 ;  27  :  4  ;  Isa.  5:2;  Matt.  21  :  33,  and 
travellers  in  Palestine  see  them  in  use  at 
this  day.  Towers  were  also  raised  by  hos- 
tile armies  in  besieging  a  city,  Ezek.  21:22. 
In  Ezek.  29:10;  30:6,  instead  of  "  the  tower 
of  Syene,"  some  read,  "  from  Migdol  to 
Syene,"  or  Seveneh.     See  Migdol. 

TOWN-CLERK,  or  scribe.  Acts  19:35,  the 
acting  head  of  the  municipal  government 
at  Ephesus,  a  lieutenant  of  the  supreme 
authority ;  such  an  officer  is  mentioned  in 
history  and  on  a  coin  of  the  time. 

TRACHONI'TIS,  rugged  region,  the  an- 
cient Argob ;  in  the  time  of  Christ  a  Roman 
province  northeast  of  Palestine,  associated 
with  Batanaea,  Auranitis,  and  Gaulonitis, 
Luke  3:1.  It  lay  between  Damascus  on 
the  north  and  Bostra  on  the  south,  with 
Gaulonitis,  now  Jaulan,  on  the  west  and 
the  ridge  Jebel  Hauran  on  the  east,  inclu- 
ding the  modern  Lejah — an  oval  region,  a 
rough  plain  elevated  30  feet  above  the  ad- 
jacent region,  and  formed  of  black  basalt, 
hard  as  flint  and  full  of  air-bubbles  and 
hollows.  The  region  is  still  a  refuge  for 
the  lawless,  as  of  old,  2  Sam.  13:37,  38. 
See  Argob.  Herod  the  Great  subdued  the 
robbers  that  infested  it ;  and  after  his  death 
it  was  governed  by  Philip  his  son,  and  then 
by  Herod  Agrippa.  One  of  its  towns,  Phse- 
no,  had  a  Christian  church,  represented  at 
the  councils  of  Chalcedon  and  Ephesus. 

TRADI'TION,  a  doctrine,  sentiment,  or 
custom  not  found  in  the  Bible,  but  trans- 
mitted orally  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion from  some  presumed  inspired  author- 
ity. In  patriarchal  times  much  that  was 
valuable  and  obligatory  was  thus  preserved. 
But  tradition  has  long  been  superseded  by 
the  successive  and  comjileted  revelations 
of  God's  will  which  form  the  inspired  Scrip- 
tures, the  only  perfect  and  sufficient  rule 
of  belief  and  practice.  With  this,  even  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Saviour,  Isa.  8:20,  all 
traditions  were  to  be  compared,  as  being 
of  no  value  if  they  conflicted  with  it,  added 
to  it,  or  took  from  it.  Conip.  Acts  17:11; 
2  Tim.  3: 15-17;  Tit.  1:14;  Rev.  22:19.  The 
Jews  had  numerous  unwritten  traditions, 
which  they  affirmed  to  have  been  delivered 
to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  by  him  trans- 
mitted to  Joshua,  the  judges,  and  the  proph- 
ets.    After  their   wars  with   the    Romans 


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under  Adrian  and  Severus,  in  view  of  their 
increasing  dispersion  over  the  earth,  the 
Jews  desired  to  secure  their  traditions  by 
committing  them  to  writing.  Accordingly 
Rabbi  Judah  "the  Holy"  composed  the 
Mishna  or  2d  law,  the  most  ancient  collec- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  traditions,  about  A.  D. 
190-220.  To  this  text  two  commentaries 
were  afterwards  added :  the  Gemara  of 
Jerusalem,  probably  about  A.  D.  370,  and 
the  Gemara  of  Babylon,  A.  D.  500,  forming 
with  the  Mishna  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem 
and  that  of  Babylon.  The  contents  of  these 
voluminous  works  poorly  remunerate  the 
student  for  the  laborious  task  of  reading 
them.  Our  Saviour  severely  censured  the 
adherents  of  such  legendary  follies  in  his 
own  day,  and  reproached  them  with  pre- 
ferring the  traditions  of  the  elders  to  the 
law  of  God  itself,  and  superstitiously  ad- 
hering to  vain  observances  while  they 
neglected  the  most  important  duties,  Matt. 
15: 1-20;  Mark  7:1-3.  The  traditions  of 
the  Romish  Church,  with  less  apology  than 
the  ancient  Jews  had  before  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  written,  are  still  more  in  con- 
flict with  the  Word  of  God  and  still  more 
deserving  of  the  Saviour's  condemnation. 
The  doctrine  of  that  church,  as  expressed 
by  one  of  its  prelates  and  approved  by 
Pius  IX.,  is,  "  We  owe  entire  credence  to 
Scripture  and  to  tradition,  for  they  are 
equally  the  word  of  God."  The  apostles 
appealed  to  God's  Word  as  authority,  not 
to  tradition.  Acts  15:2,  15-17;  17:11;  24:14; 
I  Cor.  15:3,  4. 

In  I  Cor.  11:2,  R.  v.;  2  Thess.  2:15;  3:6, 
"tradition"  means  inspired  insfa-uctions 
from  the  lips  of  those  who  received  them 
from  God  and  were  authorized  to  dispense 
them  in  his  name.  These  apostolic  say- 
ings were  obligatory  only  on  those  who 
received  them  as  inspired  directly  from 
the  apostles.  Had  any  of  them  come  down 
to  our  times  the  only  means  of  indorsing 
them  must  be  by  showing  their  agreement 
with  the  Word  of  God,  since  inspiration 
and  miracles  have  ceased. 

TRANCE,  a  state  of  the  human  system 
distinguished  from  dreaming  and  revery, 
in  which  the  bodily  senses  are  locked  up 
and  almost  disconnected  from  the  spirit, 
which  is  occupied  either  with  phantasms, 
as  in  trances  produced  by  disease,  or,  as 
in  ancient  times,  with  revelations  from 
God.  Numerous  instances  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture  :  as  that  of  Balaam,  Num.  24:3, 
16;  those  of  Peter  and  Paul,  Acts  10:10; 
11:5;  22:17;  2  Cor.  12:1-4.  Compare  also 
41 


the  "  deep  sleep  "  of  Adam,  Gen.  2:21,  and 
of  Abraham,  Gen.  15:12-17,  the  vision  of 
Job,  4:12-17,  the  experience  of  Saul,  i  Sam. 
19:24,  and  of  some  of  the  prophets,  Jer. 
29:26;   Ezek.  3: 15. 

TRANSFIGURA'TION,  Matt.  17:1-9;  John 
1:14;  2  Pet.  1:16-18.  This  remarkable 
event  in  the  life  of  Christ  probably  took 
place  at  night,  Luke  9:37,  and  on  Hermon 
or  some  other  mountain  not  far  from  Caesa- 
rea  Philippi,  the  tradition  which  assigns  it 
to  Tabor  not  being  sustained.  See  Tabor. 
The  whole  form  and  raiment  of  the  Saviour 
.appeared  in  supernatural  glory.  The  Law 
and  the  Prophets,  in  the  persons  of  Moses 
and  Elijah,  did  homage  to  the  Gospel. 
Comp.  Exod.  33:18.  By  communing  with 
Christ  on  the  theme  most  momentous  to 
mankind,  his  atoning  death,  they  evinced 
the  harmony  that  exists  between  the  old 
and  new  dispensations  and  the  sympathy 
between  heaven  and  earth  ;  while  the  voice 
from  heaven  in  their  hearing  gave  him 
honor  and  authority  over  all.  Besides  its 
great  purpose,  the  attestation  of  Christ's 
Messiahship  and  divinity,  this  scene  dem- 
onstrated the  continued  existence  of  de- 
parted spirits  in  an  unseen  world,  furnished 
in  the  Saviour's  person  an  emblem  of  hu- 
manity glorified,  and  aided  in  preparing 
both  him  and  his  disciples  for  their  future 
trials,  Mark  9:2-13;  Luke  9:28-36.  The 
witnesses  of  the  transfiguration  were  Pe- 
ter, James,  and  John.     See  James. 

TRAVELLING.      See  JOURNEY. 

TREAS'URES.  Kings  were  wont  to  store 
their  possessions  and  guard  what  they  most 
valued  in  well-fortified  cities,  hence  called 
treasure-cities,  Exod.  i:ii;  i  Chr.  27:25; 
Ezra  5:17.  "Treasures  in  the  field,"  Jer. 
41 : 8,  were  provisions,  etc.,  buried,  as  is  the 
custom  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  in  sub- 
terranean pits.  Numerous  ruined  grana- 
ries of  this  kind  are  still  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Beth-shean.  The  "  Pilgrim  fa- 
thers "  in  like  manner  found  heaps  of  corn 
buried  in  the  ground  by  the  Indians.  In 
consequence  also  of  the  great  insecurity  of 
property  in  the  East  it  seems  to  have  been 
usual  from  the  earliest  times  to  hide  in  the 
groimd  gold  and  jewels;  and  the  owners 
being  killed  or  driven  away,  or  forgetting 
the  place  of  deposit,  these  hidden  treasures 
remain  till  chance  or  search  brings  them 
to  light.  They  are  much  sought  for  by  the 
Arabs  at  this  day,  and  are  believed  by  them 
to  be  the  object  travellers  from  the  West 
have  in  view  in  exploring  ancient  ruins. 
Job  3:21;  Prov.  2:4;  Matt.  13:44.    A  few 

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years  since  some  workmen  digging  in  a 
garden  at  Sidon  discovered  several  copper 
pots  filled  with  gold  coin  from  the  mint  of 
Philip  of  Macedon  and  his  son  Alexander, 
unmixed  with  any  of  later  date.  The  lost 
treasure,  worth  many  thousands  of  dol- 
lars, had  remained  undisturbed  over  2,000 
years.  / 

TREAS'URY,  the  portion  of  the  temple 
in  which  were  deposited  the  offerings  of 
the  people  for  sacred  purposes ;  there  were 
apartments  for  the  tithes  of  flour,  wine,  oil, 
etc.,  1  Chr.  9:26;  Neh.  10:38;  13:4-9,  and 
chests  for  gifts  in  money,  which  the  rabbis 
say  stood  in  the  Court  of  the  Women  and 
were  13  in  number,  Mark  12:41;  Luke 
21:1;  John  8:20.  Kings  had  their  treasu- 
ries, Esth.  3:9,  and  officers  in  charge  of 
them,  Ezra  i  :8,  those  of  the  kings  of  Baby- 
lon having  some  authority,  Ezra  7:21  ;  Dan. 
3:2,  3.  Snow,  wind,  hail,  and  rain  are  said 
to  be  issued  as  from -God's  storehouse, 
2  Chr.  7:13;  Job  38:22;  Psa.  135:7:  Jer. 
51:16. 

TREES  were  frequently  used  as  types  of 
kings  or  men  of  wealth  and  power,  Psa. 
37:35;  Isa.  2:13;  Dan.  4:10-26;  Zech. 
u:i,  2.  The  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to 
cut  down  an  enemy's  fruit-trees  in  time  of 
war,  Deut.  20: 19,  20.  The  "  tree  of  knowl- 
edge of  good  and  evil  "  bore  the  forbidden 
fruit,  by  eating  of  which  Adam  fatally  in- 
creased his  knowledge — of  good  by  its  loss, 
of  sin  and  woe  by  actual  experience,  Gen. 
2:9,  17.  The  "tree  of  life  "  may  have  been 
both  an  assurance  and  a  means  of  impart- 
ing life,  a  seal  of  eternal  holiness  and  bliss, 
if  man  had  not  sinned.  Comp.  Rev.  22:2. 
In  Acts  5 :  30 ;  Gal.  3 :  13,  "  tree  "  is  literally 
"  a  beam  of  wood." 

TRENCH,  in  I  Kin.  18:32-38,  a  circular 
ditch;  in  i  Sam.  26:5-7;  2  Sam.  20:15,  a 
wall  or  rampart,  often  formed  by  arran- 
ging the  vehicles,  camels,  and  impedimen- 
ta of  a  caravan  or  equipage  of  a  camp  in 
a  circle,  within  which  the  tents  are  pitched, 
I  Sam.  17:20.  See  Camp.  A  trench  was 
also  a  means  of  preventing  sorties  and  a 
passage  of  approach  to  the  walls  of  a  be- 
sieged city,  like  a  deep  moat  or  ditch,  the 
earth  thrown  up  constituting  a  wall.  The 
Redeemer,  weeping  over  Jerusalem  a  few 
days  before  he  was  crucified  under  its 
walls,  said,  "The  days  shall  come  upon 
thee  that  thine  enemies  shall  cast  a  trench 
about  thee  and  compass  thee  round  and 
keep  thee  in  on  every  side,''  Luke  19:43. 
The  Romans  fulfilled  this  prediction  by 
inclosing  the  entire  city  of  Jerusalem  by  a 
642 


wall  in  3  days,  that  the  Jews  might  neither 
escape  nor'ije  relieved  from  without. 

TRES'PASS,  an  injury  done  to  another, 
with  more  or  less  culpability.  The  Mo- 
saic law  required  a  trespasser  not  only  to 
make  satisfaction  to  the  person  injured, 
but  by  an  offering  at  the  altar  to  reconcile 
himself  to  the  divine  Governor,  Lev.  5; 
6:1-7;  Psa.  51:4.  See  S.^crifice.  Christ 
repeatedly  declares  that  in  order  to  be  for- 
given of  God  we  must  be  forgiving  to  men. 
Matt.  6:14,  15,  and  that  no  brother  must 
have  aught  against  us.  Matt.  5:23,  24. 

TRI'AL.  See  Justice.  In  Acts  19:38 
for  "  the  law  is  open,"  read  "  for  the  court 
is  open,"  R.  V. :  it  is  now  a  court-day,  and 
the  proconsul  with  his  adsessors,  selected 
from  the  people,  will  do  justice. 

TRIBE.  Jacob  having  12  sons,  heads  of 
as  many  families,  which  together  formed  a 
great  nation,  each  of  these  families  was 
called  a  tribe.  They  are  named  in  the 
order  of  their  birth  in  Gen.  49:  Reuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Zebulun,  Issachar, 
Dan,  Gad,  Asher,  Naphtali,  Joseph,  Ben- 
jamin. But  this  patriarch  on  his  death-bed 
adopted  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  2  sons 
of  Joseph,  and  would  have  them  also  to 
constitute  2  tribes  in  Israel,  Gen.  48:5.  In- 
stead of  12  tribes  there  were  now  13,  that 
of  Joseph  being  2.  Yet  in  the  distribution 
of  lands  by  Joshua  under  the  order  of  God, 
they  reckoned  but  12  tribes  and  made  but 
12  lots;  for  the  tribe  of  Levi,  being  ap- 
pointed to  the  sacred  service,  had  no  share 
in  the  distribution  of  the  land,  but  received 
certain  cities  to  dwell  in,  with  the  first- 
fruits,  tithes,  and  oblations  of  the  people. 
Each  tribe  had  its  own  leaders  and  tribu- 
nals;  and  the  whole  12,  in  their  early  his- 
tory, constituted  a  republic  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  United  States.  In  the  divi- 
sion made  by  Joshua  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Manasseh  had 
their  lot  beyond  Jordan,  east;  all  the  other 
tribes  and  the  remaining  half  of  Manasseh 
had  their  inheritance  on  this  side  the  riv- 
er, west. 

The  12  tribes  continued  united  as  one 
state,  one  people,  and  one  monarchy  till 
after  the  death  of  Solomon,  when  10  of  the 
tribes  revolted  from  the  house  of  David 
and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  See 
Hkrrf.ws. 

TRIB'UTE.  Every  Jew  20  years  old  was 
required  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  or  capi- 
tation-tax of  half  a  shekel,  about  25  cents, 
in  acknowledgment  of  God's  sovereignty 
and   for   the   maintenance  of   the    temple 


TRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TRO 


service,  Exod.  30:12-15.  In  Matt.  17:24, 
for  "  tribute "  the  R.  V.  reads  "  the  half- 
shekel."  It  was  with  reference  to  this  that 
Christ  says  in  effect,  "  If  this  tribute  be 
levied  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  then  I, 
THE  Son,  am  free."  In  other  New  Testa- 
ment passages  tribute  means  the  tax  lev- 
ied by  the  Romans.  See  Tax.  On  the 
question  of  paying  tribute  to  foreigners 
and  idolaters.  Matt.  22:16-22,  Christ  gave 
a  reply  which  neither  party  could  stigma- 
tize as  rebellious  or  as  unpatriotic  and  irre- 
ligious. By  themselves  using  Caesar's  cur- 
rency, both  parties  acknowledged  the  fact 
of  his  supremacy.  Christ  warns  them  to 
render  to  all  men  their  dues,  and  above 
all,  to  regard  the  claims  of  Him  whose  su- 
perscription is  on  everything,  i  Cor.  10:31 ; 

1  Pet.  2:9,  13. 

TRIN'ITY,  or  TRI -UNITY,  the  doctrine 
that  Jehovah  is  the  one  and  only  God,  ex- 
isting eternally  in  three  Persons,  the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  all  equal  in 
perfect  and  supreme  Godhead.  The  Fa- 
ther in  relation  to  mankind  appears  as  the 
Creator,  Preserver,  and  Governor  of  the 
universe;  the  Son  as  the  revealer  of  the 
Deity  to  us,  and  the  Redeemer ;  the  Holy 
Spirit  as  the  regenerator,  indweller,  and 
sanctifier ;  yet  each  appears  in  harmonious 
union  with  the  others  in  their  several 
spheres.  It  is  a  doctrine  of  pure  revela- 
tion, chiefly  in  the  New  Testament,  though 
intimations  of  it  are  found  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament also:  possibly  in  several  Hebrew 
names  of  God,  which  are  plural  in  form; 
in  texts  like  Gen.  1:26,  "  Let  us  make  man 
in  our  image;"  in  passages  which  speak 
of  the  Son,  Psa.  2:7-12,  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Isa.  48 :  16,  or  of  the  three  together,  as  Num. 
6:24-27;  Psa.  33:6;  Isa.  6:3;  63:8-10. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  are  many 
passages  where  the  three  are  named  to- 
gether,   as   in   the    apostolic    benediction, 

2  Cor.  13:14;  comp.  Eph.  4:4-6;  in  the  ini- 
tiatory ordinance  of  the  Christian  Church, 
Matt.  28:18-20;  in  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  at  Christ's  baptism,  Matt.  3:16,  17; 
in  the  Saviour's  promise  of  the  Comforter' 
John  14:26;  and  in  the  opening  passage  of 
Peter's  first  epistle. 

To  these  should  be  added  all  the  passa- 
ges which  ascribe  deity  to  each  of  the  sev- 
eral Persons : 

1.  To  the  Father:  including  all  that  in- 
volve the  existence  and  deity  of  God. 

2.  To  the  Son:  {a)  ascribing  to  him  the 
names  of  God,  as  John  1:1,  2;  10:28-30; 
20:28;  Phil.  2:6  with  John  5:18;  Tit.  2:13^ 


and  the  many  passages  in  which  he  is 
called  the  Son  of  God;  {b)  implying  divine 
attributes:  as  eternity,  John  1:1;  8  :  58; 
17:5;  Col.  1 :  17,  creative  power,  John  1:1-3, 
10;  Col.  i:i6;  Heb.  1:10;  2:10,  omnipo- 
tence, Phil.  3:21,  omniscience.  Matt.  11:27; 
I  Cor.  4:5,  and  divine  honor,  John  5:23; 
Acts  1 :24;  7:59;  2  Cor.  12:8;  Heb.  i  :6  with 
Psa.  97 : 7 ;  Rom.  14:11  with  Isa.  45 : 3 ;  2  Cor. 
5:8-11;  Phil.  2:10;  2  Tim.  4: 17,  18. 
3.  To  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  see. 
TRI'UMPH.  All  nations  have  delighted 
to  honor  their  successful  generals,  and  a 
favorite  method  has  been  by  gorgeous  pro- 
cessions of  the  victorious  host,  the  leaders 
crowned  with  laurel,  displaying  their  cap- 
tured banners,  trophies,  and  spoils,  and 
their  enslaved  enemies,  with  triumphal 
arches,  martial  music,  and  the  acclama- 
tions of  the  people.  There  are  various 
Scripture  allusions  to  similar  scenes,  as  in  ■ 
the  songs  of  Miriam  and  Deborah,  Exod. 
15  :  1-21  ;  Judg.  5;  compare  Psa.  24  :  7-10; 
110:1;  Isa.  60 :  14.  The  victors  were  praised 
in  songs,  i  Sam.  18:6-8;  2  Chr.  20:21-28, 
and  the  dead  were  mourned,  2  Sam.  1:17- 
27  ;  2  Chr.  35:25.  These  triumphal  pomps 
furnished  figures  for  the  future  triumphs 
of  the  Prince  of  peace,  Isa.  52:7-10;  Eph. 
4:8;  Col.  2:15,  significantly  foreshadowed 
in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  Matt. 
21 :i-ij. 

TRO'AS,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  in  the 
northwest  part  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  on 
the  ^gean  coast,  at  a  little  distance  south 
of  the  supposed  site  of  ancient  Troy,  the 
ruins  of  which,  at  Hissarlik,  have  recently 
been  explored  by  Schliemann.  It  lay  op- 
posite the  island  Tenedos,  and  Mount  Ida 
overlooked  it  on  the  east.  The  adjacent 
region,  including  all  the  coast  south  of  the 
Hellespont,  is  also  called  Troas,  or  the 
Troad.  The  city  was  a  Macedonian  and 
Roman  colony  of  much  promise,  and  was 
called  Alexandria  Troas.  It  had  a  fine 
harbor,  and  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus, 
and  still  more  Constantine,  seriously  pro- 
posed to  make  it  the  seat  of  their  empire. 
The  Turks  call  its  ruins  Eski  Stamboul,  the 
old  Constantinople.  Its  remains,  in  the 
centre  of  a  forest  of  oaks,  are  still  grand 
and  imposing.  The  apostle  Paul  was  first 
at  Troas  for  a  short  time  in  A.  D.  52,  and 
sailed  thence  into  Macedonia,  Acts  16:8-11. 
At  his  2d  visit,  in  A.  D.  57,  he  labored  with 
success,  2  Cor.  2:12,  13.  At  his  3d  record- 
ed visit  he  tarried  but  a  week;  at  the  close 
of  which  the  miraculous  raising  of  Euty- 
chus  to  life  took  place,  Acts  20:5-14,  A.  D. 

643 


TRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TUR 


58.  In  2  Tim.  4:13  we  find  traces  of  an- 
other visit,  after  his  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome. 

TROGYL'LIUM,  the  name  of  a  town  and 
promontory  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  be- 
tween Ephesus  and  the  mouth  of  the  Mean- 
der, opposite  to  Samos,  wliicli  is  not  a  mile 
distant.  The  navigation  is  intricate,  and 
Paul  on  his  last  visit  to  Jerusalem,  there 
being  no  moon,  waited  here  one  night, 
Acts  20:15.  The  jjromontory  is  a  spur  of 
Mount  Mycale. 

TROOP,  a  band  of  marauders,  like  the 
modern  Bedouin  tribes.  Gen.  49: 19;  2  Sam. 
3:22;  22:30;  Job  19:12;  Jer.  18:22;  Hos. 
6:9;  7:1.  In  Amos  9:6  for  "troop"  read 
rather  "vault."    On  Isa.  65: 11  see  Gad,  III. 

TROPH'IMUS,  nourished,  a  disciple  of 
Paul,  a  Gentile  and  an  Ephesian  by  birth. 
Acts  21:29,  who  came  to  Corinth  with  tlie 
.apostle,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  whole 
journey  to  Jerusalem,  probably  in  charge 
of  the  collection  for  the  poor  of  Judaea, 
A.  D.  58,  Acts  20:4.  When  the  apostle  was 
in  the  temple  there  the  Jews  laid  hold  of 
him,  crying  out,  "  He  hath  brought  Greeks 
into  the  temple,  and  hath  polluted  this  holy 
place;"  because,  having  seen  him  in  the 
city  accompanied  by  Trophimus,  they  ima- 
gined that  he  had  introduced  him  into  the 
inner  court  of  the  temple,  Acts  21:27-30. 
Some  years  afterwards  Paul  writes  that 
he  had  left  him  sick  at  Miletus,  2  Tim.  4:20. 
This  did  not  occur  at  Paul's  former  visit  to 
Miletus,  since  Trophimus  went  with  him  to 
Jerusalem ;  nor  on  the  voyage  to  Rome, 
for  they  did  not  then  go  near  Miletus.  It 
is  therefore  one  of  the  circumstances  which 
prove  that  Paul  was  released  and  revisited 
Asia  Minor,  Crete,  Macedonia,  and  per- 
haps Spain,  before  his  2d  imprisonment 
and  death.  Of  Trophimus  nothing  farther 
is  known. 

TROW,  an  old  word  for  think,  Luke  17:9. 

TRUMP,  I  Cor.  15:52;  I  Thess.  4:16, 
A.  v.,  and  TRUM'PET.  The  Lord  com- 
manded Moses  to  make  2  trumpets  of  beat- 
en silver,  for  the  purpose  of  calling  the 
people  together  when  the}'  were  to  decamp, 
Num.  10:2,  of  proclaiming  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  year,  of  the  sabbatical  year,  Lev. 
23:24;  Num.  29:1,  and  of  the  Jubilee,  Lev. 
25:9,  10.    See  Music. 

The  Feast  of  Trumpets  was  a  New  Year's 
festival,  kept  on  the  first  day  of  the  7th 
month  of  the  sacred  year,  which  was  the 
first  of  the  civil  year,  called  Tishri.  The 
beginning  of  the  year  was  proclaimed  by 
sound  of  trumpet,  Lev.  23:24;  Num.  29:1  ; 
644 


and  the  day  was  kept  solemnly,  all  servile 
business  being  forbidden.  In  addition  to 
the  daily  and  the  monthly  sacrifices,  Num. 
28:11-15,  ^  solemn  holocaust  was  offered 
in  the  name  of  the  whole  nation,  of  a  bul- 
lock, a  ram,  a  kid,  and  7  lambs  of  the  same 
year,  with  ofierings  of  flour  and  wine,  as 
usual  with  these  sacrifices.  The  ordinary 
new-moon  sacrifices  were  marked  by  trum- 
pet-blowing, but  were  not  days  of  rest  and 
special  worship.  Both  the  straight  trum- 
pet and  the  cornet  were  used  at  the  Feast 
of  Trumpets,  which  prepared  for  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  the  loth  of  Tishri,  Joel  2:15; 
and,  according  to  the  rabbis,  commemora- 
ted the  finished  work  of  creation,  when 
"  all  the  sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy,"  Job 
38:7.  The  trumpet  "long  and  loud"  be- 
tokened the  descent  of  Jehovah  on  Mount 
Sinai,  E.xod.  19 :  16-19,  his  word  by  the 
prophets,  Hos.  8:1;  Zeph.  1:16;  Rev.  1:10, 
and  will  mark  Christ's  2d  coming.  Matt. 
24:31;  I  Cor.  15:52;  I  Thess.  4:16. 

TRUST,  sometimes  in  the  Hebrew  "lean 
upon,"  2  Kin.  18:5,  19,  20,  21,  24;  sometimes 
"take  refuge  in,"  Ruth  2:12;  Psa.  2:12; 
31:1;  Nah.  1:7;  Zeph.  3:12. 

TRYPHE'NA  and  TRYPHO'SA,  luxuri- 
ous,  female  disciples  at  Rome,  apparently 
sisters,  and  very  useful  in  the  work  of 
evangelization,  Rom.  16:12. 

TU'BAL,  a  son  of  Japheth,  associated 
with  Meshech  and  Javan,  Gen.  10:2;  i  Chr. 
1:5,  as  originator  of  a  northern  nation, 
Isa.  66:19;  Ezek.  32:26;  38:2,  3,  15;  39:1, 
2 ;  supposed  to  have  been  the  Tybareni, 
who  occupied  the  northeastern  part  of  Asia 
Minor.  They  were  a  warlike  people,  and 
brought  slaves  and  copper  vessels  to  the 
market  of  Tyre,  Ezek.  27:13.  In  Assyrian 
inscriptions  24  kings  of  that  race  are  enu- 
merated. 

TU'BAL-CAIN,  son  of  the  Cainite  La- 
mech  and  Zillah,  inventor  of  the  art  of 
forging  metals.  Gen.  4:22;  famed,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  for  his  prodigious  strength 
and  success  in  war. 

TUR'TLE-DOVE,  or  TURTLE,  the  Colum- 
ba  Turtur;  a  distinct  bird  from  the  com- 
mon dove  or  pigeon,  smaller  and  differ- 
ently marked,  having  a  soft  and  plaintive 
note,  Psa.  74:19;  Isa.  59^";  Ezek.  7:16, 
and  gentle  eyes.  Song  i :  15;  4:1 ;  5^12.  Its 
fidelity  and  innocence.  Matt.  10:16,  made  it 
especially  fit  to  be  an  offering  to  Jehovah 
and  a  symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Matt.  3:16. 
There  are  3  species  of  the  turtle  in  Pales- 
tine :  the  Turtur  visorius  or  collared  turtle; 
the  Turtur  ..Egyptiacus  or  palm-turtle,  of  a 


TUT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TYR 


chestnut  color,  a  longer  tail,  and  no  collar ; 
and  the  Turtur  auritus,  the  most  abundant 
of  all.     It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  Jer.  8:7, 


turtle-dove:  columba  turtur. 

leaving  Palestine  for  a  short  trip  to  the 
south  and  returning  early  in  spring,  Song 
2:12.  It  is  timid  and  fond  of  seclusion, 
and  pines  in  captivity,  Psa.  11  :i.  The  law 
allowed  it  as  a  burnt  or  sin  offering  by  the 
poor,  Lev.  1:14;  5:7;  Matt.  21:12,  and  in 
several  cases  of  purification,  etc..  Lev.  12:6- 
8;  14:22;  Num.  6:10,  its  use  by  Joseph  and 
Mary  being  a  proof  of  their  poverty,  Luke 
2:24.  Even  before  the  giving  of  the  law 
Abraham  offered  birds,  which  were  a  tur- 
tle and  a  pigeon ;  and  when  he  divided  the 
other  victims  he  left  the  birds  entire,  Gen. 

T[5:9- 

TU'TORS,  Gal.  4:2,  guardians. 

TWAIN,  two.  Matt.  5:41;  27:51;  Eph. 
2:15. 

TWIN-BROTH'ERS,  Acts  28:11,  R.  V., 
for  "Castor  and  Pollux."     See  Castor. 

TYCH'ICUS,  casual  ox  fortunate,  a  native 
of  Asia  Minor,  probably  of  Ephesus,  a  fellow- 
laborer  with  Paul,  first  mentioned  as  with 
him  on  returning  from  his  third  mission- 
ary tour.  Acts  20 : 4.  He  probably  remained 
at  Miletus  or  Ephesus  while  Trophimus 
went  on  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  20: 15,  38  ;  21  -.2^. 
He  was  with  Paul  in  his  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  and  was  the  bearer  of  his  letters 
to  the  Colossians  and  Ephesians,  Col.  4:7, 
8;  Eph.  6:21,  22.  He  was  probably  sent 
either  to  replace  Titus  in  Crete  or  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Nicopolis,  Tit.  3:12,  and  was 
with  Paul  during  part  of  his  second  impris- 
onment, being  sent  on  some  mission  to  Eph- 
esus, 2  Tim.  4:12.  The  apostle  calls  him 
his  dear  brother,  a  faithful  minister  of  the 
Lord,  and  his  companion  in  the  service  of 
God. 


TYPE,  an  image,  stamp,  or  mould,  Gr. 
tupos,  denoting  resemblance,  and  transla- 
ted "figure"  in  Rom.  5:14,  A.  V.,  "exam- 
ple" or  "ensample"  in  i  Cor.  10:6, 
II ;  Phil.  3:17;  I  Thess.  1:7;  2  Thess. 
3:9,  "manner  "in  Acts 23: 25, "form" 
in  Rom.  6: 17,  "fashion  "  in  Acts  7:44, 
and  "pattern  "in  Heb.  8:5.  Spir- 
itual truths  were  thus  often  repre- 
sented by  material  symbols — objects, 
acts,  or  institutions.  In  the  more 
general  use  of  the  word,  a  Scriptural 
type  is  a  prophetic  symbol,  "  a  shad- 
ow of  good  things  to  come,"  Heb. 
10:1,  "  but  the  body  is  Christ,"  Col. 
2:17.  The  typical  character  of  the 
old  dispensation  is  its  most  distin- 
guishing feature.  For  example,  the 
paschal  lamb  and  all  the  victims  sac- 
rificed under  the  law  were  types  of 
the  Lamb  of  God,  and  illustrated  his 
great  atonement;  showing  that  guilt  de- 
served death  and  could  only  be  atoned  for 
by  the  blood  of  an  acceptable  sacrifice. 
But  they  were  also  intended  to  foretell  the 
coming  of  their  great  Antitype. 

The  Old  Testament  types  include  per- 
sons, officers,  objects,  events,  rites,  places, 
and  institutions,  which  were  significant  and 
appropriate  as  well  as  figurative.  Thus 
Adam  and  Melchizedek,  the  prophetic  and 
the  priestly  office,  manna  and  the  brazen 
serpent,  the  smitten  rock  and  the  passage 
over  Jordan,  the  Passover  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  Canaan  and  the  cities  of  ref- 
uge, are  Scriptural  types  of  Christ. 

However  striking  the  points  of  resem- 
blance which  an  Old  Testament  event  or 
object  may  present  to  something  in  the 
New  Testament,  it  is  not  properly  a  type 
unless  it  was  so  appointed  by  God  and 
thus  has  something  of  a  prophetic  charac- 
ter. Due  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to 
distinguish  between  an  illustration  and  a 
type. 

TYR  AN'NUS,  rider,  the  name  of  a  person 
at  Ephesus  in  whose  audience-room  Paul 
publicly  proposed  and  defended  the  doc- 
trines of  the  gospel  for  2  years,  Acts  19:9. 
By  some  he  is  thought  to  have  been  a  Greek 
sophist,  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  or  philosophy, 
apparently  a  friend  of  free  discussion,  and 
very  likely  a  convert  finally  to  Christianity. 
TYRE,  or  TY'RUS,  a  rock,  the  celebrated 
emporium  of  Phoenicia,  the  seat  of  im- 
mense wealth  and  power,  situated  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  within  the 
limits  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  as  assigned  by 
Joshua,  Josh. 19:29,  though  never  reduced 

645 


TYR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TYR 


to  subjection,  Judg.  1:31,  32.  Tyre  was  a 
"  daughter  of  Zidon,"  lying  20  miles  south, 
but  rapidly  gained  an  ascendency  over 
this  and  all  the  other  cities  of  Phoenicia, 
which  it  retained  with  few  exceptions  to 
the  last.  It  is  mentioned  by  neither  Moses 
nor  Homer.  At  the  time  of  the  Judges  the 
Phoenicians  were  called  Zidonians,  Josh. 
13:6;  Judg.  18:7,  and  Virgil  so  calls  the 
PhcEnician  founders  of  Carthage;  but  from 
the  time  of  David  onward  reference  is  fre- 
quently made  to  Tyre  in  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Though  it  was  a  commer- 
cial city,  its  government  was  regal,  not  re- 
publican, Jer.  25:22;  27:3.  Many  Israelites 
seem  to  have  resided  there,  2  Sam.  24:7. 
There  was  a  close  alliance  between  David 
and  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  which  was  after- 
wards continued  in  the  reign  of  Solomon; 
and  it  was  from  the  assistance  afforded  by 
the  Tyrians,  both  in  artificers  and  materi- 
als, that  the  house  of  David,  and  after- 
wards the  temple,  were  principally  built, 
2  Sam.  5:11 ;  i  Kin.  5;  i  Chr.  14;  2  Chr.  2:3; 
9:10.  The  marriage  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel 
with  Jezebel,  a  royal  princess  of  Phoenicia, 
brought  great  guilt  and  endless  misfor- 
tunes on  the  10  tribes ;  for  the  Tyrians  were 
gross  idolaters,  worshippers  of  Baal  and 
Ashtoreth,  and  addicted  to  all  the  vices  of 
heathenism.  The  Bible  gives  us  graphic 
descriptions  of  Tyre's  immense  exports  and 
imports — its  precious  metals,  slaves  and 
brass,  horses  and  mules,  ebony  and  ivory, 
wheat,  oil,  honey,  wine,  wool,  and  spices, 
its  frequent  fairs,  and  its  dealings  with 
many  countries,  from  England  to  India. 
Secular  history  informs  us  that  Tyre  pos- 
sessed the  empire  of  the  seas,  and  drew 
wealth  and  power  from  numerous  colonies 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic.  The  inhabitants  of  Tyre  are 
represented  in  the  Old  Testament  as  filled 
with  pride  and  luxury  and  all  the  sins 
attendant  on  prosperity  and  immense 
wealth ;  judgments  are  denounced  against 
them  in  consequence  of  their  idolatry  and 
wickedness.  It  exulted  in  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Ezek.  26:2, 
as  removing  a  commercial  rival  and  the 
city  of  Jehovah ;  comp.  2  Kin.  23:19,  20; 
and  was  denounced  by  the  prophet  Joel, 
3 : 4-8,  for  selling  children  of  Judah  as 
slaves  to  the  Greeks,  and  by  Amos,  i  :9,  10, 
for  delivering  them  as  captives  to  Edom, 
forgetting  the  "brotherly  covenant"  with 
David.  Phoenicia  was  invaded  by  Shal- 
maneser  not  far  from  B.  C.  723.  and  Tyre 
was  besieged  by  him  and  bv  Sargon,  and 
646 


probably  became  tributary  for  a  time.  Its 
destructioti  by  Nebuchadnezzar  was  fore- 
told, and  in  a  few  years  followed,  Isa.  23:1, 
13;  Ezek.  26:7-21;  27;  28:1-19;  29:18-20, 
though  it  appears  that  the  conqueror  pro- 
fitted  less  than  he  anticipated,  and  made 
amends  by  his  inroad  on  Egypt,  Ezek. 
29:18-20.  Tyre  was  a  double  city,  appar- 
ently from  a  very  early  period,  a  part  be- 
ing on  the  mainland,  7  miles  long,  and  a 
part  on  an  island  less  than  a  mile  long  and 
half  a  mile  from  the  shore.  The  siege 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  lasted  13  years,  and 
at  its  end  it  would  seem  that  the  inhabi- 
tants withdrew  to  insular  Tyre,  which  was 
enlarged  and  fortified  and  became  opulent 
and  powerful.  It  had  2  harbors,  the  one 
on  the  north  a  natural  bay,  that  on  the 
south  formed  by  a  costly  breakwater.  It 
fell  for  a  time  under  Persian  control,  and 
furnished  materials  for  Zerubbabel's  tem- 
ple, Ezra  3:7.  Its  strength  and  resources 
enabled  it  to  withstand  the  utmost  efforts 
of  Alexander  the  Great  for  the  space  of  7 
months.  It  was  at  length  taken  by  him  in 
332  B.  C,  having  been  first  united  to  the 
mainland  by  an  immense  causeway  made 
of  the  ruins  of  the  old  city,  the  site  of  which 
was  thus  laid  bare ;  many  thousands  were 
massacred,  and  30,000,  it  is  said,  were  sold 
as  slaves.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
Tyre  was  ruled  by  the  Seleucidae,  having 
been  besieged  by  Antigonus  14  months.  It 
fell  at  last  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  continued  to  enjoy  a  degree  of 
commercial  prosperity,  though  the  deterio- 
ration of  its  harbor  and  the  rise  of  Alexan- 
dria and  other  maritime  cities  have  made 
it  decline  more  and  more.  Our  Saviour 
once  journeyed  into  the  region  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  Matt.  15:21,  and  may  have  visited 
it  in  his  youth,  for  it  was  only  40  miles 
from  Nazareth.  A  Christian  church  was 
here  established  before  A.  D.  58,  when 
Paul  spent  a  week  there.  Acts  21  : 3-7. 
Comp.  Matt.  11:21,  22.  The  church  pros- 
pered for  several  centuries,  and  councils 
were  held  here,  at  one  of  which  Athanasius 
was  condemned,  A.  D.  335.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Moslems  under  Caliph  Omar, 
A.  D.  633-638,  and  was  still  famed  as  a 
strong  fortress,  as  it  was  also  in  the  age  of 
the  Crusaders,  by  whom  it  was  only  taken 
A.  D.  1 1 24,  25  years  after  they  had  gained 
Jerusalem.  Since  its  reconquest  by  the 
Turks,  A.  D.  1291,  it  has  been  in  a  ruinous 
condition  and  often  almost  without  inhabi- 
tants. At  present  it  is  a  poor  town,  called 
Sur,  slightly  defended  by  its  wall,  and  hav- 


MODERN  TYRE. 


UCA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


UNI 


ing  a  population  of  less  than  5,000.  It  occu- 
pies the  east  side  of  what  was  formerly  the 
island,  one  mile  long  and  half  a  mile  from 
the  shore,  thus  inclosing  two  so-called  har- 
bors separated  by  Alexander's  causeway, 
which  is  now  a  broad  isthmus.  The  only 
real  harbor  is  on  the  north,  but  even  this  is 
too  shallow  to  admit  any  but  the  smallest 
class  of  vessels.  It  is  filled  and  the  north 
coast  of  the  island  lined  with  stone  col- 
umns, whose  size  and  countless  number 
evince  the  former  magnificence  of  this 
famous  city.  But  its  old  glory  is  gone  for 
ever,  and  a  few  fishermen  spread  their  nets 
amid  its  ruins  in  the  place  of  the  merchant 
princes  of  old,  Ezek.  26:5,  14. 

u. 

U'CAL,  sorrowful,  Prov.  30:1,  and  Ith- 
lEL,  God  is,  apparently  two  disciples  of 
Agur;  yet  these  names  may  be  symbolical 
of  two  classes  of  people  addressed  by  the 
wise  man.  Dr.  Davidson  renders  the  pas- 
sage, "  I  am  weary,  O  God,  I  am  weary,  O 
God,  and  have  become  weak." 

U'LAI,  pure  ivater,  the    clasic    Eulae'us, 
the  river  in  Persia  on  the  bank  of  which, 
bythe  city  Shushan,  Daniel  had  his  vision 
of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat,  Dan.  8:2-16. 
Some  20  miles  north  of  Shushan   this 
river,   usually   called  there   the   Choas- 
pes,  was  divided — one  stream,  generally 
called  the  Eulaeus,  passing  down  on  the 
east  of  Shushan  and  emptying  into  the 
Kurun  or  Pasitigris,  which  flowed  into 
the  Persian  Gulf;  the  other  stream,  gen-     ^ 
erally  called  the  Choaspes,  now  the  Ker- 
khah,  passing  on  the  west  of  Shushan  and 
flowing  southwest  into  the  Tigris.     The 
bed  of  the  Eulaeus,  900  feet  wide,  is  now 
dry. 

VL,AM, /ronl,  I.,  grandson  of  Manas- 
seh,  I  Chr.  7:16. 

II.  A  descendant  of  Saul,  i  Chr.  8:39, 40. 

UL'LA,  yoke,  a   brave   prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher,  i  Chr.  7:39. 

UM'MAH,  7aiion,  a  city  on  the  north 
border  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:30;  now  'Abna 
esh  Shaub,  6  miles  northeast  of  Achzib. 

UNBELIEF'  of  the  testimony  of  God 
makes  him  a  liar,  and  is  a  sin  of  the  great- 
est enormity.  It  is  the  work  of  a  depraved 
and  guilty  heart ;  for  no  one  without  this 
bias  could  reject  the  abundant  witness  God 
furnishes  of  the  truth  of  his  word,  Psa.  14:1 ; 
Rom.  1:19-23.  Especially  is  unbelief  to- 
wards an  offered  Saviour  an  unspeakable 
crime,  justly  sealing  the  condemnation  of 


him  who  thus  refuses  to  be  saved,  John 
3:11,  iS;  5:38;   I  John  5:10. 

UNCIR'CUMCISED  persons,  men  not 
having  undergone  the  initiatory  rite  of  ad- 
mission to  the  Hebrew  commonwealth; 
heathen.  The  term  is  used  figuratively  of 
lips  thick  and  slow  of  speech,  Exod.  6:12, 
30,  ears  dull  of  hearing,  Jer.  6:10,  indica- 
ting hearts  impervious  to  gospel  truth, 
Deut.  10:16;  Acts  7:51;  also  of  the  first 
fruit  of  a  tree,  Lev.  19:23.  See  Circum- 
cision. 

UNCLEAN'.    See  Clean. 

UNCTION,  anointing,  1  John  2:20,  27, 
the  special  communication  of  the  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  Christ  to  believers, 
leading  them  into  all  truth  and  holiness. 
Often  used  in  our  times  to  denote  divine 
aid  in  preaching,  and  implying  something 
far  above  mere  earnestness  and  warmth. 

UNDERGIRD',  passing  a  cable  several 
times  under  and  around  a  ship  and  tight- 
ening it  on  deck  to  prevent  the  working 
and  parting  of  the  timbers  and  planks  in 
a  gale.  Acts  27:17.  The  process  is  called 
frapping,  and  has  been  resorted  to  in  vari- 
ous instances  in  modern  times. 

UNDERTAKE',  to  be  surety  for,  Isa. 
38:14. 


U'NICORN,  one-hortied,  Gr.  Monokeros, 
by  which  the  original  Heb.  Reem  is  trans- 
lated by  the  Seventy.  The  Hebrew  word 
means  erect,  and  has  no  reference  to  the 
number  of  horns.  In  Deut.  33:17  we  should 
read,  according  to  the  Hebrew,  "the  horns 
of  a  unicorn,"  not  "  unicorns."  The  reem 
is  usually  associated  in  Scripture  with  cat- 
tle, Isa.  34:6,  7,  and  is  now  understood  to 
denote  a  huge  animal  of  the  bison  or  buf- 
falo kind,  the  Bos  primigenius,  or  aurocks, 
now  extinct,  of  immense  strength  and  fe- 
rocity, like  the  wild  bull  so  frequently  rep- 

647 


UNK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


UR 


resented  on  the  Assyrian  monuments,  as 
formidable  for  hunters  as  the  lion. 

UNKNOWN'  GOD,  An,  not  Thk,  Acts 
17:23;  not  Jehovah,  but  some  supposed 
divinity  who  had  befriended  the  Athenians, 
it  was  claimed,  in  a  time  of  general  trouble. 

UNKNOWN'  TONGUE,  literally  "an- 
other tongue."     See  Tongues. 

UNLEARN'ED,  the  translation  of  four 
Greek  words,  meaning  "unlettered"  in 
Acts  4: 13,  "untaught "  in  2  Pet.  3:16,  "un- 
instructed  "  in  2  Tim.  2:23  ;  a  "private  per- 
son "  in  2  Cor.  14:16,  23,  24.  The  latter 
word  is  translated  "rude"  in  2  Cor.  11:6. 
All  denote  a  person  without  education. 

UNLEAVENED  BREAD,  made  from  un- 
fermeiUed  dough,  which  the  Hebrews,  like 
the  modern  Bedouins,  often  used,  Gen. 
19:3;  Judg.  6:19;  I  Sam.  28:24;  though 
they  were  familiar  with  leaven  or  yeast, 
made  from  lees  of  wine  or  from  flour  and 
water  allowed  to  stand,  Lev.  7:13;  23:17. 
At  the  Passover  festival  mileavened  bread 
was  prescribed  as  a  memorial  of  the  haste 
of  their  departure  from  Egypt,  and  every 
particle  of  fermenting  matter  was  scrupu- 
lously removed  from  their  houses,  Exod. 
12:19;  13:7;  I  Cor.  5:7.  See  Leaven  and 
Passover. 


UNPAR'DONABLE  SIN,  Matt.  12:31,  32. 
See  Bi,.Asi'iii:.MV. 

UNTO' WARD,  Acts  2:40,  perverse. 

UNWIT'TINGLY,  Lev.  22:14;  Josh.  20:3, 
5,  not  purposely. 

UPHAR'SIN,  and  they  are  dividing^,  a 
Chaldee  word,  an  active  plural  form  with 
the  conjunction  prefixed;  while  peres  or 
p HARES,  from  the  same  root,  is  a  passive 
participle,  and  means  divided,  Dan.  5:25, 28. 

U'PHAZ,  a  region  producing  fine  gold, 
Jer.  10:9;  Dan.  10:5.  In  Hebrew  it  differs 
from  Ophir  by  only  one  letter,  and  it  is 
thought  by  many  to  denote  the  same  re- 
gion. 

UP'PER  CHAM'BER  or  ROOM,  Heb. 
aliyyali,  an  apartment  on  the  roof  of  a 
hoiise,  sometimes  projecting  over  the  porch 
and  communicating  with  it  by  a  private 
staircase;  translated  "parlor"  in  Judg. 
3:20-24,  and  "loft"  in  i  Kin.  17:19,  23, 
A.  V.  It  was  often  the  most  desirable 
summer  room  in  the  house,  2  Kin.  23:12, 
and  a  prophet  was  honored  by  being  there 
lodged,  I  Kin.  17:19;  2  Kin.  4:10,  11.  See 
House;  also  Mark  14:15;  Acts  1:13;  9:37; 
20:8. 

UR,  light,  I.,  Ur  of  the  Chal'dees,  the 
home  of  Terah  and  the  birthplace  of  Abra- 


POOL  OF  ABRAHAM  AT  ORFAH. 


ham.  Gen.  II  :28,  31 ;  15:7;  Neh.  9:7;  Acts 
7:2-4.     It  has  long  been  identified  with  the 
648 


city  of  Orfah,  in  Northwestern  Mesopota- 
mia, a  town  of  40,000  inhabitants — Turks, 


URB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


URI 


Arabians,  Kurds,  Jews,  and  Armenian  Chris- 
tians— which  both  Jews  and  Moslems  honor 
as  the  early  home  of  Abraham.  There  is  a 
pool  near  by,  bearing  his  name,  and  a  cave 
in  which  he  is  said  to  have  dwelt  is  covered 
by  a  specially  sacred  mosque.  Other  au- 
thorities have  placed  Ur  at  Warka  in  South- 
ern Mesopotamia,  120  miles  southeast  of 
Babylon.  See  Erech.  Later  geographers 
incline  to  place  it  at  Mugheir,  near  the 
west  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  just  above  its 
junction  with  the  Tigris,  125  miles  from  the 
Persian  Gulf.  This  region  of  Southern 
Babylonia  seems  to  have  been  the  ancient 
Chaldsea,  while  the  country  north  of  it  was 
Mesopotamia,  Job  1:17;  Isa.  13:19;  43:14. 
The  ruins  of  Mugheir  cover  a  space  1,000 
yards  by  800 — a  number  of  low  mounds 
surrounded  by  countless  tombs,  with  re- 
mains of  a  very  ancient  temple  in  several 
stages,  in  each  corner  of  which  an  inscribed 
cylinder  was  found,  and  tablets,  the  rec- 
ord of  a  series  of  kings  beginning  with 
Urukh,  about  B.  C.  2230,  to  Nabonnedus, 
B.  C.  540,  the  last  of  the  Babylonian  kings, 
Avho  associated  with  himself  Belshazzar  his 
eldest  son.  See  Belshazzar.  The  re- 
gion around  Mugheir  is  now  a  dismal 
swamp. 

II.  Father  of  one  of  David's  warriors, 
I  Chr.  11:35. 

UR'BANE,  R.  V.  UR'BANUS,  of  the  city, 
Rom.  16:9,  a  Roman  disciple,  Paul's  com- 
panion in  Christian  labors. 

\i''R.l,  fiery,  I.,  son  of  Hur  and  father  of 
Bezaleel,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Exod.  31:2; 
35-30;  38:22;  I  Chr.  2:20;  2  Chr.  1:5. 

II.  Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  providers 
in  Gilead,  i  Kin.  4:19. 

III.  A  gate-keeper  in  the  restored  tem- 
ple, Ezra  10:24. 

URI'AH,  or  URI'JAH;  in  the  A.  V.,  Matt. 
1 : 6,  URI'AS ;  the  light  of  Jehovah.  1.  A  Hit- 
tite,  one  of  David's  2,7  chief  warriors,  2  Sam. 
23:39;  I  Chr.  11:41,  husband  of  the  beauti- 
ful Bath-sheba,  to  whom  he  was  devotedly 
attached,  2  Sam.  12:3.  He  had  a  home  in 
Jerusalem  near  the  royal  palace,  2  Sam. 
11:2,  was  a  patriot  of  a  high  and  noble 
spirit— refusing  to  visit  his  home  in  war- 
time at  the  suggestion  of  David,  who  hoped 
thus  to  conceal  his  own  crime,  ver.  9-13 — 
but  was  treacherously  exposed  to  certain 
death  in  a  battle  with  the  Ammonites,  by 
the  order  of  David,  who  thus  secured  Bath- 
sheba  for  himself,  ver.  16-27;  12:9-15. 

II.  A  high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz, 
supposed  to  have  succeeded  the  .Azariah 
under  king  Uzziah,  and  been  followed  by 


the  Azariah  under  king  Hezekiah.  He  is 
called  "a  faithful  witness"  by  Isaiah,  8:2, 
but  erred  in  constructing  at  the  king's  re- 
quest an  altar  unlike  that  prescribed  in 
the  law,  Exod.  27: 1-8  ;  38: 1-7,  after  the  pat- 
tern of  one  the  king  had  seen  at  Damascus, 
and  giving  it  the  place  of  honor  in  the  holy 
temple,  2  Kin.  16:10-16;  compare  23:12; 
2  Chr.  28:23-25. 

III.  A  priest  after  the  Captivity,  Ezra 
8:33;  Neh.  3:4,  21. 

IV-  Son  of  Shemaiah,  a  faithful  prophet 
from  Kirjath-jearim  in  Judah  in  the  time 
of  Jehoiakim.  He  confirmed  the  predic- 
tions of  Jeremiah  against  Judah;  and  hav- 
ing fled  to  Egypt  for  refuge  from  the  en- 
raged king,  and  been  sent  back  by  Pha- 
raoh-necho  on  demand,  he  was  wickedly 
slain  and  dishonorably  buried,  Jer.  26:20- 
23.     Comp.  2  Kin.  24:4. 

V.  A  priest  who  assisted  Ezra  when  he 
read  the  book  of  the  law  to  the  people, 
Neh.  8:4. 

U'RIEL,/r^  of  God,  I.,  father  of  Uzziah, 
a  Kohathite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:24. 

II.  A  chief  of  the  Kohathites  in  David's 
time,  prominent  in  bringing  up  the  ark 
from  Obed-edom's  house  to  Jerusalem, 
I  Chr.  15:5,  II. 

III.  Father  of  the  favorite  wife  of  Reho- 
boam,  granddaughter  of  Absalom,  2  Chr. 
11:20,  and  mother  of  Abijah,  2  Chr.  13:2. 

U'RIM  AND  THUM'MIM,  the  lights  and 
perfections,  or  light  and  truth;  compare 
Psa.  43:3;  a  divinely  appointed  means  of 
"inquiring  of  the  Lord,"  its  name  being 
expressive  of  the  truth  of  his  revelations. 
It  would  appear  to  have  been  made  known 
to  the  Jews  at  some  time  prior  to  its  first 
mention  in  Scripture,  Exod.  28:15-30.  It 
was  placed  within  or  on  the  high-priest's 
breastplate.  Lev.  8:8,  and  probably  is  to 
be  understood  as  present  when  the  ephod 
is  mentioned — being  worn  on  the  outside 
of  it.  Num.  27:21;  I  Sam.  14:3;  23:9,  11; 
30:7,  8;  2  Sam.  2:1;  and  when  counsel  is 
asked  of  God  by  the  high-priest,  Judg.  1:1; 
20:18,  28;  I  Sam.  14:18,  19.  It  was  given 
as  a  special  prerogative  to  the  "holy"  or 
consecrated  tribe  of  Levi,  in  the  line  of  its 
high-priests,  Deut.  33:8,  9;  but  is  not  men- 
tioned after  Abiathar's  day,  i  Sam.  23:6-12, 
28:6;  2  Sam.  21:1,  and  had  been  forfeited 
for  some  time  at  the  era  of  the  Captivity, 
Ezra  2:63;  Neh.  7:65;  comp.  John  11:51. 
King  Sau!  sought  information  through  it, 
but  was  not  answered,  i  Sam.  28:6.  The 
teraphim  seem  to  have  become  an  unau- 
thorized substitutefor  it,  Ezek.  21:21 ;  Zech, 

649 


usu 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


UZZ 


10:2.  It  is  not  known  what  were  the  mate- 
rial and  form  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
nor  ill  what  manner  God  thereby  revealed 
his  will.  According  to  Joseplius  and  the 
rabbis,  the  12  precious  stones  of  the  breast- 
plate formed  this  divine  oracle;  and  some 
conjecture  that  thej^  revealed  God's  pur- 
pose .by  emitting  an  extraordinary  lustre. 
According  to  others  the  words  Urim  and 
Thummim,  or  else  the  sacred  name  of 
Jehovah,  engraved  on  a  plate  of  gold  or  on 
one  or  two  precious  stones,  comp.  Rev. 
2:17,  and  placed  within  the  breastplate, 
formed  the  oracle.  When  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  were  to  be  used  in  inquiring  of 
the  Lord,  if  at  Jerusalem,  the  high-priest 
put  on  his  robes,  and  going  into  the  Holy 
Place,  stood  before  the  curtain  that  sepa- 
rated the  Holy  Place  from  the  Most  Holy 
Place;  then  turning  towards  the  ark  and 
the  mercy-seat,  upon  which  the  divine 
presence  rested,  he  proposed  the  subject 
respecting  which  he  desired  "  light  and 
truth."    See  Breastplate. 

U'SURY  in  the  A.  V.  means  only  inter- 
est, the  word  usury  not  having  formerly 
assumed  the  bad  sense  which  it  now  has, 
Luke  19:23.  The  Jews  might  require  in- 
terest of  foreigners,  Deut.  23:19,  20,  but 
were  forbidden  to  receive  it  from  each 
other,  Exod.  22  :  25 ;  being  instructed  to 
lend  money,  etc.,  in  a  spirit  of  brotherly 
kindness,  "  hoping  for  nothing  again," 
Deut.  i5:7->*<  Luke  6:33-35.  The  exact- 
ing of  real  usury,  Heb.  devouring,  is  often 
rebuked,  Neh.  5:7,  10;  Psa.  15:5;  Prov. 
28:8;  Jer.  15:10;  Ezek.  22:12,  14.  Land 
was  often  mortgaged  at  an  excessive  rate 
of  interest.  Lev.  25:36,37;  Ezek.  18:8,  13, 
17,  and  the  abuse  was  condemned  by  Ne- 
hemiah,  5:3-13,  and  by  our  Lord,  Luke 
6:30-35;  yet  reasonable  interest  for  money 
loaned  is  not  censured,  Matt.  25:27.  The 
Mosaic  code  was  adapted  to  a  non-com- 
mercial people,  but  its  principles  of  equity 
and  charity  are  of  perpetual  and  universal 
obligation. 

UZ,  wooded,  fertile,  L,  son  of  Aram,  Gen. 
10:23,  and  grandson  of  Shem,  i  Chr.  1:17. 

IL  In  the  A.  V.  Huz,  son  of  Nahor  and 
Milcah,  Gen.  22:21. 

III.  A  Horite  prince.  Gen.  36:28;  i  Chr. 
1:42. 

IV.  The  land  where  Job  dwelt,  Job  1:1. 
The  Seventy  call  it  Ausitis.  It  appears  to 
have  been  a  region  in  Arabia  Deserta,  be- 
tween Palestine,  Idum£Ea,  and  the  Euphra- 
tes, within  reach  of  the  Sabaeans  and  Chal- 
daeans.  Job  1:15,  17,  near  the   Edomites, 

650 


Job  30:6,  7;  Lam.  4:21,  and  at  one  time  a 
part  of  Idumaa.  Eliphaz  the  Temanite 
was  an  Idumtean.  See  Teman.  It  is  un- 
certain wiiether  its  inhabitants  were  de- 
scendants of  Uz  the  son  of  Aram,  Huz  the 
son  of  Nahor,  or  Uz  the  Horite,  Gen.  10:23; 
22:21;  36:28.  They  appear  to  have  had 
much  knowledge  of  the  true  God  and  the 
principles  of  virtue  and  religion. 

U'ZAI,  strong,  Neh.  3:25. 

Vl'ZPkV.,  going /ortli,\.\\Q  6th  son  of  Jok- 
tan.  Gen.  10:27;  i  Chr.  1:21.  His  home  is 
identified  by  Jewish  writers  with  San'a  in 
Yemen,  Arabia  Felix,  150  miles  from  Aden 
and  100  from  the  Red  Sea — a  large  city  on 
an  imposing  site,  with  fortifications,  fine 
houses,  minarets,  etc.,  and  having  some 
15,000  Jews  mingled  with  the  Arabs.  In 
Ezek.  27: 19  some  interpreters  read  "  from 
Uzal,"  instead  of  "  going  to  and  fro."  In 
the  R.  V.  the  clause  reads,  "  Vedan  and 
Javan  traded  with  yarn  for  thy  wares." 

UZ'ZA,  strength,  I.,  son  of  Ehud  the 
Benjamite,  i  Chr.  8:7. 

II.  Owner  of  the  burial-place  of  Manas- 
seh  and  Anion,  a  garden  by  the  royal  pal- 
ace, 2  Kin.  21  :i8,  26  ;  2  Chr.  33:20. 

III.  A  father  of  Nethinim,  Ezra  2:49; 
Neh.  7:51. 

UZ'ZAH,  strength,  in  some  places  in  the 
A.  V.  UzzA,  I  Chr.  6:29;  13:7,  9,  11. 

I.  A  Merarite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:29. 

II.  A  Levite,  son  of  Abinadab,  who  fell 
dead  while  conducting  the  ark  from  Kir- 
jath-jearim  towards  Jerusalem,  after  its  20 
years'  stay  in  his  father's  house,  2  Sam. 
6;  I  Chr.  13.  He  was  the  2d  son,  i  Sam. 
7:1,  Eleazar  being  the  ist  and  Ahio  the  3d. 
He  was  walking  by  the  side  of  the  ark 
when  the  oxen  stumbled,  and  he  rudely 
caught  it  lest  it  should  fall  to  the  ground. 
In  his  person  God  chastised  the  prevalent 
irreverence,  which  was  intimated  in  the 
rude  jolting  along  of  the  ark  by  oxen,  ex- 
posed both  to  sight  and  to  touch,  comp. 
i  Sam.  6:13-19,  while  the  law  required  it 
to  be  fully  covered  by  the  priests  and  then 
reverently  borne  by  staves  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  Levites,  who  were  not  to  look 
upon  or  touch  the  ark  itself  on  pain  of 
death,  Exod.  25:14;  Num.  4:5,  15,  19,  20. 
Comp.  1  Chr.  15:2,  13,  15.  The  place  long 
bore  the  name  of  Perez-uzzah,  "  the  breach 
on  Uzzah,"  2  Sam.  6:8,  and  was  near  the 
threshir-i^'-floor  of  Chidon,  disaster,  or  Na- 
chon,  stroke. 

UZ'ZI,  my  strength,  the  name  of  6  He- 
brews, I  Chr.  6:5,  6,  51;  7:2;  7:7;  9:8; 
Neh.  11:22;  12:19. 


uzz 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VEI 


UZZI'A,  strength  of  Jehovah,  one  of  Da- 
vid's champions,  i  Chr.  11:44. 

UZZI'AH,  strength  of  Jehovah,  I.,  a  Ko- 
hathite  Levite,  one  of  Samuel's  ancestors, 
I  Chr.  6:24;  called  Azariah,  ver.  36. 

II.  Father  of  one  of  David's  purveyors, 
1  Chr.  27:25. 

III.  The  loth  king  of  the  Southern  king- 
dom, called  OziAS  in  Matt.  1:8,  9,  A.  V. 
He  reigned  52  years,  B.  C.  810-759.  -^ 
great  earthquake  occurred  in  his  reign, 
Amos  1:1;  Zech.  14:5.     See  Azariah. 

IV.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  living  in  Je- 
rusalem after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:4 

V.  A  faithful  priest  in  Nehemiah's  time, 
Ezra  10:21. 

UZZI'EL,  strength  of  God,  the  name  of 
6  Hebrews.  I.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bela, 
I  Chr.  -J -.J. — II.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  Exod. 
6:i8,  22;  Lev.  10:4;  Num.  3:27;  i  Chr. 
23:12,  20;  26:23. — m-  A.  musician,  son  of 
Heman,  i  Chr.  25:4,  called  Azareel  in  ver. 
18. — IV.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun,  2  Chr. 
29  :  14. — V.  A  warlike  Simeonite  chieftain, 
who  completed  the  subjugation  of  the 
Amalekites  defeated  by  Saul  and  David, 

1  Chr.  4:42.— VI.  A  repairer  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:8. 

V. 

VAG'ABOND,  in  the  A.  V.  a  wanderer, 
not  necessarily  worthless  or  vicious,  Gen. 
4:12;  Psa.  109:10;  Acts  19:13. 

VAIL.    See  Veil. 

VALE,  VAL'LEY.  Five  different  He- 
brew words  so  translated  are  used  to  des- 
ignate different  varieties  of  low  ground 
intermingled  with  the  mounts  and  ridges 
of  Palestine.  See  Canaan.  One,  biqah, 
generally  denotes  a  wide  and  level  plain 
bordered  by  higher  ground,  and  is  often 
rendered  "plain,"  Gen.  11:2;  Isa.  40:4; 
Amos  1:5;  it  is  applied  to  the  plain  of  Ono, 
Neh.  6:2,  of  Coele-Syria,  Josh.  11:17;  12:7, 
and  of  the  lower  Jordan,  Deut.  34:3. 

A  2d  term,  emej,  denotes  a  long  and 
wide  valley  between  hills,  as  the  valley  of 
Ajalon,  Josh.  10:12,  of  Hebron,  and  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  Joel  3:2,  12, 

The  3d,  gai,  designates  a  deep  and  ra- 
vine-like valley,  as  that  of  Hinnom,  Josh. 
15:8.     It  is  applied  to  the  valley  of  Salt, 

2  Sam.  8:13,  the  ravine  where  Moses  was 
buried,  Deut.  34:6,  and  to  the  "valley  of 
the  shadow  of  death,"  Psa.  23:4,  where  it 
images  an  extremely  perilous  and  cheer- 
less state  of  the  soul.     See  view  in  Sela. 

The  4th,  nachal,  corresponds  to  the  mod- 


ern "  wady,"  a  valley  or  water-course,  more 
or  less  filled  with  a  rapid  stream  in  the 
rainy  season,  but  for  most  of  the  year  dry. 
Palestine  abounds  in  "  wadys,"  and  the  He- 
brew term  often  occurs,  and  is  translated 
"brook,"  "plain,"  "river,"  and  "valley." 
It  is  applied  to  the  brook  Gerar,  Eshcol, 
Cherith,  Kidron,  etc. 

The  5th  term,  shephelah,  is  appropriated 
to  the  great  plain  sloping  down  from  the 
mountains  of  Judah  to  the  Mediterranean, 
often  called  "  the  plain  ;"  in  the  R.  V.  "  low- 
lands," Deut.  1:7;  Josh.  9:1;  10:40;  11:2, 
16;  15:33;  I  Kin.  10:27;  I  Chr.  27:28; 
2  Chr.  1:15;  9:27;  Jer.  32:44;  33:13;  Obad. 
19;  Zech.  7:7.     See  Shephelah. 

Still  another  Heb.  term  of  specific  appli- 
cation,  the  Arabah,  is  found  in  Num.  22:1; 
35 : 1 ;  Josh.  3:16;  2  Sam.  2 :  29,  etc.,  and  de- 
notes the  great  valley  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  its  prolongation  north  along  that 
sea  and  the  Lower  Jordan.     See  Arab.\h. 

VAN'ITY  does  not  usually  denote  in 
Scripture  self-conceit  or  personal  pride, 
2  Pet.  2:18,  but  sometimes  emptiness  and 
fruitlessness.  Job  7:3;  Psa.  144:4;  Eccl.  i; 
often  wickedness,  particularly  falsehood, 
Deut.  32:21;  Psa.  4:2;  12:2;  24:4;  26:4; 
41:6;  119:37;  144:8,  and  sometimes  idols 
and  idol-worship,  2  Kin.  17:15;  Jer.  2:5; 
18:15;  Jonah  2:'i.  Comp.  Paul's  expres- 
sion, they  "  turned  the  truth  of  God  into  a 
lie,"  Rom.  1:25.  "In  vain,"  in  the  third 
commandment,  Exod.  20.7,  means  "unne- 
cessarily and  irreverently."  "Vain  men," 
2  Sam.  6:20;  2  Chr.  13:7,  are  dissolute  and 
worthless  fellows. 

VASH'TI,  beautiful,  the  queen  of  Persia, 
divorced  by  Ahasuerus  or  Xerxes  her  hus- 
band for  refusing  to  appear  unveiled  before 
his  revelling  company,  Esth.  i,  resenting 
apparently  the  degradation  to  the  level  of 
a  dancing-girl. 

VEIL,  an  indispensable  part  of  the  out- 
door dress  of  Eastern  ladies,  who  live  se- 
cluded from  the  sight  of  all  men  except 
their  own  husbands  and  their  nearest  rela- 
tives, Gen.  24:65.  If  an  Egyptian  lady  is 
surprised  uncovered,  she  quickly  draws 
her  veil  over  her  face,  with  some  exclama- 
tion like,  "  Oh,  my  misfortune  !"  To  lift  or 
remove  one's  veil  was  to  insult  and  de- 
grade her.  Song  5:7 ;  I  Cor.  11:5,  10.  The 
custom  of  wearing  veils,  however,  has  not 
been  prevalent  at  all  times.  Veils  do  not 
appear  on  the  Assyrian  or  Egyptian  sculp- 
tures. Mohammedanism  has  done  much 
to  effect  the  change.  Sarah  the  wife  of 
Abraham,  and  Rebekah  and  her  compan- 

651 


VEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VI N 


ions  at  the  well  do  not  appear  to  have  worn 
them,  Gen.  12:14,  15;  24:16,  65;  29:10; 
I  Sam.  1:12.  Comp.  also  Gen.  38:14,  15; 
Prov.  7:13.  Moses  put  a  veil  over  his  face 
when  he  had  done  speaking  to  the  people, 
Exod.  34:33.     See  AiiiMKLECH. 


Veils  were  of  diflerent  kinds.  Those 
now  worn  in  Syria  and  Egypt  may  be  divi- 
ded into  two  classes,  the  one  large  and 
sometimes  thick,  the  othef  small  and  of 
lighter  materials.  The  usual  indoor  veil 
is  of  thin  muslin,  attached  to  the  head-dress 
and  falling  over  the  back,  sometimes  to  the 
feet.  A  similar  veil  is  added  to  the  front 
of  the  head-dress  on  going  abroad, 
partially  covering  the  face  and  hang- 
ing low.  The  other  veil,  to  be  worn 
in  the  street,  is  a  large  mantle  or 
sheet,  of  black  silk,  linen,  or  some 
coarse  material,  so  ample  as  to  en- 
velop the  whole  person  and  dress,  lea- 
ving but  one  of  the  eyes  exposed,  Song 
4:9.  Such  was  the  veil  worn  by  Ruth, 
3:15,  properly  translated  "mantle" 
in  Isa.  3:22.  Many  women  wear  no 
other  veil  than  this.  The  Greek  word 
translated  "power"  in  i  Cor.  11:10 
probably  means  a  veil,  as  a  token  of 
her  husband's  rightful  authority  and 
her  own  subordination.  This  was  to  be 
worn  in  their  Christian  assemblies  "be- 
cause of  the  angels;"  that  is.  because  of 
the  presence  either  of  true  angels  or  of  the 
officers  of  the  church,  w-ho  being  unaccus- 
tomed to  see  the  unveiled  faces  of  women, 
might  be  distracted  by  them  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  public  duties. 

For  the  "  veil  of  the  temple,"  see  Tab- 
KRNAci.R  and  Tkmplk. 

VEN'GEANCE,    in    Deut.    32:35;    Rom. 
12:19;  Heb.  10:30-  Jude  7,  means  retribu- 
652 


tive  justice — a  prerogative  of  God,  with 
which  thbse  interfere  who  seek  to  avenge 
themselves.  See  Anger.  In  Acts  28:4 
many  suppose  that  the  islanders  meant 
the  goddess  of  justice,  Dike,  whom  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  regarded  as  a  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter,  and  feared  as  an  indepen- 
dent, just,  and  unappeasable  deity. 

VERMIL'ION,  a  brilliant  red  color,  re- 
sembling scarlet.  It  was  associated  with 
idolatry,  Jer.  22:14;  Ezek.  23:14;  and  on 
the  walls  of  Khorsabad,  and  on  a  marble 
from  Nimrtid  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
traces  of  vermilion  still  remain.  The  ver- 
milion now  used  is  a  sulphuret  of  mercury. 

VETCH'ES.     See  FiTCHES. 

VEX,  harass,  or  oppress,  Exod.  22:21; 
Num.  25:17;  I  Sam.  14:47;  Matt.  15:22; 
17:15;  Acts  12:1.  "  Vexation  of  spirit,"  in 
Eccl.  1 :  14;  2:  II,  17,  26,  etc.,  is  rendered  in 
the  R.  V.  "striving  after  wind." 

VI'ALS.     See  Censer. 

VILE,  in  Phil.  3:21,  humiliated;  in  Jas. 
2:2,  poor. 

VIL'LAGE,  a  collection  of  dw^ellings  less 
large  and  regular  than  a  town  or  city, 
I  Sam.  6:18  ,  Neh.  62  ;  Luke  8:1,  or  a  tem- 
porary pastoral  settlement,  tents  or  huts  in 
a  circle,  witli  some  inclosure  by  a  hedge  or 
otherwise,  and  a  gate,  Josh.  13:23,  28; 
15:32  ;  often  the  suburbs  of  a  walled  town, 
Lev.  25:31,  34;  Mark  6:56;  827. 


VINE.  Of  this  valuable  and  familiar 
plant  there  are  several  varieties,  the  natu- 
ral products  of  warm  climates,  where  also 
it  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest 
times.  Hence  the  early  and  frequent  men- 
tion of  its  products  in  Scripture,  Gen.  9:20; 
14:18;  19:32;  Job  1:18.  The  grape-vine 
grew  plentifully  in  Palestine,  Deut.  6:11; 
8:8,  and  was  particularly  excellent  in  some 
of  the  districts.  The  Scriptures  celebrate 
the  vines  of  Sibmah  and  Eshcol ;  and  pro- 
fane authors  mention  the  excellent  wines 


VIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VIN 


of  Gaza,  Sarepta,  Lebanon,  Sharon,  Aske- 
lon,  and  Tyre.  See  Sorek.  The  grapes 
of  Egypt,  Gen.  40:9-11,  being  small,  we 
may  easily  conceive  of  the  surprise  which 
was  occasioned  to  the  Israelites  by  wit- 
nessing the  bunch  of  grapes  brought  by 
the  spies  to  the  camp  from  the  valley  of 
Eshcol,  Num.  13:23,  24.  The  account  of 
Moses,  however,  is  confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  several  travellers;  and  even  in 
England  a  bunch  of  Syrian  grapes  has 
been  produced  which  weighed  19  lbs.,  was 
23  inches  in  length  and  19^  in  its  greatest 
diameter.  At  the  present  day,  although 
the  Mohammedan  religion  does  not  favor 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  there  is  no  want 
of  vineyards  in  Palestine.  Besides  the 
large  quantities  of  grapes  and  raisins  which 
are  daily  sent  to  the  markets  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  other  neighboring  places,  Hebron 
alone,  in  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  century, 
annually  sent  300  camel-loads,  or  nearly 
300,000  lbs.  weight,  of  grape  juice,  or  honey 
of  raisins,  to  Egypt. 

In  the  East  grapes  enter  very  largely 
into  the  provisions  at  an  entertainment, 
and  in  various  forms  contribute  much  to 
the  sustenance  of  the  people.  See  Gr.>\pes. 
To  show  the  abundance  of  vines  which 
should  fall  to  the  lot  of  Judah  in  the  parti- 
tion of  the  promised  land,  Jacob,  in  his 
prophetic  benediction,  says  of  this  tribe,  he 
shall  be  found 

"  Binding  his  colt  to  the  vine, 
And  to  the  choice  vine  the  foal  of  his  ass  ; 
Washing  his  garments  in  wine, 
His  clothes  in  the  blood  of  the  grape." 

Gen.  49  :  II. 

Vines  are  usually  planted  in  rows,  8  or  10 
feet  apart  in  each  direction,  with  strong 
stakes  at  intervals,  6  or  8  feet  high,  between 
which  the  vines  are  festooned.  In  many 
places,  where  the  land  is  uneven  or  on  hill- 
sides, they  spread  over  the  ground  and 
rocks  unsupported.  Often,  however,  they 
are  trained  upon  trellis-work  over  walls, 
trees,  arbors,  the  porches  and  walls  of 
houses,  and  at  times  within  the  house  on 
the  sides  of  the  central  court ;  thus  grow- 
ing, the  vine  became  a  beautiful  emblem 
of  domestic  love,  peace,  and  plenty,  i  Kin. 
4:25;  Psa.  128:3;  Mic.  4:4.  As  a  wood  it 
was  of  little  worth,  Ezek.  15:2-6. 

The  law  enjoined  that  he  who  planted  a 
vine  should  not  eat  of  the  produce  of  it  be- 
fore the  5th  year.  Lev.  19:23-25.  Nor  did 
Hebrews  gather  their  grapes  on  the  year 
of  Jubilee  or  the  sabbatical  year ;  the  fruit 
was  then  left  for  the  poor,  the  orphan,  and 


the  stranger,  Exod.  23:11  ;  Lev.  25:4,  5,  11, 
and  the  gleanings  every  year,  Lev.  19:10; 
Deut.  24:21.  At  anytime  a  traveller  was 
permitted  to  gather  and  eat  grapes  in  a 
vineyard  as  he  passed  along,  but  was  not 
permitted  to  carry  any  away,  Deut.  23  :  24. 
Another  generous  provision  of  the  Mosaic 
code  exempted  from  liability  to  serve  in 
war  a  man  who,  after  four  years  of  labor 
and  of  patience,  was  about  to  gather  the 
first  returns  from  his  vineyard,  Deut.  20:6. 

Josephus  describes  a  magnificent  and 
costly  vine  of  pure  gold,  with  precious 
stones  for  grapes,  with  which  Herod 
adorned  the  lofty  eastern  gate  of  the  Holy 
Place.  It  was  perhaps  in  view  of  this  that 
our  Saviour  said,  "  I  am  the  true  Vine," 
and  illustrated  the  precious  truth  of  his 
oneness  with  his  people,  John  15:1-8. 

"VINE  OF  SOD'OM,"  Deut.  32:32.  See 
Sodom,  Vine  of. 

For  the  "  wild  grapes"  in  Isa.  5:2,  4,  see 
under  Grapes. 

VIN'EGAR,  the  product  of  the  second  or 
acetous  fermentation  of  vinous  liquors. 
The  term  sometimes  designates  a  thin, 
sour  wine,  much  used  by  laborers  and  by 
the  Roman  soldiers.  Num.  6:3;  Ruth  2:14; 
2  Chr.  2:10.  It  was  given  to  our  Saviour 
on  the  cross.  Matt.  27:48;  Mark  15:36; 
John  19:29,  30;  and  was  previously  offered 
to  him,  mingled  with  bitter  ingredients  to 
deaden  pain,  and  refused  by  him,  Matt. 
27:34;  Mark  15:23;  comp.  Psa.  69:21.  See 
Gall.  In  other  places  it  denotes  the  com- 
mon sharp  vinegar,  which  furnished  the 
wise  man  with  two  significant  illustrations, 
Prov.  10:26;  25:20. 

VINE'YARD.  The  Jews  often  planted 
their  vineyards  on  the  side  of  a  terraced 
hill  or  mountain,  Jer.  31 : 5  (see  Mountain),. 
the  stones  being  gathered  out  and  the  space 
hedged  round  with  thorns  or  walled,  Isa. 
5:1-6;  Psa.  80:13;  Song  2:15;  Matt.  21:33. 
Vineyards  were  sometimes  rented  for  a 
share  of  their  produce.  Matt.  21  -.3^,  34 ;  and 
from  other  passages  we  may  perhaps  infer 
that  a  good  vineyard  consisted  of  1,000 
vines,  and  produced  a  rent  of  1,000  silver- 
lings  or  shekels  of  silver,  Isa.  7:23,  and 
that  it  required  200  more  to  pay  the  dress- 
ers. Song  8:11,  12.  In  these  vineyards  the 
keepers  and  vine-dressers  labored,  dig- 
ging, planting,  propping,  and  pruning  or 
purging  the  vines,  John  15:2,  gathering 
the  grapes,  and  making  wine.  The  vine- 
yard tower  is  often  large  enough  to  lodge 
them ;  and  they  had  to  guard  not  only 
against    robbers,  but    against  wild-boars, 

653 


VIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VIR 


jackals,  birds,  and  locusts.  They  formed 
a  distinct  class  among  cultivators  of  the 
ground,  and  their  task  was  sometimes  la- 
borious and  regarded  as  menial,  2  Kin. 
25:12;  2  Chr.  26:10;  Song  i:6;  Isa.  61:5. 
Scripture  alludes  to  the  fragrance  of  the 
"  vines  with  the  tender  grapes,"  Song  2: 13, 
and  draws  from  the  vineyard  many  illus- 
trations and  parables,  Judg.  9:12;  Matt. 
20:1;  21:28.  The  vineyard  of  Naboth, 
I  Kin.  21,  has  become  a  perpetual  emblem 
of  whatever  is  violently  taken  from  the 
poor  by  the  rich  or  the  powerful.  The  de- 
serted hut  or  tower,  in  which  a  watchman 
had  kept  guard  during  the  season  of  ripe 
grapes,  Psa.  80:12,  13;  Song  2: 15,  becomes, 
when  all  are  gathered,  an  apt  image  of 
desolation,  Isa.  1:8.  A  beautiful  allegory 
in  Psalm  80  represents  the  church  as  a 
vineyard,  planted,  defended,  cultivated, 
and  watered  by  God. 

The  VINTAGE  followed  the  wheat  harvest 
and  the  threshing.  Lev.  26:5;  Amos  9:13. 
The  "  first  ripe  grapes  "  were  gathered  in 
June,  or  later  on  elevated  ground,  Num. 
13:20;  and  grapes  continued  to  be  gath- 
ered for  four  months  afterwards.  The  gen- 
eral vintage,  however,  was  in  September, 
when  the  clusters  of  grapes  were  gathered 
with  a  sickle  and  put  into  baskets,  Jer.  6:9, 
carried  and  thrown  into  the  wine-vat  or 
wine-press,  where  they  were  probably  first 
trodden  by  men  and  then  pressed.  Rev. 
14:18-20.  It  was  a  laborious  task,  light- 
ened with  songs,  jests,  and  shouts  of  mirth, 
Jer.  25:30;  48:33.  It  is  mentioned  as  a 
mark  of  the  great  work  and  power  of  the 
Messiah  that  he  had  trodden  the  figurative 
wine-press  alone,  and  of  the  people  there 
was  none  with  him,  Isa.  63:1-3  ;  Rev.  19:15. 
The  vintage  was  a  season  of  great  mirth, 
Isa.  16:9, 10,  and  often  of  excesses  and  idol- 
atry', Judg.  9:27;  while  the  mourning  and 
languishing  of  the  vine  was  a  sj-mbol  of 
general  distress,  Isa.  24:7;  Hab.  3:17; 
Mai.  3:11.  Of  the  juice  of  the  squeezed 
grapes  were  formed  wine  and  vinegar. 
See  Press. 

Grapes  were  also  dried  into  raisins.  A 
part  of  Abigail's  present  to  David  was  100 
clusters  of  raisins,  i  Sam.  25:18;  and  when 
Ziba  met  David  his  present  contained  the 
same  quantity,  2  Sam.  16:1;  i  Sam.  30:12; 
I  Chr.  12:40.  Respecting  other  uses  of  the 
fruits  of  the  vine,  see  Grapes,  Honey, 
Vinegar,  and  Wine. 

VINE'YARDS,    PLAIN     OF    THE,    Judg. 
11:33,  in  the  R.  V.  "  Abel-cheramim."     See 
Abel-carmaim. 
654 


vrOL,  Isa.  5:12;  Amos  5:23;  6:5,  a 
stringed  instrument  of  music,  elsewhere 
translated  "  psaltery."  See  Music  and 
Harp.  It  was  used  in  the  worship  of  Jeho- 
vah, I  Kin.  10:12;  I  Chr.  15:16;  25:1; 
2  Chr.  20:28;  and  of  idols,  Dan.  3:5,  7; 
and  also  at  banquets  and  festivals,  2  Chr. 
20:  28  :  Isa.  5:12. 


EASTERN   VIPER. 

VI'PER,  a  genus  of  serpents  noted  for  the 
virulence  of  their  poison,  which  is  said  to 
be  one  of  the  most  dangerous  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  Hence  the  viper  is  a  symbol  of 
whatever  is  most  evil  and  destructive.  Job 
20:16;  Isa.  30:6;  59:5.  As  such  the  term 
was  applied  by  Christ  and  by  John  to  cer- 
tain classes  of  the  Jews,  Matt.  3:7;  12  :  34 ; 
^3'-33,  Luke  3: 7.  Paul's  escape  from  the 
bite  of  a  viper  in  Malta  led  the  people  to 
believe  that  he  was  a  god  in  human  form, 
Acts  28:3.  A  species  of  viper  in  Northern 
Africa  and  Southeastern  Asia  —  having 
bright  yellow  and  brown  spots,  with  black- 
ish specks,  and  being  2  feet  long  and  thick 
as  a  man's  arm — is  called  the  most  formid- 
able serpent  there  ;  and  Hasselquist  speaks 
of  a  viper  in  Cyprus  whose  bite  produces  a 
universal  gangrene,  and  occasions  death 
within  a  few  hours.     See  Serpents. 

VIR'GIN,  usually  an  unmarried  female, 
Gen.  24:16;  Exod.  22:15-17;  Lev.  21:3,  14; 
Deut.  22:23;  Judg.  21:12;  but  in  i  Cor. 
7:25;  Rev.  14:4  an  unmarried  young  man. 
Fortified  and  guarded  cities  are  often  per- 
sonified as  virgins,  6-.  g.,  Tyre  and  Baby- 
lon, Isa.  23  :  12  ;  47: 1 ;  so  also  Egypt,  Jer. 
46:11,  and  the  chosen  people,  Jer.  14:17; 
18:13;  31:4;  Lam.  1:15;  Amos  5 :  2. 

VIR'TUE,  Mark  5  :  30  ;  Luke  6:19;  8  :  46, 
healing  power.  In  Phil.  4 : 8  ;  2  Pet.  1 :3,  5, 
Christian  manliness.  In  the  general  sense, 
true   virtue  towards   men   is  inseparable 


VIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VUL 


ffom  piety  towards  God ;  and  together  the 
two  words  describe  the  character  and  life 
of  one  who  loves  God  supremely  and  his 
fellow-men  as  truly  as  himself.  "  Virtu- 
ous," in  Ruth  3:11;  Prov.  12:4;  31:10, 
means  capable  and  worthy. 

VIS'ION,  Num.  24  :  15,  16  ;  i  Sam.  3 :  i,  a 
mode  by  which  God  often  revealed  him- 
self and  his  will  to  men,  usually  his  own 
servants,  and  especially  in  the  early  ages 
when  his  written  Word  was  incomplete. 
Visions  came  to  men  while  asleep,  Job 
4:13;  Dan.  2:19;  4:10;  7:2,7;  and  while 
in  a  trance,  Dan.  10:5-9;  Acts  11:5;  and 
the  receiver  was  no  doubt  assured  of  their 
divine  origin.  The  term  is  often  applied 
to  the  revelations  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the 
prophets. 

VOCA'TION,  a  divine  calling,  either  to 
some  special  service,  Exod.  31:2;  Isa. 
22:20,  or  from  sin  and  Satan  to  holiness 
and  God,  Eph.  4:1;  2  Thess.  2:14.  See 
Call. 

VOL'UME.  in  the  R.  V.  "roll,"  Psa.  40:7; 
Heb.  10:7.     See  Book. 

VOW,  a  voluntary  special  dedication  of 
person  or  property  to  sacred  uses,  a  free- 
will offering  made  to  God,  or  a  promise  to 
do  some  good  thing  or  abstain  from  some 
lawful  enjoyment,  under  the  influence  of 
devotion  to  him,  of  gratitude  for  his  good- 
ness, of  imminent  danger,  the  apprehension 
of  future  evils,  or  the  desire  of  future  bless- 
ings. To  fulfil  a  vow  binding  one  to  sin 
was  to  add  sin  to  sin ;  but  no  considera- 
tions of  inconvenience  or  loss  could  absolve 
one  from  a  vow,  Psa.  15  :4 ;  Mai.  i :  14.  Ja- 
cob going  into  Mesopotamia  vowed  the 
tenthof  his  income,  and  promised  to  offer  it 
at  Beth-el  to  the  honor  of  God,  Gen.  28:20- 
22;  31:13;  35:1-3.  Moses  enacted  several 
laws  for  the  regulation  and  e.xecution  of 
vows.  "  If  thou  shalt  forbear  to  vow,  it 
shall  be  no  sin  in  thee;  that  which  is 
gone  out  of  thy  lips  thou  shalt  keep  and 
perform,"  Deut.  23:21,  23;  Judg.  11:35; 
Eccl.  5:4,  5.  The  vows  of  minqrs,  etc., 
were  not  binding  without  the  consent  of 
the  head  of  the  family.  Num.  30.  A  man 
might  devote  himself  or  his  children  to  the 
Lord,  Num.  6:2.  Jephthah  devoted  his 
daughter,  Judg.  11:30-40;  and  Samuel  was 
vowed  to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  i  Sam. 
i:ii,  27,  28.  If  men  or  women  vowed 
themselves  to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  they 
were  obliged  to  adhere  strictly  to  his  ser- 
vice; but  persons  and  things  so  devoted 
were  sometimes  redeemed,  according  to 
specified  provisions.  Lev.  27.     These  self- 


imposed  services  were  more  in  keeping 
with  the  ancient  dispensation,  in  which 
outward  sacrifices  and  observances  had  so 
large  a  share,  than  with  enlightened  Chris- 
tianity.    See  CoRBAN,  Nazarites,  Rech- 

ABITES. 

VUL'GATE,  the  name  of  the  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures  used  by  the  Church 
of  Rome,  the  parent  of  all  the  versions  of 
the  Bible  made  by  that  church,  and  for 
manj'  centuries  almost  the  only  Bible  in 
general  use  in  Central  and  Western  Eu- 
rope. The  Old  Testament  was  originally  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  Septuagint,  not  of 
the  Hebrew.  This  version,  with  the  Greek 
and  Syriac,  and  the  N.  T.  Latin  //a/a,  were 
used  by  Jerome,  A.D.  383-404 ;  he  also  trans- 
lated anew  from  the  Hebrew.  The  final 
revision  of  the  Vulgate  was  in  1592. 


VUL'TURE,  a  large  bird  of  prey,  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  hawks,  and  including  a 
great  many  species.  It  is  pronounced  un- 
clean by  Moses,  Lev.  11:14:  Deut.  14:13. 
See  Birds.  The  word  is  used  in  the  Bible 
to  translate  three  Hebrew  words,  ayyah, 
daah,  and  dayyah.  The  ayyah,  better  trans- 
lated "  kite  "  in  Lev.  11:14;  Deut.  14:13,  is 
believed  to  denote  the  Milvus  regalis,  very 
common  in  Palestine  in  winter,  hanging 
about  camps  and  villages  for  garbage,  gath- 
ering in  groups  on  the  trees  in  stormy 
weather,  hovering  high  in  the  air  in  fine 
weather,  keenly  watching  for  its  prey  on 
the  ground,  carrion,  or  rats,  mice,  frogs, 
and  young  birds.  It  is  of  a  reddish  color, 
27  inches  long,  and  has  a  long  forked  tail. 
It  is  called  the  "  falcon  "  in  Job  28:7,  R.  V. 
By  the  dayyah,  Deut.  14:13  ;  Isa.  34:15,  and 
perhaps  the  daah,  Lev.  11:14,  is  probably 
meant  the  Black  Kite,  Milvus  migrans,  a 
bird  about  21  inches  long,  exceedingly  com- 
mon in  Palestine  except  during  the  winter, 

655 


VVAF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAJ. 


building  its  nest  loosely  on  ledges  or  trees, 
and  feeding  on  garbage.  It  resembles  the 
Milvus  ^-Egj'ptius.  See  Glede.  The  He- 
brew nesher,  translated  "  eagle  "  in  Scrip- 
ture, means  the  Griffon  or  Great  Vulture, 
a  far  larger  and  stronger  bird  than  our 
eagles.  The  Egyptian  vultures,  a  smaller 
variety,  are  commonly  called  in  Egypt 
"  Pharaoh's  hens."  The  vulture  has  a  na- 
ked or  downy  head,  with  a  long  beak 
curved  only  at  the  tip,  a  bare  neck,  and 
long  wings,  and  is  disgusting  to  every 
sense,  especially  to  the  smell.  It  is  a  car- 
rion bird,  though  not  exclusively,  and  has 
extraordinary  powers  of  vision.  Scarcely 
can  an  exhausted  camel  fall  on  its  route 
and  die  before  numbers  of  these  filthy 
scavengers  show  themselves  in  the  dis- 
tance, hastening  to  the  spot,  Job  28 : 7  ; 
9:30;  Matt.  24:28.  This  bird  is  called  the 
"gier  eagle"  in  Lev.  11:18;  Deut.  14:17; 
in  the  R.  V.  the  "  vulture." 


w. 

WATER,  Exod.  16:31,  a  thin  cake  made 
of  fine  flour,  unleavened,  and  used  in  con- 
nection with  various  offerings,  anointed 
with  sweet  oil,  Exod.  29:2,  23;  Lev.  2:4; 
7:12;  8:26;  Num.  6:15,  19;  I  Chr.  23:29. 

■WA'GES  were  paid  both  in  produce  and 
in  silver.  Gen.  20;  30;  31  ;  Exod.  2:9.  In 
Christ's  time  a  farm  laborer  received  "a 
penny,"  about  16  cents,  a  day,  Matt.  20:2- 
13.  The  law  and  the  gospel  both  require 
the  full  and  prompt  payment  of  a  just 
equivalent  for  all  services  rendered  ac- 
cording to  agreement.  Lev.  19:13;  Deut. 
24:14,  15;  Jer.  22:13;  Mai.  3:5,  and  with- 
holding wages  due  is  denounced  as  a  cruel 
wrong,  Jas.  5:4.  Eternal  death  is  the  wa- 
ges or  just  recompense  of  sin ;  while  eter- 
nal life  is  not  a  recompense  earned  by  obe- 
dience, but  a  sovereign  gift  of  God,  Rom. 
6:22,  23. 


EGYPTIAN   FOUR-WHEELED   FUNERAL   CAR,  SYMBOLICAL. 


WAG'ONS  were  sent  by  Joseph  to  con- 
vey his  father's  family  into  Egj'pt,  Gen. 
45: 19,  21,  27.  The  same  vehicle,  sometimes 
called  a  "  cart,"  was  employed  to  transport 
some  of  the  sacred  utensils.  Num.  7:3,  6, 
in  two  instances,  unlawfully,  the  ark  itself, 
I  Sam.  6:7-14;  2  Sam.  6:3;  i  Chr.  13:7. 
See  UzzAH.  See  also  Ezek.  23:24.  Wag- 
ons were  drawn  by  oxen  or  by  horses. 
They  were  probably  of  simple  structure, 
with  2  solid  wheels.  Such  carts  are  some- 
times used  in  Syria  in  removing  agricultu- 
ral produce,  Amos  2:13;  but  vehicles  of 
any  kind  are  little  used,  and  travellers  and 
merchandise  are  borne  on  the  backs  of 
camels,  horses,  and  mules.     See  Carts. 

WALK  is  often  figuratively  used  to  de- 
note a  man's  mode  of  life,  or  his  spiritual 
656 


character,  course,  and  relations,  Ezek. 
11:20.  He  may  walk  as  a  carnal  or  as  a 
spiritual  man,  Rom.  8:1;  with  God  or  in 
ignorance  and  sin,  Gen.  5:24;  1  John  1:6, 
7;  in  the  fire  of  affliction,  Isa.  43:2,  or  in 
the  light,  purity,  and  joy  of  Christ's  favor 
here  and  in  heaven,  Psa.  89:15;  Rev.  3:4. 

WALLS.  The  walls  of  dwellings  in  the 
East  were  of  very  different  materials,  from 
mere  clay  or  clay  and  pebbles  to  durable 
hewn  stone.  See  the  latter  part  of  the  arti- 
cle House.  Walls  surrounding  cities  were 
often  built  of  earth,  or  of  bricks  made  of 
clay  mixed  with  reeds  and  straw  and  dried 
in  the  sun;  these  were  very  wide  and  often 
high  (see  Babylon),  and  some  were  de- 
structible by  fire,  Amos  1:7,  10,  14.  Many 
cities,  however,  like  Jerusalem,  had  walls 


^,ov*  y- 


A  WALLED  CITY:  JAFFA. 


WAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAN 


of  hewn  stone,  with  towers,  bastions,  and 
battlements,  Isa.  2:15;  9:10.  Even  dwell- 
ing-houses were  sometimes  built  on  them, 


Josh.  2: 15;  I  Sam.  19: 12 ;  2  Cor.  11 1^;^.  The 
ruin  caused  by  a  falling  wall  was  often 
great,  Psa.  62:3  ;  Isa.  30: 13.    See  City  and 


WAILING-PLACE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


Jerusalem.  The  accompanying  cut  shows 
a  portion  of  the  western  wall  of  the  sacred 
area,  Haram-es-Sherif,  at  Jerusalem.  The 
huge  stones  in  its  lower  part  are  believed 
by  the  Jews,  and  with  good  reason,  to  have 
formed  a  part  of  the  substructions  of  their 
ancient  temple,  and  to  be  as  near  as  they 
can  approach  to  the  site  of  the  Holy  of  Ho- 
lies. Hence  they  assemble  here  every  Fri- 
day, and  more  or  less  on  other  days,  to 
weep  and  wail  with  every  token  of  the 
sorest  grief,  Psa.  79:1,  4,  5;  102:14,  and  to 
pray  for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  In 
former  years  they  had  to  pay  a  large  price 
for  this  melancholy  privilege.  The  wall 
here  is  60  feet  high.  A  little  beyond  this 
spot,  towards  the  south,  is  the  fragment  of 
an  immense  arch  of  41  feet  span,  one  of  5 
or  6  which  supported  a  lofty  causeway  from 
Mount  Zion  to  the  temple  area  at  its  south- 
ern portico,  I  Kin.  10:5;  i  Chr.  26:16,  18. 
Some  of  the  stones  in  this  part  of  the  wall 
are  20  to  25  feet  long.  Excavation  in  some 
parts  has  shown  that  the  walls  of  the  tem- 
ple area  reached  down  to  the  native  rock. 

Hillside  terraces  were  supported  by 
walls,  and  vineyards  and  gardens  were  in- 
closed by  them,  Num.  22:24 ;  Song  4: 12. 

WAN'DERINGS     OF     THE     ISRAELITES. 
42 


See  Exodus.  On  departing  from  Egypt 
to  go  to  the  Promised  Land  the  Israelites 
were  unable  to  take  the  direct  road  north- 
east, "  the  way  of  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines," nor  "the  way  of  Shur,"  directly  east, 
on  account  of  the  fortified  frontier  of  Egypt 
and  the  Amalekites,  Gen.  25  :  18.  They 
were  turned  to  the  southeast,  "  the  way  of 
the  wilderness  by  the  Red  Sea,"  Exod. 
13:17,  18,  towards  which  they  were  also 
turned  back  from  Kadesh  two  years  later, 
Num.  14:25;  Deut.  2:1.  Having  crossed 
the  western  arm  of  the  Red  Sea  below 
Suez,  they  journeyed  southeast  along  the 
coast,  and  then  turning  to  the  east  pene- 
trated to  the  heart  of  the  Sinaitic  moun- 
tains, around  Ras  Sufsafeh.  Here  they 
received  the  law  and  remained  over  a  year. 
Thence  journeying  northeast  and  north,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  mountainous  range 
bordering  the  Arabah  on  the  west,  they 
came,  some  15  months  later,  to  Kadesh- 
barnea — whence  the  12  spies  were  sent  up 
to  explore  Canaan,  and  where,  on  their 
disheartening  report,  the  rebellious  and 
unbelieving  Israelites  were  condemned  to 
wander  in  the  desert  till  that  generation  of 
men  of  war  should  die  off,  Num.  32:11-13; 
Deut.  2:14-16. 

657 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAN 


The  whole  record  of  their  40  years'  so- 
journ in  the  desert  is  full  of  interest  and 
instruction  —  narrating  many  marvellous 
providences  and  signal  deliverances,  show- 
ing the  origin  of  the  various  institutions, 
and  illustrating  the  Christian's  pilgrimage 
to  the  heavenly  Canaan,  Neh.  9: 10-21 ;  Isa. 
63:11-14;  Amos  2: 10. 

The  scene  of  the  wanderings  was  Arabia 
Petraea.  Of  the  portion  included  between 
the  two  arms  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  southern 
half  is  occupied  by  the  vast  ranges  of  the 
limestone  Sinaitic  Mountains,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  long  cliffs  of  Jebel  et-Tih; 
and  the  northern  half  by  the  desert  et-Tih, 
the  wande?-ing.  North  of  this  is  the  vast 
desert  of  Paran,  extending  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  Num.  13:26,  and  the  desert  of 
Zin,  Num.  33:36,  on  the  northeast,  reaching 
to  Mount  Hor,  Kadesh,  and  the  Negeb,  or 
South  Country.  On  the  border  of  Egypt 
was  the  desert  of  Etham  or  Shur,  Exod. 
13-20;  15:22,  and  farther  south,  between 
Sinai  and  the  Red  Sea,  the  wilderness  of 
Sin,  Exod.  16:1.  The  whole  region  is  de- 
scribed as  "the  great  and  terrible  wilder- 
ness," Deut.  8:15.  It  was  deficient  in  food 
for  man,  and  the  supply  furnished  by  their 
flocks  and  herds  and  obtained  from  neigh- 


boring tribes  was  supplemented  by  manna 
till  they  were  safe  in  Canaan,  Josh.  5:11, 12. 
It  was  deficient  in  permanent  water  sup- 
plies, and  the  lack  was  met  by  water  from 
the  smitten  rock,  Exod.  17:6;  Num.  20:8- 
11;  I  Cor.  10:4.  There  was  some  food  for 
cattle,  for  Jethro's  flock  fed  in  the  valleys 
around  Sinai.  Er-Rahah  is  described  by  a 
traveller  in  the  i6th  century  as  "a  vast 
green  plain."  There  was  a  water  supply 
at  Kadesh,  where  they  "  abode  many  days," 
Deut.  1:45,  46;  this  was  sometimes  inclu- 
ded in  "the  wilderness  of  Paran,"  Num. 
13:26,  and  a  city  Paran  existed  in  the  wil- 
derness in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity. 

Towards  the  close  of  their  40  years  the 
Israelites  were  again  at  Kadesh,  where 
Miriam  died  and  the  murmuring  people 
were  again  supplied  with  water.  Num. 
20:1-13.  Being  refused  a  passage  through 
Edom,  they  visited  Mount  Hor  and  thence 
journeyed  south  to  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Red  Sea,  across  the  Arabah  and  up  on  the 
eastern  border  of  Edom  to  the  Jordan  val- 
ley. The  precise  route  of  their  journey- 
ings  cannot  be  determined,  but  the  list  of 
the  stations  mentioned  in  the  Bible  is  given 
below,  and  under  each  name  in  its  place  is 
told  whatever  is  known  of  its  site. 


I.    FROM  EGYPT  TO  SINAI. 


EXODUS  XII.-XIX. 

From  Rameses,  Exod.  12:37. 

1.  Succoth,  12:37. 

2.  Etham,  13  :  20. 

3.  Pi-hahiroth,  14  :  2. 

4.  Passage  through   the   Red   Sea,   14:22;  and 

three  days'  march  into  the  desert  of  Shur, 
15:22. 


Marah,  15:23. 
Elim,  15:27. 


5' 
6. 

7- 

8.  Desert  of  Sin,  16:1. 
9. 
10. 

11.  Rephidim,  17  :  i. 

12.  Desert  of  Sinai,  19:  i. 


NUMBERS  XXXIII. 

From  Rameses,  verse  3. 
Succoth,  ver.  5. 
Etham,  ver.  6. 
Pi-hahiroth,  ver.  7. 

Passage  through  the  Red  Sea,  and  three  days' 
march  in  the  desert  of  Etham,  ver.  8. 

Marah,  ver.  8. 
Elim,  ver.  g. 
By  the  Red  Sea,  ver.  10. 
Desert  of  Sin,  ver.  11. 
Dophkah,  ver.  12. 
Alush,  ver.  13. 
Rephidim,  ver.  14. 
Desert  of  Sinai,  ver.  15. 


II.    FROM  SINAI  TO  KADESH  THE  SECOND  TIME. 


NUMBERS    X.-XX. 

From  the  desert  of  Sinai,  10: 12. 

13.  Taberah,  11:3;  Deut.  9  :  22. 

14.  Kibroth-hattaavah,  11:34. 

15.  Hazeroth,  11 :35. 
16. 

17.  Kadesh,  in  the  desert  of  Paran,  12 :  16 ;  13 :  26 ; 
Deut.  1:2,  19.  Hence  they  turn  back  and 
wander  for  thirty-seven  or  eight  years. 
Num.  14:25-36. 

18. 

19. 

30. 
21. 

658 


NUMBERS   XX.XIII. 

From  the  desert  of  Sinai,  ver.  16. 

Kibroth-hattaavah,  ver.  16. 
Hazeroth,  ver.  17. 
Rithmah,  ver.  18. 


Rimmon-parez,  ver.  19. 
Libnah,  ver.  20. 
Rissah,  ver.  21. 
Kehelathah,  ver.  22. 


WAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAR 


23- 

24. 

25- 

26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 

30- 
31 
32 

33- 

34- 

35.  Return  to  Kadesh,  Num.  20:  i. 


Mount  Shapher,  ver.  23. 
Haradah,  ver.  24. 
Makheloth,  ver.  25. 
Tahath,  ver.  26. 
Tarah,  ver.  27. 
Mithcah,  ver.  28. 
Hashmonah,  ver.  29. 
Moseroth,  ver.  30. 
Bene-jaakau,  ver.  31. 
Hor-hagidgad,  ver.  32. 
Jotbathah,  ver.  33. 
Ebronah,  ver.  34. 
Ezion-geber,  ver.  35. 
Kadesh,  ver.  36. 


III.  FROM  KADESH  TO  THE  JORDAN, 


NUMBERS  XX.,  XXI.  ;  DEUT.  I.,  II.,  X. 

From  Kadesh,  Num.  20:22. 
Beeroth  Bene-jaakan,  Deut.  10:6. 
Hount  Hor,  Num.  20:22:  or  Mosera,  Deut. 

10:6;  where  Aaron  died. 
Gudgodah,  Deut.  10:7. 
Jotbath,  Deut.  10:7. 
Way  of  the  Red  Sea,  Num.  21:4;  by  Elath 

and  Ezion-geber,  Deul.  2:8. 


Oboth,  Num.  21 :  lo. 

Ije-abarim,  Num.  21 :  11. 

The  brook  Zered,  Num.  21:12;  Deut.  2 :  13, 14. 

The  brook  Arnon,  Num.  21 :  13;  Deut.  2:24. 


Beer  (well)  in  the  desert,  Num.  21 ;  16,  i8. 

Mattanah,  21 :  18. 

Nahaliel,  21 :  19. 

Bamoth,  21 :  19. 

Pisgah,  put  for  the  range  of  Abarim,  of  which 

Pisgah  was  part,  21 :  20. 
By  the  way  of  Bashan  to  the  plains  of  Moab 

by  Jordan,  near  Jericho,  Num.  21:33;  22:1. 


NUMBERS   XXXIII. 

From  Kadesh,  ver.  37. 


Mount  Hor,  ver.  37. 


Zalmonah,  ver.  41. 

Punon,  ver.  42. 

Oboth,  ver.  43. 

Ije-abarim,  or  lim,  ver.  44,  45. 


Dibon-gad,  ver.  45;  now  Dhib^n. 
Almon-diblathaim,  ver.  46. 


Mountains  of  Abarim,  near  to  Nebo,  ver.  47, 
Plains  of  Moab  by  Jordan,  near  Jericho,  ver.  48. 


SIEGE  OF   A   city:   FROM   THE   NIMROUD  PALACE,   NINEVEH. 


WAR,  one  of  the  evil  fruits  of  the  fall 
and  an  appalling  manifestation  of  the  de- 
pravity of  mankind,  Gen.  6:11-13;  153.9:5; 
Jas.  4:1,  2,  often  rendered  apparently  inev- 
itable by  the  assaults  of  enemies,  or  com- 
manded by  God  for  their  punishment.  See 
Amalekites  and  Canaan.  By  this  scourge, 
subsequently  to  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 


God  chastised  both  his  own  rebellious  peo- 
ple and  the  corrupt  and  oppressive  idola- 
ters around  them.  In  many  cases,  more- 
over, the  issue  was  distinctly  made  between 
the  true  God  and  idols  ;  as  with  the  Philis- 
tines, I  Sam.  17:43-47;  the  Syrians,  i  Kin. 
20:23-30;  the  Assyrians,  2  Kin.  19:10-19, 
35;   and  the   Ammonites,  2  Chr.  20:1-30. 

659 


WAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAR 


Hence  God  often  raised  up  champions  for 
his  people,  gave  them  counsel  in  war  by 
Urim  and  by  prophets,  and  miraculously 
aided  them  in  battle.  He  himself  at  times 
was  their  Captain,  Exod.  15:1-3;  Josh.  5:13, 
14;  6:3;  comp.  Psa.  68. 

Before  the  period  of  the  kings  there 
seems  to  have  been  scarcely  any  regular 
army  among  the  Hebrews,  though  they 
went  up  from  Egypt  equipped  for  war, 
Exod.  6:26;  12:37,41;  13:18;  but,  with 
some  exceptions,  Deut.  20 : 5-8,  all  who 
were  able  to  bear  arms  were  liable  to  be 
summoned  to  the  field.  Num.  1:3;  26:2; 
I  Sam.  11:7;  2  Chr.  25:5.  Saul  and  David 
organized  standing  armies,  i  Sam.  13:2; 
14:47-52;  18:5.  The  vast  armies  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  usually  fought 
on  foot,  armed  with  spears,  swords,  and 
shields ;  having  large  bodies  of  archers 
and  slingers,  and  comparatively  few  char- 
iots and  horsemen,  Judg.  20:16;  i  Chr. 
12:24;  2  Chr.  14:8.  See  Arm.s.  The  forces 
were  arranged  in  suitable  divisions,  with 
officers  of  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc., 
Judg.  20:10;  I  Chr.  13:1  ;  2  Chr.  25:5.  The 
Jews  were  fully  equal  to  the  nations  around 
them  in  bravery  and  the  arts  of  war,  but 
were  restrained  from  wars  of  conquest,  and 
when  invaders  had  been  repelled  the  peo- 
ple dispersed  to  their  homes.  A  campaign 
usually  commenced  in  spring  and  was  ter- 
minated before  winter,  2  Sam.  1 1 :  i ;  i  Kin. 
20:22.  Spies  were  often  sent  out 
in  advance,  Num.  13:17;  Josh. 
2: 1 ;  Judg.  7: 10;  1  Sam.  26:4.  As 
the  Hebrew  Host  approached  a 
hostile  army  the  priests  cheered 
them  by  addresses,  Deut.  20:2; 
I  Sam.  7:9,  13,  and  by  inspiring 
songs,  2  Chr.  20:21.  The  favor 
of  God  was  invoked  by  sacrifices,  •; 

1  Sam.  7:9;  13:8-12,  and  prayer, 

2  Chr.  14:11;  20:3-12.  The  sa- 
cred trumpets  gave  the  signal  for 
battle,  Num.  10:9, 10;  31 :6;  2  Chr. 
13:12-15;  the  archers  and  sling- 
ers advanced  first,  but  at  length 
made  way  for  the  charge  of  the 
heavy-armed  spearmen,  etc.,  who 
sought  to  terrify  the  enemy  ere 


39;  2  Sam.  5:23;  2  Kin.  7:12.  The  comba- 
tants were  soon  engaged  hand  to  hand  ;  the 
battle  became  a  series  of  duels ;  and  the 
victory  was  gained  by  the  obstinate  bra- 
very, the  skill,  strength,  and  swiftness  of 
individual   warriors,   2  Sam.    1:23;    2:18; 

1  Chr.  12:8;  Psa.  18:32-37.  A  general  bat- 
tle was  sometimes  preceded  by  single  com- 
bats, I  Sam.  17 ;  2  Sam.  2 :  14-17.  See  Paul's 
exhortations  to  Christian  firmness  under 
the  assaults  of  spiritual  foes,  i  Cor.  16:13; 
Eph.  6:11-18;  I  Thess.  3:8.  The  battles  of 
the  ancients  were  exceedingly  sanguinary, 

2  Chr.  13:17;  25:12;  28:6;  few  were  spared 
except  those  reserved  to  grace  the  triumph 
or  be  sold  as  slaves,  Judg.  i  :6;  9:45;  1  Sam. 
11:2;  2  Sam.  12:31;  but  the  comparatively 
lenient  character  of  the  Hebrews  was 
known,  Deut.  20:10-20;  i  Kin.  20:31;  2  Kin. 
6:20-23;  Isa.  16:5.  A  victorious  army  on 
returning  was  welcomed  by  the  whole  pop- 
ulation with  every  demonstration  of  joy, 

1  Sam.  18:6,  7.  The  spoils  were  divided 
after  reserving  an  oblation  for  the  Lord, 
Num.31 :5o;  Judg.  5:30;  trophies  were  sus- 
pended in  public  places,  eulogies  were  pro- 
nounced in  honor  of  the  most  distinguished 
warriors,  and  lamentations  over  the  dead. 

In  besieging  a  walled  city  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  surround  it  with  a  stockade,  mounds, 
and  forts,  cutting  off  supplies  of  water  and 
food,   and  preventing   escape.  Josh.   6:1; 

2  Kin.    19:32;   Isa.  37:33;  catapults  were 


they  reached  them  by  their  aspect  and  war- 
cries,  Judg.  7:  18-20;  I  Sam.  17:52;  Job 
39:25;  Isa.  17:12,  13.  War  chariots  armed 
with  scythes  were  sometimes  used  and 
wrought  great  havoc,  Josh.  17:16;  Judg. 
4:3.  Ambuscades,  rear  assaults,  night- 
surprises,  and  false  retreats  were  employ- 
ed. Gen.  14:15;  Josh.  8:2,  12;  Judg.  20:36- 
660 


THE  CATAPULT,   A   MACHINE   FOR   THROWING   HEAVY   DARTS. 

prepared  for  hurling  large  darts,  and  ba- 
listae  for  heavy  stones,  2  Chr.  26:15;  tow- 
ers were  erected  for  archers  and  slingers, 
2  Kin.  25: 1 ;  and  moimds  and  towers  were 
pushed  to  the  very  walls,  that  by  casting  a 
movable  bridge  across  access  to  the  city 
might  be  gained.  The  battering-ram  was 
also  employed  to  effect  a   breach  in   the 


WAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAT 


wall,  2  Sam.  20:15;  Ezek.  4:2;  21:22;  and 
the  crow,  a  long  spar  with  iron  claws  at  one 


end  and  ropes  at  the  other,  to  pull  down 
stones  or  men  from  the  top  of  the  wall. 
Scaling-ladders  were  used,  and  fire  was 
sometimes  employed,  Judg.  9:52.  These 
and  similar  modes  of  assault  the  besieged 
resisted  by  throwing  down  darts,  stones, 
heavy  rocks,  Judg.  9:53;  2  Sam.  11 :2i,  and 
sometimes  boiling  oil ;  by  hanging  sacks 
of  chaff  between  the  battering-ram  and 
the  wall ;  by  strong  and  sudden  sallies, 
capturing  and  burning  the  towers  and 
enginery  of  the  assailants,  and  quickly  re- 
treating into  the  city,  2  Chr.  26: 14,  15.  The 
modern  inventions  of  gunpowder,  rifles, 
bombs,  and  heavy  artillery  have  changed 
all  this.    See  Battering-ram. 

As  the  influence  of  Christianity  diffuses 
itself  in  the  world  war  is  becoming  less 
excusable  and  less  practicable ;  and  a  great 
advance  may  be  observed  from  the  cus- 
toms and  spirit  of  ancient  barbarism  to- 
wards the  promised  universal  supremacy 
of  the  Prince  of  peace,  Psa.  46:9;  Isa.  2:4; 
Mic.  4:3. 

"  Wars  of  the  Lord  "  was  probably 
the  name  of  an  uninspired  book,  long  since 
lost,  containing  details  of  the  events  allu- 
ded to  in  Num.  21:14,  I5- 

WARD,  or  Guard.  To  put  "in  ward" 
was  to  place  under  guard  or  in  confine- 
ment. Gen.  40:3;  Lev.  24:12.  Ward  also 
seems  to  mean  a  guard-room,  Neh.  12:25; 
Isa.  21:8,  and  the  guards  themselves.  Acts 
12:10,  or  any  small  band,  i  Chr  25:8; 
26:16. 

■WARE,  aware,  Acts  14  : 6,  on  guard 
against,  2  Tim.  4:15. 

■WASH'ING.     Of  the  two  principal  He- 


brew words  translated  "  wash,"  one  de- 
notes a  superficial  cleansing,  as  of  a  plate, 
the  other  a  through  and  through  purifica- 
tion, as  of  a  soiled  garment,  Lev.  17:15; 
the  latter  term  is  used  in  Psa.  51:2,  7; 
Jer.  2:22.  Various  ceremonial  washings 
were  enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  law,  both  upon 
priests  and  upon  others,  Heb.  9: 10.  These 
were  significant  of  spiritual  purification 
through  the  Saviour's  blood.  Tit.  3:5;  Rev. 
1:5,  as  well  as  of  that  holiness  without 
which  none  can  see  God.  Aaron  received 
ablution  of  the  whole  person  on  assuming 
the  priestly  office,  Exod.  19:10-15;  29:4; 
Lev.  8:6;  16:4;  and  all  priests  washed 
before  approaching  the  altar,  Exod.  30:17- 
21 ;  Psa.  26:6.  Those  who  had  contracted 
ceremonial  defilement  must  wash  them- 
selves. Lev.  12  to  15;  16:26;  Num.  19:7; 
and  those  who  declared  their  innocence  of 
a  crime  laid  to  their  charge,  Deut.  21:1-9; 
Matt.  27:24.  To  the  Mosaic  requirements 
the  Jews  added  other  traditional  ablutions, 
Mark  7:2-4,  and  regarded  it  as  an  act  of 
impiety  to  neglect  them,  as  Christ  frequent- 
ly did,  reproving  them  for  the  neglect  of 
vital  duties  in  their  scrupulous  care  for  out- 
ward forms.  Matt.  15:2-20;  Luke  11:37-44. 
The  washing  of  the  hands  before  and  after 
meals,  called  for  by  their  custom  of  feeding 
themselves  with  their  fingers,  is  still  prac- 
tised in  Syria.  See  cut  in  Bed.  Where 
there  is  a  servant  in  attendance,  he  pours 
water  from  a  pitcher  over  his  master's 
hands,  holding  also  a  broad  vessel  under- 
neath them,  2  Kin.  3:11;  Psa.  60:8.  The 
washing  of  a  guest's  feet  on  his  entering 
the  house,  to  cleanse  and  refresh  them,  was 
a  common  act  of  hospitality.  Gen.  18:4, 
usually  performed  by  servants,  i  Sam. 
25:41,  but  as  a  special  honor  by  the  host 
himself,  i  Tim.  5:10.  Our  Saviour's  per- 
forming this  humble  service  to  his  disci- 
ples was  a  most  impressive  lesson  in  mu- 
tual loving  service,  especially  in  preserving 
moral  purity,  and  a  perpetual  reminder  of 
our  need  of  his  cleansing,  John  13:4-14; 
2  Cor.  7:1;  Eph.  5:26,  27;  Heb.  10:22,  23. 
See  Foot  and  Sandal. 

WATCH,  a  division  of  the  night  hours. 
For  military  purposes  the  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  divided  the  hours  between  sunset 
and  sunrise  into  three  watches,  the  first 
ending  at  10  p.  m.,  and  the  second  at  2  A. 
M.,  Lam.  2:19;  Judg.  7:19;  Exod.  14:24; 
I  Sam.  11:  II.  After  the  Greek  and  Roman 
ascendency  the  night  hours  were  divided 
into  four  watches,  Matt.  14:25;  Mark  13:35; 
Luke  12  :  38.     Of  the  four  quaternions  of 

661 


WAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAT 


soldiers  who  guarded  Peter  each  would  be 
on  duty  in  turn  three  hours  by  day  and 
three  in  the  night. 

WATCH'ER,  Dan.  4:13,  17,  23,  a  figura- 
tive designation  of  heavenly  beings,  ap- 
parently angels,  as  seen  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar in  his  dream.     In  Jer.  4: 16,  besiegers. 

WATCH'MEN  are  of  as  early  a  date  as 
cities,  robbers,  and  wars,  Exod.  14:24; 
Judg.  7: 19.  Jerusalem  and  other  cities  had 
regular  guards  night  and  day,  Psa.  127  :  i ; 
Song  3: 1-3  ;  5:7,  to  whose  hourly  cries  Isa- 
iah refers  in  illustration  of  the  vigilance 
required  by  God  in  his  ministers,  Isa.  21 :8, 
II,  12;  62:6.  At  this  day  the  watchmen  of 
Jerusalem  "  keep  not  silence,"  nor  do  they 
"hold  their  peace  day  nor  night;"  espe- 
cially at  night  and  when  danger  is  appre- 
hended they  are  required  to  call  to  each 
other  every  few  minutes,  and  the  cry  passes 
from  one  to  another  entirely  around  the 
city  walls.  Those  of  Sidon  also  do  the 
same.  Watchmen  always  had  a  station  at 
each  gate  of  a  city  and  in  the  adjacent 
tower,  2  Sam.  18:24-27;  2  Kin.  9:27;  also 
on  hill-tops  overlooking  a  large  circuit  of 


terraced  vineyards,  whence  they  could  "  see 
eye  to  eye "  and  "  lift  up  the  voice  "  of 
warning  or  of  cheer,  Isa.  52:7,  8;  and  their 
responsible  office,  requiring  so  much  vigi- 
lance and  fidelity,  illustrates  that  of  proph- 
ets and  ministers,  Jer.  6: 17;  Ezek.  33:1-9; 
Heb.  13:17.  In  2  Kin.  18:8,  "from  the 
tower  of  the  watchmen,"  in  the  remote 
vineyard,  "  to  the  fenced  city,"  seems  to 
mean  "the  whole  land." 

■WA'TER.  See  CISTERNS  and  Wells. 
In  Isa. 35:7  the  Hebrew  word  for  "parched 
ground  "  or  "  glowing  sand  "  that  shall  be- 
come a  pool  of  water,  is  the  same  with  the 
Arabic  term  for  the  mirage.  The  blessings 
of  the  gospel  are  no  alluring  mockery,  but 
real  waters  of  everlasting  life,  Isa.  55:1; 
John  4:14;  Rev.  22:1.  Comp.  Isa.  29:8; 
Jer.  15:18.  See  Parched  Ground.  The 
"  rivers  "  or  "  streams  "  of  waters  in  Psa. 
1:3  may  mean  the  artificial  conduits  by 
which  water  was  conveyed  through  parks 
and  gardens,  Ezek.  31:4.  And  the  "  water- 
ing with  the  foot"  alluded  to  in  Deut. 
11:10  as  a  custom  peculiar  to  Egypt,  may 
refer  to  the  turning  of  these  little  canals  by 


WATERING. 


closing  one  passage  and  opening  another 
with  the  foot,  2  Kin.  19:24;  Prov.  21:1,  or 
662 


the  use  of  the  feet  in  the  treadmill  process 
by  which  water  for  irrigation  is  raised  by 


WAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WEI 


revolving  buckets  from  a  river  to  a  higher 
level,  as  in  the  Egyptian  shadlif. 

Water  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  to  sym- 
bolize spiritual  cleansing,  John  3:5,  and 
was  much  employed  in  the  temple  ceremo- 
nies and  in  private  life,  Mark  j-.t,;  John 
2:6.  See  Washing.  In  the  Feast  of  Tab- 
ernacles water  was  brought  from  the  Pool 
of  Siloam  and  poured  out  before  the  Lord. 
Comp.  I  Sam.  7:6;  Isa.  12:3;  John  7:2,37; 
Rev.  22:17. 

"  Waters  "  denote  tears  in  Jer.  9:1,  and 
troubles  in  Psa.  69:1 ;  Lam.  3:54.  "Stolen 
waters,"  Prov.  9:17,  are  adulterous  pleas- 
ures. 

WA'TER  OF  JEAL'OUSY,  or  "  BIT'TER- 
NESS,"  Num.  5:11-31,  a  test  permitted  in 
the  case  of  a  woman  suspected  of  adultery. 
Being  presented  unveiled  before  the  altar 
by  her  husband,  who  brought  an  offering 
of  barley,  a  handful  of  which  was  cast  upon 
the  burning  coals,  she  drank  water  into 
which  dust  from  the  floor  was  thrown,  and 
responded  "  Amen  "  to  the  priest's  denun- 
ciation of  disease  and  death  if  she  were 
guilty.  The  water  could  do  no  harm  un- 
less "  by  visitation  of  God  ;"  and  the  delay 
thus  secured  would  prevent  swift  and  un- 
just violence  by  the  husband.  By  some 
heathen  tribes  in  our  own  day  fatally  poi- 
sonous drinks  are  employed  in  like  cases. 

WA'TER  OF  PURIFICA'TION.  See  PU- 
RIFICATIONS. 

WA'TER-SPOUTS  are  well-known  phe- 
nomena in  the  Levant,  and  are  supposed 
to  be  produced  by  whirlwinds.  A  dense, 
black,  funnel-shaped  cloud  is  seen  depend- 
ing from  the  sky,  and  sometimes  moving 
rapidly  over  the  sea,  from  which  at  times  a 
similar  cone  ascends  to  meet  the  upper  one. 
Where  they  unite  the  column  may  be  3  or 
4  feet  thick,  and  when  they  break  torrents 
of  water  descend.  The  word  occurs  in 
Psa.  42:7,  where,  however,  the  Psalmist 
probably  alludes  to  cataracts  of  water. 

WAVE'-OFFERING.     See  Offering. 

■WAVES,  Psa.  93:3,  tumult  or  "  roaring." 

■WAX,  to  grow  or  become.  Gen.  19:13; 
Exod.  22:24;  Lev.  25:39;  Isa.  50:9;  Luke 
13:19. 

■WAY.  The  word  very  often  means  a 
mode  or  form  of  religious  life,  as  that  of 
the  heathen,  Jer.  10:2;  Amos  8:14,  or  that 
required  by  God,  Psa.  67:2;  Jer.  5:5.  In 
the  New  Testament  it  often  means  the  new 
system  of  faith  and  practice  taught  by 
Christ,  Acts  9:2;  19:9,23;  22:4;  24:14,22. 
"  Go  your  ways,"  Luke  10:3,  depart.  Com- 
pare Gen.  19:2;  John  11:46;  Jas.  1:24. 


WEALTH  often  means  welfare  or  pros- 
perity, Ezra  9:12;  Esth.  10:3;  Psa.  112:3; 
Eccl.  5:19;  6:2;  Acts  19:25;  I  Cor.  10:24. 

WEALTH'Y,  Psa.  66:12,  abundant;  in 
Jer.  49:31  tranquil. 

WEA'SEL,  one  of  the  unclean  animals, 
Lev.  11:29.  Several  varieties  of  weasels 
^re  found  in  Palestine,  including  the  com- 
mon weasel  and  the  polecat ;  also  the  short- 
legged  ichneumon. 

WEAVING,  an  art  very  early  practised 
by  all  nations,  exhibited  on  the  ancient 
monuments  of  Egypt,  Gen.  41 :42,  and  prac- 
tised by  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  Exod. 
26:1,7;  28:4,39;  Lev.  13:47, 48.  See  Flax. 
It  is  usually  performed  by  women,  2  Kin. 
23:7;  Prov.  31:13,  19.  The  distaff,  the 
shuttle,  and  the  weaver's  beam  and  pin 
are  mentioned,  Judg.  16:14;  i  Sam.  17:7; 
2  Sam.  21:19;  Job  7:6;  Prov.  31:19';  Isa. 
38:12.  The  Jews  say  that  the  high-priest's 
tunic  was  made  without  a  needle,  being 
"woven  from  the  top  throughout;"  thus 
also  "  the  High-Priest  of  our  profession  " 
was  clothed,  John  19:23. 

WED'DING.     See  Marriage. 

WED'DING-GAR'MENT.  See  GAR- 
MENTS. 

WEEKS,  or  successive  periods  of  seven 
days  each — partially  coinciding  in  length 
with  the  four  changes  of  the  moon — were 
known  from  the  earliest  times  among  na- 
tions remote  from  each  other  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  Gen.  8:10;  29:27;  50:10. 
See  Sabbath.  The  Hebrews  had  only  nu- 
meral names  for  the  days  of  the  week, 
excepting  the  Sabbath,  the  names  now 
current  among  us  being  borrowed  from 
Saxon  mythology.  The  Jews  called  Sun- 
day "  one  of  the  Sabbath,"  that  is,  the  first 
day  of  the  week.  Monday  was  "  two  of  the 
Sabbath."  A  prophetic  week  and  a  week 
of  years  were  each  7  j^ears ;  and  a  week 
of  sabbatical  years,  or  49  years,  brought 
round  the  year  of  jubilee.  In  John  20:26 
the  disciples  are  said  to  have  met  again 
after  "  eight  days,"  that  is,  evidently  after 
a  week,  or  the  eighth  day  after  our  Lord's 
resurrection.     See  Three. 

For  the  "  Feast  of  Weeks  "  see  Pente- 
cost. 

W^EEP'ING.     See  Funeral. 

WEIGHTS.  The  ancient  Hebrews 
weighed  all  the  gold  and  silver  they  used  in 
trade.  The  shekel,  the  half-shekel,  the  ma- 
neh,  the  talent,  are  not  only  denominations 
of  money,  of  certain  values  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver, but  primarily  of  certain  weights.  The 
weight  "  of  the  sanctuary  "  or  weight  of  the 

663 


WEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WEL 


temple,  Exod.  30:13,  24;  Lev.  5:15;  Num. 
3:50;  7:19;  18:16,  was  perhaps  the  stand- 
ard weight,  preserved  in  some  apartment 
of  the  temple,  and  not  a  different  weight 
from  the  common  shekel ;  for  though  Mo- 
ses appointed  that  all  things  valued  by 
their  price  in  silver  should  be  rated  by  the 
weight  of  the  sanctuary,  Lev.  27:25,  he 
makes  no  difference  between  this  shekel 
of  20  gerahs  and  the  common  shekel.  Eze- 
kiel,45:i2,  speakingoftheordinary  weights 
and  measures  used  in  traffic  among  the 
Jews,  says  that  the  shekel  weighed  20  ge- 
rahs ;  it  was  therefore  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  sanctuary.  See  Measures  and  the 
Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures  at 
the  end  of  the  volume.  The  divine  judg- 
ment on  Belshazzar,  "  thou  art  weighed  in 
the  balances  and  art  found  wanting,"  may 
be  illustrated  from  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, on  which  the  dead  are  depicted  as 
appearing  before  Osiris,  and  the  balances 
in  which  their  good  and  evil  deeds  are 
weighed  decide  their  doom. 

WELLS  and  SPRINGS.  The  word 
"wells  "  is  often  used  in  the  Bible  where  a 
spring  or  fountain  is  intended  ;  comp.  Gen. 
16:7,14.  So  in  Gen.  24:13-45;  49:22;  Exod. 
15:27;  Josh.  18:15;  2  Kin.  3:19,  25;  Psa. 
84:6;  Prov.  io:n;  Isa.  12:3;  John  4:14; 
2  Pet.  2:17.  In  other  places  a  cistern  is 
meant,  2  Sam.  3:26;  23:15, 16;  i  Chr.  11:17, 
18;  2  Chr.  26:10;  Neh.  9:25.  By  those  liv- 
ing in  a  temperate  climate,  where  the  well 
or  the  aqueduct  furnishes  to  every  house  a 
supply  of  water  practically  inexhaustible, 
no  idea  can  be  formed  of  the  extreme  dis- 
tress caused  by  thirst,  and  of  the  luxury  of 
relieving  it  by  drinking  pure  water — a  lux- 
ury which  is  said  to  excel  all  other  pleas- 
ures of  sense.  One  must  reside  or  travel 
in  a  Syrian  climate  to  realize  the  beauty 
and  force  of  the  allusions  of  Scripture  to 
"water  out  of  the  wells  of  salvation,"  "cold 
water  to  a  thirsty  soul,"  "the  fountain  of 
living  waters,"  and  many  others.  The  dig- 
ging of  a  permanent  well  or  the  discovery 
of  a  spring  was  a  public  benefaction,  and 
its  possession  was  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance. Its  existence  at  a  given  spot  de- 
cided the  nightly  resting-place  of  caravans, 
the  encampment  of  armies,  and  the  loca- 
tion of  towns,  1  Sam.  29:1;  2  Sam.  2:13. 
Hence  Beer,  the  Hebrew  name  for  a  well, 
forms  a  part  of  many  names  of  places,  as 
Beeroth,  Beer-sheba.  See  also  En.  So  val- 
uable was  a  supply  of  water  that  a  field 
containing  a  spring  was  a  princely  dowry, 
Judg.  1:13-15,  and  a  well  was  a  matter  of 
664 


strife  and  negotiation  between  different 
tribes.  Thus  we  read  that  Abraham,  in 
making  a  treaty  with  king  Abimelech, 
"  reproved  him  because  of  a  well  of  water 
which  Abimelech's  servants  had  violently 
taken  away,"  and  the  ownership  of  the 
well  was  sealed  to  Abraham  by  a  special 
oath  and  covenant.  Gen.  21 : 25-31.  A  sim- 
ilar transaction  occurred  during  the  life  of 
Isaac,  Gen.  26:14-33.  In  negotiating  with 
the  king  of  Edom  for  a  passage  through 
his  territory,  the  Israelites  said,  "  If  I  and 
my  cattle  drink  of  thy  water,  then  I  will 
pay  for  it,"  Num.  20:17-19.  Still  stronger 
is  the  expression  in  Lam.  5:4,  "We  have 
drunk  our  own  water  for  money  ;"  that  is, 
we  bought  it  of  our  foreign  rulers,  though 
we  are  the  natural  proprietors  of  the  wells 
that  furnished  it.  The  custom  of  demand- 
ing pay  for  water  from  the  traveller  is  still 
found  in  some  parts  of  the  East ;  while  in 
many  other  towns  a  place  is  provided  where 
cold  water  and  sometimes  bread  are  offered 
gratuitously  to  the  stranger  at  the  expense 
of  the  village,  or  as  an  act  of  charity  by  the 
benevolent,  Mark  9:41.  In  case  of  a  hos- 
tile invasion,  nothing  could  more  effectu- 
ally harass  an  advanciag  arm}^  or  the  be- 
siegers of  a  city  than  to  fill  with  stones  the 
wells  on  which  they  relied,  2  Kin.  3:25; 
2  Chr.  32:3. 

Wells  are  sometimes  found  in  Palestine 
furnished  with  a  well-sweep  and  bucket  or 
a  windlass  ;  and  in  some  cases  there  were 
steps  leading  down  to  the  water.  Gen.  24: 15, 
16;  but  usually  the  water  is  drawn  with 
pitchers  and  ropes,  and  the  stone  curbs  of 
ancient  wells,  John  4:6,  11,  12,  bear  the 
marks  of  long  use.  They  were  often  covered 
with  a  large  flat  stone,  comp.  2  Sam.  17: 19, 
to  exclude  the  flying  sand  and  secure  the 
water  to  its  owners,  and  also  lest  stran- 
gers should  fall  into  them  unawares — a  mis- 
chance which  often  occurs  in  modern  Syria, 
and  against  which  the  beneficent  law  of 
Moses  made  provision,  Exod.  21:33,  34. 
This  stone  was  removed  about  sunset,  when 
the  females  of  the  vicinity  drew  their  sup- 
ply of  water  for  domestic  use  and  the  flocks 
and  herds  drank  from  the  stone  troughs 
which  are  still  found  beside  almost  every 
well.  At  this  hour  the  well  was  a  favorite 
place  of  resort,  and  presented  a  scene  of 
life  and  gayety  greatly  in  contrast  with  its 
ordinary  loneliness.  Gen.  24:11-28;  29:1- 
10;  Exod.  2:16-19;  I  Sam.  9:11.  Wells, 
however,  were  sometimes  infested  by  rob- 
bers, Exod.  2:16,  17;  Judg.  5:11;  and  Dr. 
Shaw  mentions  a  beautiful  spring  in  Bar- 


WEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WHA 


bary,  the  Arabic  name  of  which  means,      well  be  inscribed  over  even  the  best  springs 
"Drink  and  away!"   a  motto  which  may  I  of  earthly  delight.     See  Cisterns. 


THE  WELL  OR  FOUNTAIN  AT  NAZARETH. 


"The  Fountain  of  the  Virgin"  at  Naza- 
reth is  so  called  from  the  strong  probabil- 
ity that  the  mother  of  our  Lord  was  wont 
to  draw  water  from  it,  as  the  women  of 
Nazareth  do  at  this  day.  It  is  a  copious 
spring,  just  out  of  the  village,  and  the 
path  that  leads  to  it  is  well  worn,  as  by  the 
feet  of  many  generations.  All  travellers 
in  Palestine  mention  the  throngs  of  females 
that  resort  to  it,  with  their  pitchers  or  goat- 
skins on  the  shoulder  or  head,  loitering 
to  gossip  or  gayly  returning  in  companies 
of  two  or  three.  Every  day  witnesses 
there  what  might  almost  be  described  in 
the  very  words  of  Gen.  24:11:  "And  he 
made  his  camels  to  kneel  down  without 
the  city,  by  a  well  of  water,  at  the  time  of 
the  evening,  even  the  time  that  women  go 
out  to  draw  water.  And  behold,  Rebek- 
ah  came  out,  with  her  pitcher  upon  her 
shoulder ;  and  she  went  down  to  the  well 
and  filled  her  pitcher,  and  came  up."  It  is 
an  uncommon  sight  to  see  "  a  man  bearing 
a  pitcher  of  water,"  Mark  14:13. 

Jacob's  well,  at  the  eastern  entrance  of 
the  charming  valley  of  Shechem,  is  still  in 
existence,  though  now  not  used  and  often 
nearly  dry.  It  is  covered  by  a  vaulted 
roof,  with  a  narrow  entrance  closed  by  a 
heavy  rock.  Around  it  is  a  platform  and 
the  remains  of  a  church  built  over  the  spot 
by  the  empress  Helena.  Close  at  hand  is 
Mount  Gerizim,  which  the  woman  of  Sy- 


char  no  doubt  glanced  at  as  she  said,  "  Our 
fathers  worshipped  in  this  mountain."  On 
the  west  is  the  broad  and  fertile  plain  of 
Mukhna,  where  the  fields  were  "  white  al- 
ready to  the  harvest."  The  woman  intima- 
ted that  the  well  was  deep.  Actual  meas- 
urement shows  it  to  be  still  75  feet  deep 
and  about  9  feet  in  diameter.  Dr.  Wilson, 
in  1842,  sent  down  with  ropes  a  Jew  named 
Jacob  to  explore  the  well  and  recover  a 
Bible  dropped  into  it  by  Rev.  Mr.  Bonar 
three  years  before.  This  was  found  almost 
destroyed  by  lying  in  water.  As  the  trav- 
eller stands  by  this  venerated  well  and 
thinks  of  the  long  series  of  men  of  a  hun- 
dred nations  and  generations  who  have 
drunk  of  its  waters,  thirsted  again,  and 
died,  he  is  most  forcibly  affected  by  the 
truth  of  Christ's  words  to  the  Samaritan 
woman,  and  made  to  feel  his  own  perish- 
ing need  of  the  water  "springing  up  into 
everlasting  life,"  John  4. 

■WENCH,  2  Sam.  17:17,  a  girl  of  humble 
birth. 

WEST,  literally  either  Ihe  sea,  as  in  Gen. 
12:8;  13:14,  etc.,  i.  e.,  the  Mediterranean, 
lying  west  of  the  Bible  lands,  or  simsei- 
//m^,  asin  Psa.  75:6;  103:12.  In  Hos.  11:10, 
the  people  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

WHALE,  the  largest  known  inhabitant 
of  the  sea,  put  in  the  A.  V.  for  tannin,  a 
Hebrew  word  including  all  the  huge  "sea- 
monsters,"  as  in  Gen.  1:21 ;  Job  7:12,  R.  V. 

665 


WHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VVIC 


In  Ezek.  32:2,  referring  to  Egypt  and  the 
Nile,  the  kindred  word  tannim  doubtless 
means  the  crocodile;  as  also  in  Psa.  74:13; 
Isa.  27:1;  51:9;  Ezek.  29:3,  etc.,  where  it 
is  translated  "dragon,"  which  see.  The 
"  great  fish "  that  swallowed  Jonah  can- 
not be  named  with  certainty,  the  Greek 
word  in  Matt.  12:40  being  also  indetermi- 
nate. Whales,  however,  are  still  found  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  sharks  of  the  lar- 
gest size,  the  Carcharias  vulgaris,  quite 
able  to  swallow  a  man  whole. 


TRITICUM   COMPOSITUM. 

WHEAT  is  the  principal  and  most  valu- 
able kind  of  grain  for  the  service  of  man, 
and  is  produced  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world,  Matt.  13:25;  i  Cor.  15:37.  Egypt 
was  famous  for  its  wheat,  also  Mesopota- 
mia, Gen.  30:14,  Minnith,  Ezek.  27:17,  and 
Palestine  itself,  Deut.  8:8;  Judg.  6:11 ;  Psa. 
81:16;  147:14.  The  common  wheat  of  Pal- 
estine will  sometimes  yield  100  grains  to 
the  ear,  as  in  Christ's  parable,  Matt.  13:8; 
comp.  Gen.  26: 12.  Wheat  was  sown  late  in 
the  year,  both  broadcast — being  trampled 
in  by  cattle,  Isa.  32:20 — and  also  planted 
in  rows,  Isa.  28:25,  R.  V.  It  ripened  in 
May,  but  earlier  or  later  according  to  its 
situation.  It  sprouted  and  ripened  later 
than  barley.  Wheat  is  often  intended  in 
the  Bible  where  the  word  "  corn  "  is  used, 
Gen.  41:49.  See  Corn.  "  Parched  corn," 
i.  ^.,  wheat,  is  often  mentioned.  Lev.  23:14; 
Josh.  5:11;  Ruth  2: 14;  I  Sam.  17: 17;  25: 18; 
2  Sam.  17:28;  and  the  Arabs  often  prepare 
666 


it  now  of  fresh  wheat,  laying  a  few  sheaves 
on  a  brush-wood  fire  till  the  stalks  are 
burned  and  the  heads  lightly  charred,  when 
they  are  tossed  off  on  a  cloth,  winnowed  by 
the  wind,  and  eaten  while  warm.  The 
Egyptian  wheat,  Triticum  Compositum, 
has  6  or  7  ears  on  one  head  ;  so  that  it  pre- 
sented its  usual  appearance  in  this  respect 
in  Pharaoh's  dream,  Gen.  41:5-7,  22.  The 
"meat-offerings,"  R.  V.  "meal-offerings," 
of  the  Mosaic  service.  Lev.  2,  were  all 
made  of  wheaten  flour. 

WHEEL,  Psa.  83:13,  translated  "rolling 
thing"  in  Isa.  17:13.  Dr.  Thomson,  for 
many  years  a  missionary'  in  Syria,  thinks 
the  wild  artichoke  may  here  be  referred 
to.  This  plant  sends  out  numerous  stalks 
or  branches  of  equal  length  in  all  direc- 
tions, forming  a  globe  a  foot  in  diameter. 
These  globes  become  rigid  and  light  as  a 
feather  in  autumn,  and  thousands  of  them 
fly  rolling  and  bounding  over  the  plains, 
the  sport  of  every  wind.  This  "  rolling 
thing  "  furnishes  the  modern  Arabs  with  a 
current  proverb  and  a  curse. 

"WHIRL'WINDS.  The  Hebrew  words  so 
translated  denote  tempestuous  winds  or 
hurricanes,  not  necessarily  tornadoes  re- 
volving on  their  axes,  2  Kin.  2:1,  11;  Job 
38:1;  40:6;  Isa.  40:24;  41:16;  Jer.  23:19; 
25:32;  30:23;  Ezek.  1 :4;  Dan.  II  :4o;  Zech. 
9: 14.  Yet  whirlwinds  were  frequent  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia  and  on  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Palestine.  Most  of  them  are  not 
formidable,  Isa.  17:13;  but  one  now  and 
then  occurs,  sudden,  swift,  and  awful  in  its 
devastating  course ;  houses  and  trees  are 
no  obstruction  in  its  way,  and  the  traveller 
is  buried  alive  under  the  pillar  of  sand  it 
raises  and  bears  along,  like  a  water-spout 
at  sea,  Job  1:19;  Isa.  21:1.  The  sudden 
and  resistless  judgments  of  God  are  well 
compared  to  whirlwinds,  Psa.  58:9;  Prov. 
1:27;  Isa.  66:15.     See  W'INDS. 

WHIS'PERER,  Prov.  16:28;  Rom.  1:29; 
2  Cor.  12:20,  a  secret  informer  and  slan- 
derer. 

WHITE,  a  symbol  of  purity,  joy,  and  vic- 
tory, 2  Chr.  5:12;  Esth.  8:15;  Eccl.  9:8; 
Rev.  3:4,  5,  18;  7:9,  13.  "White"  in  Rev. 
15:6;  19:8  means  "resplendent;"  in  the 
R.  V.  "bright." 

WICK'ED.  The  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  so  translated  have  various  shades 
of  meaning:  most  frequently  "Wrong,"  as 
in  Gen.  18:23;  Deut.  9:27;  often  "evil,"  as 
in  Gen.  13:13;  39:9;  sometimes  "worth- 
less," as  in  Job  u:ii;  22:15;  Psa.  101:3; 
"perverse,"  as  in  2  Sam.  7:10;  Job  18:21; 


WID 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WIL 


"unkind,"  as  in  Lev.  20:17;  "lawless,"  as 
in  Acts  2:23;  2  Thess.  2:8;  "malignant," 
as  in  Matt.  13:19,  38,  49;  22:18;  2  Thess. 
3:2;  I  John  5:19;  mortally  "sick,"  as  in 
Jer.  17:9,  R.  V. 

WID'OW.  A  custom  was  prevalent  in 
patriarchal  times,  Gen.  ^S,  and  was  after- 
wards confirmed  by  the  Mosaic  law,  Deut. 
25:5-10,  that  a  widow  without  children,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  family  name  and  in- 
heritance, should  marry  the  brother  of  her 
deceased  husband;  or,  he  failing,  his  near- 
est kinsman,  Ruth  3:12,  13;  4:1-11  ;  Matt. 
22:23-30.  The  high-priest  was  forbidden 
to  marry  a  widow,  Lev.  21 :  14.  The  hu- 
manity and  justice  of  true  religion  are 
shown  in  the  Bible,  as  might  be  expected, 
by  numerous  indications  that  God  and  the 
friends  of  God  sympathize  with  the  sor- 
rows, supply  the  wants,  and  defend  the 
rights  of  the  widow,  Exod.  22:22-24;  Deut. 
14:29;  16:11;  24:17,  19;  Psa.  68:5;  Isa. 
1:17;    10:2;  Jer.  22:3;   Matt.  23:14.     The 


apostolic  church  was  not  negligent  in  pro- 
viding for  widows.  Acts  6:1-3;  i  Tim.  5:16; 
and  James  makes  this  duty  an  essential 
part  of  true  piety,  Jas.  1:27.  Heathenism, 
on  the  contrary,  makes  those  who  have 
been  slaves  to  a  husband's  caprices  during 
his  life  either  victims  upon  the  funeral 
pile  at  his  death  or  forlorn  and  hopeless 
sufferers  under  destitution  and  contempt. 
Some  of  the  duties  specially  appropriate  for 
Christian  widows  are  specified  in  i  Tim. 
5:3-16. 

WILD  BEASTS  OF  THE  ISL'ANDS,  Isa. 
13:22;  34:14;  Jer.  50:39,  hyenas,  or  as  in 
the  R.  v.,  "  wolves." 

WIL'DERNESS.  See  DESERT  and  Wan- 
derings. 

WILD  GOATS.     See  Go.a.ts. 

AVILL,  as  a  verb,  often  means  simply 
"pleases"  or  "wishes,"  Prov.  21:1;  Dan. 
4:17;  I  Cor.  7:36.  In  other  passages  it  ex- 
presses a  fixed  determination,  John  7:17; 
I  Tim.  6:9. 


WIL'LOW,  a  very  common  tree,  which 
grows  in  marshy  places  and  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  Job  40:22;  Isa.  44:4;  Ezek.  17:5, 
with  a  leaf  much  like  that  of  the  olive. 


God  commanded  the  Hebrews  to  take 
branches  of  the  handsomest  trees,  particu- 
larly of  the  willows  of  the  brook,  and  to 
bear  them  in  their  hands  before  the  Lord, 

667 


WIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WIN 


as  a  token  of  rejoicing,  at  the  Feast  of  Tab- 
ernacles, Lev.  23:40.  The  "  weeping  wil- 
low," memorable  in  connection  with  the 
mourning  Hebrew  captives,  Psa.  137:2,  is 
a  native  of  Babylonia,  and  hence  is  named 
Salix  Babylonica.  Since  the  Caj^tivity  it 
has  become  a  symbol  of  sorrow  and  mourn- 
ing. There  are  several  varieties  of  willow 
in  Palestine.  The  "  brook  of  the  willows," 
Isa.  15:7,  on  the  southern  border  of  Moab, 
now  Wadj'  el-Aksa,  flows  into  the  south- 
east extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

WIM'PLE,  a  veil  or  hood;  but  the  He- 
brew signifies  properly  a  large  mantle  or 
shawl.  See  Vkil.  Thus,  in  Ruth  3:15, 
Boaz  gives  Ruth  6  measures  of  barley, 
which  she  carries  away  in  her  mantle, 
rather  than  veil,  as  in  the  A.  V.  So  in  Isa. 
3:22. 

WIN'DOW,  Gen. 6: 16;  i  Kin.  6:4;  7:4,5, 
an  aperture  in  a  wall,  protected  in  ancient 
times  by  lattice-work  instead  of  glass,  Eccl. 
12:3.  Windows  usually  opened  on  the  in- 
ner court  of  the  house,,  but  often  one  or 
two  opened  on  the  street,  and  a  person 
approaching  could  be  seen,  Judg.  5:28; 
2  Sam.  6:16;  Prov.  7:6;  Song  2:9.  When 
the  casement  was  open  one  might  readily 
fall  out,  2  King.  1:2;  Acts  20:9.  Through 
the  windows  of  dwellings  abutting  on  city 
walls  the  spies  escaped  at  Jericho  and  Paul 
at  Damascus,  Josh.  2:15;  2  Cor.  11:33.  See 
House. 

WINDS.  "  The  four  winds,"  or  four 
quarters  of  the  earth,  are  put  for  the  whole 
world,  Jer.  49:36;  Ezek.  37:9;  Dan.  8:8; 
Matt.  24:31.  The  north  wind  Ijrought  cold, 
Job  37:9;  Song  4:16;  the  west  and  north- 
west, from  the  sea,  were  refreshing  and 
brought  rain,  i  Kin.  18:44,  45;  Prov.  25:23, 
R.  V. ;  Luke  12:54.  The  prevalent  winds 
in  Palestine  during  the  warm  season  are 
from  the  west.  Sudden  squalls  from  the 
north  are  often  encountered  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  as  on  other  lakes  amid  heights, 
Mark  4:37;  Luke  8:23.  For  the  wind  Eu- 
raquilo  which  overtook  Paul,  see  EuROC- 

LYDON. 

The  wind  most  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  is  the  "east  wind,"  which  is  rep- 
resented as  blasting  and  drying  up  the 
fruits,  Gen.  41:6,  23;  Ezek.  17:10;  19:12, 
and  also  as  blowing  with  great  violence. 
Job  27  :  21  ;  Psa.  48  :  7;  Isa.  27  :  8;  Ezek. 
27:26;  Jon.  4:8.  It  is  also  the  "horrible 
tempest,"  literally  the  "glow-wind,"  of  Psa. 
11:6.  This  is  a  sultry  and  oppressive  wind 
blowing  from  the  southeast,  and  prevailing 
only  in  the  hot  and  dry  months  of  sum- 
668 


mer.  Coming  thus  from  the  vast  Arabian 
desert,  devoid  of  ozone,  it  seems  to  in- 
crease the  heat  and  drought  of  the  season, 
and  produces  universal  languor  and  de- 
bility. Dr.  Eli  Smith,  at  Beiriit,  describes 
it  as  possessing  the  same  qualities  as  the 
Sirocco,  which  he  had  felt  at  Malta,  and 
which  also  prevails  in  Sicily  and  Italy,  ex- 
cept that  the  Sirocco,  in  passing  over  the 
sea,  acquires  great  dampness.  This  "  wind 
of  the  wilderness,"  Job  1:19;  27:21;  Jer. 
13:24,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Simoom, 
by  the  Turks  the  Samiel,  and  by  the  Egj'p- 
tians  the  Khamsin.  It  is  oppressively  hot 
and  dry,  rapidly  evaporating  the  water  in 
the  ordinary  skin-bottles,  stopping  the  per- 
spiration of  travellers,  drying  up  the  palate 
and  the  air  passages,  and  producing  great 
restlessness  and  exhaustion.  Sometimes 
the  sky  is  covered  with  clouds,  and  pal^ 
lightnings  play  through  the  air  ;  but  there 
is  no  rain,  thunder,  or  wind  ;  the  heat,  how- 
ever, is  intolerable;  every  traveller  seeks 
a  refuge,  the  birds  hide  themselves  in  the 
thickest  shades,  the  fowls  pant  under  the 
walls  with  open  mouths,  and  no  living 
thing  is  in  motion.  But  it  often  blows  with 
a  terrible  roaring  and  violence,  and  carries 
dust  and  fine  sand  high  up  into  the  air,  so 
that  the  whole  atmosphere  is  lurid  and 
seems  in  a  state  of  combustion,  and  the 
sun  is  shorn  of  his  beams  and  looks  like  a 
globe  of  dull,  smouldering  fire.  Both  men 
and  animals  are  greatly  annoyed  by  the 
dust,  and  seek  any  practicable  shelter  or 
covering.  The  camels  turn  their  backs 
and  hide  their  heads  from  it  in  the  ground. 
It  is  often  accompanied  by  local  whirl- 
winds, which  form  pillars  of  sand  and  dust, 
rising  high  above  the  ground  and  moving 
with  swiftness  over  the  plain.  Such  a  tem- 
pest may  have  suggested  some  features  in 
the  prophetic  descriptions  of  the  day  of 
God's  power:  "wonders  in  the  heavens 
and  in  the  earth,  blood  and  fire  and  pillars 
of  smoke:  the  sun  shall  be  turned  into 
darkness  and  the  moon  into  blood,"  Joel 
2:30,  31 ;  Acts  2:19,  20. 

Wind  is  a  Biblical  symbol  for  turgid 
folly.  Job  15:2;  Hos.  12:1;  for  swiftness, 
Psa.  104:4,  R.  v.,  "  He  maketh  winds  his 
messengers;"  and  for  transitoriness,  Job 
7:7;  Psa.  78:39.  The  Holy  Spirit  was 
breathed  upon  men  like  the  wind,  John 
3:8  ;  20:22  ;   Acts  2:2. 

WINE.  The  vine  being  natural  to  the 
soil  of  Canaan  and  its  vicinity,  wine  was 
much  used  as  a  beverage,  especially  at  fes- 
tivals, Esth.   1:7;   5:6;    Dan.  5:1-4;  John 


WIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WIN 


2:3.  As  one  of  the  staple  products  of  the 
Holy  Land,  it  was  employed  for  drink-of- 
ferings in  the  temple  service,  Exod.  29:40; 
Lev.  23:13;  Num.  15:4-10;  tithes  of  it  were 
required  among  the  "first-fruits,"  Deut. 
12: 17,  18;  18:4  ,  and  it  was  used  in  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  Passover,  and  subsequently 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Matt.  26  :  27-29. 
"Corn  and  wine,"  Gen.  27:28,  37;  Deut. 
33:28;  Psa.  4:7,  and  "  corn,  wine,  and  oil," 
or  the  products  of  the  field,  the  vineyard, 
and  the  olive-orchard,  Deut.  11:14;  12:17; 
28:51 ;  2  Chr.  31 :5,  are  put  for  all  the  fruits 
of  the  soil.  Wine  is  spoken  of  as  a  bless- 
ing, Gen.  49:11,  12;  Deut.  14:24-26;  32:14; 
Judg.  9:13;  Psa.  104:15:  Prov.  31:6;  Eccl. 
9:7;  Hos.  2:8;  Joel  2:19,  24;  Amos  4:19; 
and  is  made  a  symbol  of  spiritual  bless- 
ings, Isa.  55:1.  Our  Saviour  used  it,  Luke 
7:33,  34,  and  miraculously  made  it,  John 
2:1-10. 

The  word  "wine"  in  our  Bible  is  the 
translation  of  as  many  as  10  different  He- 
brew words  and  2  Greek  words,  most  of 
which  occur  in  but  a  few  instances.  The 
two  most  frequently  used,  yayin  and  its 
Greek  equivalent  oiNOS,  are  general  terms 
for  all  sorts  of  wine,  Neh.  5: 18,  usually  fer- 
mented, but  often  with  but  a  small  per- 
centage of  alcohol.  Another  Hebrew  word 
frequently  used,  tirosh,  translated  "  wine  " 
and  "new  wine,"  is  thought  by  some  to 
mean  vintage-fruits  in  general,  including 
not  only  new  wine,  but  grapesyrup  and 
grapes  —  fresh,  dried,  pressed,  etc.;  Isa. 
62:8,  9  ;  Joel  1 :  10  ;  Mic.  5: 15,  R.  V.,  "  vint- 
age." From  Hos.  4:11;  Acts  2:13 — when 
the  "new  wine"  was  eight  months  old — it 
IS  inferred  that  in  some  cases  tirosh  was 
intoxicating.  Without  minute  details  on 
this  subject,  we  may  observe  that  the  fol- 
lowing substances  are  referred  to  : 

1.  Usually  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape, 
fermented,  and  therefore  more  or  less  in- 
toxicating, but  free  from  drugs  of  any  kind, 
and  not  strengthened  by  distilled  liquors. 

2.  Must,  the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape,  un- 
fermented  or  in  process  of  fermentation. 

3.  Honey  of  wine,  made  bv  boiling  down 
must  to  one-fourth  of  its  bulk.  This  com- 
monly goes  in  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
name  debhash,  "  honey,"  in  modern  Arabic 
dtds,  and  only  the  context  can  enable  us  to 
determine  whether  honey  of  grapes  or  of 
bees  is  to  be  understood,  Num.  18: 12  ;  Prov. 
9:2,  5.     See  Honey. 

4.  Spiced  wine,  made  stronger  and  more 
inviting  1,0  the  taste  by  the  admixture  of 
spices  and  other  drugs,  Prov.  23:30. 


5.  "  Strong  drink,"  Heb.  shechar.  This 
word  sometimes  denotes  pure  strong  wine, 
as  in  Num.  28:7;  or  drugged  wine,  as  in 
Psa.  75:8;  Isa.  5:22;  but  more  commonly 
wine  made  from  dates,  honey,  pomegran- 
ates, etc.,  Song  8:2,  and  generally  made 
more  inebriating  by  being  mingled  with 
drugs. 

See  also  Flagon,  Myrrh,  and  Vine- 
gar. 

The  "  wine  of  Helbon  "  was  made  in  the 
vicinity  of  Damascus,  and  sent  from  that 
city  to  Tyre,  Ezek.  27:18.  It  resembled 
the  "  wine  of  Lebanon,"  famous  for  its  ex- 
cellence and  fragrance,  Hos.  14:7.  See 
Helbon. 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  distin- 
guish the  harmless  from  the  intoxicating 
wines  of  Scripture,  and  to  show  that  inspi- 
ration has  in  all  cases  approved  the  former 
alone  and  condemned  the  latter,  directly 
or  indirectly.  It  is  not  necessary,  however, 
to  do  this  in  order  to  demonstrate  that  so 
far  as  the  use  of  wine  leads  to  mebriation 
it  is  pointedly  condemned  by  the  Word  of 
God.  Sin  and  shame  are  connected  with 
the  first  mention  of  wine  in  the  Bible  and 
with  many  subsequent  cases,  Gen.  9:21; 
19:31-36;  I  Sam.  25.36,  2n\  2  Sam.  13:28; 
I  Kin.  20:12-21 ,  Esth.  i:  10,  11  •  Dan.  5:23; 
Rev.  17:2.  It  is  characterized  as  a  deceitful 
mocker,  Prov.  20:1 ;  as  fruitful  in  miseries, 
Prov.  23:29-35;  in  woes,  Isa.  5  •22;  in  er- 
rors, Isa.  28:1-7 ;  and  in  impious  folly,  Isa. 
5-11,  12;  56:12;  Hos.  4:11;  7:5.  The  use 
of  it  is  in  some  cases  expressly  forbidden, 
Lev.  10  9;  Num.  6:3;  and  in  other  cases  is 
mentioned  as  characteristic  of  the  wicked, 
Joel  3:3;  Amos  6:6.  Numerous  cautions 
to  beware  of  it  are  given,  r  Sam.  1:14, 
Prov.  23:31,  31:4-6;  I  Tim.  y.T,\  and  to 
tempt  others  to  use  it  is  in  one  passage 
made  the  occasion  of  a  bitter  curse,  Hab. 
2:15,  16.  Whatever  approval  was  given  in 
Palestine  to  the  moderate  use  of  wine  can 
hardly  apply  to  a  country  where  wine  is 
an  imported  or  manufactured  article,  often 
containing  not  a  drop  of  the  juice  of  the 
grape,  or  if  genuine  and  not  compounded 
with  drugs,  still  enforced  with  distilled 
spirits.  The  whole  state  of  the  case,  more- 
over, is  greatly  modified  in  our  days  by  the 
discovery  of  the  process  of  distilling  alco- 
hol, and  by  the  prevalence  of  appalling 
evils  now  inseparable  from  the  general  use 
of  any  intoxicating  drinks.  Daniel  and  the 
Rechabites  saw  good  reason  for  total  absti- 
nence from  wine,  Jer.  35:14  ;  Dan.  1:8;  and 
the  sentiment  of  Paul  on  a  matter  involving 

669 


WIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WIT 


permanent  Christian  principles  is  divinely 
commended  to  universal  adoption,  Rom. 
14:21;  I  Cor.  8:13.  See  Ti.mothy.  The 
wine  used  at  the  Passover,  the  rabbins  in- 
form us,  was  diluted  with  water ;  and  in 
celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper  the  unfer- 
mented  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  would  seem  to 
be  far  preferable  to  the  so-called  wine  of 
our  day. 

WINE-PRESS.    See  Press  and  Vine. 

WINGS,  used  figuratively  of  the  winds, 
Psa.  18:10,  and  of  sunbeams,  Mai.  4:2. 
They  are  a  symbol  of  divine  protection, 
Psa.  17:8;  36:7;  Matt.  23:37;  and  of  the 
spread  of  an  invading  army,  Isa.  8 : 8. 
God's  loving  care  of  his  people  is  beauti- 
fully illustrated  by  that  of  the  eagle  for  her 
young,  E.xod.  19:4;  Deut.  32:11. 

WIN'NOWING.  See  Fan  and  Thresh- 
ing. 

WIN'TER,  Song  2:11;  Matt.  24:20,  in 
Palestine  from  November  to  February,  a 
season  marked  by  copious  rains  and  hail, 
with  northerly  winds  at  times,  and  occa- 
sionally frost  and  snow,  lingering  on  the 
mountains.  Gen.  8:22;  Psa.  74:17;  147:16, 
17;  Jer.  36:22;  Zech.  14:8.  See  Canaan 
and  Snow. 

WIS'DOM  and  WISE  in  Scripture  have 
a  great  variety  of  meanings,  usually  indi- 
cated by  the  context.  They  may  denote 
mere  cunning,  like  that  of  Jonadab  and 
Joab,  2  Sam.  13  and  14;  practical  skill,  as  in 
Exod.  31:3,  6 ;  sagacity  in  affairs,  as  in  Job 
12:2,  12;  discernment  and  learning,  like 
Solomon's,  i  Kin.  3:28;  4:29-34;  prudent 
concern  for  one's  own  interest,  as  in  Prov. 
14:8;  magical  science,  as  in  Gen.  41:8; 
Dan.  2:2;  atheistic  learning  and  philoso- 
phy, as  in  I  Cor.  1:20;  3:19-21 ;  2  Cor. 1:12; 
or  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  as  in  Acts 
6:10;  Eph.  1:17:  Col.  1:9,  28;  2  Tim.  3:15. 
But  the  only  true  wisdom  begins  with  giv- 
ing God  the  supreme  place  in  the  mind, 
heart,  and  life,  Prov.  9.10;  Eccl. 12:11;  and 
even  a  simple  child  who  has  learned  to 
love  God  with  all  his  heart  and  his  neighbor 
as  himself  is  more  truly  wise  than  the  most 
learned  and  sagacious  unrenewed  man,  Jas. 

1:3;  3:13-17- 

In  the  eighth  chapter  of  Proverbs  divine 
Wisdom  is  personified  and  nobly  described, 
and  many  of  the  passages  might  well  ap- 
ply to  Christ,  the  Creator  of  the  world, 
Heb.  1:2,  10,  and  "the  wisdom  of  God," 
I  Cor.  1:24. 

The  apocryphal  "  Book  of  Wisdom,"  or 
"Wisdom  of  Solomon,"  the  work  of  some 
Hellenistic  Jew  of  Alexandria,  a  century  or 
670 


more  before  Christ,  comes  down  to  us  in 
the  original  Greek  and  in  various  transla- 
tions, but  never  was  in  Hebrew  nor  formed 
a  part  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures — though 
adopted  by  the  Church  of  Rome.  It  extols 
divine  wisdom  for  its  inherent  qualities 
and  its  excellent  fruits  in  the  past,  and  has 
many  noble  thoughts,  but  also  many  pas- 
sages not  in  harmony  with  the  inspired 
Scriptures 

WISE,  way  or  manner.  Matt.  1:18,  Luke 
13:11;  Acts  7:6;  Rom.  3.9;  10:6;  Heb. 
4:4.  "In  any  wise,"  Lev.  19:17,  in  the 
R.  V.  "surely." 

WISE  MEN.     See  Magi  and  Star. 

WIST,  knew ;  the  past  tense,  from  an 
obsolete  present  wis,  Exod.  16:15;  Mark 
9:6;  Luke  2:49;  Acts  23:5.  "Wot"  and 
"  wotteth,"  meaning  know  and  knoweth, 
Gen.  21:26;  39:8,  and  to  wit,"  meaning 
to  know,  Gen.  24:21,  are  also  from  the 
same  Saxon  root.  '  Do  you  to  wit,"  2  Cor. 
8:1,  means,  make  you  to  know  or  mform 
you.  "To  wit,"  in  2  Cor.  5:19,  means, 
"that  is  to  say." 

AVIT,  Psa.  107:27,  wisdom.    See  Wist. 

AVITCH,  Exod.  22:18,  in  the  R.  V.  "sor- 
ceress," the  masculine  form  of  the  Hebrew 
word  being  elsewhere  rendered  "sorcer- 
er," Exod.  7.11 ;  Jer.  27:9;  Dan.  2:2;  Mai 
3:5,  as  in  Deut.  18:10,  R.  V.  See  also  Isa. 
47:9,  12,  and  WIZ'ARD,  Lev.  19:31;  20:6, 
27;  Deut.  18:11;  I  Sam.  28:3,  9;  2  Kin. 
23:24;  2Chr.33:6;  Isa.  8:19;  19:3. 

Our  best  exposition  of  these  terms  as 
found  in  the  Bible  is  in  the  narrative  of  the 
witch  of  En-dor.  She  was  widely  known 
as  "one  that  had  a  familiar  spirit"  or  an 
attendant  demon,  and  was  thereby  pro- 
fessedly able  to  summon  departed  souls 
from  the  spirit  world  and  converse  with 
them.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  essen- 
tial character  of  witchcraft  was  a  pretended 
commerce  with  demons  and  the  spirits  of 
the  departed.  In  this  respect  it  is  identi- 
cal with  modern  witchcraft  and  with  spir- 
itualism; and  all  the  condemnation  pro- 
nounced' against  witchcraft  m  the  Bible 
falls  equally  on  these  and  every  similar 
system  of  professed  converse  with  ghosts 
and  demons. 

To  this  practice  the  ancient  witches  and 
wizards  joined  the  arts  of  fortune-telling 
and  divining,  and  a  professed  knowledge 
and  control  of  the  secret  powers  of  the  ele- 
ments, heavenly  bodies,  etc.  In  order  to 
give  color  and  concealment  to  their  pre- 
tended communion  with  spirits,  they  made 
use  of  drugs,  fumigations,  chemical  arts, 


WIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WOL 


incantations,  and  every  mysterious  device 
to  awe  and  impose  upon  a  superstitious 
people.  Their  unlawful  arts  were  near 
akin  to  the  others  forbidden  in  Deut.  i8:io, 
II :  "  There  shall  not  be  found  among  you 
any  one  that  maketh  his  son  or  his  daugh- 
ter to  pass  through  the  fire,  or  that  useth 
divination,  or  an  observer  of  times  or  an 
■enchanter  or  a  witch  (R.  V.  "sorcerer") 
or  a  charmer  or  a  consulter  with  familiar 
spirits  or  a  wizard  or  a  necromancer."  It 
would  appear  from  this  catalogue  that  all 
forms  of  superstition  were  as  prevalent 
in  the  East  in  the  days  of  Moses  as  they 
now  are.  Those  familiar  with  the  Syria 
and  Arabia  of  our  days  inform  us  that  old 
and  young  of  all  sects  universally  believe 
in  the  potency  of  "the  evil  eye,"  of  incan- 
tations, charms,  amulets,  serpent-charm- 
ing, and  exorcism,  and  that  these  supersti- 
tions exert  a  prodigious  influence  on  Ori- 
ental life.  Even  modern  mesmerism  has 
its  counterpart  among  the  pretended  magic 
arts  of  the  East,  practised,  like  many  other 
superstitions,  from  time  immemorial. 

Such  follies  and  knaveries  are  all  strictly 
forbidden  in  the  Bible,  and  many  of  them 
in  the  Jewish  dispensation  were  punisha- 
ble with  death.  They  are  all  idolatrous — 
ignoring  the  only  true  God  and  seeking 
help  from  foreign  sources.  They  are  sure 
to  prevail  in  proportion  as  men  lose  a  calm 
trust  in  the  Almighty  and  an  intelligent 
loving  obedience  to  his  will.  He  that  fears 
God  need  fear  nothing  else;  while  he  that, 
like  king  Saul,  departs  from  God,  finds  help 
and  comfort  nowhere.  See  En-dor  and 
Sorcerer. 

WITHE,  Judg.  16:7,  a  band  made  by 
plaiting  together  willow  or  some  other  pli- 
able twigs  or  stalks. 

WIT'NESS,  one  who  testifies  to  any  fact 
from  his  own  personal  knowledge.  Under 
the  Mosaic  law  two  witnesses  under  oath 
were  necessary  to  convict  a  person  charged 
with  a  capital  crime,  Num.  35:30;  John 
8:17;  I  Tim.  5:19;  and  if  the  criminal  was 
stoned,  the  witnesses  were  bound  to  cast 
the  first  stones,  Deut.  17:6,  7;  Acts  7:58. 
The  Greek  word  for  witness  is  martyr, 
which  see.  The  apostles  were  witnesses 
in  proclaiming  to  the  world  the  facts  of  the 
gospel,  Acts  1:8,  22;  2:32;  2  Pet.  1:12,  16- 
18;  and  Christ  is  a  "faithful  witness"  in 
testifying  to  men  of  heavenly  things,  John 
3:12;  Rev.  1:5.  In  Heb.  12:1,  "so  great  a 
cloud  of  witnesses,"  i.  e.,  spectators,  is  an 
allusion  to  the  Grecian  games  and  the  vast 
crowds  that  eagerly  watched  them. 


As  witnesses  of  important  transactions, 
symbolical  acts  were  performed,  as  in  Deut. 
24:1,  3;  25:9,  10;  Ruth  4:7,  8;  Isa.  8:16; 
Jer.  32:10-16;  and  durable  monuments 
erected,  Deut.  19: 14,  as  in  the  cases  of  Ja- 
cob and  Laban,  Gen.  21:30;  31:47,  52;  and 
of  Joshua  and  the  two  tribes  beyond  Jor- 
dan, Josh.  22:10,  26,  34;  24:26,  27;  Isa. 
19:19,  20. 

^^j.j./.py^  Prov.  8:12,  ingenious,  wise. 
The  R.  V.  has  "  knowledge  and  discre- 
tion "  instead  of  "  knowledge  of  witty  in- 
ventions." 

WIZ'ARD.     See  Witch. 

WOE  is  sometimes  used  in  our  Bibles 
where  a  softer  expression  would  be  at  least 
equally  proper :  "  Woe  to  such  a  one  !"  is 
a  threat  or  imprecation  of  some  calamity, 
natural  or  judicial,  to  befall  a  person;  but 
this  is  not  always  the  meaning  of  the  word 
in  Scripture.  We  find  the  expression, 
"Woe  is  me!"  that  is,  Alas  for  my  sufTer- 
ings  !  and,  "  Woe  to  the  women  with  child 
and  those  who  give  suck  !"  that  is,  Alas  for 
their  redoubled  suffierings  in  times  of  dis- 
tress !  If  in  the  denunciatory  language  of 
Christ  we  should  read,  "  Alas  for  thee,  Cho- 
razin  !  Alas  for  thee,  Bethsaida !"  we  should 
do  no  injustice  to  the  general  sentiments 
of  the  passage. 

Yet  in  many  cases  the  word  woe  is  used 
in  a  fuller  and  more  awful  sense,  express- 
ing an  inspired  denunciation  and  foreshad- 
owing of  God's  wrath  upon  sinners ;  as 
when  we  read.  Woe  to  those  who  build 
houses  by  unrighteousness  and  cities  by 
blood ;  woe  to  those  who  are  "  rebellious 
against  God,"  etc.,  in  numerous  passages, 
especially  of  the  Old  Testament,  Hab.  2:6, 
9,  12,  15,  19;  Zeph.  3:1. 


AN  EGYPTIAN  WOLF. 

WOLF,  a  ferocious  wild  animal,  emblem 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Gen.  49:27,  the 
Canis  Lupus  of  Linnaeus,  belonging  to  the 
dog  genus  and  closely  resembling  the  dog. 

671 


WOM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WON 


Wolves  never  bark,  but  only  howl.  They 
are  cruel  but  cowardly  animals,  and  fly 
from  man  except  when  impelled  by  hunger, 
in  which  case  they  prowl  by  night  in  great 
droves  through  villages,  and  destroy  any 
persons  they  meet,  Jer.  5:6;  Ezek.  22:27; 
Hab.  1:8.  They  are  swift  of  foot,  strong 
enough  to  carry  off  a  sheep  at  full  speed, 
and  an  overmatch  for  ordinary  dogs.  In 
severe  winters  wolves  assemble  in  large 
troops,  join  in  dreadful  bowlings,  and  make 
terrible  devastations,  Zeph.  3:3.  They  prey 
upon  all  the  domestic  animals,  and  are  the 
peculiar  object  of  terror  to  shepherds,  as  the 
defencelessness  and  timidity  of  the  sheep 
render  it  an  easy  prey,  Luke  10:3;  John 
10:12.  So  persecutors  and  false  teachers 
have  been  "grievous  wolves  "  to  the  flock 
of  Christ,  Matt.  io:i6;  Acts  20:29.  The 
transforming  power  of  the  gospel  on  hu- 
man nature  will  be  as  great  as  if  the  wolf 
should  become  the  playmate  of  the  lamb, 
Isa.  11:6;  65:25.  The  wolf  inhabits  the 
continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  Driven  in  general  from  the  pop- 
ulous parts  of  the  country,  he  is  yet  every- 
where found  in  large  forests  and  moun- 
tainous regions.  The  Syrian  wolf  is  larger 
than  the  Egyptian  and  of  a  grayish  and 
pale  fawn-color.  It  was  formerly  more 
common  in  Palestine  than  now. 

WO'MAN  is  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as 
the  beloved  and  honored  companion  and 
helpmeet,  not  the  servant,  of  man.  Gen. 
2:23,  24,  created  as  the  necessary  comple- 
tion of  man,  Gen.  2: 18-23,  ^nd  though  sub- 
ordinate in  sphere,  Gen.  3:16;  i  Cor.  11:3, 
8,9;  14:34,35;  I  Tim.  2:11-14,  yet  special- 
ly qualified  for  that  sphere,  and  as  neces- 
sary in  it  as  man  in  his.  In  Hebrew  tlie 
words  for  man  and  woman,  ish  and  ishshah, 
are  the  same,  the  latter  having  the  femi- 
nine termination.  Man  and  woman  are 
indeed  essentially  one,  the  natural  quali- 
ties of  each  so  responding  to  those  of  the 
other  as  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  most 
tender  and  abiding  unity.  The  Bible  thus 
raised  the  Jewish  woman  high  above  the 
women  of  heathenism,  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment contains  some  of  the  finest  portrait- 
ures of  female  character.  But  still  great- 
er is  the  contrast  between  the  women  of 
heathenism  and  those  of  Christianity:  the 
former  with  mind  and  soul  undeveloped, 
secluded,  degraded,  the  mere  toys  and 
slaves  of  their  husbands;  the  latter  educa- 
ted, refined,  ennobled,  cheering  and  bless- 
ing the  world.  Christianity  forbids  a  man 
to  have  more  than  one  wife,  or  to  divorce 
672 


her  for  any  cause  but  one.  Matt.  5:32; 
19:3-9;  declares  that  bond  and  free,  male 
and  female,  are  all  one  in  Christ,  Gal.  3:28; 
that  the  wife  must  be  loved  and  cherished 
by  the  husband,  Eph.  5:28-33;  and  that  in 
heaven  they  are  no  more  given  in  marriage, 
but  are  as  the  angels  of  God,  Matt.  22:30. 
If  woman  was  first  in  the  Fall,  she  was 
honored  in  the  exclusive  parentage  of  the 
Saviour  of  mankind  ;  and  women  were  the 
truest  friends  of  Christ  while  on  earth, 
Mark  15:40,  41;  16:1,  2;  John  11.  In  his 
addressing  his  mother  as  "  woman,"  John 
2:4;  19:26,  no  reproach  or  disrespect  is  im- 
plied. Seealso  John2o:i3, 15.  The  primal 
curse  falls  with  heaviest  weight  on  woman; 
but  the  larger  proportion  of  women  in  our 
churches  may  indicate  that  it  was  the  pur- 
pose of  God  to  make  his  grace  to  man  "  yet 
more  abound  "  to  her  who  was  the  first  in 
sinning  and  suffering.  The  New  Testa- 
ment foreshadows  the  activity  of  woman  in 
Christian  service,  Luke  23:55,  56;  24:1; 
Acts  16:15;  Rom.  16:1-3,6,  12;  Phil.  4:3; 
I  Tim.  5 :  10.  In  Psa.  68 : 1 1  the  R.  V.  reads, 
"The  Lord  giveth  the  word;  the  women 
that  publish  the  tidings  are  a  great  host." 

In  the  East  women  have  usually  lived  in 
comparative  seclusion,  not  appearing  m 
public  unless  closely  veiled,  not  mingling 
in  general  society  nor  seeing  the  men  who 
visit  their  husbands  and  brothers,  nor  even 
taking  their  meals  with  the  men  of  their 
own  family.  Their  seclusion  was  less  in  the 
rural  districts  than  in  towns,  and  among 
the  Jews  than  among  most  other  nations. 
Hebrew  women  sat  at  the  table  with  the 
men,  Ruth  2:14;  i  Sam.  1:7-9;  Job  1:4; 
John  2:3;  12:2;  they  are  often  mentioned  as 
interested  in  national  affairs,  Judg.  11:34; 
21:21;  I  Sam.  2;  iS:6,  7;  i  Kin.  18:13; 
21:25;  sometimes  in  places  of  authority, 
Judg.  4:4;  5;  2  Kin.  11:3;  sometimes  as 
prophetesses,  Exod.  15:20.  21 ;  2  Kin.  22: 14; 
Neh.6:i4;  Luke2:36;  but  they  were  chief- 
ly engaged  in  domestic  duties,  Prov.  31 ; 
among  which  were  grinding  flour,  baking 
bread,  making  cloth,  needlework,  etc.,  Gen. 
18:6;  2  Sam.  13:8;  Acts  9:39.  The  poor 
gleaned  the  remnants  of  the  harvest;  the 
daughters  of  the  patriarchs  joined  in  tend- 
ing their  fathers'  flocks,  Gen.  29:9;  Exod. 
2:16;  and  females  of  all  classes  were  ac- 
customed to  draw  water  for  family  use, 
bearing  it  in  earthern  pitchers  on  their 
shoulders  often  for  a  considerable  distance, 
Gen.  24:15-20;  John  4:28. 

WON'DER.  An  appropriate  name  for 
many  of  the  miracles  recorded  in  Scripture, 


WOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WOR 


Exod.  15:11;  Deut.  6:22;  Psa.  136:4;  Joel 
2:30;  Heb.  2:4.     See  Miracle  and  Sign. 

WOOL,  Psa.  147:16,  the  chief  material  in 
the  manufacture  of  cloths,  was  highly  val- 
ued among  the  Hebrews,  Lev.  13:47;  Job 
31:20;  Prov.  31:13;  Ezek.  34:3;  Hos.  2:5. 
It  was  a  part  of  Mesha's  tribute,  2  Kin.  3:4, 
and  was  one  of  the  articles  bought  by  Tyre 
from  Damascus,  Ezek.  27: 18.  It  was  among 
the  first-fruits  given  to  the  priests,  Deut. 
18:4;  was  used  in  an  ancient  miracle,  Judg. 
6:37;  and  its  pure  whiteness  symbolized 
the  perfection  of  God's  pardoning  grace, 
Isa.  1 :  18.  Garments  of  mixed  fibres  of 
wool  and  flax  were  forbidden  to  the  He- 
brews, Lev.  19:19;  Deut.  22:11,  probably 
as  involving  some  entanglement  with  idol- 
atry. 

WORD,  in  Greek  Log'os,  one  of  the  titles 
of  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity,  indica- 
ting that  by  his  acts  and  teachings  God  is 
revealed  somewhat  as  thought  is  by  words, 
I  John  1:1 ;  5:7;  Rev.  19:13.  "The  word 
of  the  Lord"  was  a  common  phrase  in  the 
Old  Testament,  always  denoting  some  rev- 
elation of  Jehovah,  Gen.  15:1,  4;  i  Sam. 
3:1 ;  I  Kin.  6:11 ;  16:1,  7,  12,  34;  18:1,  31  ; 
I  Chr.  17:3;  Jer.  1:2,  etc.;  Dan.  9:2.  In 
the  account  of  the  creation  the  action  of 
Jehovah  is  expressed  by  his  speaking,  Gen. 
1:3,  and  this  work  is  elsewhere  ascribed 
to  his  "  word,"  Psa.  33:6,  9.  See  also  Psa. 
107:20;  147:15,  18;  Isa.  55:11;  Heb.  4:12^ 
13.  Long  before  the  coming  of  Christ  the 
Jewish  paraphrasts  of  the  Bible  used  "the 
Word  of  the  Lord  "  where  Jehovah 
occurred  in  the  original;  and  to  show  its 
true  meaning  and  its  application  to  our 
Saviour  was  of  great  importance  to  John, 
the  last  of  the  inspired  writers,  in  whose 
later  years  certain  errors  as  to  the  person 
of  Christ,  borrowed  from  Eastern  philoso- 
phy, had  begun  to  creep  into  the  Christian 
church.  He  describes  "  the  Word  "  as  a 
personal  and  divine  Being,  self-existent, 
and  coexistent  from  eternity  with  the  Fa- 
ther, yet  distinguished  from  him  as  the 
Son,  the  creator  of  all  created  things,  the 
source  of  all  life  and  light  to  'men,  and  in 
the  fulness  of  time  incarnate  among  men, 
John  1 : 1-3,  14.  John's  Gospel  is  full  and 
clear  respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ,  John 
20:31. 

WORKS.  Great  importance  is  attached 
in  Scripture  to  right  actions— inspired  by 
supreme  love  to  God  and  genuine  love  to 
man,  Mark  12:29-31 — as  necessary  eviden- 
ces of  a  true  spirit  of  faith  and  obedience, 
Matt.  7:21-23;  21:28-31;  25:31-46;  John 
43 


8:39;  I  Cor.  3:13-15;  Eph.  2:10;  Jas.  2:14- 
26  ;  I  Pet.  1 :  17.  But  the  "  good  works  "  of 
unrenewed  men  lack  that  element  of  holi- 
ness, Rom.  3:20-22,  and  the  best  works  of 
renewed  men  are  no  meritorious  ground 
of  salvation,  but  only  fruits  and  evidences 
of  grace.  Tit.  3:5. 

For  "works"  and  "mighty  works," 
John  5:20;  T.T,;  15:24,  see  Miracle. 

WORLD,  the  earth  on  which  we  dwell, 
I  Sam.  2:8;  2  Sam.  22:16;  Luke  1:70;  its 
inhabitants,  John  3:16,  or  a  large  number 
of  them,  John  12:19;  Rev.  13:3;  in  some 
passages  the  universe,  i  Cor.  4:9;  Heb. 
11:3;  Jas.  3:6;  in  several  places  it  is  equiv- 
alent to  "  land,"  and  denotes  the  Roman 
Empire,  Acts  17:6,  or  Judiea  and  its  vicin- 
ity, Luke  2:1;  4:5;  Acts  11 :  28.  It  is  some- 
times a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  olam, 
Isa.  45:17;  64:4,  in  R.  V.  "of  old;"  Eccl. 
3:11,  R.  v.,  margin,  "eternity ;"  and  often 
of  the  corresponding  Greek  word,  aion, 
meaning  sometimes  a  future  unlimited  pe- 
riod, Heb.  6:5,  R.  V.  "age,"  and  rendered 
"age  "  in  the  R.  V.  margin  of  Mark  10:30; 
Luke  18:30;  20:35;  and  often  meaning  this 
dispensation  or  passing  epoch,  translated 
"age"  in  the  R.  V.  in  i  Cor.  10:11;  Heb. 
9:26 ;  and  in  many  passages  in  the  margin, 
as  in  Matt.  12:32;  13:22,  39,  40,  49;  24:3; 
28:20;  Luke  16:8;  20:34;  Rom.  12:2;  Gal. 
1:4;  Eph.  1:21;  I  Tim.  6:17;  Tit.  2:12; 
Heb.  1:2;  11:3.  It  often  signifies  the  ob- 
jects and  interests  of  time  and  sense,  Mark 
4:19;  8:36;  Gal.  6:14,  and  the  riches,  hon- 
ors, and  pleasures  of  this  life,  which  are 
supremely  loved  by  mankind,  and  whose 
pursuit  is  so  generally  full  of  sin  that  "the 
world  "  is  justly  spoken  of  as  the  enemy  of 
God, Matt.  16:26;  John 7:7;  15:18,19;  Rom. 
12:2;  2  Tim.  4:10;  Jas.  4:4;  i  John  :  15-17; 
3:1,  13.  Satan  is  "the  god  of  this  world," 
John  12:31;  14:30;  2  Cor.  4:4. 

WORMS,  not  the  common  earth-worms, 
but  usually  the  larvae  of  various  insects : 
in  Isa.  51:8  the  moth  that  feeds  on  woollen 
cloth;  in  Deut.  28:39;  Jonah  4:7  the  larv£e 
of  some  insect  destructive  to  vines ;  in  Exod. 
16:20  those  of  some  species  bred  in  decay- 
ing matter,  or  of  beetles  infesting  dead  bod- 
ies buried  in  the  shallow  Eastern  graves, 
Job  19:26;  21:26,  metaphorically  used  by 
our  Lord  to  illustrate  the  future  remorse 
and  anguish  of  the  lost,  Mark  9:44-48;  in 
Job  25:6;  Psa.  22:6;  Isa.  41:14;  Acts  12:23, 
such  as  maj'  breed  in  human  ulcers.  In 
Mic.  7 :  17  some  reptile  is  intended,  or 
"  creeping  things,"  as  in  the  R.  V. 
W^ORM'WOOD,  Lam.  3 :  15, 19,  an  intense- 
673 


VVOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WRI 


ly  bitter,  unpalatable  plant,  a  symbol  for 
whatever  is  nauseous  and  destructive, 
Deut.  29:18;  Jer.  9:15;  23.15.  The  fruits 
of  vicious  indulgence  are  "bitter  as  worm- 
wood," Prov.  5:4;  and  injustice  and  oppres- 
sion are  like  wormwood  and  gall,  Amos 
5:7;  6:12.  The  Chaldee  paraphrase  calls 
it  "  the  wormwood  of  death."  Tlie  modern 
use  of  absinthe,  or  wormwood  in  brandy, 
embitters  and  destroys  many  lives  in  France 
and  Switzerland.  Several  species  of  Arte- 
misia grow  in  Palestine.  In  Amos  6: 12  the 
A.  V.  calls  it  ■'  hemlock."  In  Rev.  8:10,  n, 
"  the  star  called  Wormwood  "  seems  to  de- 
note a  mighty  prince  or  power  of  the  air,  the 
instrument  in  its  fall  of  sore  judgments  on 
large  numbers  of  the  wicked.  Comp.  Isa. 
14:12. 

WOR'SHIP  (/.  e.,  worth-ship  or  worthi- 
ness), in  old  English,  the  honor  manifested 
to  one  deemed  worthy,  or  the  homage  of 
subjects  to  kings.  Josh.  5:14;  Matt.  9:18; 
Luke  14:10;  Acts  10:25.  It  was  rendered 
in  various  ways  and  degrees,  e.  g.,  by  fall- 
ing prostrate  on  the  ground,  bending  the 
knee  or  the  head   and  body,  kissing  the 


hand,  the  feet,  or  the  ground,  or  touching 
the  forehead  to  the  ground  once  or  more, 
Gen.  T,y.T,\  Matt..  18:26.  See  Salutation. 
WOR'SHIP  OF  God.  That  supreme  rev- 
erence of  the  soul  which  is  due  to  him  alone, 
Exod.  20:3,  4;  John  4:20-24;  Heb.  1:6; 
Rev.  21 :9,  and  which  it  is  idolatry  to  offer 
to  any  other,  E.xod.  34:14;  2  Kin.  10:20-23; 
Dan.  3:5-28;  Acts  7:43  ;  2  Thess.  2:4;  Rev. 
13:4-15.  It  includes  adoration,  praise,  and 
thanksgiving,  confession  of  sin,  imploring 
his  grace,  and  the  study  of  his  will  ;  and 
the  rendering  of  this  service  habitually  and 
with  all  the  heart — both  spiritually  and  vis- 
ibly, in  public  and  in  private,  by  individu- 
als, |by  families,  and  by  communities — is 
not  only  a  self-evident  duty  for  all  who  be- 
lieve in  God,  but  is  abundantly  command- 
ed in  his  Word.  See  Prayer.  The  stated 
assembling  of  all  people  for  united  worship 
on  the  Sabbath,  in  continuance  of  the  tem- 
ple and  synagogue  services  enjoined  bj' 
God  and  practised  by  Christ,  is  a  most 
manifest  duty.  The  very  name  "  church," 
674 


meaning  assembly,  implies  it ;  and  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  the  great  means 
for  promoting  Christianity,  requires  it.  The 
directions  of  Paul,  not  to  forsake  the  "as- 
sembling of  ourselves  together,"  to  read 
his  epistles  "  in  all  the  churches,"  and  to 
join  in  "psalms  and  hynms  and  spiritual 
songs,"  and  his  rules  for  securing  the  high- 
est spiritual  edification  of  all  when  they 
come  together  in  the  church,  all  indicate 
the  established  law  of  Christianity. 

Public  worship  is  taught  in  manj*  of  the 
Psalms,  as  Psa.  42;  63;  84;  also  27:4; 
95:6;  96:8,  9;  Joel  2:15-17;  Matt.  18:19,  20. 
In  Old  Testament  times  it  included  "  holy 
convocations"  on  the  Sabbath,  Lev.  23:3, 
with  the  reading  of  Scripture,  Acts  15:21, 
and  no  doubt  religious  instruction,  with 
songs  of  praise,  Psa.  42:4;  92;  118:24. 
Double  sacrifices  were  then  offered  in  the 
temple.  Num.  28:9,  10,  the  show-bread  was 
renewed.  Lev.  24:8,  and  prophets  were  con- 
sulted, 2  Kin.  4:23.  Our  Lord  himself  ha- 
bitually practised  it,  Luke  4 :  16.  Family 
worship  is  implied  in  numerous  passages, 
Gen.  12:5,  8 ;  35:2,  3, 7 ,  Josh.  24: 15 ;  2  Sam. 
6:20;  Job  1:5;  Dan.  6:10;  Acts  1:13,  14; 
10:2;  Rom.  16:5;  I  Cor.  16:19;  Col.  4:15; 
Phile.  2.  The  terms  of  our  Lord's  prayer 
show  that  it  was  for  use  every  day  and  by 
several  persons  in  company.  Private  and 
secret  worship  is  essential  to  the  believer's 
spiritual  life  and  walk  with  God,  and  is  en- 
joined in  many  ways  in  the  word,  Psa.  4:4; 
5-3;  55: 17;  141 : 1.  2;  Dan.  6:10;  by  the  ex- 
press direction  of  Christ,  Matt.  6:5,  6;  as 
well  as  by  his  example.  Matt.  14:23;  Mark 
1 :35;  Luke  5: 16;  6:12;  9: 18,  29,  and  that  of 
the  apostles.  Acts  10:9. 

"  VVill-worship,"  Col.  2:23,  is  a  term  de- 
scriptive of  such  forms  of  adoration  and 
service  as  are  not  prescribed  in  God's 
Word,  but  are  offensive  in  his  sight.  Such 
are  the  masses  and  penances  of  popery. 

WORTH,  Ezek.  30:2,  from  a  Saxon  verb 
weorthan,  to  be :  "  woe  be  to  the  day." 

W^OT.     See  Wist. 

W^OULD  GOD,  Num.  11:29;  14:2;  20:3; 
Deut.  28:67;  2  Sam.  18:33;  2  Kin.  5:3,  and 
"Would  to  God,"  Exod.  16:3;  Josh.  7:7; 
Judg.  9:29;  I  Cor.  4:8;  2  Cor.  ii:i,  might 
better  be  translated  "Oh  that,"  as  in  Job 
6:8.  In  the  original  there  is  no  mention  of 
God. 

WOUND,  in  Obad.  7  should  be  rendered, 
asnare;  in  Prov.  18:8  a  dainty  morsel. 

•WRI'TING  was  doubtless  of  very  early 
origin,  and  would  naturally  at  first  be  ideo- 
graphic— consisting  of  rude  pictures  of  nat- 


YAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


YES 


ural  objects  and  symbols  of  natural  process- 
•es — numbers,  movements,  and  thoughts  ; 
and  subsequently  phonetic — by  letters  and 
syllables  representing  the  sound  of  spoken 
words.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  exem- 
plify the  transition  from  the  former  to  the 
latter  method;  and  the  22  letters  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  alphabet,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  still  older  Phcenician,  are  significant  of 
the  same  transition  and  of  a  pastoral  ori- 
jjin — aleph  meaning  o-r,  beth  a  diaellmg, 
and  gimel  a  camel,  etc.  The  earliest  Scrip- 
ture mention  of  writing  is  in  Exod.  17:14, 
as  of  an  art  long  and  well  known.  The  ten 
commandments  were  inscribed  on  stone 
tablets,  and  Moses  wrote  down  all  the  laws 
and  statutes  prescribed  by  God,  Exod.  24:4, 
7,  12;  32:32,  T,T,.  Written  chronicles  were 
kept.  Num.  21:14;  2  Sam.  1:18.  The  peo- 
ple were  required  thus  to  familiarize  them- 
selves with  the  law,  Deut.  6:6-9,  and  many 
copies  of  it  were  made,  Jer.  8:8.  Writing 
was  used  in  legal  and  business  transac- 
tions. Num.  5:23;  Josh.  18:9,  and  in  corre- 
spondence, 2  Sam.  II  :i4;  Ezra  4:8,  11 ;  5:6; 
Neh.  6:17;  Jer.  29:1,  and  recorders  and 
scribes  are  often  mentioned,  2  Sam.  8:17; 
20:24,  25;  Jer.  36.  Letters  and  books  took 
the  form  of  cylindrical  rolls,  Psa.  40:7;  Isa. 
^4:4;  Zech.  5:1,  and  the  writing  on  papy- 
rus, 2  John  12,  or  parchment,  2  Tim.  4:13, 
was  without  capitals  and  punctuation 
marks,  or  any  separation  between  words 
■or  sentences.  Inscriptions  were  made  on 
lead,  brass,  clay  tiles,  wax  tablets,  plaster, 
stone,  and  gems,  Exod.  39:14,  30;  and  the 
letters  were  formed  by  hand,  with  the  reed 
pen  or  hair-pencil  and  ink,  the  metallic 
.stylus,  and  graving  tools.  See  Book,  Ink, 
and  Pen. 

In  Jud.  5:14,  for  "pen  of  the  writer,"  the 
R.  V.  has  "  marshal's  staff." 

Y. 

YARN,  Linen,  i  Kin.  10:28,  in  the  R.  V. 
■droves  of  horses. 

YEAR.  The  Hebrews  always  had  years 
of  12  months.  But  at  the  beginning,  as 
som^e  s-uppose,  they  were  solar  years  of  12 
months,  each  month  having.  30  days,  ex- 
cepting the  twelfth,  which  had  35  days.  It 
is  supposed  that  they  had  an  intercalary 
month  at  the  end  of  120  years,  at  which 
time  the  beginning  of  their  year  would  be 
out  of  its  place  full  30  days.  Subsequently, 
however,  and  throughout  the  history  of  the 
Jews,  the  year  was  lunar,  having  alternate- 
ly a  full  month  of  30  days  and  a  defective 


month  of  29  days,  thus  completing  their 
year  in  354  days.  To  accommodate  this 
lunar  year  to  the  solar  year  (365  days,  5 
hours,  48  minutes,  and  48. 7  seconds),  or  the 
period  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around 
the  sun,  and  to  the  return  of  the  seasons, 
they  added  a  whole  month  after  Adar  about 
7  times  in  19  years.  This  intercalary  month 
they  called  Ve-adar.     See  Month. 

From  several  passages  it  appears  that  the 
year  was  sometimes  reckoned  as  360  days, 
or  12  months  of  30  days  each.  This  may 
have  been  a  common  mode  of  speech  for 
the  sake  of  round  numbers,  and  as  such 
used  by  Daniel,  7:25;  12:7,  where  "a  time" 
evidently  denotes  a  year;  and  "a  time, 
times,  and  a  half"  means  three  and  a  half 
prophetic  years  or  1,260  prophetic  days  or 
natural  years.  Compare  the  42  months  and 
the  1,260  days  of  Rev.  II  :2,  3;  12:6. 

The  Hebrew  year  commenced  with  the 
new  moon  of  the  month  Abib  or  Nisan 
nearest  to  the  vernal  equinox,  usually  after 
the  equinox  and  never  long  before  it,  for 
the  first-fruits  of  the  barley  harvest  were 
to  be  ofTered  on  the  i6th  of  that  month. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  appear  to  have  had 
no  formal  and  established  era,  but  to  have 
dated  from  the  most  memorable  events  in 
their  history;  as  from  the  exodus  out  of 
Egypt,  Exod.  19:1 ;  Num.  33:38;  i  Kin.  6:1 ; 
from  the  erection  of  Solomon's  temple, 
I  Kin.  8:1 ;  9:10;  and  from  the  Babylonish 
Captivity,  Ezek.  33:21 ;  40:1.  See  Sabbat- 
ical Year  and  Jubilee. 

The  phrase  "  from  two  years  old  and 
under,"  Matt.  2:16,  that  is,  "from  a  child  of 
two  years  and  under,"  is  thought  by  some 
to  include  all  the  male  children  who  had 
not  entered  their  second  year;  and  by  oth- 
ers all  who  were  near  the  beginning  of 
their  second  year,  within  a  few  months  be- 
fore or  after. 

The  cardinal  and  ordinal  numbers  are 
often  used  indiscriminately.  Thus  in  Gen. 
7:6,  11,  Noah  is  600  years  old,  and  soon 
after  in  his  6ooth  year;  Christ  rose  from 
the  dead  "three  days  after,"  Matt.  27:63, 
and  "on  the  third  day,"  Matt.  16:21  ;  cir- 
cumcision took  place  when  the  child  was 
"eight  days  old,"  Gen.  17:12,  and  "on  the 
eighth  day,"  Lev.  12:3.  Comp.  Luke  1:59; 
2r2i.  Many  slight  discrepancies  in  chro- 
nology may  be  thus  accounted  for. 

YES'TERDAY  and  TO-DAY,  in  Heb.  13:8, 
are  used  in  a  general  sense  for  time  past 
and  present.  Christ  is  eternally  the  same. 
The  life  and  knowledge  of  man  are  com- 
paratively only  "of  yesterday,"  Job  8:9. 

675 


YES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZAC 


YES'TER-NIGHT,  Gen.  31:29,  last  night. 

YOKE,  a  symbol  of  subjection  and  servi- 
tude, I  Kin.  12:4;  an  iron  yoke,  of  severe 
oppression,  Deut.  2^:48.  The  ceremonial 
law  was  a  yoke,  a  burdensome  restriction, 
Acts  15:10;  Gal.  5:1.  The  withdravvmg  or 
breaking  of  a  yoke  denoted  a  temporary  or 
an  unlimited  emancipation  from  bondage, 
Isa.  58:6;  Jer.  2:20,  and  sometimes  the  dis- 
owning of  rightful  authority,  Jer.  5:5.  The 
iron  yoke  imposed  by  our  sins  none  but 
God  can  remove,  Lam.  1:14;  but  the  yoke 
of  Christ's  service  is  easy  and  ligiit,  Matt. 
11:29,  30.  The  word  yoke  also  denotes  a 
pair  of  oxen,  1  Kin.  19:19,  21 ;  Job  1:3; 
Luke  14:19.    See  Acre. 

YOKE'-FELLOW,  Phil.  4:3,  comrade, 
fellow-laborer. 


ZAANA'IM,  removals,  the  plain  of, 
rather  the  "  oak  "  or  "  terebinth  "  of  Zaana- 
im,  a  notable  tree  or  grove  near  which  He- 
ber  the  Kenite  was  encamped  when  Sisera 
fled  to  his  tent  and  was  slain,  Judg.  4:11. 
It  was  near  Kedesh  in  Naphtali,  which  the 
Palestine  E.xploration  party  found  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  2  miles 
above  the  outlet  of  the  Jordan.  Zaanaim, 
now  Bessum,  would  thus  be  6  or  7  miles 
northeast  of  Mount  Tabor. 

ZA'ANAN,  place  of  flocks,  Mic.  i :  11,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Zenan,  Josh.  15:37, 
a  town  in  the  plain  country  of  Judah,  6 
miles  northwest  of  Gath,  where  the  name 
lingers  as  Zeidan. 

ZAANAN'NIM,  Josh.  19:33,  the  same  as 
Zaanaim. 

ZA'AVAN,  disquieted,  a  Horite  chief, 
grandson  of  Esau,  Gen.  36:27,  called  Za- 
van  in  i  Chr.  1:42,  A.  V. 

ZA'BAD,  a  gift.  \.  One  of  David's  war- 
riors, I  Chr.  2:36,  37;  11:41. 

n.  An  Ephraimite,  i  Chr.  7:21. 

in.  The  son  of  an  Ammonitess,  who  with 
Jehozabad,  son  of  a  Moabitess,  assassina- 
ted king  Joash  in  his  bed,  2  Chr.  24:25,  26; 
called  Jozachar  in  2  Kin.  12:21.  The  mur- 
derers were  put  to  death  later  by  .^maziah, 
2  Kin.  14:5,  6;  2  Chr.  25:3,  4;  but  their 
children  were  spared.     Comp.  Deut.  24:16. 

IV.  Three  Hebrews  wlio  divorced  their 
foreign  wives  in   Ezra's  day,  Ezra   10:27, 

33-  43- 

ZAB'DI,  my  gift.  Four  of  this  name  are 
mentioned,  josh.  7:1,  17,  18;  i  Chr.  8:19; 
27:27;  Neh.  II :  17. 

ZAB'DIEL,,^7>7  of  God.  I.  The  father  of 
676 


Jashobeam,  captain  of  one  of  David's  hosts, 
I  Chr.  27:2. 

II.  A  leading  priest  in  Nehemiah's  day, 
Neh.  II  :i4. 

ZA'BUD,  given,  a  priest,  in  the  A.  V. 
"principal  officer,"  or  king's  friend,  a  son 
of  Natfian  the  prophet  and  the  confidential 
friend  and  adviser  of  king  Solomon,  prob- 
ably having  shared  with  him  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  venerable  prophet,  i  Kin.  4:5. 
Such  a  position  in  an  Eastern  court  often 
implies  more  influence  w'ith  the  king  than 
is  enjoyed  by  his  legal  advisers.    Comp. 

HUSHAI. 

ZAB'ULON,  the  Greek  form  of  Zebulun, 
used  in  the  A.  V.  in  Matt.  4:13,  15;  Rev. 
7:8. 

ZAC'CAI,  pure,  Ezra  2:9;  Neh.  7:14,  the 
ancestor  of  760  Hebrews  who  returned  from 
the  Captivity. 

ZKCCYLJE'US,  pure,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
Hebrew  Zaccai,  Luke  19:1-10.  He  was  a 
Jew  and  yet  a  wealthy  superintendent  of 
tax-gatherers  at  Jericho.  In  order  to  see 
Christ  he  took  a  position  in  a  sycamore- 
tree,  by  which  He  was  about  to  pass.  The 
Saviour  drawing  near  and  knowing  his 
heart,  called  to  him  to  come  down,  and  pro- 
posed to  make  a  brief  stay  at  his  house. 
As  he  held  office  under  the  Romans  he  was 
called  "  a  sinner  "  by  the  Jews.  He  showed 
sincere  penitence  and  faith  in  the  Saviour, 
who  in  turn  promised  him  salvation  as  "  a 
son  of  Abraham  "  by  faith,  Gal.  3:7,  as  well 
as  by  birth.  True  conversion  will  evince 
itself  by  the  making  of  all  practicable  rep- 
aration for  any  wrongs  done.  There  is  some 
obscurity  as  to  the  relation  of  this  interview 
with  the  healing  of  the  blind  men.  Possi- 
bly the  house  of  Zacchajus  was  on  the  west 
of  Jericho  and  the  healing  occurred  be- 
tween it  and  Jericho,  the  blind  men  having 
followed  him  through  the  village.  The 
"  house  of  Zacchaeus  "  now  shown  on  the 
plain  of  Jericho  is  probably  the  remnant  of 
a  fort  built  in  the  loth  century,  or  even 
more  recently. 

ZAC'CUR,  mindful,  the  name  of  7  Israel- 
ites mentioned  in  Num  13:4;  i  Chr.  4:26; 
24:27;  25:2,10;  Neh.  3:2;   10:12;  13:13. 

ZACHARI'AH,  properly  Zkchariah,  the 
14th  king  cif  Israel  and  the  last  of  the  line 
of  Jehu.  He  succeeded  his  father  Jerobo- 
am II.,  773  B.  C,  and  reigned  6  months. 
He  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and 
Shallum  son  of  Jabesh  consjjired  against 
him,  killed  him  in  public,  and  reigned  in 
his  stead.  Thus  was  fulfilled  what  the 
Lord  had  foretold  to  Jehu,  that  his  children 


ZAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZAP 


should  sit  on  the  throne  of  Israel  to  the  4th 
generation,  2  Kin.  14:29;  15:8-11. 

ZACHARI'AS,  the  Greek  form  of  Zecha- 
RiAH,  remembered  by  Jehovah.  I.  An  Old 
Testament  martyr,  slain  in  the  temple  court 
between  the  altar  and  the  Holy  Place,  Matt. 
23:35;  Luke  11:51;  probably  the  son  of  the 
high-priest  Jehoiada,  who  was  stoned  to 
death  by  order  of  king  Joash,  2  Chr.  24:20- 
22.  See  Zp:ch.-^ri.^h,  IV.  Our  Lord  calls 
the  martyr  he  refers  to  "  the  son  of  Bara- 
chiah  ;"  but  "  son  "  may  mean  grandson  or 
•descendant.  Some  suppose  the  prophet 
Zechariah  to  be  intended,  but  history  gives 
no  account  of  his  death. 

II.  A  priest  belonging  to  the  8th  course 
or  class,  called  that  of  Abia,  i  Chr.  24:10, 
the  husband  of  Elisabeth  and  father  of 
John  the  Baptist.  His  residence  when  not 
on  duty  was  in  the  hill-country  south  of 
Jerusalem.  Each  class  ministered  in  turn 
one  week  in  the  temple,  and  the  service  of 
offering  incense  was  a  high  honor,  allowed 
only  once  to  any  one  priest.  He  is  known 
to  us  by  his  pious  and  blameless  life,  his 
vision  of  Gabriel  in  the  temple  promising 
him  a  son  in  his  old  age,  his  hesitancy  in 
believing,  for  which  he  was  visited  by  a 
temporary  dumbness,  his  miraculous  res- 
toration at  the  circumcision  of  his  son,  and 
his  noble  and  prophetic  song  of  praise, 
Luke  1:5-25,  57-79. 

ZA'DOK,  righteous,  I.,  the  son  of  Ahitub 
and  father  of  Ahimaaz,  a  high-priest  to- 
gether with  Abiathar  in  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon.  He  was  of  the  house  of  Ele- 
azar,  the  son  of  Aaron,  i  Chr.  24:3,  and  was 
a  "seer"  as  well  as  a  priest,  2  Sam.  15:27. 
It  is  thought  that  he  was  the  Zadok  men- 
tioned in  I  Chr.  12:27,  28  as  giving  in  his 
allegiance  to  David  after  Saul's  death,  and 
he  continued  faithful  to  his  king,  i  Chr. 
27:17.  He  fled  from  Jerusalem  with  David 
when  Absalom  rebelled,  but  was  sent  back 
and  communicated  between  David  and  Hu- 
shai,  2  Sam.  15-17.  He  and  Abiathar  led 
the  elders  of  Judah  to  recall  the  king,  2  Sam. 
19:11;  he  remained  faithful  to  him  and 
Solomon  when  Abiathar  fell  away ;  whence 
the  king  deposed  Abiathar  and  made  Za- 
dok the  sole  high-priest,  i  Kin.  1:7,  8,  26, 
32-39;  2:27,  35;  4:4;  I  Chr.  29:22. 

II.  The  father-in-law  of  king  Uzziah, 
2  Kin.  15:33;  2  Chr.  27:1. 

III.  The  son  of  another  Ahitub,  and  high- 
priest,  I  Chr.  6:12;  9:11. 

IV.  A  repairer  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
and  sealer  of  the  covenant,  Neh.  3:4;  10:21. 

V.  The   son  of  Immer,  a  priest,   i   Chr. 


24:14,  who  returned  from  the  Captivity, 
Ezra  2:37,  and  aided  in  repairing  the  city 
wall,  Neh.  3:29. 

VI.  A  priest  at  Jerusalem,  Neh.  11: 11. 

VII.  A  scribe  and  treasurer  under  Nehe- 
miah,  Neh.  13: 13. 

ZA'HAM,  fatness,  a  son  of  Rehoboam, 
2  Chr.  II :  19. 

ZA'IR,  small,  2  Kin.  8:21,  a  spot  where 
Joram's  army  attacking  the  Edomites  was 
surrounded  and  fought  its  way  out.  Its 
site  is  unknown,  though  some  would  iden- 
tify it  with  Zoar. 

ZAL'MON,  shady,  I.,  an  Ahohite,  a  hero 
of  David,  2  Sam.  23 :  28 ;  called  Ilai  in 
I  Chr.  II  :29. 

II.  A  wooded  height  in  Samaria,  3  or  4 
miles  south- southwest  of  Shechem,  with 
wood  from  which  Abimelech  burned  the 
Shechemitesout  of  their  citadel,  Judg.  9:48. 
In  Psa.  68:14  its  aspect,  when  snow  is  fly- 
ing over  it,  seems  to  illustrate  God's  easy 
scattering  of  his  enemies. 

ZALMO'NAH,  shady,  the  41st  station  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  reached  after 
leaving  Mount  Hor  and  passing  the  south 
border  of  Idumaea,  Num.  33 :  41 .  Perhaps  in 
wady  el-Amran,  6  miles  northeast  of  Elath. 

ZALMUN'NA,  unprotected.     See  Zeb.\h. 

ZAMZUM'MIM,  or  ZU'ZIM,  a  race  of 
Rephaim  or  giants  east  of  the  Jordan,  prob- 
ably near  Rabbath  Ammon,  defeated  by 
Chedorlaomer,  Gen.  14:5,  and  extermina- 
ted by  the  Ammonites,  who  possessed  their 
territory  until  themselves  subdued  by  Is- 
rael, Deut.  2:20,  21.     See  Ammonites  and 

ZlIZIM. 

ZANO'AH,  marsh,  I.,  a  town  in  the  She- 
phelah  or  lowland  of  Judah,  near  Zorah 
and  Jarmuth,  Josh.  15:34.  Its  inhabitants 
after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:30,  aided  in 
repairing  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:13. 
Its  site  is  traced  at  Zanii'a,  just  north  of 
Yarmuk,  and  13  miles  west  of  Bethlehem. 

II.  A  town  in  the  hillcountr}'  of  Judah, 
grouped  with  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Ziph, 
Josh.  15:56;  now  Ghanaim,  5  miles  south 
by  west  of  Hebron. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH,  p}-eservcr  of 
the  age,  an  Egyptian  name  given  by  Pha- 
raoh to  Joseph  in  commemoration  of  the 
salvation  wrought  through  him,  Gen.  41 :45. 

ZA'PHON,  north,  a  town  in  Gad,  near 
Succoth,  Josh.  13:27,  apparently  in  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  ver.  17-21,  and  near  the  Sea  of 
Galilee;  probably  Amathus,  now  Amateh, 
in  wady  Regib.  In  Judg.  12:1,  for  "north- 
ward "  the  R.  V.  has  in  the  margin,  "  to 
Zaphon." 

677 


ZAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZEB 


ZA'RA,  Matt.  1:3,  A.  V.,  and  ZA'RAH, 
Gen.  38:30;  46:12.     See  Zerah. 

ZA'REAH.     See  ZoR.'VH. 

ZA'RED.     See  Zered. 

ZAR'EPHATH,  smelling-place,  Obad.  20, 
a  Phoenician  seaport  on  the  Mediterranean 
between  Tyre  and  Zidon,  usually  subject 
to  Tyre.  During  part  of  a  long  drought 
and  famine  in  Israel  the  prophet  Elijah 
resided  here  with  a  widow,  whose  cruse  of 
oil  and  barrel  of  flour  were  supplied  and 
whose  child  was  restored  to  life  by  mira- 
cle. Her  noble  faith  in  God  is  worthy  of 
everlasting  remembrance,  and  her  gener- 
ous self-forgetfulness  of  universal  imita- 
tion, I  Kin.  17:9-24.  The  place  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  Sarepta,  Luke  4:26,  and  its 
ruins  are  found  on  the  seashore,  a  mile  dis- 
tant from  Surafend,  a  large  village  on  the 
adjacent  hills. 

ZAR'ETAN,  Josh.  3:16;  ZARTA'NAH, 
I  Kin.  4:12;  and  ZAR'THAN,  i  Kin.  7:46; 
all  in  the  R.  V.  ZAR'ETHAN,  splendor,  a 
place  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and  apparently 
a  region  bordering  the  Jordan,  on  the  west, 
extending  to  the  south  from  Beth-shean,  and 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  It  was 
reached  by  the  retroceding  waters  of  the 
Jordan  when  the  Israelites  miraculously 
crossed  the  river,  and  gave  its  name  to  one 
of  Solomon's  commissariat  districts.  In  it 
were  the  clay-pits  where  brass  castings 
were  made  for  king  Solomon.  In  a  paral- 
lel passage  this  latter  place  is  named  ZE- 
RED'ATHAH,  2  Chr.  4:16,  17,  which  again 
would  seem  to  be  the  same  as  ZERE'RATH, 
in  the  R.  V.  ZERE'RAH,  Judg.  7:22.  The 
name  Zahrah  now  marks  a  portion  of  the 
Jordan  valley. 

ZA'RETH  (rather  ZE'RETH)-SHA'HAR, 
Splendor  of  the  dawn,  a  town  of  Reuben, 
on  a  height  overlooking  the  Jordan  or  Dead 
Sea  valley,  Josh.  13 :  19.  Its  site  may  be 
marked  by  the  ruins  called  Zara,  near  the 
mouth  of  wady  Zerka  Nain. 

ZAR'HITE,  a  descendant  of  Zerah,  the 
son  of  Judah,  Num.  26:20;  Josh.  7:17; 
I  Chr.  27:11,  13. 

ZARTA'NAH,  cooling?  I  Kin.  4:12.  See 
Zaret.\n. 

ZAR'THAN,  I  Kin.  7:46,  in  2  Chr.  4:17, 
called  Zeredathah.     See  Zaretan. 

ZEBADI'AH,  Heb.  Zebad'vah,  gift  of 
Jehovah,  tiie  name  of  9  Israelites,  i  Chr. 
8:15;  8:17;  12:7;  26:2;  27:7;  2  Chr.  17:8; 
19:11 ;  Ezra  8:8;  10:20. 

ZE'BAH,  sacrifice,  one  of  two  Midianite 
kings  who  oppressed  Israel,  and  when  Gid- 
eon raised  an  army  and  defeated  them, 
678 


escaped  over  the  Jordan  by  a  ford  near 
Beth-shean.  Gideon  pursued  and  captured 
them  at  Karkor,  and  taking  them  back  ta 
his  home  at  Ophrah  slew  them,  to  avenge 
their  slaying  of  his  brothers,  Judg.  8:18. 
Comp.  Psa.  83:11,  12. 

ZEBA'IM,  gazelles,  an  unknown  home  of 
some  of  Solomon's  bondmen,  Ezra  2:57; 
Neh.  7:59. 

ZEB'EDEE,  gift  of  Jehovah,  the  husband 
of  Salome  and  father  of  James  and  John 
the  apostles.  He  was  a  fisherman  in  com- 
fortable circumstances,  owning  his  boat 
and  having  men  in  his  employ,  Mark  i :  19^ 
20,  at  or  near  Bethsaida,  on  the  west  shore 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  readily  spared 
his  two  sons  at  the  call  of  the  Saviour,  Matt. 
4:21.  His  wife  also  attended  Christ  and 
ministered  to  him  of  her  substance,  Matt. 
27:55,56;  Marki5:4o;  16:1.  See  Salome. 
His  son  John  was  personally  known  to  the 
high-priest,  and  was  charged  by  the  dying 
Saviour  with  the  care  of  His  mother,  John 
18:15,  16;  19:26,  27. 

ZEBO'IM;  in  Gen.  14:2,  8;  Deut.  29:23, 
ZEBOI'IM,  gazelles.  I.  One  of  the  four  cit- 
ies of  the  "  plain  "  or  "  circle  "  of  the  Jordan 
and  Dead  Sea  depression — "  in  the  vale  of 
Siddim,  which  is  the  Salt  Sea."  Gen.  10:19; 
14:2,  8 — which  were  destroyed  by  fire  from 
heaven.  Its  king  was  named  Shemeber. 
It  is  always  associated  with  Admah,  Deut. 
29:23;  Hos.  11:8.  Its  location  is  unknown, 
whether  at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  or 
the  northern. 

II.  A  valley,  and  perhaps  an  adjacent 
town,  Neh.  11:34,  of  the  Benjamites,  i  Sam. 
13:18.  A  wild  gorge,  running  up  from  Jer- 
icho to  Michmash,  is  called  Shuk-ed-Dub- 
ba,  which  has  the  same  meaning  as  this 
Zebo'im,  hyoia-ravine. 

ZEBU'DAH,  given,  wife  of  king  Josiah 
and  mother  of  Jehoiakim,  2  Kin.  23:36. 

ZE'BUL,  a  dwelling,  a  governor  of  the 
city  of  Shechem,  who  labored  adroitly  ta 
preserve  the  city  for  Abimelech  his  master, 
the  son  of  Gideon,  Judg.  9:28-41. 

ZEB'ULUN,  in  the  A.  V.,  Rev.  7:8,  ZAB'- 
ULON,  a  habitation.  I.  The  tenth  son  of 
Jacob  and  si.\th  and  last  of  Leah,  born  in 
Mesopotamia,  Gen.  30:20;  49: 13,  and  father 
of  three  sons,  the  heads  of  the  tribe.  Gen. 
46:14. 

II.  The  tribe  of  Zebulun  numbered  57,400 
at  Sinai,  and  60,500  at  the  next  census. 
Num.  1:30,  31  ;  26:26,  27;  it  encamped  on 
the  east  of  the  tabernacle,  and  marched 
with  Issachar  under  the  standard  of  Judah, 
Num.  2:7,  8;  10:14-16.     It  stood  on  Mount 


ZEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZEC 


Ebal  when  the  blessings  and  curses  were 
pronounced,  Deut.  27:13.  Its  portion  in 
the  Holy  Land  accorded  with  the  predic- 
tion of  Jacob,  Gen.  49:13,  extending  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  Carmel  to  the 
Sea  of  Gennesaret,  between  Issachar  on  the 
south  and  Naphtali  and  Asher  on  the  north 
and  northwest,  Josh.  19:10-16.  The  tribe 
occupied  one  of  the  richest  portions  of 
Western  Palestine,  and  "  offered  the  sacri- 
fices of  righteousness  "  from  its  abundant 
flocks;  rejoicing  in  its  "goings  out"  to- 
wards the  sea  at  Acre,  and  sucking  "of  the 
abundance  of  the  sea "  at  the  harbor  of 
Haifa,  and  of  "  treasures  hid  in  the  sands," 
possibly  in  allusion  to  the  glass  first  made 
on  that  coast.  Zebulun's  posterity  are  often 
mentioned  in  connection  with  those  of  Issa- 
char, his  nearest  brother,  Deut.  33:18,  19. 
They  were  entangled  with  the  Phoenicians 
on  the  west  and  did  not  entirely  expel  the 
Canaanites,  though  holding  them  in  sub- 
jection, Judg.  1 :  30.  In  process  of  time  they 
and  their  successors  became  much  foreign- 
ized  in  customs,  language,  and  even  reli- 
gion, 2  Chr.  30:10,  II,  18,  and  were  con- 
temned by  the  Judahites,  Isa.  9:1;  Matt. 
4:16;  26:73.  But  in  their  earlier  period 
they  took  part  with  Barak  and  Gideon  in 
the  defence  of  the  country  against  its  op- 
pressors, Judg.  4:6,  10;  5:14,  18;  6:35. 
Elon,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  was  a 
Zebulunite,  Judg.  12:11,  12,  and  the  proph- 
et Jonah.  Fifty  thousand  of  them  joined 
their  brethren  of  the  other  tribes  in  ma- 
king David  king  and  contributing  supplies, 
I  Chr.  12:33,  40;  aiid  their  princes  are  hon- 
orably mentioned  in  Psa.  68 :  27.  They  pen- 
itently heeded  the  call  of  Hezekiah  and 
were  among  those  who  abandoned  their 
idolatry  and  celebrated  the  Passover  with 
renewed  zeal,  2  Chr.  30:10,  11,  18.  But 
they  relapsed  into  idolatry  and  were  car- 
ried into  captivity,  2  Kin.  17:13.  Zebulun 
and  Naphtali  were  especially  included  by 
Isaiah  in  his  prediction  of  the  Messiah's 
illumining  the  national  darkness,  Isa.  9:1, 
2,  and  Matt.  4:12-16  records  its  partial  ful- 
filment. The  inhabitants  of  this  region  in 
the  time  of  Christ  were  highly  favored  by 
his  instructions— Nazareth  and  Cana,  Ca- 
pernaum, Magdala,  and  Tiberias  being  all 
in  these  limits. 

III.  A  city  in  the  southern  border  of 
Asher,  but  probably  belonging  to  Zebulun, 
Josh.  19:27. 

ZECHARl'AH,  God  remembers,  I.,  son  of 
Berechiah  and  grandson  of  Iddo  the  priest ; 
called  the  son  of  Iddo  in  Ezra  5:1;  6:14,  and 


his  successor  in  the  priesthood,  Neh.  12:4, 
16,  perhaps  because  Berechiah  was  then 
dead.  Zechariah  is  the  nth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  He  was  born  in  Babylon,  and 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  the 
high-priest,  and  began  to  prophesy  while 
yet  young,  Zech.  2:4,  in  the  2d  year  of  Da- 
rius son  of  Hystaspes,  B.  C.  520,  in  the  8th 
month  of  the  holy  year,  and  2  months  after 
Haggai.  These  two  prophets,  vvith  united 
zeal,  encouraged  the  people  to  resume  the 
work  of  the  temple,  which  had  been  discon- 
tinued for  some  years,  Ezra  5:1.  Its  foun- 
dations had  been  laid  in  the  time  of  Cyrus ; 
but  during  the  reigns  of  Cambyses  and 
the  pseudo-Smerdis  the  work  was  arrested 
through  the  hostility  of  the  Samaritans. 
The  favor  of  Darius  encouraged  the  re- 
sumption of  the  work,  and  it  was  vigorous- 
ly prosecuted,  Ezra  6:14,  to  the  end  of  the 
i6th  year  after  the  return  of  the  first  band 
of  Israelites  from  exile. 

Zechariah's  prophecies  concerning  the 
Messiah  are  more  particular  and  express 
than  those  of  most  other  prophets  (see 
Zech.  3:8;  6:12;  9:9;  Ii:i2;  12:10;  13:1, 
6,  7),  and  many  of  them,  like  those  of  Dan- 
iel, are  couched  in  symbols.  The  book 
opens  with  a  brief  warning  introduction ; 
after  which  six  chapters  contain  a  series  of 
visions,  setting  forth  the  fitness  of  that  time 
for  the  promised  restoration  of  Israel,  the 
destruction  of  the  enemies  of  God's  people, 
the  conversion  of  heathen  nations,  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah  the  B.ranch,  the  outpouring 
and  blessed  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  the  importance  and  safety  of  faithfully 
adhering  to  the  service  of  their  covenant 
God.  Two  years  later,  chs.  7  and  8,  a  dep- 
utation of  Jews  came  to  the  temple  to  in- 
quire whether  the  fast  days  of  the  Captiv- 
ity were  to  be  observed  now  that  they  had 
returned,  and  were  taught  that  God  loves 
mercy  and  truth  more  than  fasting  and 
sackcloth,  and  that  their  days  of  mourning 
should  be  turned  to  days  of  joy.  Chs.  9-1 1 
predict  the  prosperity  of  Judah  during  the 
times  of  the  Maccabees,  together  with  the 
fate  of  Damascus,  the  Palestine  coast,  and 
other  adjacent  regions.  The  remaining 
three  chapters  describe,  in  a  style  befitting 
the  grandeur  of  the  themes,  the  future  des- 
tiny of  the  Jews,  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the 
triumphs  of  Messiah,  and  the  glories  of  the 
latter  day  when  "Holiness  to  the  Lord" 
shall  be  inscribed  on  all  things. 

II.  A  wise  and  faithful  prophetic  coun- 
sellor of  king  Uzziah  in  the  early  part  of 
his  reign,  whose  death  was  the  beginning 

679    ' 


ZED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZEL 


of  calamities  to  Judah,  2  Chr.  26:5,  16.  He 
was  wise  because  he  "  had  understanding 
in  the  visions,"  or  the  fear,  "of  God."  Comp. 
Dan.  1:17.  Perhaps  the  same  who  was  the 
father-in-law  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr.  28:27  ;  29:1. 

III.  A  son  of  Jeberechiah,  associated 
with  Urijah  the  higii-priest  bj'  Isaiah  as  a 
"  faithful  witness,"  Isa.  8:1,2;  2  Chr.  29: 13. 

IV.  A  son  of  the  high-priest  Jehoiada  in 
the  reign  of  Joash,  2  Chr.  24:20.  Having 
probably  succeeded  his  father  in  office,  he 
was  stoned  in  the  very  house  of  God,  ver. 
21,  for  faithfully  rebuking  the  king,  court, 
and  peo'ple  for  their  growing  idolatry  and 
corruptions.  This  impious  crime,  aggrava- 
ted by  the  fact  that  Zechariah  was  not  only 
a  holy  man  of  God  but  also  the  king's  own 
cousin,  2  Chr.  22:11,  was  long  remembered, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  referred  to 
in  Matt.  23:35;  Luke  11:51— the  "  Zachari- 
as,  the  son  of  Barachias,"  "  slain  between 
the  temple  and  the  altar,"  being  so  called 
for  some  unknown  reason.  The  dying  cry 
of  Zechariah  was  not  like  that  of  Stephen, 
Acts  7:60. 

A  number  of  other  men  of  this  name  are 
mentioned  in  I.  and  II.  Chronicles,  Ezra, 
and  Nehemiah ;  but  little  of  interest  is  said 
of  them. 

ZE'DAD,  side  or  slope,  a  place  on  the 
northern  border  of  the  Holy  Land,  Num. 
34:8;  Fizek.  47:15.  Identified  by  some  with 
a  remote  town  east  of  the  north  end  of 
Anti-Lebanon,  about  50  miles  east-north- 
east of  Baalbek. 

ZEDEKI'AH,  7-iffJiteousness  of  Jehovah, 
I.,  the  19th  and  last  king  of  Judah,  son  of 
Josiah  and  Hamutal,  full  brother  of  Jehoa- 
haz,  2  Kin.  23:31  ;  24:18,  and  uncle  to  Jeco- 
niah  his  predecessor,  2  Kin.  24:17,  19: 
I  Chr.  3:15;  Jer.  52:1.  When  Nebuchadnez- 
zar took  Jerusalem  he  carried  Jeconiah  to 
Babylon,  with  his  wives,  children,  officers, 
and  the  best  artificers  in  Judaea,  and  put  in 
his  place  his  uncle  Mattaniah,  whose  name 
he  changed  to  Zedekiah,  and  made  him 
promise  with  an  oath  that  he  would  main- 
tain fidelity  to  him.  He  was  21  years  old 
when  he  began  to  reign  at  Jerusalem,  and 
he  reigned  there  11  years.  He  did  evil  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord,  committing  the  same 
crimes  as  Jehoiakim,  2  Kin.  24: 18-20;  2  Chr. 
36:11-13.  Comp.  Jer.  29:16-19;  34;  38:5; 
Ezek.  17:12,  14,  18.  In  the  9th  year  of  his 
reign  he  revolted  against  Nebuchadnezzar, 
trusting  to  the  support  of  Pharaoh-hophra 
kingof  Egypt,  which  proved  ineffectual,  and 
weakly  despising  the  faithful  remonstran- 
ces of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  37:2,  5,  7-10.  In  con- 
680 


sequence  of  this  Nebuchadnezzar  marched 
his  armj-  into  Judiea  and  took  all  the  forti- 
fied places,  Jer.  34  7.  In  the  nth  year  of 
his  reign,  on  the  9th  day  of  the  4th  month 
(July),  Jerusalem  was  taken,  588  B.  C.  The 
king  and  his  people  endea\ored  to  escape 
by  favor  of  the  night ;  but  the  Chaldaean 
troops  pursuing  them,  they  were  overtaken 
in  the  plain  of  Jericho.  ZedeLiah  was  ta- 
ken and  carried  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  then 
at  Riblah,  in  Syria,  who  reproached  him 
with  his  perfidy,  caused  his  children  to  be 
slain  before  his  face  and  his  own  eyes  to  be 
put  out;  and  then  loading  him  with  chains 
of  brass,  he  ordered  him  to  be  sent  to  Bab- 
ylon, where  he  was  put  "  in  prison,"  that 
is,  "  in  the  house  of  visitations  or  punish- 
ments," probably  at  penal  labor,  as  was 
Samson,  Judg.  16:21  ;  2  Kin.  25;  Jer.  39; 
52;  Ezek.  19.  All  these  events  remarka- 
bly fulfilled  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel  in  the  chapters  previously  referred 
to.  See  also  other  prophecies  of  Jeremiah 
during  this  period  :  chs.  21,  24,  27-29,  32-34, 
and  Ezek.  26:11-2'.  Compare  also,  with 
respect  to  Zedekiah 's  bl'ndness,  Jer.  32:4; 
343;  Ezek.  12:13. 

II.  One  who  was  consulted  as  head  of 
the  false  prophets,  at  the  court  of  idola- 
trous Ahab,  on  the  success  or  failure  of 
Ahab's  war  with  Ramoth-gilead,  i  Kin.  22; 
2  Chr.  18.  Comp.  i  Kin.  18: 19,  22,  40.  His 
buffalo  horns  were  the  emblem  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim,  Deut.  33:17.  In  his  anger  he 
struck  and  tai:nted  Micaiah  the  prophet, 
who  had  foretold  the  true  result  of  the 
campaign,  and  received  a  solemn  premo- 
nition of  his  own  doom,  i  Kin.  22:25. 

III.  Son  of  Hananiah,  a  prince  of  Judah, 
present  in  the  palace  royal  when  the  read- 
ing of  Jeremiah's  predictions  to  the  people 
was  announced,  Jer.  36:12. 

IV.  A  false  prophet  at  Babylon,  son  of 
Maaseiah,  denounced  by  Jeremiah  for 
buoying  up  the  people  with  false  hopes, 
Jer.  29:21,  22. 

ZE'EB,  ivolf,  Judg.  7:19-25;  8:3;  Psa. 
S3:  II,  a  Midianite  prince,  defeated  by  Gid- 
eon and  slain  at  a  ford  of  the  Jordan  to 
which  he  gave  a  name.     See  Oreb. 

ZE'LAH,  a  rib,  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Benjamin,  Josh.  18:28,  where  was  the  fam- 
ily tomb  of  Kish,  2  Sam.  21:14,  in  which 
the  remains  of  Saul,  Jonathan,  and  others 
were  laid,  ver.  13.     Probably  the  same  as 

ZlCI.ZAH. 

ZE'LEK,  a  fissure,  one  of  David's  guard, 
an  Ammonite,  2  Sam.  23:37;   i  Chr.  11:39. 
ZELOPH'EHAD,  first    rjipture  ?   a   de- 


ZEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZEP 


scendant  of  Joseph  by  Manasseh,  Machir, 
Gilead,  and  Hepher,  Josh.  17:3,4;  i  Chr. 
7:15,  who  took  no  part  in  Korah's  rebel- 
lion, but  whose  death  in  the  wilderness. 
Num.  14:35;  27:3,  leaving  5  daughters  and 
no  sons,  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  law 
that  in  such  cases  daughters  should  inherit 
the  patrimony  of  their  father ;  but  they 
were  not  to  marry  out  of  their  tribe,  Num. 
26:33;  27:1-11;  36. 

ZELO'TES.y?^//  of  zeal.  In  several  pas- 
sages the  Greek  word  is  used  in  a  favora- 
ble sense,  i  Cor.  14:12;  Tit.  2:14,  especially 
of  those  zealous  in  Jewish  law.  Acts  21:21 ; 
22:3;  Gal.  1:14.  In  other  passages  it  de- 
notes a  zealot,  one  passionately  and  fanat- 
ically ardent  in  his  zeal.  After  the  time  of 
Christ  the  name  Zelotse  was  commonly  ap- 
plied to  an  association  of  private  individu- 
als who  without  authority  or  law  sought  to 
enforce  their  own  views  of  right.  In  their 
opinion  it  was  a  high  crime  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  Romans,  and  rebellion  was  the  duty 
of  every  patriotic  Jew.  Beginning  with 
moderation,  they  became  more  and  more 
violent;  and  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
by  Titus  their  crimes  under  the  pretext  of 
zeal  for  the  Lord  are  described  by  Jose- 
phus  as  truly  appalling;  so  that  they  ac- 
quired the  appropriate  name  of  Sicarii,  or 
assassins.  As  the  germ  of  this  body  seems 
to  have  existed  in  our  Lord's  day,  some 
suppose  that  the  apostle  Simon  Zelotes  was 
so  called  from  his  having  once  belonged  to 
it,  Luke  6:15;  Acts  1:13.  His  name  Ca- 
naanite.or  more  properly  Cananaean,  from 
the  Syriac  kanedn,  has  the  same  meaning 
with  Zelotes,  Matt.  10:4;  Mark  3:18.  Little 
more  is  known  respecting  Simon. 

ZEL,' Z AH,  shadow,  i  Sam.  10:2,  a  place 
on  the  southern  border  of  Benjamin,  con- 
jectured to  be  at  Beit  Jala,  half  a  mile  west 
of  Rachel's  sepulchre,  on  the  north  of  Beth- 
lehem. 

ZEMARA'IM,  double  fleece  of  ivool,  I.,  an 
ancient  town  of  Canaan,  allotted  to  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:22;  it  lay  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  or  on  the  adjacent  rising 
grounds  towards  Bethel;  probably  at  Kh. 
es-Sumrah,  4  miles  north  of  er-Riha. 

II.  An  eminence  in  Mount  Ephraim, 
2  Chr.  13:4;  probably  Ras  es-Zeimerah, 
3 '-2  miles  east-northeast  of  Bethel. 

ZEM'ARITES,  the  name  of  a  Hamitic 
tribe,  akin  to  the  Hittites  and  Amorites 
and  called  "sons  of  Canaan,"  Gen.  10:18; 
I  Chr.  1:16.  The  name  is  perhaps  pre- 
served in  the  ruins  called  Samra,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Eleutherus. 


ZE'NAN,  pointed,  or  pasture-ground,  a 
town  in  the  southwest  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:37; 
located  at  Kh.  Zeidan,  4  miles  south  of  La- 
chish. 

ZK'HAZ, Jove-given,  a  pious  lawyer,  and 
apparently  also  a  preacher,  a  friend  of 
Paul,  who,  writing  from  Nicopolis  during 
the  last  year  of  his  life,  commends  him  and 
Apollos,  then  at  Crete  on  a  journey,  to  the 
kind  offices  of  Titus,  Tit.  3:13.  His  name 
is  Greek,  and  his  profession  may  have  been 
Greek  or  Roman  civil  law,  rather  than 
Jewish  law. 

ZEPHANI'AH,  hidden  by  Jehovah,  I.,  a 
Kohathite  Levite,  in  the  7th  generation 
from  Levi ;  ancestor  of  Samuel  and  He- 
man,  I  Chr.  6:36;  called  Uriel  in  ver.  24. 

II.  AsonofCushi;  the  9th  of  the  12  minor 
prophets,  a  great-grandson  of  "  Hizkiah," 
possibly  king  Hezekiah,  Zeph.  1:1.  He 
began  to  prophesy  about  B.  C.  630,  in  the 
early  part  of  king  Josiah's  reign,  before  the 
reforms  of  that  good  king  were  completed, 
2  Chr.  34:3  ;  Zeph.  i  :4,  5.  The  destruction 
of  Nineveh,  foretold  in  Zeph.  2 :  13-15,  prob- 
ably occurred  about  B.  C.  606;  and  the 
threats  against  the  Baalites,  Chemarim, 
etc.,  Zeph.  1:4-6,  were  fulfilled  by  Josiah, 
2  Kin.  23:4,  5.  His  prophecy  contains  two 
oracles,  in  three  chapters,  directed  against 
idolaters  in  Judah,  against  surrounding 
idolatrous  nations — Moab,  Ammon,  Ethio- 
pia, and  Nineveh — and  against  wicked  ru- 
lers, priests,  and  prophets.  In  ch.  2:1-3  he 
calls  the  nation  to  repentance.  In  ch.  3 : 1-7 
he  warns  Jerusalem  of  coming  judgments, 
but  closes  with  cheering  promises  of  gos- 
pel blessings.  His  style  and  manner  are 
like  those  of  Jeremiah,  during  whose  early 
years  they  were  contemporary.  His  sub- 
sequent history  is  unknown. 

ZEPH'ATH,  zvatch-tower,  a  Canaanitish 
city,  called  Hormah  after  its  destruction  at 
the  Conquest,  Num.  21:3;  Judg.  1:17,  but 
afterwards  rebuilt,  i  Sam.  30:30;  one  of  the 
"  uttermost  cities  of  Judah  southwards," 
afterwards  assigned  to  Simeon,  Josh.  12:14; 
15:30;  19:4.  Robinson  affixed  this  name 
to  the  long  and  rough  pass  es-Sufa,  lead- 
ing up  from  the  Arabah  border  into  the 
hill-country  of  Judah.  But  of  late  Row- 
lands, Palmer,  Trumbull,  and  others  trace 
Zephath  at  the  extensive  ruins  called  Se- 
bata,  nearly  midway  between  Bir-es-Saba 
and  'Ain  Kadeis.  It  was  at  Zephath  that 
the  Israelites  were  repulsed  in  attempting 
to  ascend  from  Kadesh,  Num.  14:40-45; 
Deut.  1 :44. 

ZEPHA'THAH,  watch-tower,  a  valley 
681 


ZEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZER 


near  Mareshah,  where  Asa  defeated  Zerah 
theCushite,  2Chr.  14:10.  Four  miles  north- 
west of  Mareshah  is  now  a  place  called  Zei- 
ta,  in  a  ravine  opening  into  a  broad  valley, 
which  runs  up  northwest  to  Ashdod.  Zeita 
is  25  miles  west-southwest  from  Jerusalem. 

ZEPH'ON,  or  ZIPH'ION,  Gen.  46:16; 
Num.  26: 15,  a  son  of  Gad. 

ZE'RAH,  a  rising^  I.,  an  Edomite  prince, 
son  of  Reuel  and  grandson  of  Esau,  Gen. 
36:13-  17.33;   I  Chr.  1:37,  44. 

II.  Twin  brother  of  Pharez,  son  of  Judah 
and  Tamar,  Gen.  38:30;  i  Chr.  2:4,  6; 
called  Zara  in  Matt.  1:3,  A.  V.  His  pos- 
terity were  called  Zarhites,  Num.  26:20; 
Josh.  7:17. 

III.  Son  of  Simeon  and  father  of  a  fam- 
ily called  Zarhites,  Num.  26:13;  i  Chr. 
4:24;  called  Zohar  in  Gen.  46:10. 

IV.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  i  Chr.  6:21,41. 

V.  A  Cushite  king  who  invaded  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  Asa  with  an  immense  army 
of  1,000,000  men,  Lubim  and  Cushites,  and 
300  chariots,  and  was  defeated  by  the  spe- 
cial power  of  God,  and  retreated  by  the 
way  of  Gerar,  2  Chr.  14:9-13.  Asa's  sol- 
emn appeal  to  God  is  put  on  record  to  en- 
courage our  trust  in  the  Hearer  of  prayer. 
Mareshah  lay  on  the  border  of  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah,  on  the  route  from  Egypt 
to  Jerusalem.  See  Zephath.\h.  Zerah 
has  usually  been  identified  with  Usarken 
or  Osorchon  I.,  son  of  Shishak,  or  with 
Usarken  II.,  but  seems  rather  to  have  been 
an  Ethiopian  who  was  able  to  secure  a 
passage  through  Egypt. 

ZE'RED,  or  ZK"R'E.T),exiiberance,2Lhroo\i 
between  Edom  and  Moab,  emptying  into 
the  Dead  Sea  at  its  southeast  corner,  and 
mentioned  as  the  terminus  of  Israel's  so- 
journ in  the  wilderness,  Num.  21:12;  Deut. 
2:13,  14;  perhaps  the  "brook  of  the  wil- 
lows," Isa.  15:7,  and  the  "river  of  the  Ara- 
bah,"  R.  v.,  Amos  6: 14.  It  is  usually  iden- 
tified with  wady  el-Ahsy. 

ZERE'DA,  the  fortress,  a  to\Vn  in  Mount 
Ephraim  where  Jeroboam  was  born,  i  Kin. 
11:26.  Probably  Surdah,  2^  miles  north- 
west of  Beitin  or  Bethel. 

ZERED'ATHAH,  the  place  of  Solomon's 
brass-foundry,  2  Chr.  4  :  17,  or  Zaretan, 
I  Kin.  7:46. 

ZERE'RAH,  or  ZERE'RATH,  A.  V.,  Judg. 
7:22.     See  Zaretan. 

ZE'RESH,  gold,  the  wife  of  Haman  the 
Agagite,  haughty  and  revengeful  like  him, 
and  destined,  as  she  foreboded,  to  see  him 
and  his  ten  sons  hung  on  the  gallows  she 
had  designed  for  Mordecai  the  servant  of 
682 


God,  Esth.  5  :  10-14;  6  :  13  ;  7  :  10  ;  9  :  13. 
Comp.  Isa.  54: 17. 

ZERUB'BABEL,  in  Greek  ZOROB'ABEL, 
begotten  in  Babylon,  the  son  of  Salathiel  or 
Shealtiel,  of  the  royal  race  of  David ;  called 
by  his  Chaldiean  name  "  Sheshbazzar,  the 
prince  of  Judah,"  in  Ezra  1:8;  and  "the 
son   of   Pedaiah,"   Salathiel's    brother,    in 

1  Chr.  3:17-19,  perhaps  as  being  his  legal 
heir.  Zerubbabel  held  an  official  position 
at  Babylon,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  first 
colony  of  Jews  which  returned  from  the 
Babylonish  Captivity,  536  B.  C.  Cyrus 
committed  to  his  care  the  sacred  vessels  of 
the  temple,  with  which  he  returned  to  Je- 
rusalem, with  valuable  gifts  of  gold  and 
silver,  goods  and  beasts,  and  with  Joshua 
the  high-priest  and  many  Levites,  priests, 
Nethinim,  and  princes,  and  perhaps  with 
the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  Ezra 
i:ii;  he  had  also  a  royal  order  for  the 
timber  and  stones  needed  in  rebuilding 
the  temple.  He  is  always  named  first,  as 
being  chief  of  the  Jews  that  returned  to 
their  own  country,  Ezra  2:2;  y.%\  5:2; 
Hag.  1:1;  2:1-9,21-23.  He  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  the  temple,  Ezra  3:8,  9 ;  Zech. 
4:9,  and  restored  the  worship  of  the  Lord 
and  the  usual  sacrifices.  When  the  Sa- 
maritans offered  to  assist  in  rebuilding  the 
temple  Zerubbabel  and  the  principal  men 
of  Judah  refused  them  this  honor,  since 
Cyrus  had  granted  his  commission  to  the 
Jews  only,  Ezra  4:2,  3.  They  procured 
from  the  Persian  court  an  order  that  the 
work  should  cease ;  and  it  was  not  resumed 
until  16  years  later,  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  B.  C.  521.  It 
may  be  that  he  was  too  easily  daunted  by 
opposition,  and  turned  aside  with  the  rest 
to  private  enterprises,  Hag.  i  :  2-1 1,  but 
was  roused  and  greatly  cheered  by  the 
stirring  appeals  of  the  prophets.  Hag.  1:13, 
14;  2:4-9,  21-23;  Zech.  4:6-10;  8:3-9,  18- 
23.  He  completed  the  temple  4  years  later, 
Ezra  5:2,  restored  the  courses  and  main- 
tenance of  the  priests  and  Levites,  Ezra 
6:i8;  Neh.  12:47,  and  secured  a  registra- 
tion of  the  returned  Jews,  Neh.  7:5,  and 
the  observance  of  the  Passover,  Ezra  6:22. 
The  genealogy  of  both  Joseph  and  Mary  is 
traced  to  him.  Matt,  i :  13  ;  Luke  3:27. 

ZERUI'AH,  cleft,  the  sister  or  half-sister 
of  David,  and  mother  of  his  famous  gener- 
als Joab,  Abishai,  and  Asahel,  i  Sam.  26:6; 

2  Sam.  2:18.  Probably  Abigail  and  she 
were  daughters  of  Nahash  and  of  a  woman 
who  afterwards  married  Jesse,  2  Sam. 
17:25;  I  Chr.  2: 13-17. 


ZET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZIM 


ZE'THAR,  a  star,  one  of  the  7  eunuchs  of 
Ahasuerus,  Esth.  1:10. 

ZI'BA,  a  statue,  a  servant  or  freedman 
of  Saul,  who  became  his  steward  and  had 
15  sons  and  20  servants,  and  whom  Da- 
vid charged  with  the  same'  office  towards 
Mephibosheth,  son  of  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  9  ; 
19:17,  24-30.  By  a  false  representation 
David  was  induced  to  transfer  to  Ziba  the 
lands  he  had  given  to  Mephibosheth,  but 
afterwards  divided  them  between  the  two, 
being  convinced  that  he  had  acted  hastily, 
and  unable  to  decide  with  certainty  for 
either,  2  Sam.  16:1-4;  19:24-30. 

ZIB'EON,  dyed,  the  grandfather  of  Esau's 
wife  Aholibamah,  Gen.  36:2,  a  Hivite,  but 
classed  as  a  Horite  in  Gen.  36:20,  24,  29; 
I  Chr.  1:38,  40. 

ZICH'RI,  memorable,  2  Chr.  28:7,  a  val- 
iant Ephraimite  prince,  general  of  Pekah 
king  of  Israel  in  the  war  with  Ahaz.  He  is 
perhaps  the  man  called  "  Tabeal's  son," 
Isa.  7:6,  whom  Rezin  and  Pekah  proposed 
to  make  king  of  Judah.  Eleven  others  of 
this  name  are  mentioned,  in  Exod.  6:21 
(sometimes  printed  Zithri  in  the  A.  V. ), 

1  Chr.  8:19,  23,  27;  9:15;   26:25;    27:16; 

2  Chr.  17:16;  23:1;   Neh.  11:9;   12:17. 
ZID'DIM,    the   declivities,  Josh.   19:35,  a 

fortified  town  of  Naphtali;  conjecturally 
traced  at  Jisr  es-Sidd,  a  mile  or  so  south- 
west of  the  outlet  of  the  Jordan  from  the 
Sea  of  Galilee. 

ZlUKl'^AH,  justice  of  Jeliovah,  Neh.  10:1, 
one  who  joined  in  the  solemn  covenant  with 
Nehemiah. 

Zl'TtOH,  fish-town,  the  proper  spelling  of 
the  Hebrew  Tzidon,  and  the  form  used 
throughout  the  Old  Testament  in  the  R.  V. 
See  SiDON. 

Zipo'NiANS,  the  people  of  Zidon,  inclu- 
ding sometimes  all  the  other  Phcenicians, 
2  Kin.  23:13;  Ezra  3:7;  Ezek.  32:30.     See 

SiDON. 

ZIF,  bloom,  the  ancient  name  of  the  2d 
Hebrew  month,  lyar,  of  the  sacred  year, 
nearly  corresponding  to  our  May,  i  Kin. 
6:1,37.     In  the  R.  V.  Ziv. 

zr HA,  parched,  the  name  of  two  Nethi- 
nim,  I.,  Ezra  2:43;  Neh.  7:46. — II.  Neh. 
II  :2i. 

ZIK'LAG,  zvinding,  a  city  of  Simeon,  first 
assigned  to  Judah,  Josh.  15:31;  19:5,  near 
the  border  of  Philistia,  and  sometimes  held 
by  the  Philistines ;  bestowed  by  Achish 
king  of  Gath  on  David,  who  occupied  it  a 
year  and  four  months.  Hither  many  other 
refugees  from  Judah  resorted,  and  David 
was  thus  enabled  to  aid  Achish  and  to  chas- 


tise the  Amalekites  who  had  sacked  Zik- 
lag  during  his  absence,  i  Sam.  27:1-7;  30. 
After  Saul's  death,  2  Sam.  1:1;  4: 10,  David, 
removed  to  Hebron,  2  Sam.  2:1.  Ziklag 
was  repeopled  after  the  Captivity,  Neh. 
11:28.  The  English  engineers  locate  it  at 
the  ruins  called  Kh.  Zuheilikah,  on  3  small 
hills  in  a  plain  11  miles  east-southeast  of 
Gaza. 

ZIL'LAH,  shade,  one  of  the  Cainite  La- 
mech's  wives,  addressed  in  the  poetical 
fragment.  Gen.  4:19,  22,  23;  the  mother  of 
Tubal-cain  and  Naamah.     See  LaiMECH. 

ZIL'PAH,  distillation,  a  Syrian  young 
woman,  given  as  a  maid  by  Laban  to  his 
daughter  Leah,  Gen.  29:24,  and  by  her  to 
Jacob  as  a  secondary  wife ;  the  mother  of 
Gad  and  Asher,  Gen.  35:26;  37:2;  46:18. 

ZIL'THAI,  shady,  I.,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, I  Chr.  8:20. 

II.  A  captain  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,. 
I  Chr.  12:20. 

ZIM'MAH,  purpose,  I.,  a  Gershonite  Le- 
vite,  I  Chr.  6:20,  42. 

II.  Ancestor  of  another  Gershonite,  2  Chr. 
29: 12. 

ZIM'RAN,  celebrated,  a  son  of  Abraham 
and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:2;  i  Chr.  1:32. 

ZIM'RI,  celebrated,  I.,  a  grandson  of  Ju- 
dah, I  Chr.  2:6. 

II.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  slain 
by  Phinehas  for  his  public  and  heaven- 
daring  crime  on  the  plains  of  Moab  with 
the  Midianite  princess  Cozbi,  Num.  25:6-8, 
14,  15.  The  Heb.  word  translated  "tent" 
in  ver.  8  indicates  that  it  was  not  of  the 
ordinary  form  and  use. 

III.  A  descendant  of  king  Saul,  i  Chr. 
8:36;  9:42. 

IV.  The  fifth  king  of  the  Northern  king- 
dom, B.  C.  930.  He  was  general  of  half  the 
cavalry  of  Elah  king  of  Israel,  but  rebelled 
against  his  master,  killed  him  while  in  a 
drunken  revel  at  his  capital,  Tirzah,  and 
usurped  his  kingdom.  He  slew  Elah's 
whole  family , not  sparing  any  of  his  relatives 
or  friends  ;  whereby  was  fulfilled  the  word 
of  the  Lord  denounced  to  Baasha  the  father 
of  Elah  by  the  prophet  Jehu.  Zimri  reigned 
but  7  days  ;  for  the  army  of  Israel,  then  be- 
sieging Gibbethon,  a  city  of  the  Philistines, 
made  their  general,  Omri,  king,  and  came 
and  besieged  Zimri  in  the  city  of  Tirzah. 
Zimri,  seeing  the  city  on  the  point  of  be- 
ing taken,  burned  himself  in  the  palace 
with  all  its  riches,  i  Kin.  16:1-20;  2  Kin. 
9:31- 

V.  An  Oriental  people,  mentioned  in  Jer. 
25:25  with  other  children  of  the  East. 

683 


ZIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZIO 


ZIN,  a  low  palm-tree,  or  coolness,  a  wil- 
derness on  the  south  border  of  Canaan. 
Josh.  15:1-3,  and  on  the  west  border  of 
Edom,  Num.  34:1-4.  In  it  was  Kadesh- 
barnea,  memorable  for  the  death  of  Miriam, 
the  mission  of  the  12  spies  into  Canaan,  the 
murmuring  of  the  Israelites,  the  rock  flow- 
ing with  water,  and  the  unholy  passion  of 
Moses,  Num.  13:21;  20:1-13;  27.14;  Deut. 
32:51.     The  southern   border  of  Canaan, 


running  south  from  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
then  turning  to  the  southwest  by  "the  as- 
cent of  Akrabbim,"  passed  tiirough  wady 
el-Fikreh,  wady  el  Murrah,  to  'Ain  Kadeis 
or  Kadesh,  and  thence  northwest  by  wady 
el-Arish  or  ''  the  river  of  Egypt,"  etc.,  to 
the  Mediterranean.  The  wilderness  of 
Zin,  the  northeastern  part  of  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran,  was  a  wild  and  dreary  moun- 
tain region,  sloping  to  the  Ghor. 


MOUNT   2ION   FROM     THE    SOUTHEAST;     WITH    THE 
OF   THE  CITV,    AND  TH 

zrON,  in  the  New  Testament,  A.  V., 
SI'ON,  Hebrew  TZI'ON,  sunny,  the  highest 
and  largest  of  the  mounts  in  Jerusalem,  ri- 
sing 2,593  ^^^^  above  the  Mediterranean  and 
100  feet  above  Mount  Moriah.  It  formed 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  city  and  had 
a  level  tract  of  about  500  yards  by  250,  fall- 
ing off  at  first  gradually  and  then  abruptly 
into  the  valleys  around  it.  That  on  the 
north  is  now  nearly  obliterated;  on  the 
east  is  the  Tyropccon  valley,  on  the  south 
that  of  Hinnom,  on  the  west  that  of  Gihon. 
These  were  all  much  deeper  in  olden  times 
than  now,  having  been  filled  up  in  part  by 
the  ruins  of  many  wars  and  overturnings  ; 
but  Zion  is  still  300  feet  above  the  valley 
on  the  southwest  and  500  feet  above  en- 
Rogel.  It  was  a  position  of  great  military 
strength,  and  the  Jebusites,  who  held  it  at 
the  time  of  the  Conquest  and  long  after, 
scornfully  defied  assault.  But  it  was  cap- 
tured by  David,  and  thenceforward  was- 
often  called  "the  city  of  David,"  2  Sam. 
684 


MOSQUE   OF    DAVID,    PART     OF    THE     SOUTH     WALL 
E   VALLEY   OF    HINNOM. 

5:5-9;  I  Kin.  8:1  ;  2  Chr.  5:2.  He  seems 
to  have  greatly  delighted  in  its  beauty  and 
strength  and  to  have  loved  it  as  a  type  of 
the  church  of  the  Messiah  :  •  Beautiful  for 
situation,  the  joy  of  the  whole  earth,  is 
Mount  Zion,  on  the  sides  of  the  north,  the 
city  of  the  great  King."  "  Walk  about  Zion 
and  go  round  about  her ;  tell  the  towers 
thereof;  mark  ye  well  her  bulwarks,  con- 
sider her  palaces,  that  ye  may  tell  it  to  the 
generation  following."  "  The  kings  were 
assembled,  they  passed  by  together ;  they 
saw  it,  and  so  they  marvelled  ;  they  were 
troubled,  and  hasted  away,"  Psa.  48:2,  12, 
13.  A  mosque  near  its  southern  brow  now 
covers  the  "  tomb  of  David,"  so  called, 
where  he  and  14  of  his  successors  were 
buried  ;  it  is  most  jealously  guarded  by  the 
Mohammedans,  i  Kin.  2:10;  11:43;  22:50. 
This  mount,  together  with  Moriah  and 
Ophel,  "  the  holy  mountains,"  Psa.  87:  i,  2, 
was  inclosed  by  the  first  wall  and  fortified  by 
citadels,  i  Chr.  11:5.     Upon  it  were  erected 


ZIO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZIP 


the  magnificent  palaces  of  Solomon  and 
long  afterwards  of  Herod.  It  was  called 
byjosephus  "the  Upper  City,"  and  on  its 


northern  brow  stood  3  great  towers — Hip- 
picus,  Phasaelus,  and  Mariamne — in  a  wall 
extending  from  the  Joppa  gate  eastward. 


passing  the  royal  palace  and  the  Xystus, 
to  the  temple  area;  and  so  strongly  was 
it  fortified  at  the  time  of  its  capture  by 
the  Romans  that  the  emperor  exclaimed, 
"  Surely  we  have  had  God  for  our  aid  in 
the  war ;  for  what  could  human  hands  or 
machines  do  against  these  towers  ?"  Great 
changes  have  occurred  on  its  surface,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  it  lies  outside  of 
the  modern  wall  on  the  south,  and  is  oc- 
cupied by  cemeteries  or  "ploughed  as  a 
field,"  according  to  Jer.  26:18;  Mic.  3:12. 
Two  rabbis,  we  are  told,  approaching  Je- 
rusalem, observed  a  fox  running  upon  the 
hill  of  Zion,  and  Rabbi  Joshua  wept,  but 
Rabbi  Eliezer  laughed.  "  Wherefore  dost 
thou  laugh?"  said  he  who  wept.  "Nay, 
wherefore  dost  thou  weep?"  demanded 
Eliezer.  "  I  weep,"  replied  the  Rabbi  Josh- 
ua, "  because  I  see  what  is  written  in  the 
Lamentations  fulfilled;  because  of  the 
Mount  of  Zion,  which  is  desolate,  the  foxes 
walk  upon  it."  "  And  therefore,"  said  Rab- 
bi Eliezer,  "do  I  laugh;  for  when  I  see 
with  my  own  eyes  that  God  has  fulfilled 
his  threatenins^s  to  the  very  letter,  I  have 
thereby  a  pledge  that  not  one  of  his  prom- 
ises shall  fail ,  for  he  is  ever  more  ready  to 
show  mercy  than  judgment." 


"  Zion  "  and  "  the  daughter  of  Zion  "  are 
sometimes  used  to  denote  the  whole  city, 
including  especially  Moriah  and  the  tem- 
ple, Psa.  2:6;  9:11;  48 : 2  ;  74 : 2 ;  Isa.  1:8; 
8:18;  10:24;  30:19;  Joel  2:23,  and  some- 
times figuratively  for  the  seat  of  the  true 
church  on  earth  and  in  heaven,  Jer.  8:19; 
Heb.  12  :  22  ;  Rev.  14  :  i.  See  Jerusa- 
lem. 

ZI'OR,  smalhiess,  Josh.  15:54,  now  Sair, 
4  or  5  miles  north-northeast  of  Hebron. 

ZIPH,  battleme7il.  I.  A  Judahite,  i  Chr. 
4 :  16. 

II.  A  town  in  Simeon,  Josh.  15:24.  It 
may  perhaps  be  associated  with  the  pass 
es-Sufa.     See  Zeph.a.th. 

III.  A  town  in  Southern  Judah  nearCar- 
mel  and  Juttah,  notable  as  the  scene  of 
David's  perils  and  escapes  from  Saul, 
I  Sam.  23  :  14,  15,  24 ;  26  : 2.  Its  people  are 
called  Ziphim  in  Psa.  54,  title,  A.  V.,  Ziph- 
ites  in  R.  V.  and  in  i  Sam.  23:19:  26:1.  It 
was  founded  by  Mesha  son  of  Caleb,  i  Chr. 
2:42,  and  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr. 
11:8.  Traced  at  Tel  es-Zif,  4  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Hebron,  where  is  a  rounded 
hill,  with  considerable  ruins  half  a  mile  on 
the  east. 

ZIPH'RON,  fragrance,   a  place   on  the 
685 


ZIP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZOA 


north  border  of  Naphtali,  Num.  34:9;  prob- 
ably ill  the  Lebanon  valley. 

ZIP'POR,  sparrow,  the  father  of  Balak 
king  of  Moab,  always  mentioned  with  Ba- 
lak, Num.  22:2,  4,  10,  16;  23: 18  ;  Josh.  24:9; 
Judg.  II  :25.  Perhaps  the  king  referred  to 
in  Num.  21 :  26. 

ZIP'PORAH,  rather  ZIPPO'RAH,  the  fem- 
inine of  Zippor,  a  sparrow ;  the  daughter 
of  Jethro,  E.\od.  2: 15-22,  wife  of  Moses  and 
mother  of  Gershom  and  Eliezer.  Her  an- 
gry reluctance  against  the  circumcision  of 
Gershom  led  to  her  temporary  return  to 
her  father,  by  whom  she  was  afterwards 
restored  to  Moses,  Exod.  4:18,  20,  24-26; 
18:1-12.  It  is  not  certain  whether  the 
"  Cushite  "  wife  of  Moses,  of  whom  Aaron 
and  Miriam  complained.  Num.  12:1,  2,  was 
Zipporah  herself  or  a  second  wife.  In 
Hab.  3 : 7  Cushan  and  Midian  are  named 
together. 

ZITH'RI,  Hebrew  SITH'RI,  protection  of 
Jehovali,  a  grandson  of  Kohath,  Exod.  6:22. 
In  ver.  21  the  correct  reading  is  Zichri. 

ZIZ,  with  the  article,  HAZ'ZIZ,  the  projec- 
tion, the  pass  by  which  the  Moabites,  Am- 
monites, and  Maonites  came  up  from  the 
shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  having  followed  the 
southwestern  coast  to  this  point,  and  going 
northwest  towards  Tekoa  against  Jehosha- 
phat,  2  Chr.  20:16;  comp.  ver.  20:  no  doubt 
the  pass  'Ain  Jidy,  very  precipitous,  but  still 
traversed  by  marauding  Arabs.  A  level 
tract,  "  the  wilderness  of  Jeruel "  and  of 
Tekoa,  lies  between  the  cliff  and  Tekfla. 
See  En-gedi,  and  map  on  page  687. 

zrZA,  abitndance,  or  shining.  I.  Son  of 
Rehoboam  and  Maachah,  2  Chr.  11:20. 

II.  A  Simeonite  chief  in  the  time  of  Hez- 
ekiah,  who  led  a  raid  against  the  peacea- 
ble men  of  Gedor,  i  Chr.  4:37-41. 

ZI'ZAH,  or  ZI'NA,  a  Gershonite  Levite, 
I  Chr.  23  :  10,  II. 

ZO'AN,  place  of  departure,  a  very  ancient 
city  of  Lower  or  Northern  Egypt,  near  its 
eastern  border,  founded  soon  after  He- 
bron, Num.  13:22,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Tanitic  arm  of  the  Nile,  and  called  by  the 
Greeks  Tanis,  now  San.  It  was  a  royal 
city,  and  the  21st  dynasty  was  that  of  the 
Tanites,  as  well  as  the  23d,  ending  with 
Sethos;  comp.  Isa.  19:11,  13.  It  gave  its 
name  to  the  level  country  around  it,  "  the 
field  of  Zoan,"  which  extended  some  30 
miles  eastward  to  Pelusium,  and  in  which 
were  wrought  the  first  mighty  works  of 
God  by  Moses,  Psa.  78  :  12,  43.  Ambassa- 
dors from  Judah  met  Egyptian  officials  here, 
•seeking  alliance,  Isa.  30:4,  and  its  capture 
686 


and  burning  by  Nebuchadnezzar  were  fore- 
told, Ezek.  30:10-14.  In  the  time  of  Christ 
it  was  again  a  large  city,  but  now  lies  in 
ruins,  fever-haunted  and  infested  by  beasts 
and  reptiles,  the  home  of  a  few  fishermen ; 
while  the  region  east  of  it,  once  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  is  now  desolate  and  sparsely 
inhabited,  being  overflowed  in  part  by  Lake 
Menzaleh.  Huge  mounds  of  ruins  attest 
the  ancient  grandeur  of  the  city,  where 
many  interesting  monuments  have  recent- 
ly been  found,  two  fine  colossal  statues  of 
Menesha,  of  the  13th  dynasty,  and  many 
memorials  of  Rameses  II.,  who  embellished 
the  great  temple  of  Set,  the  Egyptian  Baal, 
the  inclosure  of  which  measures  500  yards 
by  400. 

ZO'AR,  smallness,  a  city  in  the  Jordan 
and  Dead  Sea  valley,  called  Bela  in  the 
days  of  Abraham,  and  associated  with  the 
cities  of  "the  plain  of  Jordan,"  Sodom,  Go- 
morrah, Admah,  and  Zeboim,  in  the  battle 
with  invading  Assyrian  tribes  in  which  Lot 
was  captured.  Gen.  13:10;  14:28.  Its  name 
Zoar  was  given  to  it  when  at  the  interces- 
sion of  Lot  it  was  spared  to  be  his  place  of 
refuge  against  the  destruction  impending 
over  it  and  its  neighbors,  Sodom,  etc..  Gen. 
19:17-25.  It  was  evidently  near  Sodom, 
and  apparently  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
of  Moab,  comp.  Isa.  15:5;  Jer.  48:33,  34,  in 
which  Lot  afterwards  dwelt.  Gen.  19:30. 
Moses  on  Mount  Pisgah  saw  the  valley  from 
Jericho  to  Zoar,  Deut.  34:3.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  in  wady  Kerak,  the  ordinary 
passage  from  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  to 
the  eastern  highlands.  De  Saulcy  places 
Zoar  in  the  wady  Zuweirah,  leading  up 
from  the  Dead  Sea  to  Hebron ;  and  others 
in  or  around  the  plain  at  the  north  end  of 
the  sea.     See  cut  on  page  518. 

ZO'BA  and  ZO'BAH,  station,  2  Sam.  10:6- 
8  ;  23:36,  a  powerful  Syrian  kingdom  in  the 
time  of  the  first  Hebrew  monarchs,  lying 
east  of  Lebanon— an  arid  plain  with  moun- 
tain ranges  and  many  well-watered  and 
fertile  valleys— stretching  towards  the  Eu- 
phrates, I  Chr.  18:3,  9;  19:6,  and  perhaps 
west  into  the  Lebanon  valley,  for  Hamath 
is  sometimes  called  Hamath-zobah,  2  Chr. 
8:3.  Its  kings  suffered  in  war  with  Saul, 
I  Sam.  14:47.  Its  king  Hadadezer  was  a 
man  of  power,  2  Sam.  8:10,  but  was  defeat- 
ed bv  David,  2  Sam.  10:16-19;  i  Chr.  18:3- 
8;  19:16-19.  Zobah,  however,  gave  great 
trouble  to  Israel  in  after  years,  i  Kin. 
11:23-25;  2  Chr.  8:3.  The  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions of  later  date  speak  of  it  as  a  sub- 
ject country  sending  tributes,  and  as  lying 


ZOH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


zuz 


in  the  line  of  their  armies  on  the  way  to 
Hamath. 

ZO'HAR,  a  Hittite,  Gen.  23:8.  Also  a 
son  of  Simeon,  Gen.  38:30,  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Judah,  I  Chr.  4:7. 

ZO'HELETH,  creeping,  the  stone  in  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat  near  which  Adonijah 
slew  sheep,  oxen,  and  fat  cattle  for  his  cor- 
onation feast  or  sacrifices,  i  Kin.  1:9;  found 
in  ez-Zehweile,  a  rocky  plateau  on  the  edge 
of  the  village  of  Silwan.  Solomon  was 
crowned  in  the  valley  of  Gihon. 

ZO'PHAR,  a  sparrow,  one  of  Job's  three 
friends,  a  native  of  Naamah.  He  appears 
but  twice  in  the  dialogue,  once  less  than 
his  two  associates,  whose  general  senti- 
ments he  shares,  with  perhaps  more  sever- 
ity of  judgment  against  Job,  Job  2:11;  11; 
20;  42:9. 

ZO'PHIM,  watchers,  a  level  place  on  the 
height  of  Pisgah,  whence  Balaam  had  his 
second  view  of  the  host  of  Israel,  Num. 
23:14.  Mount  Nebo  being  recognized  as 
Jebel  Neba,  near  Hesban,  Jebel  Siaghah,  a 
height  a  little  to  the  west,  might  well  rep- 
resent Zophim. 

ZO'RAH,  a  hornet,  or  ZA'REAH,  Neh. 
II  :29,  a  city  of  the  Danites  within  the  bor- 
ders of  Judah,  Josh.  19:41 ;  called  also  ZO'- 
REAH,  Josh.  15:33.  It  was  the  home  of 
Manoah  and  Samson,  Judg.  13:2,  25;  16:31, 
and  the  starting-point  of  the  Danite  expe- 
dition to  Laish,  Judg.  18:2,  8,  11.  It  was 
fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:10,  and 
occupiedafter  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11:29.  Its 
people  were  called  Zorites  and  Zorathites, 
I  Chr.  2:54;  4:2.  It  is  now  recognized  in 
a  secluded  mountain  village  called  Sur'ah, 
on  the  edge  of  the  hills  2  miles  north  of  Beth- 
shemesh  overlooking  the  valley  of  Sor'ak, 
15  miles  west  of  Jerusalem.  The  region  was 
famous  for  its  wines,  which  Samson  was 
forbidden  to  use.  The  road  followed  by 
Samson  in  going  to  Timnath  leads  down 


through  rocky  gorges,  very  likely  to  be 
haunted  by  wild  beasts.  It  was  here  that 
he  slew  the  lion  without  the  help  of  any 
weapon,  Judg.  14:5-7. 

ZOROB'ABEL.    See  Zerubbabel. 

ZU'AR,  littleness,  a  descendant  of  Issa- 
char  at  the  time  of  the  exodus.  Num.  1:8; 
2:5;  7:18,  23;  10:15. 

ZUPH,  honey-cotnb,  or  moist.  I.  An  an- 
cestor of  Samuel,  i  Chr.  6:35;  an  Ephraim- 
ite,  not  "  Ephrathite,"  as  in  i  Sam.  1:1, 
A.  V. 

II.  A  district  south  of  Benjamin,  in  a 
city  of  which  Saul  met  Samuel,  apparent- 
ly near  Bethlehem,  i  Sam.  9:5-10;  10:2. 
The  name  appears  in  the  ancestry  of  Sam- 
uel, in  his  native  place  Ramathaim- zo- 
phim, in  Mizpah,  Zephathah,  etc.  Possibly 
the  region  immediately  south  of  Bethlehem. 

ZUR,  a  rock,  Heb.  TzuR,  the  name  of 
Tyre.  I.  The  father  of  Cozbi,  the  Midian- 
ite  princess  slain  with  Zimri  by  Phinehas, 
Num.  25:6-8,  14,  15,  18.  He  himself,  with 
four  other  "kings"  of  Midian,  afterwards 
perished  with  Balaam  in  battle  with  the 
Israelites,  Num.  31:8.  He  is  associated 
with  Sihon  king  of  the  Amorites  in  Josh. 
13:21. 

II.  A  son  of  Jehiel  and  Maachah,  i  Chr. 
8:30;  9:36. 

ZU'RIEL,  my  rock  is  God,  Num.  3:35, 
chief  of  the  Merarite  Levites  at  the  time 
of  the  exodus. 

ZURISHAD'DAI,  my  rock  is  the  Almighty, 
a  Simeonite  at  the  time  of  the  exodus, 
Num.  1:6;  2:12  ;  7:36,  41 ;  10:19. 

ZU'ZIM,  taken  by  the  Chaldee  and  Sep- 
tuagint  versions  as  an  appellative  for  stout 
and  valiant  men.  They  dwelt  east  of  the 
Jordan  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  when  they 
were  subdued  by  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
allies.  Gen.  14:5,  and  are  supposed  to  have 
been  the  same  race  of  giants  called  Zam- 
zummim  in  Deut.  2:20. 

687 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  PALESTINE. 

SHOWING  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SEASONS,  THE  PREVAILING  WINDS  AND 
WEATHER  FOR  EACH  MONTH  IN  THE  YEAR. 


PROGRESS  OF   THE   SEASONS. 

WIND. 

WEATHER. 

< — 1 

Country  verdant  with  young  grain,  groves 
and  meadows  adorned  with  many  flow- 
ers.    Oranges  begin  to  ripen. 

N.  W.,  N.,  n.  e. 

Heavy  rains ;  thunder- 
storms. Occasionally 
snow,  and  thin  ice;  ground 
never  frozen. 

Almond-tree  and  peach-tree  in  blossom  : 
in  the  lower  and  warmer  parts,  orange- 
tree  laden  with  ripening  fruit. 

N.  W.,  N.,  N.  E. 

Heavy  rains,  etc.,  in  January 
and  February,  called  by 
the  Arabs  the  "  fathers  of 
rain." 

n 

All  trees  in  full  leaf,  many  in  bloom.     In 
the  lowlands,  orange  and  lemon  trees 
laden  with  fruit.     Palm-tree  blossoms : 
barley  ripening. 

w^. 

Rain,  hurricanes,  sometimes 
snow;  rivers  much  swol- 
len. 

> 

Fruits  of  oleaster  and  white  mulberry  ri- 
pen.    Barley  harvest.     Wheat  harvest 
beginning. 

s. 

Occasionally  rain ;  some- 
times Sirocco  from  the 
southeast. 

IS 

Principal  harvest  month,  especially 
of  wheat.     Apricots  and  apples  ripen. 
(In  Jordan  valley  vegetation  withered 
and  burnt  up.) 

s. 

Rain  very  seldom.  From 
this  to  September  no  rain 
occurs. 

e 
n 

Almonds  ripe.     (Beyrouk  honey   of  the 
Jordan  valley  collected  in  May,  June, 
and  July.)     Grapes  begin  to  ripen. 

E. 

Frequent  hot  winds  (Si- 
mooms) ;  air  motionless. 

Various  fruits:   apples,  pears,  plums,  etc. 
Grapes  fully  ripe.    Pumpkins.    Harvest 
of  grain  in  the  higher  mountains. 

E. 

Greatest  heat  in  general; 
sky  serene. 

> 

c 

Principal  fruit  month.     Grapes,  figs, 
etc.:  in  the  plains,  walnut  and  olive. 

E. 

Dews  begin  to  fall ;  at  times 
large  and  dense  clouds 
(Nile  clouds). 

C/2 

ft 

Commencement  of  vintage.     Harvest 
of  the  dourra  and  maize.     Cotton  and 
pomegranate  begin. 

N.  E. 

Much  lightning  without  thun- 
der ;  very  rarely  rain. 

O 
n 

End  OF  vintage.     Gathering  of  cotton. 
Ploughing  and  sowing  commence,    Pis- 
tachio-nuts ripen. 

N.  E. 

Dews  very  heavy ;  autumnal 
rains  begin. 

Z 

o 
< 

Month    of    ploughing   and    sowing. 
Rice  harvest.    Fig-tree  laden  with  fruit. 
Orange  and  citron-tree  in  bloom. 

N.  W.,  N.,  N.  E. 

Rainy  month.  Thunder 
storms.  Rains  from  the 
west  or  southwest. 

d 

f6 
p 

Trees  lose  their  leaves.     The  brown  and 
desolate   plains    and    deserts    become 
green  pastures. 

N.W.,  N.,  N.  E. 

Rainy,  etc.  In  December, 
January,  and  February, 
greatest  amount  of  rain  in 
the  year. 

688 


Chronological  Index  to  the  Bible. 


COMPUTED  BY  JOSEPH  ANGUS,  D.  D. 


PERIOD  I. 

FROM  THE  CREATION,  B.  C.  4004,  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  NOAH,  2006  YEARS. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

4004. 


4004. 
Eden. 

Eden. 

4003-2, 

Near  Eden. 

3875- 

3875. 

3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
Near  Eden. 

3769- 

3074- 
2468. 


2348. 

2347. 
Armenia,  or  Ar- 
arat, Gen.  8:4. 
Togarmah, 
Ezek.  27: 14. 
2247,  A.  M. 

1757- 
B.  C.  2233. 

Shinar,  or   Irak 
Arabi. 


44 


EVENT   OR   NARRATIVE. 


The  creation 

Institution  of  the  Sabbath 

Creation  of  Adam  and  Eve,  briefly  described  in  chap. 

I,  recapitulated 

The  fall  of  man 

Connection  of  the  first  sin  with  man's  subsequent  f 

state I 

First  promise  of  a  Saviour  ;  expulsion  from  Eden 

Birth  of  Cain  and  Abel 

Sacrifice  first  mentioned;  AbePs  accepted 

Cain's  crime  and  curse 

Cain    builds    Enoch ;     his    descendants ;     Lamech's 

speech,  etc. 

Birth  of  Seth  and  of  Enos ;  world  and  church  distin- 
guished  

Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah ;  the  line  of  the  Mes- 
siah   

Adam  dies,  aged  930  years 

Wickedness  of  the  world ;  God  determines  to  de- 
stroy it  after  a  respite  of  120  years ;  Noah  preaches 

(2  Pet.  2:5) 

Covenant  renewed  with  him ;  he  builds  an  ark  as 

God  commanded 

Noah  enters  the  ark  ;  the  Deluge,  A.  M.  1656 

The  waters  abate;  Noah  leaves  the  ark 

God's  covenant  renewed  with  Noah 

Noah  and  his  sons ;  his  prediction  concerning 
them 

Babel;  confusion  of  tongues ;  dispersion 

Genealogies  of  Noah's  sons ;  Nimrod  founds  the  Bab- 
ylonian or  Assyrian  empire 

Genealogy  from  Shem  to  Terah ;  the  line  of  the  Mes- 
siah   

Death  of  Noah 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Gen.  I ;  2:4-7. 
Gen.  2:1-3. 

Gen.  2:8-25 
Gen.  3:1-13. 
Rom.  5:14. 
I  Cor.  15. 
Gen.  3:14-24. 
Gen.  4:1,  2. 

Gen.  4:3-7. 
Gen.  4:8-15. 

Gen.  4:16-24. 

Gen.  4:25,  26. 

Gen.  5. 
Gen.  5:5. 

Gen.  6. 

Gen.  6:18. 
Gen.  7. 
Gen.  8. 
Gen.  9:1-17. 

Gen.  9:18-27. 

Gen.  11:1-9. 

Gen.  10. 

Gen.  11:10-28. 
Gen.  9:28,  29. 

689 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  II. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  NOAH  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  MOSES,  417  YEARS. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

Uz,    in    Eastern 
Idumaea. 


1996, 

Ur,  Or/a. 

1922, 

Haran,  Charrce, 

Harran. 

1921,  Canaan. 

1921. 


1920. 

1918. 

1917,  Hebron. 

1913,  Siddim, 

El  Ghor. 

1912,  Hebron. 
1910. 
1897. 


1896,  Gerar. 
Land  of  Moab. 


i872,Moriah  ("site 

of  tlie  temple). 

Machpelah,  near 

Hebron. 

1S56, 

Beersheba. 

1850. 

1836,  Lahai-roi, 

1821,  Beersheba. 


1804,  Lahai-roi. 

1804. 
1804,  Beersheba. 

1796, 

1773. 

1760,  Beersheba. 

1760, 

Padan-aram. 

1760,  Arabia. 

690 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


L   JOB. 

The  exact  date  of  Job  is  not  known.  There  is  good 
reason,  however,  for  placing  his  history  before  that 
of  Abraham.  Chapters  19:25-27;  32:23-28  are  di- 
rect references  to  the  work  of  the  Messiah 


n.  ABRAHAM. 
Birth  of  Abraham  ;  marries  Sarai ;  leaves  Ur  and  his 

idolatrous  kindred  (Josh.  24:2) 

Terah,  Lot,  and  Sarai ;  death  of  Terah 


Leaves  Haran  at  God's  command  with  Sarai  and  Lot 

( 
Great  blessings  promised  him -j 

Visits  Egypt;  dissimulates 

Returns  to  Canaan;  Lot  in  Sodom 

Promises  renewed;  goes  to  Mamre 

Chedorlaomer;  Lot  taken  and  rescued 

Melchizedek  blesses  Abram 

Covenant  of  tiod  with  Abram 

Hagar;   Ishmael  born 

Covenant  renewed  ;  names  changed  ;  circumcision   ._ 
Abraham    entertains    angels,  one  of  whom   is   tlie 
Angel  of  the  covenant;  Sodom;  Lot's  wife;  Lot's 

incest 

Abraham  leaves  Hebron ;  dissembles  with  Abimelech 

at  Gerar  

Moab  and  Ben-ammi  born 

Isaac  born  ;  Ishmael  sent  away  ;  covenant  with  Abim- 
elech   

Trial  of  Abraham's  faith 

Death  and  burial  of  Sarah ,- 

.'\ccount  of  Nalior's  family 

Abraham  sends  his  servant  to  Haran  ;  Laban  receives 
him;  marriage  of  Isaac 

.Abraham  marries  Keturah  ;  children  by  her 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob ;  their  character 

Abraham  dies;   Isaac  and  Ishmael  bury  him  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah 

III.  IS.AAC  AND  JACOB. 
Esau  sells  Jacob  his  birthright;  Isaac  leaves  Canaan 

Covenant  confirmed  to  Isaac  at  Cierar 

Isaac  dissembles;  covenant  with  Abimelech 

Esau  marries  two  Hittite  women 

Death  of  Ishmael;  descendants 

Jacob  obtains  his  father's  blessing  and  flees  from  Esan 
Jacob's  vision  at    Luz ;  the  promises  continued  to  f 

him;  stays  with  Laban  liis  uncle   ( 

Esau  marries  a  dautrhler  of  Ishmael 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


Job  1-42. 


Gen.  11:27-32. 
See  Acts  7:2-4. 


Gen.  12:1-9. 
Gen.  12:1-9. 
See  Acts  3:25. 
Rom.  4. 
Gal.  3:16. 
Cien.  12: 10-20. 
Cien.  13:1-13. 
Gen.  13: 14-18. 
Gen.  14. 


Gen.  14. 

Gen.  15. 

Gen.  16. 

(ien.  17. 

Gen.  18; 
36;  19 
30-36. 


19:  I- 
4-11, 


Gen.  20. 
Gen.  19:37,38. 

Gen,  21:1-34. 
Gen.  22:1-19. 

Gen.  23. 
Gen.  22:20-24. 

Gen.  24. 
Gen.'  25:1-6. 
Gen.  25:19-28. 

Gen.  25:7-11. 


Gen. 
Gen. 
Gen. 
CJen. 
Gen. 
Gen. 
Gen. 
29: 
Gen. 


25:29-35. 

26:1-5. 

26:6-33. 

26:34,35- 
25:12-18. 
27;  28:1-5. 
28  :  10-22 ; 
r-14. 
28:6-9. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    II. — CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1753- 

1752-1745- 

Padan-aram, 

Al  Jezirah. 


1745- 
1739,  Galeed. 

1739,  Succotli. 

See  Josh.   13:27. 

1736,  Shechem. 

1732. 

Bethel,  Luz, 
Beit- in. 


1729,  Hebron. 
1729. 


1728,  Dothan. 

1726,  Timnath. 

1719,  Egypt. 

1718. 

1716. 

1715- 

1712,  1711. 

1708. 

1707. 

1706. 

1706. 

1704-1701. 

1689,  Egypt. 

16S9. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 
1635,  Egypt. 

1577,  Egypt. 

1573- 


EVENT   OR    NARUATIVE. 


Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel 

Jacob's  children:  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  and  Judah,  ] 
by  Leah;  Dan  and  NaplUali,  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's  | 
maid;  Gad  and  Asher,  b\-  Zilpah,  Leali's  maid;  |- 
Issachar,  Zebulun,  and  Dinah,  by  Leah;  Joseph,  i 
by  Rachel J 

Jacob's  bargain  with  Laban  ;  he  becomes  rich 

Jacob,  returning  to  Canaan,  is  pursued  by  Laban ; 
their  covenant 

Jacob's  vision  at  iVIahanaim;  wrestles  with  the  Angel 
at  Fennel  ;  reconciled  to  Esau;  settles  at  Succoth__ 

Jacob  removes  to  Shalem,  Gen.  33:18-20;  birth  of 
sons  of  Judah 

Dinah  defiled  by  Shechem  ;  slaughter  of  Shechemites 
by  Simeon  and  Levi 

Jacob  removes ;  purges  his  liousehold  of  idols ;  the 
promises  renewed  to  him  ;  his  name  changed  to  Is- 
rael  ■__ 

Rachel  dies  on  the  birth  of  Benjamin 

Sin  of  Reuben  ;  Jacob  abides  with  Isaac 

Esau's  descendants 

IV.  JOSEPH,   ETC. 
Josepli's  two  dreams;  envy  of  his  brethren;  sold  to 

the  Ishmaelites  and  to  Potiphar  in  Egypt 

Er  and  Onan  slain  by  God;  incest  of  judah  and  Ta- 

mar  ;   Pharez,  a  progenitor  of  Messiah,  born 

Joseph  advanced,  tempted,  falsely  accused,  and  im- 
prisoned   

Pharaoh's  butler  and  baker  imprisoned;  Joseph  in- 
terprets their  dreams 

Death  of  Isaac  at  Mamre 

Joseph  interprets  Pharaoh's  dreams;  his  elevation  __ 
Birth  of  Joseph's  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim-- 

Commencement  of  the  seven  years'  famine 

Joseph's  ten   brethren  come  to  buy  corn  ;  Simeon  a 

pledge 

Tliey  come  again  to  buy  corn  ;  Joseph  makes  himself 

known  to  ihem  ;  sends  for  his  father 

Jacob  and  his  family  arrive;  settle  in  Goshen  ;  Ja-  f 

cob  meets  Pharaoh ( 

Joseph,  by  giving  corn  to  the  Egvptians,  increases 
the  wealth  of  the  king 

Jacob  blesses  Ephraim  and  Manasseh j 

Jacob's  predictions  concerning  his  sons  and  Judah ; 

his  death 

Joseph  and  his  brethren  bury  their  father 

JosepJ!  shows  kindness  to  his  brethren 

Joseph  predicts  the  return  to  Canaan  ;  ciiarges  them 

to  carry  up  his  bones  there;  his  death 

The    Israelites    multiply;    a    new    king    oppresses  J 

them J j 

Pharaoh  orders  the  male  ciiildren  to  be  cast  into  the 

river 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Gen.  29: 15-30. 

Gen.    29:31-35; 
30:1-24. 

Gen.  30:25-43. 
Gen  31.     ■ 
Gen. 32;  33:1-17. 
Gen.  38: 1-5. 
Gen.  34. 


Gen.  35:1-15. 
Gen.  35:16-20. 
Gen.  35:21-27. 
Gen.  36. 


Gen.  2,7- 

Gen.  38:6-30. 

Gen.  39. 

Gen.  40. 
Gen.  35:28,  29. 
Gen.  41:1-49. 
Gen.  41:50-52. 
Gen.  41:53-57- 

Gen.  42. 

Gen.  43-45. 
Gen.   46:8-25; 
47:1-12. 

Gen.  47:13-26. 
Gen.   47  :  27-31  ; 
48. 

Gen.  49. 
Gen.  50:1-13. 
Gen.  50:14-21. 

Gen.  50:22-26. 
Exod. 1:1-21 ; 
15-21. 

Exod.  1:22. 


691 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  III. 

FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  MOSES,  B.  C.  1571,  TO  HIS  DEATH,  120  YEARS. 


DATE   AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1571-1532- 

1531,  Midian. 

1531.  Egypt. 
Rarneses  II. 
1491,  Horeb 
(Acts  7:31). 
1491,  Egypt 
(Acts  7:31). 
Menephtha  III. 

1491. 
1491. 

1491. 


1491. 

1491. 
1491. 
1491. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


IBIBLR  REFERENCE. 


I49I. 


I.    TO  THE  EXODE. 

Birth,  exposure,  rescue,  and  early  life  of  Moses 

Moses,  having  killed  an  Egyptian,  flees;  marries  Zip- 
porah,  daughter  of  Jelhro  ;  Gershom  born 

The  Israelites  groan  for  their  bondage \ 

God  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  bush ;  appoints 
him  and  Aaron  to  bring  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt 

Moses  leaves  Midian ;  meets  Aaron ;  they  deliver 
their  message - 

Moses  and  Aaron  demand  the  release  of  the  Israel- 
ites;  Pharaoh  refuses 

God  renews  his  promise  by  his  name  Jehovah 

Descendants  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  of  Levi,  from 
whom  came  Moses  and  Aaron 

Moses  and  Aaron  again  sent;  confirm  their  mes- j 
sage  by  a  miracle  ;  magicians  imitate  them \ 

Pharaoh  refuses  to  let  Israel  go;  eight  plagues <, 

The  Passover  instituted 

The  ninth  plague,  three  days  darkness 

Israelites  bidden   to  ask   gold   of  the   Egyptians ;  f 

Pharaoh  threatened  with  the  death  of  the  first- 1 

born ( 

The  Passover  eaten  the  same  day  of  the  same  month 

on  which  Christ  our  Passover  was  sacrificed  for  us; 

the  firstborn  slain 


1491,  Rarneses. 


1491,  Succoth, 
Eccl.  year  i. 

I  month,  I  day. 
Etham. 

1491,  Pihahiroth  ; 
that  is,  mouth 
of  pass. 
Marah. 

Elim,  JVady 

Ghurundel. 

Red  Sea. 

2  mon.,  15  days. 

Desert  of  Sin. 

Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Rephidim. 


3  mon.,  15  days, 

Sinai. 

692 


The  e-xodus  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  A.  M.  2513 

II.   JOURNEYS  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 
First   journey.      Passover    reinforced.      Firstborn 


commanded  to  be  set  apart 
moved 


Second  journey, 
and  fire 


Joseph's  bones  re- 
Israel  guided  by  a  pillar  of  cloud 


Third  journey.     Pharaoh  pursues 

Fourth  journey.  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  See 
I  Cor.  10:1,  2.  Destruction  of  Pharaoh's  army. 
Song  of  Moses.     The  bitter  waters  sweetened--. 

Fifth  journey 


Sixth  journev .--- 

Seventh  journey.    People  murmur  for  Bread.   Quails 
and   manna.     Directions  on  manna.     See  John 

6:31,  49;  Rev.  2:17 

Eighth  journey 

Ninth  journey 7-- 

Tenth  journev.     Water   given    from    the   rock   in 
Horeb   (i    Cor.    10:4).    Joshua  defeats   Amalek, 

while  Moses  prays 

Eleventh  journey.     Preparation  for  giving  of  the 
law 


Exod.  2:1-10. 

Exod.  2: 11-22. 
Exod.    2  :  23-25  i 
Psa.  88. 


Exod.  3;  4:1-17. 

Exod.  4:18-31. 

Exod.  5. 
ETkod.  6:1-13. 

Exod.  6:14-27. 
Exod.    6  :  28-30 ; 

7:1-13- 
Exod.    7 ;  14-25; 

8;  9;  10:1-20. 
Exod.  12:1-20. 
Exod.  10:21-27. 
Exod.  11:1-8; 

10  :  28,  29; 

11:9,  10. 


Exod.  12:21-30. 

Exod.    12:31-36, 

and  40  to  42. 

Exod.  12:37-39, 
43-51;  13:1- 
19; 

Num.  33:1-5. 

Exod.    13:20-22; 

Num.  33:6. 

Exod.  14:1-9; 

Num.  33:7. 

Exod.  14:10; 
15:26. 

Num.  33:8. 

Exod. 17:27; 

Num.  33:9. 

Num.  33:10. 

Exod.  16:1-36; 
Num.  33:11. 

Num.  33:12. 
Num.  33:13- 
Exod.  17:1-16. 
Num.  33:14- 
Exod.  19:1-25; 
Num.  33:15- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    III.— CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACK. 


B.  C. 

1491. 

mon.,  15  days. 

Sinai. 


Eccl.  year  i. 
6  months,  Sinai. 


1491. 


1490. 

Eccl.  year  2. 

I  month,  I  day. 

1490. 

Eccl.  year  2. 

I  month,  I  day. 

I  month,  8  days. 


I  month,  14  days. 


2  months,  i  day. 


1490. 
2  mo.,  20  days. 
Wilderness  of 
Paran,  Et  Tyh. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Moral  law  given.  Divers  laws  (chiefly  judicial)  en- 
joined. The  angel  promised  as  a  guide  to  the 
Israelites 

The  people  promise  obedience  ;  the  blood  of  the  cov- 
enant sprinkled  on  them.  Moses  and  others  have 
a  vision  of  God's  glory.  Moses  remains  forty  days 
and  forty  nights  in  the  mount 

Ceremonial  law  given.  The  tabernacle  and  its  furni- 
ture, the  priests  and  their  garments,  etc.  The  Sab- 
bath again  enjoined.  Daily  sacrifice  and  incense, 
Rom.  8:3;  Rev.  8:3,  4.  Tables  of  the  law  given  to 
Moses 

Idolatry  of  the  calf;  the  tables  broken;  the  people 
punished;  the  tabernacle  removed  out  of  the  camp. 
Moses  intercedes  for  the  people  and  asks  to  see 
God's  glory 

The  tables  renewed  ;  the  name  of  the  Lord  proclaim- 
ed; God  makes  a  covenant  with  Israel.  Moses 
stays  on  the  mount  forty  days  and  forty  nights ;  his 
face  shines 

Offerings  of  the  people  for  the  tabernacle.  Bezaleel 
and  others  prepare  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture 

Moses  commanded  to  rear  the  tabernacle  and  to  | 
anoint  it,  and  to  sanctify  Aaron  and  his  sons 

The  tabernacle  set  up.     The  glory  of  the  Lord  fills  it. 

The  Israelites  directed  by  the  cloud 

Laws  on  various  sacrifices  and  offerings 

Consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests 

The  offerings  of  Aaron.     Fire  consumes  the  sacrifice 

The  offerings  of  the  princes  accepted 

Destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu 

Of  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  of  the  scape-  f 

goat I 

The  second  Passover  celebrated.     Some  allowed  to 

observe  it  in  the  second  month 

Laws  on  meats  and  purifications 

Miscellaneous  laws,  moral,  ceremonial,  and  judicial. 

Shelomith's  son  stoned  for  blasphemy 

Laws  concerning  festivals,  etc 

Prophetic  promises  and  threatenings 

Laws  of  vows,  devotions,  and  tithes 

The  tribes  numbered;  their  order 

The  Levites  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  taberna- 
cle instead  of  the  firstborn  ;  their  duties 

Institution  of  various  ceremonies.      The  law  of  the 

Nazarites.     The  form  of  blessing 

Consecration  of  the  Levites ;  their  age  and  period  of 

service 

Use  of  the  silver  trumpets 

Manner  in  which  the  cloud  guided  the  people 

Arrival  of  Jethro  with  Moses'  wife  and  sons.  He  ad- 
vises Moses  to  appoint  judges  to  assist 

Twelfth  journey.     Order  of  the  march ] 

Moses  entreats  Hobab  to  accompany  Israel ;  Jethro  \ 
returns  to  Midian j 

Form  of  blessing  on  the  removal  and  resting  of  the  ark 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Exod.  20-23. 


Exod.  24. 


Exod.  25-31. 


Exod.  32 ;  i2>. 


Exod.  34. 

Exod.  35-39. 
Exod.  40:1-16; 
(John  1:14; 
2:19-31. 
Col.  2:9). 

Exod.  40:17-38. 
Lev.  1-7. 
Lev.  8. 
Lev.  9. 
Num.  7. 
Lev.  10. 
Lev.  16;  see 
Heb.  9;  5:1. 

Num.  9:1-14. 
Lev.  11-15. 

Lev.  17-22;  24. 
Lev.  23 ;  24. 
Lev.  26. 
Lev.  27. 
Num.  I ;  2. 

Num.  3 ;  4. 

Num.  5;  6. 

Num.  8. 
Num.  10:  i-io. 
Num.  9:15-23. 

Exod.  18:1-26. 
Num.  10:  II,  12; 

(33:16),  28. 
Num.  10:29-32; 
Exod.  18:27. 
Num.  10:33-36. 

693 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    III.  — CO.NTINUKU. 


DATK   AND   PLACli. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVK. 


B.   C. 

1490. 


Hazeroth. 

5  mon.  to  7  moil. 

Kadesh   Barnea, 

or  En  Mislipat. 

1490. 

Eccl.  year  2. 

7  mon.  6  days. 


1490-1452. 
Eccl.   year  2-40. 


1452. 

Eccl.  year  40. 

I  month. 

1452,  Kadesh. 

Mount  Hor. 


Zalmonah. 

Punon,      Oboth 

lim. 

Dibon-gad. 


Almon-dibla- 
thaim. 

Abarim. 


Plains    of  Moab 
by  Jordan. 


14.SI. 
Eccl.  year  40. 

694 


The  burning  at  Taberah.  People  murmur  for  flesh; 
Moses  complains  of  his  charge  ;  seventy  elders  ap- 
pointed as  a  council  to  assist  him;  quails  given  in 
wrath 

Tiiirteenth  journey.  Miriam  smitten  with  leprosy  j 
for  sedition | 

Fourteenth  journey.  Spies  sent  to  searcli  the  land ; ") 
ten  of  them  bring  an  evil  report ;  Caleb  and  > 
Joshua  faithful J 

Israel  murmurs  at  the  report  of  the  spies;  God] 
threatens  ;  Moses  intercedes ;  condemned  to  wan-  > 
der  forty  years J 

The  people,  going  up  against  the  will  of  God,  are 
discomfited 

Laws  of  offerinais ;  the  sabbath-breaker  stoned 

The  rebellion  of  Korali,  etc. ;  earthquake,  fire,  and 
plague  inflicted;  Aaron  approved  as  high  priest  by 
the  budding  of  his  rod 

The  charge  and  portion  of  the  priests  and  Levites    - 

Water  of  purification  ;  how  to  be  made  and  used 

The  ne.xt  seventeen  journeys  (15th  to  31st)  of  the 
Israelites,  being  their  wandering  in  the  wilderness 
nearly  thirty-eiglit  years 

Thirty-second  journey;  death  of  Miriam j 

The  people   murmur  for  water ;    Moses  and  Aaron 

transgressing,  not  to  enter  Canaan 

Edom  refuses  a  passage  to  the  Israelites 

Thirty-third  journey ;  Aaron  dies;  Arad  attacks  | 
Israel  and  is  defeated ] 

Thirty-fourth  journey  ;    the  people  murmur;    fiery 
serpents  are  sent;  the  brazen  serpent  set  up 

Thirty-fifth,   thirty-sixth,   and  thirty-seventh  jour-  J 

neys I 

Tliirty-eighth  journey 

The  Israelites  stop  at  Zared,  Arnon,  and  Beer 

Sihon  the  Amorite  opposes  their  passage ;  defeated, 

and  his  land  occupied 

Og  of  Bashan  attacks  them  ;  defeated 

Th i rty-ninth  journey 

P'ortieth  journey ■, 


Forty-first  journey  ;  account  of  Balaam  and  Balak 


Forty-second  journey;   idolatry  of  Baal-peor;   zeal  ( 

of  Phinehas ( 

Third  numbering  of  the  people 

The  daughters  of  Zelophehad  ;  laws  of  inheritance  ^ 

Law  of  offerings,  vows,  etc 

The  slaughter  of  Midian  ;    Balaam  slain 

Territories  given  to  Reuben,  (Jad,  and  ])art  of  Manas- 
seh,  on  tlie  east  of  Jordan  .    .-. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Num.  II  :i-34. 
Num.  II  :  35; 
(33:17),  12:15. 

Num.  13;  (33: 18). 

Num.  14  :  1-39; 
Psa.  90. 


Num.  14:40-45. 
Num.  15. 


Num.  16;  17. 
Num.  18. 
Num.  19. 


Num.  33:19-35. 
Num.  20  :  I ; 
33:36. 

Num.  20:2-13. 
Num.  20:14-21. 
Num.  20  :  22  to 

21:3;  33:37-40- 
(See  John  3:14); 

Num.  21  : 4-9; 

(33:41)- 
Num.  21: 10,  II ; 

33:42-44. 
Num.  33:45- 
Num.  21 :  12-18. 

Num.  21 :2i-32. 
Num.  21:33-35. 
Num.  33:46. 

Num.  21  :  18-20; 

33:47- 
(Luke  1:78; 

Rev.  22: 16; 

I  Cor.  15:251; 

Num.  22:1-41 ; 

(33:48);  23; 

24. 
Num.  25  :  1-18  ; 

(33:49)- 
Num.  26. 
Num.  27  :  i-ii ; 

36- 
Num.  28-30. 
Num.  31. 

Num.  22. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    III.— CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACE. 


B.   C. 

1451- 


Eccl.  year  40. 
II  nion.,  I  day. 


Plains   of   Moab 
by  Jordan. 


Eccl.  year  40. 
II  months. 


1451- 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Directions  for  the  Israelites  on  their  entering  Ca- 1 
naan ;  borders.,of  the  land  described ;  forty-eight  | 
cities  for  the  Levites,  of  which  six  are  to  be  cities  j 
of  refuge;  the  laws  on  murder J 

III.    THE   REVIEW  AND   CLOSING  CHARGE 

OF  MOSES. 
Moses  reviews  the  history  of  the  Israelites,  introdu- 
cing some  new  particulars 

The  moral  law  repeated  and  enforced - 

The  ceremonial  law  repeated,  with  injunctions  j 
against  idolatry,  etc. | 

The  judicial  law  repeated  and  explained.  Christ] 
foretold  as  the  Prophet  to  whom  they  are  to  V 
hearken J 

Moses  directs  Israel,  after  entering  Canaan,  to  write 
the  law  on  stones,  and  to  recite  its  blessings  and 
curses  upon  Mount  Gerizim  and  Mount  Ebal 

Prophetic  promises  and  curses 

Concluding  appeal  to  the  Israelites 

IV.    JOSHUA'S  APPOINTMENT— DEATH  OF 
MOSES. 

Joshua  appointed  to  succeed  Moses 

Moses  encourages  the  people  and  Joshua;  charges 
the  priests  to  read  the  law  publicly  every  seventh 
year  ^ 

God's  charge  to  Joshua  ;  Moses  writes  a  song  of  wit- 
ness ;  completes  the  writing  of  the  law  and  delivers 
it  to  the  Levites,  with  a  prediction  of  the  disobedi- 
ence of  Israel 

Moses  recites  his  song  and  exhorts  Israel  to  set  | 
their  hearts  upon  it j 

Moses  ascends  Mount  Nebo  to  view  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan and  to  die 

Moses  prophetically  blesses  the  tribes 

Moses  views  the  promised  land;  his  death,  burial, 
and  character 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


Num.  S3  '■ 
34;  35- 


50-56; 


Deut.  1:4. 
Deut.  5:9;   10:1- 

5,  10-22  ;   II. 
Deut.  12-16; 

17:1. 

Deut.  17:2-20; 
18-26. 


Deut.  27. 
Deiit.  28. 
Deut.  29;  30. 


Num.  27:12-23. 
Deut.  31:1-13. 


Deut.  31:14-29. 
Deut.  31:30; 
32:1-47. 

Deut.  32 :  48-52. 
Deut.  S3- 

Deut.  34. 


PERIOD  IV. 

FROM  THE  ENTRANCE  INTO  CANAAN  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  SOLOMON, 

475  YEARS. 


DATE   AND    PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1451- 
Eccl.  year  41. 
I  month,  I  dav. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


I.    CONQUEST  OF  CANAAN,  7  YEARS. 
(TO  THE  JUDGES,  25  YEARS.) 
God's  charge  to  Joshua 

Spies  sent  to  Jericho  ;   Rahab  receives  them 

Joshua  reminds  Reuben,  etc.,  of  their  engagement 
(cf.  Num.  22);  they  promise  obedience.  The 
Israelites  directed  concerning  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan.     God  encourages  Joshua 


BIBLE    REFERENCE. 


Josli.  I  :i-9. 
Josh.  2. 

Josh.  I  :  lo-iJ 
3:1-13- 

695 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD   IV.— CONTINUED. 


■  DATE  AND  PLACE. 


B.C. 

1451- 

I  month,  10  days. 
1451,  Gilgal. 


Gilgal. 

1450-1445- 

1444,    Ebal    and 

Gerizim. 


1444. 


Hebron,  Kirjath 

Arba, 

Josh.  21:11. 

1444,  Shiloh. 


1427,  Shechem, 
Sychar,  N.  T. 
1426,  Shechem. 


1425,  Bochim. 
1413- 


1406,  Gibeah, 
Jeba. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


Passage  of  the  Jordan  (A.  M.  2551);   a  memorial  f 

erected;  the  Canaanites  alarmed \ 

Circumcision  renewed;  the  Passover;  manna  ceases 
The  Captain  of  the  Lord's  host  appears  to  Joshua ; 
miraculous  capture  of  Jericho;  a  curse  on  the  re- 
builder  of  it 

The  Israelites  discomfited  through  Achan's  sin  ;  he  is 

destroyed 

Capture  of  Ai  by  stratagem 

The  Gibeonites  obtain  a  league  with  Joshua 

Conquest  of  several  kings  in  succession 

The  rest  of  the  conquests 

The  law  written  on  a  stone  altar  (cf.  Deut.  27),  and 

proclaimed  to  all  the  people 

Reuben,  etc.,  return  to  their  land  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Jordan  ;  the\^  erect  an  altar  of  memorial ;  Israel 
offended,  ask  an  explanation 

II.    GENERAL  DIVISION  OF  THE  LAND.       | 

Enumeration  of  conquests 

Land  not  yet  conquered 

Joshua  divides  the  land  ;  the  nine  tribes  and  a  half] 
receive  their  portions  by  lot ;  the  Levites  not  to  ■ 

receive  land J 

Inheritance  of  Reuben,  etc.,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Jordan 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 

Josh. 3:14-17;  4; 

:   5:1- 

Josh. 


Josh. 

6:1 


Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 


5:2-12. 
5:13-15; 


7- 
8:1-29. 

9- 

10. 

II. 


Josh.  8:30:35. 


Josh.  22. 


Inheritance  of  Caleb 


Lot  of  Judah 

Lot  of  Ephraim  and  half  of  Manasseh 

The  tabernacle  set  up 

Lots  of  the  other  tribes;  Joshua's  inheritance- 
Cities  of  refuge  appointed 

Levitical  cities 


III.    LAST  ACTS  OF  JOSHUA,  ETC. 
Joshua's  charge  to  the  elders  of  Israel 


696 


Josiuia  addresses  the  tribes  and  renews  the  covenant 

Death  and  burial  of  Joshua 

Burial  of  Joseph's  bones,  etc. 


IV.    INTERREGNUM  AND  GOVERNMENT  OF 
JUDGES,  330  YEARS. 

Conquests  after  Joshua's  death 

Nations  not  subdued  by  Israel 

The  Angel  of  the  Lord  rebukes  the  Israelites  for  not 

driving  out  the  Canaanites 

Commencement  of  idolatry  in  Israel 

.Account  of  Micah  and  his  image — 

A  party  of  Danites,  having  robbed  Micah  of  his  im- 
age, establish  themselves  in  Laish  (afterwards  Dan), 

and  set  up  idolatry 

History  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine ;  slaughter 

of  the  Benjamites,  etc 

The  captivities  of  Israel  for  idolatry,  and  their  de-  f 
liverance  by  judges ( 


Josh. 
Josh. 

Josh. 
14: 

Josh. 
Josh. 

15: 
Josh. 

20- 
Josh. 
Josh. 
Josh. 

19- 
Josh. 
Josh. 


12. 
13:1-6. 


13:7- 
1-5- 


14; 


13:15-33- 
14:6-15; 

13-19- 
15  :  1-12, 

63- 

16;  17. 
18:1. 
18  :  2-28 ; 

20. 
21. 


Josh.  23. 
Josh.  24:1-28. 
Josh.  24:29-31. 
Josh.  24:32,  2>l- 


Judg.  1:1-26. 
Judg.  1:27-36. 

Judg.  2:1-5. 
Judg.  2:6-13. 
Judg.  17. 


Judg.  18. 

Judg.  19;  20;  21. 
Judg.  2:14-23; 
3:1-4- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATE    AND    PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1402-1394. 

1354-1336, 


1316-1296. 

1256. 

Bethlehem. 

1249,  Shechem. 


1 235- 1 232. 
1232-1 188. 
1206-11S8. 

1 187. 
1182-1157. 
1156-1116. 

1 156. 

1 155,  Shiloh. 

"43- 
1136-1117. 

1116,  Gaza. 
1 1 16,  Ebenezer. 

Ashdod,  Azotus, 

Acts  8:40 ; 

Esdud. 

1112,  Mizpeh. 

1095,   Raniah,  in 
Ephraim. 


1096,  Ramah. 

Mizpeh. 

Gilgal,  S.  E.   of 

Jericho. 

1094. 


1080. 

1064. 
Bethlehem. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  eight  years  to 

Mesopotamia;  Othniel  judge 

Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  eighteen  years 

to  Moab  ;  Ehud  judge 

Captivity  of  the  western  Israelites  to  the  Philistines ; 

Shamgar  judge 

Captivity  of  the  northern  Israelites  for  twenty  years 
to  the  Canaanites  ;  Deborah  judge;  song  of  Debo- 
rah and  Barak  

Captivity  of  the  eastern  and  northern  Israelites  for 

seven  years  to  Midian 

The  history  of  Ruth,  an  ancestress  of  David  and  of  | 

the  Messiah | 

Gideon  judge  ;  is  visited  by  the  Angel  of  the  cove- 
nant, and  delivers  Israel  from  Midian ;  refuses  to 

be  made  king 

Usurpation  of  Abimelech  ;  Jotham's  fable 

Tola  and  Jair  judges 

The  Philistines  and  Ammonites  oppress  Israel  for  J 

eighteen  years;  Jephthah ;  his  vow ( 

Slaughter  of  Ephraim  by  the  Gileadites 

Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon  judges 

The  Philistines  oppress  Israel  forty  years 

Birth  of  Samson 

Birth  of  Samuel;  Hannah's  song 

The  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons 

Call  of  Samuel 

Marriage  of  Samson  ;  his  exploits j 

Judgment  on  Eli's  house 

Capture  and  death  of  Samson 

Israel  twice  defeated  by  the  Philistines ;  ark  taken  j 
and  Eli's  sons  slain  ;  death  of  Eli j 

The  ark  placed  in  the  house  of  Dagon ;  removed  to  ] 
Ekron  (Akir).  then  to  Bethshemesh  {Am  Sliems),  \ 
thence  to  Kirjath-jearim,  where  it  remains  till  re-  j 
moved  by  David J 

Samuel  judge  ;  he  moves  the  Israelites  to  repentance; 
the  Philistines  discomfited 

Samuel  appoints  his  sons  judges  ;  their  corrupt  gov- 
ernment;  the  Israelites  ask  for  a  king;  God  bids 
Samuel  hearken  to  them ^ 

V.    THE  REIGN  OF  SAUL,  40  YEARS. 

Samuel  privately  anoints  Saul  as  king,  and  gives  f 
him  three  signs | 

Saul  chosen  and  proclaimed  king 

Saul  rescues  Jabesh-gilead ;  is  inaugurated  as  king; 
Samuel's  address  to  Israel 

Saul  gathers  an  army  against  the  Philistines ;  he  dis- 
obeys Samuel,  and  is  warned  of  his  rejection  from 
the  kingdom 

The  Philistines  discomfited ;  Saul's  rash  oath  en- 
dangers Jonathan  ;  the  people  rescue  him ;  Saul's 
victories;  his  family 

Saul  smites  the  Amalekites ;  spares  Agag  and  the  best 
of  the  spoil ;  denounced  by  Samuel 

Samuel  secretly  anoints  David  at  Bethlehem  as  future 
king 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Judg.  3:5-11. 
Judg.  3:12-30. 
Judg.  3:31. 

Judg.  4;  5. 

Judg.  6: 1-6. 
Ruth  1-4. 


-40; 


Judg.  6 

7;  8- 
Judg.  9. 
Judg.  10:1-5. 
Judg.  10  :  6-18; 

II. 
Judg. .12:1-6. 
Judg.  12:7-15. 
Judg.  13:1. 
Judg.  13:2-25. 
I  Sam.  I ;  2:1-11. 
I  Sam.  2:12-21. 
I  Sam.  3. 
Judg.  14;  15:1- 

19;  16:1-3. 
I  Sam.  2:22-36. 
Judg.  16:4-31. 

I  Sam.  4:  19-22. 

I  Sam.  5;  6; 
7:1,  2. 

I  Sam.  7:3-17. 

I  Sam.  8. 


I  Sam.  9;  10:1- 

16. 
I  Sam.  10: 17-27. 

I  Sam.  II  ;  12. 


I  Sam.  13:1-15- 
I  Sam.  13:16-23 ; 
14. 

I  Sam.  15. 

I  Sam.  16:1-13. 
697 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD   IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 
1063. 


1062,  Gibeah, 
Naioth. 


1062. 

1061,  Nob  and 

Gath. 


1062,  AduUam. 


Nob 


Keilah. 


1060,  Ziph. 

1059,  Eiigedi, 

Hazezon  Tamar, 

1058,  Ziph. 

1057- 


1056. 


Gilboa,  Djebal 
Gilbo. 
Ziklag. 


1056,  Hebron. 
Acts  13:21. 

1054. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


David's  victory  over  Goliath;  Jonathan  loves  Da- 
vid   

David's  victories  ;  Saul's  melancholy  ;  he  attempts 
to  kill  David 


David  marries  Saul's  daughter;  Saul  makes  vari- 
ous attempts  to  kill  iiim;  David  flees  to  Samuel ; 
Saul  sends  after  him 

David's  covenant  with  Jonathan 

David  flees  to  Ahimelech  (where  his  lie  costs  the 
lives  of  the  priests  of  the  house  of  Eli),  then  to 
Achish  ;  feigns  madness 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


David  flees  again,  joined  by  several  followers 


David  goes  to  Mizpeh,  then  to  Hareth ;  slaughter] 
of  the  priests  by  Saul 1 

Abiathar  joins  David ;  David  defeats  the  Philis- 
tines  

Saul  pursues  David;  an  invasion  obliges  him  to  ( 
return "j 

Saul  pursues  David;  David  spares  Saul's  life;  Saul  ( 
confesses  his  fault ( 

Death  of  Samuel ;  David  and  Nabal 

David  again  spares  Saul's  life 

David  flees  to  Achish,  i  Sam.  27:1-7;  Psa.  141;  sev- 
eral resort  to  him 

David  makes  an  excursion  on  the  Amalekites,  and 
repairs  to  Gath  with  the  booty 

The  Philistines  prepare  for  war,  and  advance  to  Shu- 
nem  ;  David  accompanies  them ;  Saul  consults  the 
witch  of  Endor 

David  dismissed  from  the  army  of  the  Philistines; 
on  his  way  back  to  Ziklag  he  is  joined  by  sev- 
eral   '- 

On  his  return  to  Ziklag,  David  finds  that  it  had  been 
sacked  bv  .Amalek,  and  liis  family  taken ;  he  pur- 
sues .Amalek,  and  smites  them 

Saul,  defeated  in  battle  and  his  sons  slain,  kills  \ 
himself | 

.An  Amalekite  pretends  to  have  slain  Saul,  and  is  put 
to  death  by  David 

David's  lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan 


I  Sam.  17:1-54; 

18:1-4; 
Psa.  9. 
I  Sam.  18:5-9; 

16:14-23; 

18:10-16. 
I  Sam.  18:17-30; 

19:1-3; 
Psa.  II  ; 

I   Sam.  19:4-24; 
Psa.  59. 
I  Sam.  20. 

I  Sam.  21 ; 
Psa.  56;  34. 

1  Sam.  22:1 ; 
Psa.  142 ; 

2  Sam.  22:1,  2; 

1  Chr.  12:8-18; 

2  Sam.  23: 13-17; 
I  Chr.  II :  15-19. 

I  Sam.  22:3-19: 
,  Psa.  17,35,52,64. 
j     109,  140. 
j  I  Sam.  22:20-23; 
i     23. 

Psa.  31. 

I  Sam.  23 :  13-23 ; 

Psa.  54 : 

I  Sam.  23:24-28. 

I  Sam.  23: 29;  24; 

Psa.  57,    58.   63. 

I  Sam.  25. 

I  Sam.  26. 

I  Chr.  12: 1-7. 
I  Sam.  27:8-12. 

I  Sam.  28. 

I  Sam.  29. 

I  Chr.  12:19-22. 


698 


VI.    THE  REIGN  OF  DAVID,  40  YEARS. 

David  acknowledged  as  king  of  Judah 

Ishbosheth,  tlie  son  of  Saul,  proclaimed  king  of  Is- ) 
rael  by  Abner J 

Civil  war  ensues;  David  waxes  stronger;  Abner  and 
Ishbosheth  treacherouslv  slain.  ...      ._    


I  Sam.  30. 
I  Sam.  31. 

1  Chr.  10:1-14. 

2  Sam.  1:1-16. 
2  Sam.  1 :  17-27. 


2  Sam.  2:1-7. 
2  Sam.  2:8-11. 
2  Sam.  12:32 ; 
3:  4- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATK   AND    PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1049,  Hebron, 
Jerusalem. 


1048. 


1046,  from  Kir- 
jath-jearim  to 
house  of  Obed- 
edoiii,  thence 
to  Zion,  Psa. 
132. 


1041. 


1038-1037, 
Medeba. 


1036  and  1034, 
Jerusalem. 

1033- 


103 1. 
1028. 


1025. 
1024. 


1024,  Bahurim. 
Jerusalem. 


Mahanaim,   65 

miles  N.  E.  of 

Ephraim. 

Jerusalem. 


1023. 
102 1. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


I 

David  made  king  over  all  Israel;  his  troops;  he  | 
dispossesses  the  Jebusites  of  the  hill  of  Zion  and  | 
dwells  there 


Hiram  of  Tyre  congratulates  David;  David's  fam- 
ily; he  twice  defeats  the  Philistines 


David  removes  the  ark;  Uzzah,  not  being  a  Levite, 
smitten  for  touching  the  ark  (see  Num.  4: 15) 


David  forbidden  to  build  the  temple  ;  great  bless- 
ings promised  him;  his  prayer  and  thanksgiving 


Victories  over  Philistia,  Moab,  Syria,  and  Edom. 

David's  kindness  to  Mephibosheth 

David  defeats  Ammon  and  Svria 


Siege  of  Rabbah  ;  David's  adultery  and  murder- 


Birth  of  Solomon;  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son,  for-"] 
ceth  his  sister  Tamar,  David's  daughter ;  David  > 
fails  to  punish  this  injury . J 

Absalom  kills  Amnon,  and  flees 

Absalom  brought  back  and  restored  to  his  father's  | 
presence J 

Absalom  raises  a  revolt  against  David 

David  and  his  followers  flee;  Zadok  and  Abiatharl 
sent  back  with  the  ark;  Hushai  desired  by  David  j 
to  join  himself  to  Absalom  to  circumvent  Ahitho-  j 
phel's  counsels J 

Ziba's  treachery  to  Mephibosheth ;  Shimei  curses  f 
David I 

Hushai  defeats  Ahithophel's  counsel;  Ahithophel  f 
hangs  himself ] 

David   furnished  with  provisions,  chiefly  by  Bar-  | 

zillai __' ' '] 

1 

.\bsalom  defeated  and  slain  by  Joab 

David  returns  ;  Shimei  pardoned  ;  Mephibosheth  e.x 
poses  Ziba's  treachery;  David's  gratitude  to  Bar 
zillai 

Revolt  of  Sheba  (at  Abel) j 

The  three  \ears'  famine 


1  BIBLE   REFERE.MCE. 


2  Sam.  5:1-3; 
23:8-12,18-39; 
5:4,  5,6-10; 

1  Chr.  11:1-3; 
I 2 : 23-40 ; 

II :  10-14,  20, 
26-47,  4-9- 

2  Sam.  5:11-25, 

13-17; 

1  Chr.  14:1-17. 

2  Sam.  6:  i-ii  ; 
12-23; 

Psa.  68,  132,  105, 
96,  106; 

1  Chr.  13:1-4, 
5-14;   15:1  to 
16:43. 

2  Sam.  7 ; 

1  Chr.  17 ; 

Psa.  2,  45,  22,  16, 
118,  no. 

2  Sam.  8; 

1  Chr.  18; 
Psa.  60,  108. 

2  Sam.  9. 

2  Sam.  10; 

1  Chr.  19; 
Psa.  20,  21. 

2  Sam.  11 : 1  ; 

II  ■.2-2J. 

1  Chr.  20: 1,  3  ; 
Psa.    51,   32,    35, 

103. 

2  Sam.  12:24,  25; 

13: 1-22. 

2  Sam.  13:23-39. 

2  Sam.  14. 

2  Sam.  15:1-12. 

2  Sam.  15:13-27; 
Psa.  3. 

2  Sam.  16: 1-14; 

Psa.  7. 

2  Sam.  16:15-23; 

17:1-26. 
2  Sam.  17:27-29; 
Psa.  4,  5,  42,  43, 

55,  62,   70,  71, 

143,  144- 
2  Sam.  18. 


2  Sam.  19;  20:3,. 
2    Sam.   20:1,   2, 

4-26. 
2  Sam.  21  :i-i4. 
699 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    IV.— COxNTINUED. 


DATE   AND  PLACE. 


B.C. 
IOI9. 


IOI8. 


ioi6. 
Jerusalem. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Last  wars  with  the  Philistines  ;   David's  praise  for 
victories;  his  enemies  subdued l 


David  in  pride  numbers  Israel ;  the  plague 


1016,  Gibeon, 

Jib,  17  miles 

N.  W.  of  Gilgal 

1015, 

Jerusalem. 


Tj-re,  Tsiir. 

1012, 
Jerusalem. 


1012-1005, 
I  Kin.  6:1-37. 


1005, 
Jerusalem. 


700 


David  prepares  materials  and  instructs  Solomon  as 
to  the  building  of  the  temple 

Adonijah's    rebellion;    Solomon    anointed    and    pro- 
claimed David's  successor;  Adonijah  submits 

David  arranges  the  courses  of  the  priests,  etc. 

Arrangement  of  the  State  officers 


I 
■ .( 

David  calls  a  solemn  assembly  and  exhorts  both  | 
them  and  Solomon  to  the  work  of  the  temple ;  j 
the  offerings  of  the  princes  and  people ;  Da-  \ 
vid's  thanksgiving ;  Solomon  acknowledged  as  | 
king I 

David's  final  charge  to  Solomon  ;  directs  Joab  and  | 
Shimei  to  be  put  to  death;  David's  last  words;  ! 
his  death 


Psalms  of  David,  of  which  the  date  and  occasion 
are  not  known 


VII.    THE  REIGN  OF  SOLOMON,  40  YEARS. 

Solomon's  burnt-offering  ;  God  giving  him  a  choice, 
he  asks  for  wisdom  ;  wealth  and  honor  added  to 
him 

Solomon's  wise  judgment 


Adonijah  and  Joab  put  to  death;  Abiathar  deposed; 

Shimei  not  to  leave  Jerusalem 

Solomon  obtains  materials  and  men  for  the  build-  f 

ing  of  the  temple ] 

Shimei  put  to  death  for  going  to  Gath 

Solomon  marries  Pharaoh's  daughter 


The  building  of  the  temple_ 


The  dedication  of  the  temple 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


2  Sam.  21:15-22; 
22:2-51 ; 

1  Chr.  20:4-8; 
Psa.  18. 

2  Sam,  24:1-9; 

10-25 ; 
I  Chr.  21  :i-5; 
27:23,24;  2i:6» 
7,  8-30. 

I  Chr.  22. 

I  Kin.  i:it4. 
I  Chr.  23-26. 
I  Chr.  27:1-22, 
25-34- 

I  Chr.  28:11-21 ; 

29:1-25; 
Psa.  72,  91,  145. 

1  Kin.  2:1-9; 

2  Sam.  23:1-7; 

I  Chr.  29:26-30; 

I  Kin.  2:10,  II. 

Psa.  6,  8,  12,  19,. 
23,  24,  28,  29, 
38-41,  61,  65, 
69,  78,  86,  95, 
loi,  104,  120- 
122,  124,  131^ 
i33>  139- 


1  Kin.  2:12; 

3:4-15; 

2  Chr.  1 : 1-5,6-12. 
I  Kin.  3:16-28. 


I  Kin.  2:13-38. 

1  Kin.  5:1-18; 

2  Chr.  2: 1-18. 

I  Kin.  2:39-46. 
I  Kin.  3:1-3. 

1  Kin.  6:1-8; 
16-36;  7:i3-5or 
6:9-14,  2)1  >  38, 
7:51; 

2  Chr.  3 :  I  to 
4:22;  5:1. 

1  Kin.  8:  i-ii, 
62-64,  12-61, 
65,66; 

2  Chr.  5:2-14.- 
7:4-7;  6;  7:3^ 
8,  10; 

Psa.  47,  97-100, 
135,  136. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACE. 


B.   C. 
I002. 


lOOI, 

Jerusalem. 


993,  Jerusalem. 


50-977- 


977- 


976,  Jerusalem. 


976,  Shechem. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Other  buildings  of  Solomon;   God  makes  a  cove- 
nant with  him 


Acquisitions  of  Solomon ;   he  carries  out  David's 
arrangements  for  the  temple  services 

Pharaoh's  daughter  brought  by  Solomon  to  his  new 

palace 

Solomon's  song ■ 


The  greatness  of  Solomon 


The  wisdom  of  Solomon- 


Solomon's  fame  ;  visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba. 


Solomon's  wives  seduce  him  into  idolatry ;  Hadad 
and  Rezon  stirred  up  against  him 

Ahijah  predicts  to  Jeroboam  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom ;  Solomon  seeks  to  kill  Jeroboam,  who  flees 
into  Egypt 

Solomon  writes  Ecclesiastes,  or  the  Preacher,  prob-  f 
ably  as  an  expression  of  repentance | 

Death  of  Solomon ;   Rehoboam  his  son  succeeds .-_  ] 

VIII.    DIVISION  OF  THE  KINGDOM. 

On  the  accession  of  Rehoboam,  the  people,  headed  f 
by  Jeroboam,  demand  a  relaxation  of  burdens  __  ( 

Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  young  men  instead  ( 
of  the  old  men,  Rehoboam  refuses  the  request  of^ 
the  people [ 

Ten  tribes  revolt ;  Judah  and  Benjamin  adhere  to  f 
Rehoboam,  and  form  the  kingdom  of  Judah ] 

The  ten  tribes  make  Jeroboam  their  king,  and  form 
the  kingdom  of  Israel 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 

1  Kin.  7  :  1-12; 
9:1-9; 

2  Chr.  7:11-22. 

1  Kin.  9:10-14, 
15,  25; 

2  Chr.  8:1-10, 
12-16. 

1  Kin.  9:24; 

2  Chr.  8:11. 
Song  1-8. 

1  Kin.  4:1-28, 
10:26;  9:26- 
28;  10:14-25, 
27-29 ; 

2  Chr.  9:26,  25; 
1:14;  8:17,  18; 
9:13-21,  24; 
1:15-17;  9:27, 
28. 

1  Kin.  4:29-33; 

2  Chr.  9:22; 
Prov.  1-31. 

1  Kin.  4:34. 
10:1-13; 

2  Chr.  9:23,  1-12. 

I  Kin.  11: 1-25. 


I  Kin.  11:26-40. 
Eccl.    1-12. 

1  Kin.  11:41-43; 

2  Chr.  9:29-31. 


1  Kin. 12:1-5; 

2  Chr.  10:1-5. 

1  Kin.  12:6-15; 

2  Chr.  10:6-15. 

1  Kin.  12:16-19: 

2  Chr.  10:16-19. 

I  Kin.  12-20. 


701 


CHRONOLOGICAL  hXDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  V. 

FROM   THE    DEATH    OF   SOLOMON   TO   THE    CLOSE  OF  THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT  CANON,*    • 

I.    HISTORY  OF  THE  TWO  KINGDOMS. 


JUDAH. 

REHOBOAM,  king  17  years,  i  Kings 
14:21,7! />.  (JudaJi);  2  Chr.  12:13,7'". />. 
(reigtied). 

Rehoboam,  preparing  to  attack  the  ten 
tribes,  is  forbidden  by  Shemaiah,  i  Kin. 
12:21-24;  2  Chr. ,11 : 1-4. 

Rehoboam  fortifies  his  kingdom  ;  the 
priests  and  Levites  <if  Israel  resort  to 
him ;     Rehoboam's    family,    2    Chron. 


Rehoboam  and  Judah's  idolatry,  i  Kin. 

14:22-24;  2  Ciir.  12: 1. 
Sliishak    plunders    Jerusalem,    i    Kings 

14:25-28;  2  Chr.  12:2-12. 
Character  and  death  of  Rehoboam,  i  Kin 

14:21,  /.  p.  29-31;    2  Chr.   12:13,  /.  p 

14-16. 
ABIJAH,  or  ABIJAM,  king  3  years,  i  Kin. 

15:1,  2,  6;  2  Chr.  13:  i,  2. 
Abijah  defeats  Jeroboam  in  battle,  2  Chr. 

13:3-21- 

His  heart  not  perfect. 

Character  and  death  of  Abijah.  ASA 
king  41  years,  i  Kin.  15:3-10;  2  Chr. 
13:22;  14:1. 


Asa  puts  away  idolatry  and  strengthens 
his  kingdom,  i  Kin.  15:11-15;  2  Chr. 
14:2-8;   15:16-18. 

Asa's  victory  over  the  Ethiopians,  2  Chr. 

Moved  by  Azariah,  Asa  makes  a  solemn 
covenant  with   Ciod,  2  Chr.  15:1-15,  19. 

Asa  bribes  Ben  hadad  king  of  Syria  to 
attack  Baasha,  i  Kin.  15:16-22. 

Asa,  reproved  by  Hanani  for  applying  to 
Ben-hadad,  ])uts  him  in  prison,  2  Chr. 
16:7-10. 

His  idolatrous  alliance  with  Syria,  .mid  his  im- 
prisoiinieiit  of  the  prophet,  after  ail  his  refor- 
mations, prove  his  ruin. 


B.  C. 

976 


974 

973 
972 

958 


957 
956 


955 
953 
951 

944 
942 
941 


931 
930 


JEROBOAM  V\x\%  22  years;  he  estab- 
lishes himself  at  Shechem,  i  Kings 
12:25. 


Jeroboam,  having  set  up  golden  calves 
at  Dan  and  Betliel,  is  rejjroved  by  a 
man  of  God,  i  Kin.  12:26-33;   13:1-10. 

Seduced  by  an  old  prophet  of  Bethel,  the 
man  of  God  disobeys  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  and  is  slain  by  a  lion,  1  Kin. 
13:11-32. 

These  cal  ves  borrowed  from  Egypt,  where 
Jeroboam  had  resided. 

Twice  warned  by  the  man  of  God  and  by 
Abijah,  yet  persisting  in  his  idolatry. 

The  step  seemed  poHtic.  It  seemed  a  form  of 
worship  something  like  that  established  at 
Jerusalem,  and  attracted  the  tribes,  but  in 
the  end  it  proved  the  ruin  of  the  kingdom. 


Ahijah    denounces    Jeroboam.    1    Kings 

13:33.  34;  14:1-18- 

Jeroboam's  death.    NAD.-KB  king  2  years, 

I  Kin.  14: 19,  20;   15:25,26. 
Nadab  slain  at  Gibbeihon.     BAASHA 

king  24  years,  i  Kin.  15:27-34. 


Baasha,  attempting  to  build  Ramah,  is 
attacked  bv  the  king  of  Syria,  2  Chr. 
16:1-6. 


Baasha  denounced  by  Jehu;  his  death. 
ELAH  king  2  vears.  i  Kin.  16:1-8. 

Elah  slain.  ZIMRI  king  7  days;  de- 
stroys Baasha's  house.     Omri  elected 


*  The  names  of  the  new  kings  are  here  printed  in  capitals;  and  if  founders  of  new  dynasties,  m 
italic  capitals. 
702 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    v.  — CONTINUED. 


JUDAH. 


Asa's  death.  JEHOSHAPHAT,  king  25 
years  ;  his  piety  and  prosperity,  i  Kin. 
15:23,  24;  22:41-47;  2  Chr.  16:11-14; 
17:1;    20:31-33;   17:2-19;  comp.  ver.  6 

and  20:33. 

His  great  error  is  Iiis  alliance  with  Ahab,  whose 
daughter  AthaHali  his  son  Jehoram  marries. 
Hence  his  expedition  to  Ramoth,  which  near- 
ly cost  him  his  hfe. 


Jehoshaphat  visits  Ahab,  and  joins  with 
him  in  battle  against  the  Syrians, 
2  Chr.  18. 

Jehoshaphat  reproved  by  Jelni  for  join- 
ing with  Ahab.  He  visits  his  kingdom 
and  exhorts  the  judges,  etc.,  to  be 
faithful,  2  Chr.  19 ;  Psa.  82. 

Overthrow  of  Moab,  etc.  Jehoram  re- 
gent, 2  Chr.  20:1-30;  Psa.  115,  46. 

Jehoshaphat  joins  Ahaziah.  Being  re- 
proved and  his  ships  wrecked,  he  refu- 
ses to  join  in  a  subsequent  expediti m, 

1  Kin.  23:48,  49;  2  Chr.  20:35,  37. 
Afterwards  joins  Joram  against  Moab, 

and     is     saved    only    by    a    miracle, 

2  Kin.  3. 

On  2  Chr.  20 :  13,  see  Joel  2 :  16. 


2  Kin.  9:2,  13.  Read,  therefore,  in  i  Kin.  19: 16, 
grandson  ;  and  by  Elijah  anointing  Jehu,  un- 
derstand ordering  Elislia  to  do  it.  Jehu  was 
anointed  to  exterminate  the  house  of  Ahab 

Jehoram  begins  to  reign  in  concert  with 
Jehoshaphat,  2  Kin.  8:16. 

2  Clir.  21 :5.  Three  dates  are  given  for  the  be- 
ginning of  Jehoram's  reign  :  B.  C.  S97,  when 
he  was  regent  during  his  father's  absence, 
2  Kin.  1:17;  3:1;  891,  2  Kin.  8: 16;  and  889. 

Death  of  Jehoshaphat.  JEHORAM,  or 
JORAM,  king  8  years;  his  wicked  and 
troubled  reign.  Elijah's  letter,  writ 
ten  before  his  translation,  brought  to 
him,  I  Kin.  22  :  45,  50;  2  Kin.  8  :  17-22  ; 
2  Chr.  20:34;  21  :i-i8. 


B.  C. 


926 


917 
914 


910 
to 
906 

902 
and 
901 
900 

898 


897 


893 
892 


990 

889 
to 


ISRAEL. 

king.  Zimri  destroys  himself,  i  Kin. 
16:9-20. 

OMRIkXng,  12  years,  including  6  years' 
civil  war  witli  Tibni.  Samaria  built, 
I  Kin.  16:21-26. 

Omri  dies.  AHAB  king  22  years.  Jeri- 
cho rebuilt  by  Hiel,  who  reaps  Joshua's 
curse,  I  Kin.  16:27-34. 

1  Kin.  16:25.     Comp.  Mic.  6:26;  i  Kin.  16:34; 

Josh.  6:26. 

Elijah  prophesies  a  famine ;  raises  the 
widow's  son;  his  trial  with  the  proph- 
ets of  Baal.  Elisha  a  prophet,  i  Kin. 
17-19. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria.  The  Syr- 
ians twice  defeated.  Ahab  denounced, 
I  Kin.  20. 

Ahab  seizes  Naboth's  vineyard.  Elijah 
denounces  him,  i  Kin.  21. 

Ahab  makes  war  on  Svria  and  is  slain, 
as  Michaiah  predicted.  AHAZIAH 
king,  I  Kin.  22:1-35,  36-40,  51-53. 

Ver.  39.    See  Amos  3 :  15. 

Psa.  82  placed  here  from  internal  evidence. 
(Townsend).  ▼ 

Psa.  115  and  46.  The  schools  of  the  prophets 
(Naioth),  I  Sam.  10:10;  19:20;  2  Kin,  2:2, 
seem  to  have  trained  at  this  time  a  large 
number  of  religious  teachers. 

Ahaziah  falling  sick  and  sending  to  in- 
quire of  Baalzebub,  is  denounced  by 
Elijah.  JEHORAM,  or  JORAM,  his 
brother,    king    12    years,    2    Kings    i; 

3:1-3-  ^      ^ 

Elijah  translated.     Elisha  acknowledged 

as  his  success  'r ;  his  miracles,  2  Kin.  2. 
Joram,  joined    by  Jehoshaphat  and  the 

king  of  Edom,   defeats   Moab,  2   Kin. 

3:4-27- 

Elisha  multiplies  the  widow's  oil  ;  prom- 
ises a  son  to  the  Shunammite,  2  Kin. 
4:1-17. 

Naaman  healed,  2  Kin.  5. 

Elisha  causes  iron  to  swim  ;  discloses  the 
Syrian  king's  purpose,  and  smites  his 
army  with  blindness,  2  Kin.  6:1-23. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria;  severe 
famine  ensues  ;  plenty  restored  by  the 
sudden  flight  of  the  Syrians,  2  Kin. 
6:24-33;  7. 

Elisha  raises  to  life  the  widow's  son; 
other  miracles,  2  Kin.  4:18-44;  S:i,  2. 

2  Kin.  4:34.     Tills  is  Elisha's  twelfth  miracle, 

Elijah  having  wrouglit  six.  Townsend  pla- 
ces 4:18  after  4:  17;  but  there  is  clearly  an 
interval  of  two  years  or  so  between  them. 


703 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    v.— CONTINUED. 


JUDAH. 

Aliaziah  begins    to  reign  as   viceroy  to 

his  father,  2  Kin.  9:29. 
Death  of  Jeiioram.    AHAZIAH  king  one 

year;    his  evil  reign,  2   Kin.  8:23-27; 

2  Chr.  21 :  19,  20;  22:1-4. 
Ahaziah  joins  Joram  against  Hazael,  and 

afterwards  visits  him  at  Jezreel,  2  Kin. 

8: 28,- 29. 

Ahaziah  slain  by  Jehu,  2  Chr.  22:7-9. 

A  T//AL/AI/ usurps  the  throne  6  years. 
Joash  the  son  of  Ahaziah  rescued, 
2  Kin.  11:1-3  ;  2  Chr.  22:10-12. 

JEHOASH,  or  JOASH,  king  40  years. 
Athaliah  slain,  2  Kin.  11:4-12;  2  Chr. 
23:1-21 ;  24:1,  2. 

Joash  repairs  the  temple,  2  Kin.  12:4-16; 

2  Chr.  24:4-14. 
Death  of  Jehoiada,  2  Chr.  24:15,  16. 


Joash  and  the  people  fall  into  idolatry; 
Zechariah,  reproving  them,  is  slain  in 
the  temple-court  {c/.  Matt.  23:35).  The 
Syrians  invade  Judah,  2  Chr.  24:17-24; 
2  Kill.  12: 17,  18. 

Joash  slain  by  his  servants.  AMAZIAH 
king  29  years,  2  Kin.  12:19-21;  14:1-6; 
2  Chr.  24:25-27;  25:1-4. 


Amaziah  hires  an  army  of  Israelites  to 
assist  him  against  Edora,  but  at  a 
prophet's  command  he  sends  them 
back,  2  Chr.  25:5-10. 

Amaziah  smites  the  Edomites  and  wor- 
ships their  gods,  2  Chr.  25:11  ;  2  Kin. 
14:7;  2  Chr.  25:12,  14-16. 

Amaziah  provokes  the  king  of  Israel  to 
battle,  and  is  taken  prisoner  by  him, 
2  Kin.  14:8-14. 


Amaziah  slain.     UZZIAH,  or  AZARIAH, 
king   52   years.      During  the   days  of 
Zechariah  he  reigns  well,  2  Kin.  14:17 
22;  15:1-4;  2  Chr.  25:25;  26:15. 


704 


B.  C. 

886 

885 


883 


877 

860 
855 

850 
849 


840 


836 

827 

826 
823 

822 


to 
800 


801 


ISRAKL. 


Return  of  the  Shunammite.  Hazael  kills 
Ben-hadad,  and  becomes,  as  Elisha 
predicted,  king  of  Syria,  2  Kin.  8:3-15. 

Joram  being  wounded  in  battle  by  the 
Syrians,  retires  to  Jezreel,  2  Chton. 
22:5,  6. 

Jehu  anointed,  2  Kin.  9:1-13. 

Joram  slain  by  Jehu,  2  Kin.  9: 14-28. 

JEHU  king  28  years ;  slays  Jezebel, 
Ahab's  sons,  Ahaziah's  brethren,  and 
Baal's  worshippers,  2  Kin.  9:30-37; 
10:1-31. 


Hazael  oppresses  Israel,  2  Kin.  10:32,  33. 
Death   of  Jehu.      JEHOAHAZ    king    17 

years,  2  Kin.  10:34-36;  13:1,  2. 
History  of  Jonah,  Jon.  1-4. 
Israel  given  over  by  God  to  Hazael  and 

Ben-hadad,    and    delivered,    2    Kings 

13:1-7- 
Jehoash  begins  to  reign  m  concert  with 
Jehoahaz,  2  Kin.  13. 10. 


Death  of  Jehoahaz.  JEHOASH,  or  JO- 
ASH, king  16  years.  He  visits  Elisha, 
wiio  promises  three  victories.  Hazael 
dies,  2  Kin.  13:8,  9,  11,  14-19,  22-24. 

Elisha  dies,  k  corpse  thrown  into  Eli- 
sha's  sepulchre  revives,  2  Kin.  13:20,21. 

Jehoash  thrice  beats  the  Syrians,  2  Kin. 
13:25. 


The  Israelites,  who  had  been  dismissed 
by  Amaziah,  plunder  the  cities  of  Ju- 
dah as  they  return,  2  Chr.  25:13. 


Jehoash  defeats  the  king  of  Judah  and 
plunders  the  temple,  2  Chr.  25: 17-24. 

Death  of  Jehoash.    JEROBOAM  II.  king 

41  years;  he  reigns  wickedly,  2  Kin. 

13:12,  13;   14:15,  16,  23,  24. 
Jeroboam   restores  the   coast  of   Israel, 

according  to  the  word  of  Jonah;  2  Kin. 

14:25-27. 


Hosea  makes  his  first  appeal  to  the  ten 
tribes,  Hos.  i  ■.^. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD   V. — CONTINUED. 


JUDAH. 
Amos  7 :  10-19,  Liglitfoot  and  others  place  after 
2  Kin.  14:28. 

■On  the  increase  of  Uzziah's  army;  Joel 
foretells  the  overthrow  of  Judah,  Joel 
1-3- 


The  three  children  have  names  given  to  them, 
indicating  the  place  of  the  wickedness  of  the 
house  of  Ahab  (ver.  4;  see  i  Kin.  21:1); 
their  punishment,  not  finding  viercy  in  ca- 
lamity; and  their  rejection,  no  longer  the 
people  of  God.  They  are,  however,  to  be 
gathered  again  under  the  Messiah,  their  one 
Head,  ver.  11 ;  ver.  7,  see  2  Kin.  19 :  35. 


Uzziah  struck  with  leprosy  for  invading 
the  priest's  office.  Jotham  regent, 
2  Kin.  15:5;  2  Chr.  26:16-20,  21. 

2  Kin.  15:5,  several,  that  is,  lone  or  separate. 

Isaiah  designated  in  a  vision  to  the  pro- 
phetic office.  He  prophesies  of  Christ's 
kingdom  and  of  judgment  on  the  peo- 
ple for  their  sins,  Isa.  1:1;  6 : 2-5. 

Death  of  Uzziah.  JOTHAM  king  16 
years;  his  prosperity,  2  Kin.  15:6,  7, 
32-35;  2  Chr.  26:22,  23;  27:1-6. 

;Micah  reproves  the  wickedness  of  Judah. 
Mic.  I,  2. 

Rome  founded. 


Judah  begins  to  be  afflicted  by  Syria  and 
Israel.  Death  of  Jotham,  2  Kin.  15:36- 
38;  2  Chr.  27:7-9. 

AH AZ  king  16  years,  2  Kin.  16 : 1-4 ;  2  Chr. 
28:1-4. 

Invasion  of  Pekah  and  Rezin.  Isaiah 
prophesies  on  the  occasion,  denoun- 
cing Ahaz's  intended  alliance  with  As- 
syria, 2  Kin.  16:5;  Isa.  7-9;   10:1-4. 

Isaiah  prophecies  the  ruin  of  Damascus 
and  of  the  ten  tribes,  Isa.  17. 

Judah  devastated  by  Syria  and  Israel ; 
the  latter  restore  their  captives  by  ad- 
vice of  Oded,  2  Chr.  28:5-15. 

Ahaz,  being  assailed  by  enemies,  hires 
Tiglath-pileser,  the  king  of  Assyria, 
against  them  Obadiah  and  Isaiah, 
2  Kin.  16:6-9;  2  Chr.  28:16,  21,  17-20; 
Obad. ;  Isa.  1:2-31;  28. 

Sacrilege  and  idolatry  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr. 
28:22-25;  2  Kin.  16:10-18;  Hos.  5,  6. 


45 


B.  C 
793 

787 

783 

771 
770 

769 

765 
761 

759 

757 

756 

753 
742 


740 
740 

738 
730 


ISRAEL. 

Amos  denounces  judgment  against  the 
surrounding  nations  and  against  Isra- 
el and  Judah,  Amos  1-9. 

Amos  1:3,  see  2  Kin.  16:9;  ver.  6,  see  2  Kin. 
18:8;  ver.  8,  see  2  Chr.  26:6;  ver.  11,  see 
Num.20: 14;  Am. 5: 27,  see  2 Kin.  10:32;  17:6, 

Death  of  Jeroboam,  7  Kin.  14:28,  29. 

Ati  inter  regnutn  for  eleven  years. 
State  of  Israel  during  the  interregnum. 

Hosea  denounces  judgment.     Hos.  4. 
ZECHARIAH,  fourth  from  Jehu,  king  6 

months.     Shallum  slays  him,  2  Kings 

15:8-12. 
SUA LLi^Jf  king  one  month.    Menahem 

slays  him,  2  Kin.  15:13-15. 
MENAHEM  king    10    years,    2    Kings 

15:16-18. 
Pul  of  Assyria,  coming  against  Israel,  is 

bribed  to  return,  2  Kin.  15:19,  20. 


Death  of  Menahem.     PEKAHIAH  king 

2  years,  2  Kin.  15:21-24. 
Pek'ahiah  slain  by  Pekah.    PEKAHkxnz 

20  years,  2  Kin.  15:25-28. 
Isa.  I :  I. 

Compare  Isa.  7  :  i  with  2  Kin.  16:  5. 
Isa.  1:7,8,  compare  2  Chr.  28 :6-9. 
Isa.  6: 1,  see  John  12  :4i. 
Isa.  6 :  13,  see  2  Kin.  25 :  12. 
Isa.  2  :  19,  see  Rev.  6 :  15. 
2  Chr.  27  :  2,  see  chap.  26 :  19. 
Isa.  7  : 8,  see  2  Kin.  17  :  24. 
Isa.  7  :  16,  see  2  Kin.  15 :  29. 
Isa.  8  : 1,  a  man's  pen,  that  is,  common  writing; 

see  Rev.  13  :  18  ;  21  :  17. 
Mic.  I  :  5,  see  i  Kin.  16  :32. 
Mic.  1 :  13,  see  Jer.  34 : 7. 


Isa.  17,  see  2  Kin.  16 : 9 ;  18  :  11. 


Tiglath-pileser  ravages  Gilead,  Galilee, 
and  Naphtali,  and  carries  captive  their 
inhabitants  to  Assyria,  2  Kin.  15:29. 

Isa.  5:21,  see  2  Sam.  5  :  20. 

Pekah  slain  by  Hoshea,  2  Kin.  15:30; 
17:1. 

Anarchy  for  nine  years. 
HOSHEA  king  9  years.     Shalmaneser 
king  of  Assyria  invades  his  territory 
705 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD   v.— CONTINUED. 


JUDAH. 

Death  of  Ahaz,  2  Kin.  16:19,  20;  2  Chr. 

28:26,27;  153.14:28-32. 
HEZEKIAH  king  29  years,  2  Kin.  18:1, 

2  ;  2  Chr.  29:1. 
Reformation  by  Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  18:3-6; 

2  Chr.  29:2-36;  30,  31. 
Moab  denounced,  Isa.  15;  16. 
Micah  supports  Hezekiah's  reformation, 

Mic.  3-7. 
Seejer.  26:18;  Mic.  3:9. 


Hezekiah's  prosperity,  2  Kin.  18:7,  8. 


Prophecy  of  the  restoration  of  the  ten 
tribes,  of  the  punishment  of  Egypt, 
and  conversion  of  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
Isa.  iS ;  19. 


B.  C, 

I  726 


723 


723 

721 


Israel. 
and  makes   him  a  tributary,  2  Kings 

17:1-3- 
Isa.  14  :  28-32,  against  Philistia,  see  2  Chr.  26:6. 

Ahab,  who  subdued  them,  was  dead;  but  a 

cockatrice  out  of  that  nest,  Hezekiah,  was 

still  to  bite  them,  2  Kin.  18  : 8. 
Isa.  15.     The  destruction  of  Moab  by  Shalma- 

neser   foretold.      They  are  exhorted  to  re- 
"  new  their  tribute,  Isa.  16:1.     See  2  Kin.  3  : 4. 


Hoshea  attacked  and  imprisoned  by 
Shahnaneser  for  not  giving  the  tribute. 
Hosea  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  ten 
tribes  and  e.xhorts  to  repentance,  2  Kin. 
17:4;  Hos.  7-14. 

Shalmaneser  besieges   Samaria,  2   Kin. 

17:5;  18:9. 
The    ten    tribes    carried    into    captivity 

unto  Assyria,  2  Kin.  17:6-23;  18:10-12. 


II.    HISTORY  OF  JUDAH  TO  THE  CAPTIVITY,  114  YEARS. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.   C. 
715- 

714. 

713,  Judaea. 


Jerusalem. 


712. 
712,  Jerusalem. 


711,  Judaea. 


710-699. 
697,  Jerusalem. 


706 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Tyre  denounced,  Isa.  23.  Prophecy  concerning  the  j 
invasion  of  Assyria I 

The  desolation  aiid  recovery  of  Judiea  predicted,  ( 
etc 1 

Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  by  Assyria   and  the  f 
destruction  of  Babylon.     Sennacherib  comes  up  ( 
against  Judah,  but  being  pacified    by  a  tribute,  •] 
retires.     Isaiah  denounces  Egypt  and  warns  Je- 
rusalem   : I 

Sickness  of  Hezekiah ;  his  song  of  thanksgiving.  | 
Isaiah  predicts  the  blessings  of  Christ's  kingdom  i 
and  judgments  of  the  enemies  of  Zion 


Nineveh  denounced  by  Nahum 

Hezekiah  showing  in  pride  to  the  ambassadors  ( 
from  Babylon  his  treasures,  Isaiah  predicts  the< 
Babylonian  captivity (. 


Second  invasion  of  Sennacherib ;  destruction  of  his 
army 


Various  prophecies  of  Isaiah 

Hezekiah's  wealth;  his  death.  Manasseh  king 
fifty-five  years;  his  awful  impiety;  judgment  de- 
nounced by  God's  prophets 


Isa.  10:5;  14:27. 

Isa.   24;    26  :  17, 

18;  27. 
Isa.  22: 1-14;  21 ; 
2  Kin.  18: 13-16; 
2  Chr.  32: 1-8; 
Isa.  36  :  I ;    20 ; 

29-31. 
2  Kin.  20; 
Isa.  38; 
2  Chr.  32:24; 
Isa.  32-35- 
Nah.  1-3. 
2  Kin.  20:12-19; 
Isa.  39; 

2  Chr.  32:25,  26. 
2  Kin.  18:17-37; 

26-28;  19:1-37. 
Psa.  44, 73, 75, 76; 
Isa.  36:2,  ii:-22; 

37: 1-38; 
2   Chr.  32:9-23. 
Is.  40-66;  57:3-9. 
2  Kin.  20:20,  21 ; 

21 : 1-16; 
2  Chr.  32:27-33; 

33:1-10- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    V. — CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 
678,  Samaria. 

677,  Babylon. 

642,  Jerusalem. 

640. 


634- 
628. 

623,  Jerusalem. 


623. 
622,  Jerusalem. 

612. 

612. 
611. 

610. 


609,  Megiddo 
and  Jerusalem. 


Riblah. 


608. 
606. 


Jerusalem. 
606. 


EVENT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Isaiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  Shebna 

The  heathen  nations,  who  had  been  transplanted  to 
Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites,  being  plagued  by 
lions,  make  a  mixture  of  religions 

Manasseh  taken  captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria ;  his 
conversion  and  restoration;  he  puts  down  idol- 
atry   

Death  of  Manasseh.  Amo'n  king  two  years ;  his  f 
impietv I 


Amon  slain  by  his  servants, 
one  years 


JosiAH  k'ing  thirty- 


Josiah  vigorously  puts  down  idolatry 

Jeremiah  called ;  he  expostulates   with  the  Jews  on 

account  of  their  sins 

Josiah  provides  for  the  repair  of  the  temple.  The  ( 
Book  of  the  Law  having  been  found,  Josiah  con-  | 
suits  Huldah ;  he  causes  it  to  be  read  publicly  1 

and  renews  the  covenant [ 

Zephaniah  exhorts  to  repentance 

A  most  solemn  celebration  of  the  Passover  by  Jo-  f 

siah , I 

Jeremiah   reproves  the  backsliding  of  the  people  j 

and  bewails  the  coming  captivity | 

Habakkuk  predicts  judgment 

Jeremiah  exhorts  the  people  to  repentance  and  la- 
ments their  approaching  calamities 

Jeremiah  reminds  the  people  of  the  covenant  of  Jo- 
siah   


Josiah  slain  in  battle  with  the  king  of  Egypt.  Jere- 
miah and  the  people  lament  him.  Jehoahaz 
king  three  months 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Jehoahaz  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Pharaoh- 
necho,  and  subsequently  taken  to  Egypt.  Je- 
HOiAKiM  king  eleven  years 

Jeremiah  delivers  various  predictions,  and  appeals  to 
the  Jews  respecting  the  captivity  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  fate  of  Pashur,  Jer.  20;  of  Shal 
lum,  that  is,  Jehoahaz,  and  Jehoiakim 

Apprehension  and  arraignment  of  Jeremiah  by  the 
people 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  overthrow  of  the  army  of  Pha- 
raoh-necho  king  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadnezzar 

The  obedience  of  the  Rechabites  to  their  father  con- 
trasted with  the  disobedience  of  the  Jews 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  for  sev- 
enty years,  and  the  subsequent  judgment  on  Baby- 
lon  


Jeremiah  desires  Baruch  to  write  his  prophecies  on  a 
roll,  and  then  to  read  it  publicly  in  the  temple 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes  Jerusalem  and  puts  Jehoia- 1 
kim  in  fetters,  intending  to  take  him  to  Babylon,  | 
but  afterwards  releasing  him,  makes  him  a  tribu-  j 
tary,  and  spoils  the  temple J 


Isa.  22:15-25. 


2  Kin.  17:24-41. 


2  Chr.  33:11-17. 
2  Kin.  21:17-22; 
2  Chr.  33:18-23. 
2  Kin.  21 : 23-26; 

22: 1,  2; 
2  Chr.  33:24,  25; 

34:1,  2. 
2  Chr.  34:3-7. 

Jer.  1:2:  3:1-5. 
2    Kin.    22:3-20; 

23:1-3.  4-20; 
2  Chr.  34:8,  28- 

33- 
Zeph.  I ;  2  ;  3. 
2  Kin.  23:21-27; 
2  Chr.  35:1-19. 
Jer.  3  :  6-1 1,   12- 

25 ;  4  to  6. 
Hab.  1-3. 

Jer.  7-10. 

Jer.  II ;  15,  12. 
2  Kin.  23:29,  30, 

28,  30,  /.  p.,  31, 

32; 
2  Chr.  35:20-27; 

36:1,  2. 

2  Kin.  23:23-37; 
2  Chr.  36:3-5. 


Jer.  13-19. 
Jer.  22: 1-23. 
Jer.  26. 
Jer.  46:1-12. 
Jer.  35. 

Jer.  25. 

Jer.  36:1-8;  45. 

2  Kin.  24:1 ; 
2  Chr.  36:6,  7; 
Dan.  1:1,2. 

707 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    V. — CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 

EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 

BIBLE   REFERENCE. 

B.C. 
606. 

Nebuchadnezzar  orders  the  master  of  his  eunuchs  to 
select  and  send  to  Babylon  some  of  the  royal  family 
and  nobility  to  stand  in  the  king's  palace.      Daniel, 
Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah  (otherwise  called 
Belteshazzar,  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego) 
are  taken  there.    -     - -         

Dan.  i;  3;  4;  6;  7. 

III. 


FROM   THE   FIRST  CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM,   B.  C.  606,   TO  THE   DECREE  OF 
CYRUS  FOR  THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  JEWS,  B.  C.  536—70  YEARS. 


DATE   AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

Babylon. 

605. 

603. 
Babylon. 


599- 
599- 

597- 

595- 

Babylon. 

594- 
Babylon. 

593- 

Jerusalem. 

590. 

Babylon. 
708 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


EVENTS  AT  JERUSALEM,  WITH  CONTEMPO- 
RANEOUS EVENTS  AT  BABYLON. 

Daniel  meets  with  kindly  treatment 

Baruch  again  reads  the  prophetic  roll  ;  Jehoiakim 
burns  it 

Jehoiakim  rebels  against  Nebuchadnezzar 

Daniel  before  Nebuchadnezzar 

Interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  Dan.  2;  descri- 
bing the  Babylonian,  32,  Medo-Persian,  32-39,  Mac- 
edo-Grecian,  32-39,  and  Roman  empires,  ;^;i,  40-43, 
with  Messiah's  kingdom,  34,  35,  44,  45. 

Death  of  Jehoiakim.  Jehoiachin  or  Jeconiah 
king  three  months 

Second  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  1 
Jehoiachin  is  carried  to  Babylon  with  many  of  his  | 
subjects.  Zedekiah  or  Mattaniah  king  eleven  I 
years J 

Predictions  of  the  duration  of  the  captivity j 

Of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews 

Predictions  against  the  surrounding  nations.  Han-  J 
aniah  the  false  prophet  denounced ( 

Prophecies  against  Babylon 

Ezekiel's  vision  in  Babylon  ;  his  commission,  Ezek. 
I :  I  to  3-21.  He  prophecies  of  the  miseries  of  Je- 
rusalem   

Visions  of  the  idolatries  which  occasioned  the  cap- 
tivity   

Various  predictions  against  the  false  prophets,  Je-  J 
rusalem,  and  the  Jewish  nation ( 

Prophecies  addressed  to  the  elders  of  the  Jews-- 

Zedekiah's  rebellion  and  wickedness 

[ 
The  wickedness  of  priests  and  people  (the  cause  of 
the  captivity,  2  Chr.  36:15,  16).  with  a  summary  ac- 
count of  the  judgments  that  folli>wed 

Nebuchadnezzar  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  for  the 
third  time 

Ezekiel  foretells  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Dan  1:5,  8-17. 

Jer.  36:9-32. 
2  Kin.  24:1. 
Dan.  1:18-21. 


2  Kin.  24:5-9; 
2  Chr.  36:8,  9; 
Jer.  22:24-30;  23. 

2  Kin  24: 10-19; 
2  Chr.  36:10-12 ; 
Jer.  52  :"i,  2, 24-30, 

Jer.  29:1-14,  16- 

20. 
Jer.  30;  31. 
Jer.  27;   28;  48; 

49. 
Jer.  50;  51. 

Ezek.   3:22-27; 

4-7- 

Ezek.  8;  10;  11. 
Ezek.  12-19; 

16;  18:5-18. 
Ezek.  21-23. 
Jer.  37:1,  2; 
2  Kin.  24:20; 
2  Chr.  36:13; 
Jer.  52:3. 

2  Chr.  36:14-21. 
2  Kin.  25:1 ; 
Jer.  39:1;  52:4; 

37:3.  4- 
Ezek.  24. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    v.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 
Jerusalem. 

589- 
■    Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 


Babylon. 

587. 


573- 

572. 

570. 

569- 

56S-563. 


561. 

558. 
556. 

538. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


Capture  of  the  city  foretold.  The  people,  at  Jere- 
miah's word,  release  their  Hebrew  boud-servants-- 

Jeremiah  shut  up  in  prison  ;  his  predictions  there 

Ezekiel  in  Babylon  prophecies  against  Egypt,  Ezek.  ( 
29:1-16,  and  against  Tyre | 

The  Chaldaeans  raise  the  siege  to  march  against  the 
approaching  Egyptian  army.  Jeremiah  predicts 
the  destruction  of  the  Philistines 

On  the  departure  of  the  Chaldaean  army  the  people  j 
recall  their  bond-servauts,  for  which  Jeremiah  | 
denounces  them  and  predicts  the  speedy  return  I 
of  the  Chaldaeans J 

Jeremiah  reimprisoned ;  continues  to  denounce  f 
Zedekiah  ;  he  is  put  into  the  dungeon  of  Malchiah  | 

Ezekiel,  in  Babylon,  again  prophesies  against  Egypt  j 
and  Nineveh [ 

Jerusalem  finally  taken.     Zedekiah  carried  to  Bab- 
ylon.   Jeremiah  delivered 

Nebuzaradan  burns  the  temple  and  carries  away  | 
the  people,  leaving  a  few  poor  persons  to  till  the  j 
land I 

I 

Jeremiah  bewails  the  desolation  of  his  country 

Gedaliah  appointed  governor.    Jeremiah  and  many  ( 

others  attach  themselves  to  him  j 

Ishmael  slays  Gedaliah  and  attempts  to  carry  away  1 
the  people  to  the  Ammonites  ;  Johanan  intercepts  | 
him ;  the  people,  fearing  the  Chaldaeans,  flee  into  I 

Egypt,  contrary  to  the  command  of  God J 

Jeremiah  prophesies  against  Egypt  and  the  idola- 1 

trous  Jews ( 

Brief  summary  of  the  captivities  by  Nebuchadnezzar 

REMAINDER  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE 
JEW.S  IN  CAPTIVITY— BABYLON. 

Ezekiel  predicts  the  utter  desolation  of  Judaea 

Predictions  against  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Philis-  [ 

tia.  Tyre,  and  Egypt j 

Ezekiel  appeals  to  the  captives 

Evil    rulers    denounced;    restoration    of  the  Jews] 

promised;  predictions  of  Messiah's  kingdom f 

Prophesies  of  the  church  and  its  enemies,  and  of  the 

conversion  of  the  Jews 

Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  future  temple 

Last  prediction  against  Egypt ] 

Nebuchadnezzar  sets  up  an  image 

Daniel  interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  second  dream  -. 
The   fulfilment  of  Nebuchadnezzar's    dream   in   his 

madness  and  subsequent  recovery 

Evil-merodach   king  of  Babylon  releases  Jehoia-  f 

chin I 

Daniel's  first  vision  of  the  living  creatures 

Belshazzar's  feast.     Babylon  taken 

Daniel's  vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat 

Daniel's  prayer  for  the   restoration  of  Jerusalem,  f 

Prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks ( 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Jer.  34:1-10. 
Jer.  32 ;  33. 
Ezek.  26. 
See  Isa.  23. 


Jer.  37:5;  47. 

Jer.  34:11-22; 
37:6-10. 

Jer.  37:11-21;  21; 

38;  39:15-18. 
Ezek.   30 : 20-26 ; 

31- 
2  Kin.  25:2,  4-7; 
Jer.  52:5-7; 

39:2-7,  11-14. 
2  Kin.  25:8-21; 
Jer.  52:12-30; 

39:8-10; 
Psa.  74;  79;  83; 

94- 
Lam.  1-5. 
2  Kin.  25:22-24; 
Jer.  40:1-16. 

2  Kin.  25:25,  26; 
Jer.  41-43;  44:1- 

7- 
Jer.  43:8-13; 

46:13-28;  44. 
Jer.  52:28-30. 


Ezek.  33:21-33. 
Ezek.  25;  27;  28; 

32. 
Ezek.  3S  '■  1-20. 

Ezek.  34-37. 

Ezek.  38;  39. 
Ezek.  40-48. 
Ezek.  29:17-2-1; 

30:1-19. 
Dan.  3. 
Dan.  4:1-27. 

Dan.  4:28-37. 
2  Kin.  25:27-30; 
Jer.  52:31-34. 
Dan.  7. 
Dan.  5. 
Dan.  8. 
Dan.  9; 
Psa.  102. 
709 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD   v.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.C. 

537- 
536. 

Jerusalem  and 
Babylon. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Daniel  cast  into  the  den  of  lions Dan.  6. 

Decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  J  p      ^\K-1^'  ^^  ' 

and  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country  1  pfo^jjg.  o'c       ' 

I  Psa.     10,     13-15, 

Psalms  conjectured  to  have  been  written  during  the  |  25-27,    36,    2)7> 

distresses  and  afflictions  of  the  church,  chiefly  in  -|  49,  50,   53,  67, 

the  Babylonish  captivity j  77,  80,  89,  92, 

93,123, 130, 137. 


IV. 


FROM    THE   DECREE   OF   CVRUS,  B.  C.  536,  TO  THE    FINAL   PROPHECY  OF  THE 
OLD  TESTAMENT,  B.  C.  397,  ABOUT  139  YEARS. 


DATE  AND    PLACE. 


B.   C. 

536,  Jerusalem. 

535'  Jerusalem. 

534- 

Babylon. 

520,  Jerusalem. 


519- 


EVENT  OR    NARRATIVE. 


516. 


486. 

464. 

462,  Susa. 

458. 

457- 
Jerusalem. 

710 


FROM  THE  RETURN  OF  THE  JEWS  TO  THE 
DEDICATION  OF  THE  SECOND  TEMPLE. 


Return  of  the  Jews.     Cyrus  restores  the  vessels  of  j 
the  temple.     An  altar  set  up | 

I 
Foundation  of  the  second  temple  under  the  direc-  ( 

tion  of  Zerubbabel 1 

The  building  of  the  temple  interrupted  by  the  Sa-  | 

mar  i  tans 1 

The  last  vision  of  Daniel 


Building  of  the  temple  resumed.  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  incite  the  people  to  the  work  and  ex- 
hort them  to  repentance 


The  building  of  the  temple  again  interrupted  and 
resumed 


Dedication  of  the  second  temple. 


i 

FROM  THE  OPPOSITION  TO  THE  JEWS  IN 
THE  REIGN  OF  XERXES  TO  THE  DEATH 
OF   HAMAN. 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus-- 
Artaxerxes,  or  Ahasuerus,  divorces  Vashti  his  queen 

Ezra  commissioned  to  visit  Jerusalem 

Artaxerxes  makes  Esther  queen. 

Ezra  comes  to  Jerusalem ;  causes  the  people  to  put 
away  their  heathen  wives 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


2; 


Ezra  1:5-11 

Psa.  87,  107,  III- 
114,  116,  117, 
125,    127,    128, 

134- 
Ezra  3:8-13; 
Psa.  84 ;  66. 
Ezra  4:1-5,  24; 
Psa.  129. 
Dan.  10-12. 
Ezra  4:24;  5:1; 
Hag.  I  :i-ii ; 
Ezra  5:2; 
Hag.  1:12-15; 

2:1-9; 
Zech.  x:i-6; 
Hag.  2:10-23; 
Zech.  1 :7-2i ; 

2;  6;  2:5. 
Ezra  5:3-17; 

6:1-13; 
Psa.  138; 
Zech.  7;  8. 
Ezra  6:14-22; 
Psa.  48 ;  81 ;  146- 

150. 


Ezra  4:6. 
Ezra  4:7-23- 
Esth.  I. 
Ezra  7:2-14. 
Esth.  2 : 1-20. 


Ezra  8-10. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    v.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 


B.  C. 

457- 
Susa. 

453,  452. 


445,  Susa. 
Jerusalem. 


Susa. 
Jerusalem. 

433- 

428. 
397- 


EVHNT   OR    NARRATIVE. 


Concluding  prophecies  of  Zechariah 

Mordecai  discovers  the  conspiracy  against  Ahasuerus 

Plot  of  Haman  to  destroy  the  Jews,  and  its  defeat. 

The  feast  of  Purim 


FROM  THE  FIRST  COMMISSION  OF  NEHE- 
MIAH  TO  THE  CLOSING  OF  THE  OLD  TES- 
TAMENT C.\NON. 

Nehemiah  receives  a  commission  from  Artaxerxes  to 
visit  Jerusalem  and  rebuild  the  wall 

Nehemiah  arrives  at  Jerusalem.  Sanballat  strives] 
to  hinder  the  work ;  the  builders  work  under  > 
arms J 

Nehemiah  relieves  the  Jews  oppressed  by  usury ;  his 
own  generosity 

The  wall  completed  by  the  Jews  and  dedicated 

Nehemiah  returns  to  Persia 


Second  commission  of  Nehemiah  and  reformation. 


Malachi  prophecies  against  the  corruptions  intro-  f 
duced  during  the  second  absence  of  Nehemiah.-  | 

Further  reformation  by  Nehemiah | 

Final  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament 

Detached  genealogies,  etc.,   inserted  probably    at ) 
the  completion  of  the  canon | 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Zech.  9-14. 
Esth.  2:21-23. 

Esth.  3-10. 


Neh.  i;  2:1-8. 

Neh.  2  :  9-20 ; 
3;  4- 

Neh.  5. 

Neh.  6;  12:27-43. 
Neh.  7:1-4. 
Neh.    7:6-73; 

8;    9;    10;    11; 

12:1-9,  44-47; 
13: 1-3 ; 
Psa.  I ;   119. 
Mai.    i;  2;   3:1- 

15- 
Neh.  13:4-31. 
Mai.  3:16-18;  4. 
I  Chr.  1-9; 
Neh.  12:10-26. 


711 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  VII. 

FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  JESUS   CHRIST  TO  THE    END   OF  THE  FIRST  CEN- 
TURY. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 


A.  D. 


68. 
69. 
70. 


71- 
79- 


95- 
96. 
96. 
97- 


EVENT    OR    NARRATIVE. 


Nativity  of  Jesus  Christ  (four  years  before  the  com- 
mon era).     Death  of  Herod 

Jesus  visits  Jerusalem,  at  the  age  of  12  years 

Augustus  Caesar  followed  by  Tiberius. 

Pilate  sent  from  Rome  as  governor  of  Judsea 

John  the  Baptist  begins  his  ministry 

Jesus  baptized  by  John 

Jesus  Christ  was  crucified,  and  rose  from  the  dead-.. 

Ananias  and  Sapphira  struck  dead 

Stephen  stoned,  and  the  church  persecuted 

Saul  converted 

Tiberius  dies,  and  is  followed  by  Caligula. 

Conversion  of  the  Gentiles 

Caius  Caligula  succeeded  by  Claudius. 

Herod  Agrippa  made  king  of  Judaea. 

James  beheaded   by  Herod ;   Peter  liberated  by  an 

angel 

Herod  Agrippa  dies  at  Caesarea. 

Paul's  first  missionary  tour,  with  Barnabas 

Paul  and  Barnabas  attend  the  council  at  Jerusalem  __ 

Paul's  second  missionary  tour,  with  Silas 

Claudius  Caesar  followed  by  Nero,  at  Rome. 

Paul's  third  tour 

Paul's  fifth  visit  to  Jerusalem 

Paul  reaches  Rome  as  a  prisoner 

The  Jewish  war  begins. 

The  Roman  general  raises  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  by 
which  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the  Christians 
to  retire  to  Pella  beyond  Jordan,  as  admonished  by 
Christ 

Paul  suffers  martyrdom  at  Rome  by  order  of  Nero. 

Vespasian  made  emperor  by  his  army. 

Jerusalem  besieged  and  taken  by  Titus  Vespasian, 
according  to  the  predictions  of  Christ ;  when  1,000, 
000  Jews  perished,  by  sword,  fire,  and  crucifix- 
ion ;  besides  97,000  who  were  sold  as  slaves,  and 
vast  multitudes  who  perished  in  other  parts  of  Ju- 
daea  


Jerusalem  and  its  temple  razed  to  their  foundations. _ 

Vespasian  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Titus.  Hercu- 
laneum  and  Pompeii  destroyed  by  an  eruption  of 
Vesuvius. 

Titus  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Domitian. 

John  banished  to  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  by  Domitian 

John  writes  the  Revelation. 

Domitian  succeeded  by  Nerva. 

John  liberated  from  exile.  New  Testament  canon 
closed. 

Nerva  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Trajan. 

John,  the  last  surviving  apostle,  dies,  about  one  hun- 
dred years  old. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Luke  2: 1-16. 
Luke  2:41-52. 

Luke  3:1. 
Matt.  3:1. 
Matt.  3:1. 
Matt.  27 ;  28. 
Acts  5. 
Acts  6 ;  7. 
Acts  9;  13:9. 

Acts  10. 


Acts  12:1-19. 

Acts  13 ;   14. 
Acts  15:2-30. 
Acts  15:38  to  18:1. 

Acts  19:1. 
Acts  20:3  to  21:15. 
Acts  21  :i7  to 
28:16. 


Matt.  24:16-20. 
2  Tim.  4:6,  7. 


Luke  19:41-44. 
Matt.  24:2. 


Rev.  1:9. 


715 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS. 


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716 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS, 


SHOWING  THE  PERIODS  DURING  WHICH  IT  IS  SUPPOSED  THEIR 
PROPHECIES  WERE  DELIVERED. 


KINGS  OF  JUDAH 

CROWNED.                       3 

B.C.                                                    - 

< 

■i 

^1 

02 

o 

< 

< 

Q 
< 

n 
O 

r  Jonah. 

MiCAH. 

Nahum. 

to 

< 

a 
■< 

S 
■< 
a 
a, 

a 

a 
■< 

■< 

a 

a 
o 
■< 

■< 

KINGS  OP 

ISRAEL 
CROWNED. 

Amaziah,  839 

: 

Jeroboam  II.,  825 

Uzziah,  810 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

Inteiregnum,  784 

Menatiem,  772 

i 

1 
1 

Pekahiah,  761 

Jothani,  758 

Pekali,  758 

Ahaz,  742 

i 

1 

Anarchy,  729 

Hezekiah,  726 
730 



Hosea,  730 

1 

Q 

700 

Manasseh,  698 

-  — 





— 

— 



1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

660 

o 

'-I 

Amon,  643.    Josiah,  641 

4 

1 

S'B' 

Jehoahaz,  610 

1 

-L 

— 



1           "3 

Po- 

60[) 







— 

— 

— 



— 

^fO 

Jeconiali,  599 

1 

1  -: 

Destr.  of  Jerusalem,  588 

i 

1   i 

1 

k   1 

1 

(0 

Zerubbabel,  536  - 

... 

-•- 

1 

1 

i 

.397 

717 


TABLE  OF  HEBREW  MONTHS  AND  FESTIVALS. 


Hebrew  Montlo 


Abib,  or  Nisan. 

Ex.  12:2,  18;  13:4. 

Esther  3 : 7. 


lyar,  or  Zif, 
I  Kings  6:1. 


Sivan, 
Esther  8:9. 


Thammuz, 
Ezek.  8: 14. 


Ab. 


Elul, 
Neh.  6:15. 


Ethanim,  or  Tish- 
ri,  I  Kin.  8:2. 


Marchesvan,  or 
Bui,  I  Kin.  6:38. 


Chisleu, 
Zech.  7:1. 


Tebeth, 
Esther  2: 16. 


Shebat, 
Zech.  I  :•]. 


Adar, 

Esther  3:7. 

Ve-Adar  is  added 

here  about  seven 

times  in  19  years. 

7^8 


April. 


MontliH  uf 

the  SHCietl 

Year 


May. 


2d 


June.  3d 


July. 


August. 


September. 


October. 


November. 


December. 


January. 


February. 


March. 


4th 


5th 


6th 


7th 


8th 


9th 


loth 


nth 


1 2th 


MoiltliH  iif 

tlie  Civil 

beuHoiis. 

Year. 

1  7i 

<   Vi 

7th 

3 

1 

8th 

9th 

D 

?3 

< 

loth 

1-  n 
> 

C/5 

0 

2; 

nth 

1 2th 

ist 

1   M 

-n 

v; 

?3 

v> 

a 

2d 

m 

> 

3cl 

< 

7) 

> 

4th 

w 

•i 

5th 

6th 

r 

p 

IT 

-n 

14.  Paschal  lamb  killed. 

15.  Passover. 

16.  First-fruits  of  barley  har- 
vest presented  to  the 
Lord. 

Passover  ended. 


The  New  Moon  is  celebrated 
at  the  beginning  of  every 
month. 


6.  Pentecost.  First  fruits  of 
wheat  presented  to  the 
Lord. 


17.  Fast,  for  the  taking  of  Je- 
rusalem bv  Titus. 


9.  Temple  taken  on  this  day 
by  the  Chaldaeans,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Ro- 
mans.    Fast. 


I.  Feast  of  Trumpets.      New 
Year's  Day. 
10.  Day  of  Atonement.     Fast. 
15.  Fe.\st  of  Tabernacles. 
22.  Last  day  of  the  Feast. 


25.  Feast  of  the  Dedication  of 
the  Temple. 


10.  Siege  of  Jerusalem.     Fast. 


14  and  15.  Feast  of  Purim. 
Esther  9:18-21. 


TABLES 

OF 

WEIGHTS,    MEASURES,    AND   MONEY, 

MENTIONED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


PRELIMINARY  NOTE. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  using  these  tables  that  authorities  differ  greatly  in  their 
conclusions  from  the  meagre  and  uncertain  data  in  their  hands,  and  that  nearly  all  the 
following  estimates  should  be  regarded  as  probable  and  approximate,  rather  than  as 
reliably  exact. 

Certain  common  measures  of  weight,  length,  and  value,  like  the  pound,  the  cubit, 
and  the  shekel,  had,  roughly  speaking,  their  equivalents  among  all  the  nations  around 
the  Jews — the  Chaldaeans,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans ;  yet  many  mistakes  would 
arise  should  one  accept  any  of  these  as  precise  equivalents. 

Those  measures  also  varied  within  the  bounds  of  each  nation  from  one  period  of  its 
history  to  another,  and  in  different  provinces  at  the  same  period.  The  "  shekel  of  the 
sanctuary  "  may  have  been  a  standard,  from  which  the  common  shekel  fell  off.  The 
cubit — the  measure  from  the  elbow  to  the  end  of  the  middle  finger — seems  sometimes  to 
have  reached  only  to  the  wrist  or  to  the  knuckles  ;  and  it  is  reckoned  by  some  authori- 
ties at  17  inches,  by  others  as  high  as  23  inches;  so  that  we  are  not  sure  which  is  the  true 
length  in  any  given  passage. 

Until  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity  it  is  not  certain  that  the  Jews  had 
any  regular  coinage.  Trade  and  commerce  were  largely  carried  on  by  barter ;  and 
though  the  metals  were  in  common  use  from  the  earliest  ages  as  a  medium  of  exchange, 
the  requisite  amount  was  ascertained  by  weighing.  Hence  the  different  values  of  a 
given  weight,  e.  g.,  a  bekah,  in  silver  and  in  gold. 


bush. 

Cab 

Omer  =  1.8  cabs 

Seah  =T,.2,  omers 

Ephah  ^3  seahs 

Lethek  =  5  ephahs 3 

Homer  =  2  letheks  -.6 


2.  HEBREW  MEASURES  FOR  LIQUIDS. 


HEBREW  DRY  MEASURES. 

APPROXIMATE 

RABBINS. 

JOSEPHUS. 

AVERAGE. 

i.         qta. 

pts.            litres. 

bush.        pks         qts. 

pis. 

I 

0.24=      1.27 

2 

0 

1 1/2  quarts. 

2 

0.24  =       2.30 

3 

I.I 

2%  quarts. 

6 

1.44=       7.65 

I        3 

17 

I  peck. 

4 

0.32  =    22.97 

102 

3-2 

3^  pecks. 

5 

0.2    =114.84 

522 

0 

4  bushels. 

2 

0.42  =  229.68 

II        0        4 

0 

8  bushels. 

galls. 

Log 

Hin  =  12  logs 

Bath  =  6  hins 5 

Cor  =  10  baths 50 


RABBINS, 
qts.  pts.  litres. 

0.56  =       0.32 

3  0.73  =  3.83 
o  0.32  =  22.97 
2        0.43  =  229.68 


JOSEPHUS. 

galls.        qts. 


pts. 
0.99 
1.96 
1.28 
0.80 


4-5  pint. 
2%  quarts. 
7  gallons. 
70  gallons. 
719 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY. 


3.  SCRIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH  AND  DISTANCE. 

LONG    ESTIMATE.  SHORT    ESTIMATE. 

yila.         It.           ill.  yUB.      ft.           lu.  meti-en. 

Digits 0.912  0.8  0.02 

Handbreadth  =  4  digits 3.648  3.15  0.08 

Span  =  3  palms 10.944  9.06  0.23 

Cubit  =  2  spans i      9.888  i      6.11  0.46 

Fathom  =  4  cubits 7      3.552  6      0.84  1.85 

Reed  =  6  cubits 10    11.328  9      1.06  2.77 

Stadium  =  400  cubits 243        i      9.6  202    o     10.28  184.94 

Sabbath  day's  journey  ^  6  stadia 1461        i       9.6  1212     i       6.8  1109.62 

Mile  =  8  stadia 1948       2      4.8  1618    i      0.4  I479-50 


4.  HEBREW  WEIGHTS,  REDUCED  TO  TROY  WEIGHTS. 

lbs.  oz.        dwts.  grs.  grammes. 

Gerah  =  10.96  0.71 

Bekah  =  10  gerahs 4  13.5  7.12 

Shekel  =  2  bekahs 9          3.91  14.25 

Maneh  =  60  shekels* 239  23.55  855.31 

Kikkar  =  50  manehs 114        6        19          1.7  42,765.50 

*  Ezek.  45: 12.    According  to  i  Kin.  10: 17,  compared  with  2  Chron.  9: 16,  a  maneh  or  pound  con- 
tained 100  shekels,  or  3  lbs.,  16  dwt.,  16  gr.    The  kikkar  or  talent  would  then  contain  30  manehs. 


5.  HEBREW  MONEY,  REDUCED  TO  U.  S.  CURRENCY. 

SILVER. 

Gerah $0.0275 

Bekah  =  10  gerahs 0.275 

Shekel  =  2  bekahs 0.55 

Maneh  =  100  shekels 54-42 

Kikkar  =  30  manehs 1,632.81 


GOLD. 

$0,438 

4-38 

8.76 

876.00 

26,280.00 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MONEY,  IN  U.  S.  CURRENCY. 

$ 
Mite,  lepton  (copper) 

Farthing,  kodraiites  (copper),  =  2  mites 

Farthing,  assario7t  (copper),  =4  kodrantes 

Penny,  denarion  (silver),  =  10  assaria 

Didrachma  (silver)  =  2  denaria 

Stater  (silver)  =  2  didrachmas 

Mina  (silver)  =  25  staters 15 

Talent  (silver)  =  60  minas 928 


0 

1-9 

0 

3-8 

I 

5-4 

15 

4-7 

30 

9-4 

61 

8.9 

47 

3-8 

42 

8.0 

720 


Old  Tmlnnvuft  noiius  in  back  UlUrs 
.Xew  Twtamait  nanus  in  Hamtm,  •• 
iludtrn  nanus  tn  Italic 


SYnEitt        Upper  and  MiddU  Asia 
TA-SuTIV.    Persia.  M/iasintun 

Assyrians 
Lfp'Ka.XaA.    Xortfi  Assyria 


Descendants  of  Noah. 

Set  Gfntsts  J<*  CkcuOtr 

l^l^ffl     Afrvca  ^  S.W Arabia 


Asia  Minor 

kta.*in.        Syria.,  ifcsopolainia 
V>x      Jf.  Ara/iia  east  ofEdfim 
I  Uu\       N.  of  Paltstiiu 
E  of  Arnunia 
,  K  Assyria 


C)^XS!CV.     Ethiopians 


TlavUa^v  j;.  f  1 


8a\i\nVv    E-  AraJbia 
Ranmoh     East  Arabia 

West  Arabia 
Vf^S.  Arabia 


rs\uSflL 


^a!!StvdM)!f\.AfriM.marmmOief£td  Sea 


HCTrvrod,     Plain  of  Shinar 


IJL'vl'gaA.lfl.    ipyptiana 


\Axi\xn.     Near  Efhiapla, 
XnamVnv      W.  of  Egypt 
\.t.\vQ.\)\TO      coast  W.  of  Egypt 
'SapWnfa.TO        „      N.    „ 
¥aiKrn»\nv      apptr  or  S.  Egypt 
Cttg\u\\\nv~  NE.  coast  of 
¥V>\\\A\m.     Canaan 
Cgphtortm     Crete 


ytCOX     A/i-iea  towards  the  West 
Ca-tvaLa-TV,     ThtMoly  Land 


1AAs>vAsix&  y  W  Coast  of  COMUm 


VMSXni   ntar  Mebron, 
J«.\ni8vXia     nfAr  JtrnaaJUm, 


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^gTitoMtts  I 


Jii|iU«r  Amn 


3l^^jl^(£^3|  f  Gr  Japdus)  £an 


Go'gV.eT       Cimjntrianc,  Gauls,  I 
\sMfxMa.    coasts  of  the  Eail 


RVp\\ottv    i;.Jf  a:  ofi/u 


,  ToqgrmoK  Armenia  i  Caa 
'^a.gOg  E  i,  lf.E.  of  the  Jiaxtn, 


tLajQuaA.  j/erfw,  otu/  «uify  bi 


Ja/VajIV.    loniajis,  Greeks 


RV\sW\v    Grtiet,  Ptlopoim 


TaTg\vU\v     S.  ^  £.  SpaiTi 


^vtBcnv     Cjpnu,  Ittify  tic 


T)oAmAtiv    Macedonia 


Tx^baJV     NortK  of  Armatba 


"^esh-OCh.     Muscorijttt 


TVCSLS      rAroee 


^'ofe  -  7^^  tahUprtaadx  tlu 
pnmiibfl  nations  which  sprung 
djiscinianls  of  Noah. .  JO  ^ir  a* 
i/i  iheSiNi. 

The  homt  of  many  triits.u 
ondAfHca  is  aneertam . 


Ofremwtth.    a  a 


rtote) 


,(,\H 


J3U- 


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of    Grttnwieh         \eo 


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Amtriccui  Trtui  6'otUiy    /5^  Xasaan  St  JTew  York. 


ASI^YKEA,   CHALIDEA, 
MEDIA.  ARMENIA. AND  SYRIA 


.Anurican     Tract     Socu 


.1       I       '       I  ~~i" 


tQ^ 


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CA 


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\44 


I  I  -  ■         — T" 


PERSIAN 

•      ^       I 


(jUt^ 


/56»  iVa*i>«ar  St  New  York 


lAmcixcan.  Tract   Society     HO    Hassan,  5't.  New  York 


N   Fl  AN  OF  THE  TE^IPLE     >, 

lMfIi'l'lllllllllilll|i||illlllMIHii,,it;'illlllll|  f imiiimiiiiiiii'iiiiiii'iinjMiiiiiiffiiiii 


A  The  Ho^f  ot  Holies  H  iTtL*  court  of  th.e  'Womea 

B  The  Hufcr  Place  I  Thr  gAif  Beaiioful 

C  Th.eAlida' of  Burnt  offrriafs  J  The  coxirt  of  the  Gentiles 

D  "n^e  bpa2.cn.  Lavrr  K  The  Eastern  op  Shustaa  G*te 

E  The  court  of  <he  Friesta  L.  Solombnfi  Vorci.  or  CoL>nQAde 

P  The'coxirtof  L*rael  M    The  Roywl  Porcli 

G  The  g«ie  Nicanor  N  The  outer  Wall 


'  O  Ap  artxuents  for 

FL/^  OF  THE  TABEBNACLE 

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^TTterican.      Tract.     Soccfty 


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1    1012  01124  4300 


